Kishore, R. R. (2005). 人体器官、稀缺性与销售：伦理的重新审视。《医学伦理学杂
志》，31(6)，362–365。
这篇文章中讨论了人体器官市场的道德伦理问题，并主张建立一个受监管的市场，以应对
器官短缺带来的困难。作者指出，过去传统的，基于利他主义的器官捐赠无法满足社会的
器官的需求，而允许器官市场能够显著增加器官供应，从而拯救更多生命。有争论的反对
意见主要集中在两个伦理问题上，即买卖违反人的尊严和公平。具体一点，就是反对者认
为器官不应被交易，会加强对穷人的剥削。而作者认为通过适当的监管可以解决剥削和知
情同意等问题。最终，建立一个受监管的器官市场不仅在道德上可行的，也在实现效用主
义最大化上可行，解决器官短缺带来的困难。
This article discusses the ethical issues surrounding a market for human organs and
advocates for setting up a regulated market to address the problem of organ shortages.
The authors point out that traditional organ donation methods, which are based on
altruism, have not been enough to satisfy the growing demand for organs. They argue
that allowing a regulated market for organs could significantly increase the supply of
organs, and saving more lives. But the main arguments against this idea focus on ethical
concerns. Controversial objections focus on two ethical issues, namely, that trading
violates human dignity and fairness. More specifically, opponents argue that organs
should not be traded and that the exploitation of the poor will be enhanced. However, the
authors believe that these issues, such as potential exploitation and informed consent
can be managed through certain regulation. They conclude that a regulated organ
market is not only ethically feasible but also practical for maximizing overall benefits and
solving the organ shortage problem. A regulated market could offer a solution that both
respects ethical standards and solves the critical shortage of organs by balancing ethical
considerations with the urgent need for more organ transplants.
Becker, G. S., & Elías, J. J. (2007). 在活体和尸体器官捐赠市场中引入激励措施. 经济学
视角杂志, 21(3), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.21.3.3
注释： 这篇文章讨论了在器官捐赠市场中引入经济激励的理论基础和对应的结果。文章先
分析了激励措施如何影响捐赠者的行为和其产生的结果，最后是这些措施对提升器官供应
数量的有益处。这篇文章认为，通过合理设计的激励措施，可以有效提高器官供给，减少
黑市交易，同时平衡经济激励与伦理性。此外，经济激励的设计必须出于保护捐赠者，考
虑道德因素，并且经济激励也可能面临剥削的问题，尽管作者没有提到这些担忧，但是这
一研究为如何提高器官供应量提供了重要的理论支持。
This article explores the theoretical foundations and outcomes of introducing economic
incentives into the organ donation market. It begins by analyzing how such incentives
can influence donor behavior and the resulting effects. The article then discusses the
benefits of these measures in increasing the supply of organs. In addition to increasing
the number of organs available, these increased numbers of organs will not even create
a disproportionate financial burden for the donor and the healthcare organization. The
authors argue that well-designed economic incentives can effectively increase organ
availability, reduce black market transactions, and balance economic incentives with
ethical considerations. In addition, the design of these incentives must prioritize the
protection of donors and solves moral concerns, including potential exploitation issues.
Accordingly, whilst the authors do not specifically mention these worries, they emphasize
the benefits of using economic incentives. In conclusion, this study provides significant
theoretical support for improving organ supply by using economic incentives while
ensuring ethical practices. By focusing on both the practical benefits and the ethical
implications, the article offers valuable insights into how to enhance organ donation rates
and address the shortage of available organs.
在这个作品中，尽管作品的主题是关于脑部扫描的技术，但作者在 2004 年的原始作品中
探讨了医疗机构如何对稀有血型的捐赠者施加道德压力，以促使他们定期捐血的现象。虽
然这种要求并非法律强制，但却給捐赠者施加了道德压力。尽管这种情况发生在血液捐赠
中，但同样的逻辑可以应用于合法的器官市场，其中捐赠者可能会受到经济激励或伦理的
影响，从而影响其自主性。因此，这篇文章表现出了器官市场可能带来的道德剥削问题，
建立合法器官市场需要充分考虑道德伦理问题，保护捐赠者和被捐赠者的个人利益。此
外，如何保护捐赠者和被捐赠者的隐私也需要被放进考虑的情况，如果医疗机构掌握了患
者的信息，将会导致潜在的器官犯罪。
In this work, although the main topic is brain scanning technology, the author discusses
how medical institutions may put moral pressure on donors with rare blood types to
encourage them to donate blood regularly. This issue is explored in the author’s 2004
original work. Even though such requirements are not legally enforced, they still place
moral pressure on the donors. While this problem arises in the context of blood donation,
similar issues could occur in a legal organ market. In this market, donors might be
influenced by financial incentives or ethical pressures, which could affect their autonomy.
Therefore, this article highlights potential problems of moral exploitation that could arise
in an organ market. Establishing a legal market for organs requires careful attention to
ethical concerns to ensure that both donors and recipients are protected. Solving these
ethical challenges is essential to make sure that a legal organ market respects the
autonomy of donors while maximizing the benefits of organ donation. This careful
consideration helps in creating a fair and ethical system for organ donation. In addition,
how to protect the privacy of both the donor and the donated also needs to be put into
the consideration of the situation, which will lead to potential organ crimes if the
healthcare organizations get hold of the patient's information.
Corfee, F. A. (2016). 移植旅游与器官贩卖: 对护理职业的伦理影响. 护理伦理, 23(7),
754–760. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969733015581537
注释：这篇文章提出了了器官移植旅游与海外器官贩卖的伦理问题和社会影响，分析了全
球器官市场化带来的伦理问题，旨在对发展国际合法化器官市场提供意见和思考。作者分
析了器官移植旅游导致资源的不公平分配、贩卖和剥削现象，以及被捐赠者和捐赠者的负
面影响。假设在一个合法器官市场的国家中，有钱人渴望获得更多的器官资源，但被本国
法律所限制，他们便会将目标转移至器官市场不成熟的海外。作者也因此提供了如何解决
伦理问题提供了思路，制定有效的监管政策和加强国际合作，旨在保护全球民众在器官资
源分配的公平，提升社会民众的对器官市场的道德教育。
This article raises the ethical issues and social impacts of organ transplant tourism and
overseas organ trafficking. It analyzes the ethical problems associated with the
globalization of the organ market and aims to provide insights and reflections on the
development of an international legal organ market. The author argues that how
transplant tourism leads to unfair distribution of resources, trafficking, and exploitation, as
well as the negative effects on both donors and recipients. Rich people in a country with
a legal organ market desire to obtain more organ resources but are restricted by their
own laws, they will change their targets to overseas where the organ market is not
mature. This situation may lead to the outflow of organ resources from some countries
overseas, reducing indigenous organ resources. In addition, the article offers methods for
solving these ethical concerns, building a foundation for effective regulatory policies and
international cooperation. It also emphasizes the importance of enhancing public moral
education regarding the organ market. By providing a comprehensive analysis of the
ethical challenges and potential solutions, the article contributes to the ongoing discourse
on how to establish a fair and ethical international organ market.
Jox, R. J., Assadi, G., & Marckmann, G. (Eds.). (2016). 器官移植中的捐赠短缺时代：挑
战与解决方案. Springer 国际出版社. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16441-0
注释： 这篇文章分析并比较了以色列和伊朗在器官市场上的不同政策及其效果，强调了合
法化器官市场的重要性。以色列虽然在器官交易方面通过颁布法律进行管控，但反而起了
相反效果，导致大量以色列人寻求海外器官资源，并倾向从社会阶层中的弱者那里获得。
作者通过与伊朗的器官市场体系比较对以色列的器官市场体系进行了批判，伊朗通过合法
化器官买卖解决了器官短缺的问题，减少了黑市交易，打击了器官犯罪。作者分析伊朗的
经验可以表明合法化器官市场可以在保障器官供应的同时，不仅能够提高器官供应的透明
度，还能公平保障保护捐赠者和被捐赠者的权益，因此减少剥削和社会不平等现象。这篇
文章强调了全球器官市场合法化的重要性，只有建立严肃的受监管法规体系，才能解决器
官短缺问题，实现器官市场的公平与伦理平衡。伊朗和以色列的实践经验证明了合法器官
的可行性，为其他国家提供了经验指导。
This article analyses and compares the different policies of Israel and Iran on the organ
market and their effects, stressing the importance of legalising the organ market. While
Israel has regulated the organ trade through the enactment of laws, it has had the opposite
effect, resulting in a large number of Israelis seeking organ resources abroad and
preferring to obtain them from the weaker members of the social class.
The authors critique Israel's organ market system by comparing it with that of Iran, which
has solved the problem of organ shortages, reduced the black market trade, and cracked
down on organ crime by legalizing the sale of organs.
The author argues that the Iranian experience to show that legalizing the organ market can
not only increase the transparency of organ supply while safeguarding it, but also fairly
safeguard the protection of the rights of donors and recipients, therefore reducing
exploitation and social inequality. This article highlights the importance of legalizing the
global organ market and that only by establishing a serious system of regulated regulations
can the organ shortage be solved and a fair and ethical balance in the organ market be
achieved. The practical experience of Iran and Israel proves the feasibility of legalized
organs and provides empirical guidance for other countries.