“双一流”研究生教学用书系列 学术英语写作: Academic Writing in English A Practical Guide to Graduate Research 管 博 主 编 吴建伟 王 捷 副主编 图书在版编目(CIP)数据 学术英语写作 / 管博主编. —上海:华东理工大 学出版社,2020. 1 “双一流”研究生教学用书系列 ISBN 978 教材 学… 7 5628 Ⅰ. ① Ⅱ. ① Ⅳ. ①H319. 36 6110 2 管… Ⅲ. ①英语 写作 研究生 中国版本图书馆 CIP 数据核字(2020)第 010445 号 项目统筹 / 牛 东 责任编辑 / 侯湉丽 装帧设计 / 徐 蓉 出版发行 / 华东理工大学出版社有限公司 地址:上海市梅陇路 130 号,200237 电话:021 64250306 网址:www. ecustpress. cn 邮箱:zongbianban@ecustpress. cn 印 刷 / 北京虎彩文化传播有限公司 开 本 / 787 mm×1092 mm 1 / 16 印 张/8 字 数 / 166 千字 版 次 / 2020 年 1 月第 1 版 印 次 / 2020 年 1 月第 1 次 定 价 / 39. 80 元 版权所有 侵权必究 前 言 自 2008 年开始讲授学术英语写作课程以来,本人发现适合非英语专业研究生的学术 英语写作方面的教材较少,所以一直在考虑编写一本结合理论与研究生的写作需求和实 践的、适合教学的、可操作性强的教材,希望从学生的常见问题和需求出发,系统讲解学术 英语写作,尤其是学术英语论文的基本内容、过程、规范、技能、语言,并通过具体翔实的实 例、练习和任务提高学生的学术写作技能和基本语言能力。 基于上述目的,并结合多年来在学术英语写作课程中的教学经验,本教材终于付梓, 希望能够为研究生提供一些切实的学术英语写作方面的指导。本教材有以下特色: 1)有机结合学术英语写作技能、 常用构式和语言基本功的训练 本教材根据学术论文各部分的特点和在教学中发现的常见问题,安排各部分的内容, 将论文结构与学术英语写作技能、学术词汇、构式、语言基本功训练有机结合起来。系统、 具体地对各部分相关技能、词汇、构式和语言基本功进行有针对性的训练,有助于学生理 解各种学术写作技能对论文写作的实际意义,并通过练习切实掌握技能、提高语言基本功 和学术词汇及构式的实际运用能力。 2)结合授课模式设计教材内容, 操作性强,练习多 本教材设定的授课模式是操作性较强的“实例分析—练—讲—练”的模式,因此教材 以练习为主,各单元的讲述部分主要以项目符号加要点的形式呈现,避免冗长讲述和深奥 术语。第二单元至第七单元每单元都先给出论文节选和任务,教师可通过课堂启发、比较 等方法引导学生发现并分析论文各组成部分的结构特点、内容要求。后续技能和语言部 分也以练习为主,讲述为辅,以期通过练习和练后讲评,使学生真正理解和掌握论文写作 中的基本技能,并学会使用恰当的词汇、构式和搭配。 3)按学生论文写作过程来安排单元顺序 本教材打破了按论文组成部分的顺序来安排单元的惯例,按学生的实际写作过程安 排单元顺序,更符合学生的写作习惯,有利于学生边学习边实践。教师授课时各部分衔接 也更自然,便于教学操作。 1 学术英语写作 )结合软件、网络资源、语料库,帮助学生进行数字时代的学术英语写作 本教材利用学术英语语料库研究的成果设计练习,帮助学生了解和掌握论文各部分 的常用构式。为保证材料真实,并贴近学生论文的写作需求,各部分练习所用句子大多改 编自学术英语语料库。本教材还提供了学术写作资源链接,鼓励和帮助学生进行自主学 习和课下练习,储备自己的学术英语写作语料库,进行数字时代的学术英语写作。书中所 有习题答案可登录华东理工大学出版社有限公司官网下载:http:/ / www. ecustpress. cn。 在本教材的编写过程中,本人得到了教研室同仁的大力帮助和支持。吴建伟、王捷、 施敏、王琦老师等参与了本教材的编写,在此谨向他们表示诚挚的感谢!由于编写仓促, 编者水平有限,本教材难免存在错漏及不当之处,切望各位专家同仁及广大读者不吝赐 教,予以批评指正。 4 编 者 2019 年 12 月 2 目 录 Contents Unit 1 A Brief Overview 1 : 1. 1 Writing Papers in English How to Get over Procrastination / 1 1. 2 The Process of Writing / 3 1. 3 Features of Research Paper Sections / 4 Exercise 1 / 4 1. 4 Academic Style / 5 Formality / 6 Exercise 2 / 7 Conciseness / 8 Exercise 3 / 9 1. 5 General Rules for Tenses / 9 Exercise 4 / 11 1. 6 Academic Vocabulary / 11 Academic Vocabulary of Different Formality Levels / 12 Academic Vocabulary for Organizing Writing / 13 Exercise 5 / 13 Unit 2 Methods 15 2. 1 Read and Analyse / 15 Task 1 / 15 Task 2 / 19 2. 2 Elements and Organization / 21 Exercise 1 / 22 2. 3 Patterns / 22 1 学术英语写作 Exercise 2 / 23 2. 4 : Academic Writing Skills Describing a Process / 23 Time Connectors / 23 Exercise 3 / 24 Common Procedure Verbs / 25 Exercise 4 / 25 2. 5 : Language Focus Sentence Writing / 26 Types of Sentences / 26 Four Common Problems in Sentence Structures / 26 How to Correct Common Problems in Sentence Structures / 27 Exercise 5 / 27 2. 6 Tasks / 28 Task 1 / 28 Task 2 / 29 Task 3 / 29 Unit 3 Results 31 3. 1 Read and Analyse / 31 Task / 31 3. 2 Elements and Organization / 33 Exercise 1 / 34 3. 3 Patterns / 36 Exercise 2 / 36 3. 4 : Academic Writing Skills Describing Tables and Figures / 37 Choosing the Right Visuals / 37 Labelling and Referring / 37 Using Texts to Describe Tables and Figures / 37 Vocabulary for Describing Trend in Tables and Figures / 38 Exercise 3 / 38 3. 5 : Language Focus Verbs in Summary Statement of Tables and Figures / 40 Exercise 4 / 40 3. 6 2 Tasks / 41 目 录 Task 1 / 41 Task 2 / 41 Task 3 / 41 Unit 4 Introduction 43 4. 1 Read and Analyse / 43 Task / 43 4. 2 Elements and Organization / 45 Exercise 1 / 46 4. 3 Patterns / 47 Exercise 2 / 48 Exercise 3 / 49 4. 4 : Academic Writing Skills Using Sources / 50 Reasons for Using Sources in Academic Writing / 50 Four Ways of Using Sources / 50 Exercise 4 / 52 Exercise 5 / 53 Citation Styles / 55 Citation Types / 56 4. 5 : Academic Writing Skills Reviewing Literature / 57 Exercise 6 / 57 4. 6 : Academic Writing Skills Achieving Coherence / 63 Exercise 7 / 65 Exercise 8 / 65 4. 7 : Language Focus Summary Nouns / 66 Exercise 9 / 67 4. 8 : Language Focus Reporting Verbs / 68 Common Reporting Verbs in Academic Writing / 68 , Functions Strength and Evaluation of Reporting Verbs / 69 Exercise 10 / 71 4. 9 Tasks / 71 Task 1 / 71 3 学术英语写作 Task 2 / 72 Unit 5 ( Discussion and Conclusion ) 73 5. 1 Read and Analyse / 73 Task / 73 5. 2 Elements and Organization / 76 5. 3 Patterns / 77 Exercise 1 / 77 5. 4 : Academic Writing Skills Qualifying Your Generalization / 78 Exercise 2 / 80 5. 5 : Language Focus Levels of Generality / 81 Exercise 3 / 81 5. 6 Tasks / 82 Task 1 / 82 Task 2 / 82 Unit 6 Title 83 6. 1 Read and Analyse / 83 Task / 83 6. 2 Guidelines for Good Titles / 84 6. 3 Patterns / 85 Exercise 1 / 87 6. 4 : Academic Writing Skills Using Nominalization / 87 Nominalization / 87 Functions of Nominalization / 88 Exercise 2 / 89 Exercise 3 / 89 ? When to DeNominalize / 90 Exercise 4 / 90 6. 5 : Language Focus Noun Modifiers / 90 Exercise 5 / 92 4 目 6. 6 录 Tasks / 93 Task 1 / 93 Task 2 / 93 Unit 7 Abstract 95 7. 1 Read and Analyse / 95 Task / 95 7. 2 : Types of Abstracts Elements and Organization / 96 Exercise 1 / 98 7. 3 Patterns / 100 7. 4 Language Focus Collocation / 101 : Exercise 2 / 101 7. 5 Tasks / 102 Task 1 / 102 Task 2 / 103 Task 3 / 103 Unit 8 Proofreading and Revising 105 8. 1 A Checklist for Proofreading / 105 Exercise 1 / 106 Exercise 2 / 107 8. 2 The Use of Articles / 108 Exercise 3 / 108 8. 3 Commonly Confused Vocabulary / 109 Exercise 4 / 109 References 111 Sources of Sample Texts and Figures 113 5 Unit 1 A Brief Overview Academic writing in English covers many kinds of texts. Common types of academic writing include牶 ● Research papers / Journal articles ● Essays ● Lab / Project reports ● Research proposal / Grant writing ● Book reviews ● Term papers ● Presentation writing ● Poster / Conference papers ● Dissertation ● Reflective writing ● Case studies , However the types of academic writing that Chinese students and researchers need to , especially the former. Therefore,this book mainly focuses on research papers. However,you can still find most of write in English are most probably research papers and essays what you need for essay writing discussed in detail in this book as the most essential skills required for it are also the common core of paper writing. 1. 1 Writing Papers in English牶 How to Get over Procrastination Writing a research paper is a long and painful process for many students and researchers. It is thus often put off ,but the delay makes it harder to write day by day. 1 学术英语写作 , , sense like blankfilling. The real difficulty lies in doing your research, not writing. Therefore,stop putting off writing your paper if you have already started doing research. However writing a research paper is not as difficult as you thought. In fact it is in some Here are some ways to help you get over your procrastination. ( , ● Start from the easier part for example the Methods section ● Ignore grammar and details at the beginning first ) ) (just get something written done ( ● List your research questions this can help you structure your ideas ● Outline each section by categorizing literature or findings track and wellorganized ● ) ) (to keep the paper on Consider the guidelines and the audience of your target journal The guidelines generally outline specific requirements for your paper. Knowing your audience helps you decide the levels of details for your paper. ● , Read read and read Only by reading can one learn how to write. Read the relevant research papers that , , , have been published in your target journal especially those with similar topics methods or results to your study because they not only provide you with adequate background knowledge but also sound examples of successful writing. ● Use available academic corpora and create your personal corpus “ A corpus is a collection of machinereadable authentic texts which is sampled to be , representative of a particular language a language variety or a text type , , ) ”(McEnery,Xiao and Tono 2006 p. 5 . Using available academic corpora allows you to learn from great amount of good academic writing and discover academic writing format , patterns, collocations and usage. Building your own corpus of papers helps you discover the academic norms specified in your field and store the most relevant vocabulary , patterns and collocations. Here are links to some wellknown academic writing corpora. British Academic Written English Corpus牶 http牶 / / ota. ahds. ac. uk / headers / 2539. xml or https牶 / / www. sketchengine. eu / bawecorpus / Michigan Corpus of UpperLevel Student Papers牶 http牶 / / micusp. elicorpora. info / ● Use online writing help The Internet offers enormous resources which you can employ to help with your writing. Here are some useful websites offering help in academic vocabulary collocations and overall academic writing. Purdue Online Writing Lab牶 https牶 / / owl. purdue. edu / Academic Phrasebank牶 http牶 / / www. phrasebank. manchester. ac. uk / 2 ,patterns, Unit 1 Academic Word List牶 https牶 / / www. victoria. ac. nz / lals / resources / academicwordlist / information http牶 / / www. englishvocabularyexercises. com/ AWL / id26. htm Online OXFORD Collocation Dictionary牶 http牶 / / www. freecollocation. com / Collocation in Sketch Engine for Language Learning牶 https牶 / / skell. sketchengine. co. uk / run. cgi / skell Academic Collocation List牶 https牶 / / pearsonpte. com / organizations / researchers / academiccollocationlist / 1. 2! The Process of Writing , Generally academic writing involves牶 (search and research,use citation index / abstract and specify your key words to find relevant literature) ● Searching ● Reading literature ● Brainstorming sorting out ideas and narrowing down the topic questions ) , (to get your research ● Assembling a working bibliography ● Reading the literature critically ● Taking notes and summarizing the information to write literature review ● Designing the research to collect and analyse data ● Outlining the paper ● Drafting the paper ● Revising the drafts ( ( ) ) The process of writing a research paper is actually not a simple and linear one as shown , , , above. Instead it is a long and cyclical process of reading thinking and writing with each step feeding each other and some steps going on simultaneously sometimes. The simplest version is as follows牶 —brainstorming—outlining—drafting—further reading—further brainstorming— outlining—drafting—proofreading Reading We dont bother to present a complicated figure here for the reason that a simpler flow , chart seems to highlight the essential elements of successful academic writing better and the point here is to help you understand the nonlinear nature of the writing process. 3 学术英语写作 1. 3! Features of Research Paper Sections A research paper usually consists of the following parts牶 ● Title ● Abstract and Keywords ● Introduction ● Methods ● Results ● Discussion and Conclusion ● References ( ) ( ) Each of these parts has different functions and therefore differs from one another ( ) linguistically. The following table Table 1. 1 shows some linguistic characteristics of four , major research paper sections by presenting the frequencies of their use of tenses voices , citations and hedges. Table 1. 1 Frequencies of Selected Features in Research Paper Sections Introduction Methods Results Discussion Present tense high low low high Past tense mid high high mid Present perfect mid low low mid Passive low high variable variable Citations high low variable high Hedges mid low mid high , , Note. Adapted from Swales & Feak 2012 p. 287 Exercise 1 Here are eight sentences from different sections of a research paper. Can you guess from ( , , ) which of the four sections Introduction Methods Results and Discussion they come on the basis of what you have learned from Table 1. 1 section. ? There are two sentences from each , 1. As shown in Table 1 no significant relationship was found between the fluency sub scores and the flexibility subscores on the haiku task. 4 Unit 1 2. Participants were presented with 57 word trios and given 7 minutes to complete the trios with a fourth word that could be related to the previous three. 3. Our findings suggest that one of the main forces behind creativity could be the factor “ ” of originality . “one of the most enigmatic subjects in cognitive psychology”(Kim,Cramond,& Bandalos,2006). 4. Creativity has been described as 5. There were mixed results on the relationship between fluency and previous achievements. 6. This suggests that divergent thinking alone probably cannot account for creative end products. , 7. The tasks were administered and timed by the principal investigator and the entire session lasted approximately 1 hour. 8. Because these measures test different abilities ,it is difficult to make connections between separate studies in order to draw conclusions about what types of creative processes might relate to realistic creative output and lifetime achievement. (Source牶 MICUSP,PSY. G0. 18. 1) 1. 4! Academic Style Academic style is in fact very hard to pin down as different kinds of academic settings or , writings have different requirements for what is academically acceptable. Besides what is ,and students are often encouraged to find their own style (Bailey,2011 ). However,in general,a research paper considered academic may differ from one discipline to another tends to be牶 ● Formal ● Concise ● Objective ● Informative Each of these stylistic features is often shown by the use or avoidance of certain lexical items or structures listed below. , , ● Objectivity牶 passive voice impersonal subjects qualified claims ● Informativeness牶 long complex sentences nominalization ● Formality牶 avoidance of colloquial language. . . ● Conciseness牶 avoidance of redundancy. . . , 5 学术英语写作 , In this section we only expound on formality and conciseness. The first two features will be discussed in section 5. 4 and section 6. 4. Formality , for formality, the avoidance of the following expressions and structures is common (Swales and Feak,2012;Chang & Swales,1999). In journal articles of most fields ● Contraction ● Vague words e. g. thing good and so on ( , ) ● You ● I ● Direct questions ● Colloquial words and expressions e. g. a lot of sort of like ● Bullet points ● Listing expressions e. g. etc. ● Phrasal verbs Please note that what is considered informal or less acceptable may vary with discipline ( ( , , ) ) , or setting and is changing over time. For example contractions and direct questions seem to be more tolerable today across disciplines (Hyland & Jiang,2017). Second person is often acceptable in instructional materials and oral presentations. First person plural we seems to , rarely used (Swales & Feak,2012;Hyland & Jiang,2017). Therefore,apart from following the abovementioned general rules for formality,observe the practice of your field and target become common in coauthored papers in many disciplines but first person singular I is more journal for different formality requirements. ( ) Compare the following examples the first one in each pair is considered less formal 牶 1A. The alternative hypothesis states that the data doesnt follow normal distribution. 1B. The alternative hypothesis states that the data does not follow normal distribution. , 2B. The transition to turbulent,is not the only factor which determines flow speed. 2A. The transition to turbulent is not the only thing which determines flow speed. 3A. So there is no guarantee that the HRS measure is very good. 3B. So there is no guarantee that the HRS measure is accurate / effective. , 4B. As can be seen,copper still wins on conductivity. 4A. As you can see copper still wins on conductivity. 6 Unit 1 5A. How can different concentrations of sodium bicarbonate increase the rate of oxygen produced ? 5B. It would be interesting to further explore how different concentrations of sodium bicarbonate can increase the rate of oxygen produced. 6A. This will cut down the amount of drug required and so the cost of treatment. 6B. This will reduce the amount of drug required and so the cost of treatment. Apart from avoiding using the abovementioned expressions and structures , it is common to牶 ● Use more appropriate formal negations ● Place adverbs in the midposition ( ) Compare the following examples the first one in each pair is considered less formal 牶 1A. There are not many options available. 1B. There are few options available. , 2A. Then the process was repeated so that the following test tube had a concentration of 0. 075 mol / L. 2B. The process was then repeated so that the following test tube had a concentration of 0. 075 mol / L. Exercise 2 Make the following sentences more formal. 1. Technology has caused really bad environmental damage. 2. From this model you can see that intensity should have no part in the determination of the stopping voltage. 3. This method can save a lot of time in designing similar parts over again. 4. The whole system can be supported into a stationary position by the wheels or some similar stuff. , , 5. Unfortunately since there are so many possible explanations the correct one is most difficult to find out. , , , 6. Telegraph radio telephone etc. make our life much more convenient. 7. The reaction to the discussions was pretty good and has resulted in everyone getting on better at work. 8. Modern houses have so many laboursaving things. 7 学术英语写作 , 9. However to move the drawing axis back to the start of the line was a bit difficult because the program had to know how far the axis had moved in the first place. 10. The aggregate of outstanding balances went up and down quite violently. Conciseness Being concise is essential for research paper writing. It means only using words that are necessary. It helps writers present rich information clearly and makes it easy for readers to follow. There are many ways to make your writing more concise. , ● Replace a clause with a phrase and a phrase with a word whenever possible ● Replace circumlocutions with simpler conjunctions adverbs or prepositions Compare the following examples ) , (the first one in each pair is considered less concise 牶 1A. The employee with ambition. . . 1B. The ambitious employee. . . , 2A. The report which was released recently. . . 2B. The recently released report. . . 3A. This happened owing to the fact that. . . 3B. This happened because. . . 4A. From a conceptual point of view 4B. Conceptually ● Delete redundancy ■ ■ ■ ■ ● ( , , , ) Redundant categories (unusual in nature,in economics field) Repetitive wording (an advance plan,true facts,final outcome) Unnecessary statements of opinion,or use of we / one (I believe) Meaningless intensifiers actually quite really definitely Avoid overuse or unnecessary use of expletive constructions ■ It + beverb that. . . ■ There + be. . . Such expressions can be rhetorically effective for emphasis in some situations but overuse or unnecessary use of them make the sentences appear wordy. 8 , Unit 1 Examples牶 It is in fact known that glucose is one of the products of photosynthesis in plants. There were many factors that influenced the performance of X. Exercise 3 Make the following sentences more concise by removing unnecessary items or replacing them with fewer words. 1. The results obtained support the hypothesis made at the beginning of the study. 2. This method is often used in economics field. , , , 3. In the conversation there are many instances of topic shift turn taking hesitation phenomena and agreement among participants. 4. The 1950s and 1980s saw brief bursts of research activity in this area. , 5. If there is water present in the system this may cause rust. 6. In this paper we aim to study the interaction of two species of this type. 7. A number of key factors that might affect the performance were identified. 8. “Test of Everyday Attention for Children ”(TEAch )was developed by Manly, Anderson,NimmoSmith,Turner,Watson and Robertson (2001 )for the purpose of measuring various types of attention skills in children. 9. The research strategy to find information relevant to the project was to initially ask supervisors for recommended reading. 10. From a conceptual point of view ,it is a very easy model to teach people and perhaps this is the main reason that it has survived. 11. Porridge was rejected by family members on account of the fact that it was tasteless and caused nausea. 12. See Figure 9 for a schematic diagram of this region of the gene. 1. 5! General Rules for Tenses Tense choice is rather complex and there appears to be considerable disciplinary and , individual variation in tense usage. For example the present tense is more likely to occur in , hard sciences such as physics and less likely to occur in social sciences. Therefore below are only some general rules according to which you make your general choice. Flexibility is needed in cases of special concern or circumstances. Rule 1牶 Follow the guideline of your target journal and observe the common practice in 9 学术英语写作 tense usage in the journal. Rule 2牶 Follow tense guidelines for different sections of a typical research paper. Abstract ● The present perfect for a concise introductory phrase ● The present tense for general statements and facts ● The past simple for what authors did / achieved and conclusions they reached Introduction , ● The past tense for earlier research efforts either by you or another group ● The present tense for basic facts ● The present perfect tense for reference to previous works Methods ● The past tense to describe what was done ● The present tense to present diagrams and figures Results ● The past tense to report results ● The present tense to refer to figures tables and graphs , Discussion ● The past tense to summarize findings ● The present tense to explain significance of results or interpret results ● The perfect tense or the present tense for cited information Conclusions ● The present perfect tense to make clear that your statements still hold at the time of reading ● ( ) The future tense or the present for further work Rule 3牶 Choose the tense according to what different tenses are used for. Past tense牶 to describe observation / work done or reported in the past and not being linked to the present in the same sentence. ; Present tense牶 to state what is generally true and unlikely to change to indicate research results that you believe to be true and that are relevant to your present research. Compare牶 ( )found that physical attractiveness was linked to more A. Langlois and Stephan 1977 positive peer relations and social acceptance. B. Langlois and Stephan (1977 )found that physical attractiveness is linked to more positive peer relations and social acceptance. The first sentence shows that the writer believes the finding should be understood within 10 Unit 1 the context of the single study. In the second sentence ,the writer implies that a wider generalization is possible. , , Present perfect牶 to talk about a past event that is linked to the present or a trend an event that occurred recently or is still continuing. , Note. Adapted from Moore & Tsuda 2003 Exercise 4 Choose appropriate tenses from the options given to complete the passage. Dictionary use while reading , (1 ) was / is / has been normally a very private matter, occurring as the need arises and often behind closed doors. Most studies of dictionary use (2)had / were / have / are therefore relied on the retrospection of users via questionnaires or interviews (for example,Tomaszczyk 1979,Béjoint 1981, Bogaards 1988, Atkins and Varantola 1998),or (3)had / were / have / are artificially created occasions for more readily observable dictionary consultation, under controlled conditions (for example, Summers 1988,Tono 1989,Knight 1994,McCreary and Dolezal 1999). Questionnairebased research has been criticized, however, because it (4)has relied / relied / relies very heavily on respondents perceptions of the lookup process,and data can be distorted by respondent desire to please or to conform (Hatherall 1984 ). Experimental research (5 )had / has the advantage of obtaining firsthand data on dictionaryusing behaviour,but may require users to look up words that they would not necessarily wish to look up,in dictionaries that they would not normally consult,for purposes that they may not understand or subscribe to. The study reported in this paper (6 ) attempted / attempts / has attempted to monitor dictionary use under somewhat more natural conditions,permitting subjects the freedom to use whatever dictionary they wish,to look up the words they want,in a text of their own choice, at their own pace. All the subjects (7)are / were international students studying at university level in the medium of English. Other variables (8)are / were not controlled,however,and the successes and failures that the subjects encountered during the lookup process may have been affected by more than one of several possible factors , —their mother tongues,language , , 1. 6! Academic Vocabulary ability dictionaryusing skill choice of dictionary choice of lookup word or choice of text. (Source牶 Nesi & Haill,2002) , , In academic writing besides disciplinespecific words there are a considerable number 11
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