CHAPTER 13 (13.5) Work was reported to be at or near the top of a wide range of stressors, edging out factors such as health and relationships Stressors Environmental events or conditions that have the potential to induce stress - Different personalities determine the extent to which a potential stressor becomes a real stressor Stress A psychological reaction to the demands inherent in a stressor that has the potential to make a person feel tense or anxious because the person does not feel capable of coping with these demands. Stress Reactions The behavioural, psychological, and physiological consequences of stress - Dealing directly with the stressor or reducing anxiety generated by stress Locus of Control A set of beliefs about whether one’s behaviour is controlled mainly by internal or external forces - Externals are anxious and do not feel that they are masters of their own fate. - Internals are more likely to confront stressors directly because they assume that this response will made a difference Type A Behaviour Pattern A personality pattern that includes aggressiveness, ambitiousness, competitiveness, hostility, impatience, and a sense of time urgency - Type A people report heavy workloads, long work hours, and many conflicting work demands - Strong need to control their work environment, a full time task that stimulates their feelings of time urgency and leads them to overextend themselves physically (elevated blood pressure, elevated heart rate) - Many sufferers of coronary heart disease exhibited a distinctive pattern of behaviours and emotions (typically type A) Workaholism Addiction to work in which one has an internal compulsion to work, thinks persistently about work, and works excessively - Although they tend to be achievement-oriented perfectionists, these traits do not pay off for workaholics - These people tend to be stressed, burned out, dissatisfied in poor health, and they do not perform better than their more laid-back colleagues Negative affectivity Propensity to view the world, including oneself and other people, in a negative light - Stable personality trait, major component of neuroticism - Pessimistic and downbeat - Likely to feel stressed in response to the demands of a heavy workload - They notice stress more easily, they react strongly to stress, they choose stressful jobs, they unintentionally create stress, they avoid dealing with stress directly (13.6) Executive and managers make key organizational decisions and direct the work of others. In these capacities, they experience some special form of stress Role Overload The requirement for too many tasks to be performed in too short a time period or to work too many hours - Heavy Responsibility → not only heavy, but can have extremely important consequences for the organization and its members → executives are responsible for people as well as things (terminating unprofitable division) putting many out of work, laying off employees, all which can lead to experiencing guilt and tension - Operative-Level Stressors → occupy non-professional and non-managerial positions → can range from skilled craftspeople to unskilled labourers → these people are sometimes exposed to special set of stressors - Poor Physical Working Conditions → operative level employees more likely than managers and professionals to be exposed to physically unpleasant and even dangerous working conditions → accidents, excessive heat, cold, noise, and pollution - Poor Job Design → monotony and boredom can also prove extremely frustrating to people who feel capable of handling more complex tasks → thus, job scope can be stressor at levels that are either too low or too high Boundary Roles Positions in which organizational members are required to interact with members of other organizations or with the public - Vice presidents of PR is responsible for representing their company to the public - Receptionists, sales reps, and consultants often interact with customers or clients - A classic case of boundary role stress involves sales rep. Customer wants fast delivery, sales rep wants to offer the moon, but at the same time is aware it can place a severe strain on their organization Burnout A syndrome of emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced self-efficacy - Teachers, nurses, paramedics, social workers, and police are likely candidates of burnout - Begins with emotional exhaustion. Person feels fatigued, drained by the work, and frustrated by the day’s events - One way to deal with this is to become cynical and distance oneself from one’s clients, the “cause” of the exhaustion - Low self-efficacy and low personal accomplishment (e.g., i can't deal with these people; i’m not helping them) - Common among people who entered their jobs with high ideals. Expectations of being able to change the world are badly frustrated when they encounter the reality shock of troubled clients and their perceived unappreciativeness - In general those with high conscientiousness, high self-esteem, and internal control report less burnout Work Engagement A positive work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigour, dedication, and absorption 31% are highly engaged 48% are moderately engaged and 21% are disengaged Vigour → high levels of energy and mental resilience Dedication → being strongly involved in your work and experiencing a sense of significance enthusiasm and challenge Absorption → fully concentrated in and engrossed in your work More engaged people are better performers and better organizational citizens and that companies with more engaged workforces have better financial performance and customer satisfaction Job demands - resources model A model that specifies how job demands cause burnout and job resources cause engagement Job Demands → work overload, time pressure, role ambiguity, and role conflict Job Resources → organization (e.g., pay, career opportunities, and job security) Interpersonal and social relations (e.g., supervisor and co-worker support, team climate) organization of the work (e.g., role clarity, participation in decision making) task itself (e.g., task significance, autonomy, and performance feedback) Counterproductive Work Behaviour Intentional verbal or physical behaviour meant to harm one’s organization or individuals such as co-workers or customers Bullying → repeated negative behaviour that is directed toward one or more individuals of lower power or status and creates a hostile work environment - Subtle form of psychological aggression and intimidation Mobbing → occurs when a number of individuals usually direct co-workers, “gang up” on a particular employee Abusive Supervision The bullying of subordinates by managers Workplace Ostracism A group or individual fails to interact with a co-worker when it should be normal to do so - Shunning, ignoring, or excluding the person - Ostracism can be stressful when they need to interact with others to do their job well - People with neurotic tendencies suffer from ostracism, while agreeable, conscientious, and extraverted people are less likely Work-family conflict occurs when either work duties interfere with family life or family life interferes with work responsibilities. Job Insecurity & Change is an important goal for almost everyone and stress may be encountered when it is threatened Role Ambiguity → exists when the goals of one’s job or the methods of performing the job are unclear. Lack direction can be stressful Techno-stress Stress from having to use and to master work-place information and communication Techno-overload → the feeling that too many people have access to us, there are too many technology features to master, or we have too much information to process Techno-invasion → the feeling that work demands have invaded non-work time, we must be constantly and immediately available, our behaviour is being monitored Techno-uncertainty → the perception that technology is changing too often, that policies regarding technology use (e.g., social media presence) are unclear, or that text-based messages are prone to misinterpretation Techno-complexity → the feeling that new technology introduces complication and hassles to our everyday work Techno-insecurity → the fear that others are more adept at adapting to and using new technology than we are or that it could threaten our job (13.7) Problem Solving Terminating the stressor or reducing its potency. Delegation Time Management Talking it out Asking for help Searching for alternative Seeking Social Support Performance Changes Withdrawal and Presenteeism (attending work when ill) Psychological Reactions to Stress Defense Mechanism Psychological attempts to reduce the anxiety associated with stress. Defence mechanisms concentrate on anxiety reduction rather than on actually confronting or dealing with the stressor. (RPDRC) Rationalization → socially acceptable reasons or motives to one’s actions so that they will appear reasonable and sensible Projection → attributing one’s own undesirable ideas and motives to others so that they seem less negative. For example, a sales executive who is undergoing conflict about offering a bribe to a government official might reason that the official is corrupt Displacement → directing feelings of anger at a “safe” target rather than expressing them where they may be punished Reaction Formation → expressing oneself in a manner that is directly opposite to the way one truly feels rather than risking negative reactions to one’s true position Compensation → applying one’s skills in a particular area to make up for failure in another area. Organizational Strategies for Managing Stress Job redesign → overloaded executives might be given an assistant to reduce the number of tasks they must perform CHAPTER 7 (7.1) Group Two or more people interacting interdependently to achieve a common goal Formal Work Groups Groups that are established by organizations to facilitate the achievement of organizational goals. To channel individual effort in an appropriate direction Project teams or Task force temporary groups Committee permanent group (work-life balance committee) Informal Groups Groups that emerge naturally in response to the common interests of organizational members Stages of Group Development (FSNPA) Forming → testing the waters. What are we doing here? What are others like? Storming → conflict often emerges. confrontation and criticism. sorting out rules and responsibilities. problems are more likely to happen earlier Norming → compromise. norms agreed to. groups become more cohesive Performing → achievement, accomplishment creativity, and mutual assistance Adjourning → disperse after achieving the goal (ceremonies, parties) Punctuated Equilibrium Model Phase 1 → assumptions, approaches, and precedents developed in the first phase, often dominate the first half of a group's life. Little visible progress towards goal Midpoint Transition → crystallizes the group’s activities for phase 2. Occurs at almost exactly halfway point in time towards the group’s deadline. They need to move forward and may seek outside advice as deadline is approaching Phase 2 → for better or for worse, decisions and approaches adopted at the midpoint get played out in phase 2. It concludes with a final meeting that reveals a burst of activity and a concern for how outsiders will evaluate the product (7.2) Additive Tasks Tasks in which group performance is dependent on the sum of the performance of individual group members. Potential performance of the group increases with group size Disjunctive Tasks Tasks in which group performance is dependent on the performance of the best group member. Process Losses Group performance difficulties stemming from the problems of motivating and coordinating larger groups. Actual performance = potential performance - process losses Conjunctive Tasks Tasks in which group performance is limited by the performance of the poorest group member.. Norms Collective expectations that members of social units have regarding the behaviour of each other. Why? - To provide regularity and predictability to behaviour - Provides important psychological security How? - When members of a group share related beliefs and values, we can expect them to share consequent attitudes Dress norms - Organizations have adopted casual dress policies - Military = polished buttons and razor sharp creases Reward allocation norms (EERS.R) Equity → reward according to inputs, such as effort, performance, or seniority Equality → reward everyone equally Reciprocity → reward people the way they reward you Social Responsibility → reward those who truly need the reward Performance Norms The performance of organizational members might be as much of a function of social expectations as it is of inherent ability, personal motivation, or technology Roles Positions in a group that have a set of expected behaviours attached to them Role Ambiguity Lack of clarity of job goals or methods Role Conflict A condition of being faced with incompatible role expectations Intrasender Role Conflict A single role sender provides incompatible role expectations to a role occupant. For example, a manager might tell an employee to take it easy and not work so hard, while delivering yet another batch of reports that need immediate attention Intersender Role Conflict Two or more role senders provide a role occupant with incompatible expectations Interrole Conflict Several roles held by a role occupant involve incompatible expectations Person-Role Conflict Role demands call for behaviour that is incompatible with the personality or skills of a role occupant Status The rank or social position accorded to group members on terms of prominence, prestige, and respect Informal Status Systems “Power hitters” “cool heads” “fast trackers”. Informal status can also be linked to gender and race. For example, the man who takes a day off work to care for a sick child may be praised as a model father. The woman who does the same may be questioned about her work commitment High speed transmission, direct access, and the opportunity to avoid kive confrontation often encourage lower-status parties to communicate directly with organizational VIP’s (7.3) Group Cohesiveness The degree to which a group is attractive to its members (13.2) Relationship conflict Interpersonal tensions among individuals that have to do with their relationship per se, not the task at hand (personality clash) Task Conflict Disagreements about the nature of the work to be done (differences of opinions about goals) Process Conflict Disagreements about how work should be organizes and accomplished Constructive Conflict Conflict for which the benefits outweigh the costs Conflict Stimulation A strategy of increasing conflict to motivate change (7.4) Social Loafing The tendency to withhold physical or intellectual effort when performing a group task (motivation problem) Free rider effect → sucker effect How to counteract social loafing - Make individual performance more visible - Make sure that the work is interesting - Increase feelings of indispensability - Increase performance feedback - Reward group performance Psychological Safety A shared belief that it is safe to take social risks - Feeling safe to question status quip - To suggest a new idea - To disagree with a colleague - Learning from mistakes rather than becoming defensive Team Reflexivity The extent to which teams deliberately discuss team processes and goals and adapt their behaviour accordingly - Conscious deliberate reflection and adapting behaviour accordingly Shared Mental Models Team members share similar information about how they should interact and what their task is - Ensuring that team members are on the same page Collective Efficacy Shared beliefs that a team can successfully perform a given task Team Resilience A team’s capacity to bounce back from setbacks or adversity Composition of Self-Managed Teams How should organizations assemble self-managed teams to endure effectiveness? “Stable, small, and smart” might be a fast answer 1. Stability 2. Size 3. Expertise 4. Diversity Supporting Self-Managed Teams A number of support factors can assist self-managed teams in becoming and staying effective 1. Training - Technical training - Social skills - Language skills - Business training 2. Rewards 3. Management (13.1) Conflict The process that occurs when one person, group, or organizational subunit frustrates the goal attainment of another. (G.I.I.B-I-D.I.P.S.C-A-S.R) 1. Group Identification and Intergroup Bias (us vs. them) 2. Interdependence 3. Differences in Power, Status, and Culture 4. Ambiguity 5. Scarce Resources Negotiation A decision-making process among interdependent parties who do not share identical preferences Distributive Negotiation: Think of it as "splitting a pie." There’s a fixed amount of something (like money, resources, or time), and each person wants to get as much as they can. It’s a win-lose situation: the more one person gets, the less the other gets. Example: If two people are dividing $100, one person’s gain is the other’s loss. They argue over how to divide it fairly or advantageously. Integrative Negotiation: Think of it as "making the pie bigger." Both sides work together to find a solution where everyone benefits. It’s a win-win situation: instead of fighting over the same resources, they create new opportunities or trade-offs that meet both parties’ needs. Example: Two people want an orange. Instead of splitting it, they realize one needs the juice while the other needs the peel for baking. Both get what they need without losing out. CHAPTER 9 (9.1) Leadership The influence that particular individuals exert on the goal achievement of others in an organizational context Strategic Leadership Leadership that involves the ability to anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility, think strategically, and work with others to initiate changes that will create a viable future for the organization Emergent Leadership The degree to which an individual with no formal status or authority is perceived by one or more team members as exhibiting leaderlike influence Shared Leadership An emergent and dynamic tema phenomenon whereby leadership roles and influence are distributed among team members Trait theory of Leadership Leadership depends on the personal qualities or traits of the leader Traits Individual characteristics such as physical attributes, intellectual abilities, and personality Traits associated with effectiveness - Intelligence - Energy and drive - Self confidence - Dominance - Motivation to lead - Emotional stability - Honesty and integrity - Need for achievement - Sociability Narcissism A personality trait that combines grandiosity, attention seeking, an unrealistically inflated self-view, a need for that self-view to be continuously reinforced through self-regulation, and a general lack of regard for others Motivation to Lead The desire to attain leadership roles and to expand effort to fulfill leader role requirements Leadership Categorization Theory People are more likely to view somebody as a leader and to evaluate them as more effective leader when they possess prototypical characteristics of leadership (9.3) Consideration The extent to which a leader is approachable and shows personal concern and respect for employees Initiating Structure The degree to which a leader concentrates on group goal attainment. Leader clearly define and organizes their own role and the roles of followers. Both contribute positively to employees’ motivation, job satisfaction, and leader effectiveness. Consideration → follower satisfaction Initiating Structure → leader job performance and group performance Leader Reward Behaviour The leader’s use of compliments, tangible benefits, and deserved special treatment Contingent Reward Behaviour Rewarding employees for meeting performance goals and expectations Leader Punishment Behavior The leader’s use of reprimands or unfavourable task assignments and the active withholding of rewards. (9.8) Laissez-faire leadership A style of leadership that involves the avoidance or absence of leadership Role Congruity Theory Prejudice against female leaders is the result of an incongruity between the perceived characteristics of women and the perceived requirements of leadership roles. Men are perceived to have more agentic traits which convey assertion and control. Women are perceived as having communal traits which convey a for the compassionate treatment of others (9.4) Contingency Theory Fred Fierdler’s theory that states that the association between leadership orientation and group effectiveness is contingent on how favourable the situation is for exerting influence Path-goal theory A situational theory of leadership that is concerned with the situations under which various leader behaviours (directive, supportive, achievement oriented, participative) are most effective (9.6) Leader-member exchange A theory of leadership that focus on the quality of the relationship that develops between a leader and an employee LMX Differentiation The variability in the quality of LMX relationships between members of the same workgroup Social Exchange theory Individuals who are treated favourably by others feel obliged to reciprocate by responding positively and returning that favourable treatment in some manner Transactional Leadership Leadership that is based on a straightforward exchange relationship between the leader and the followers. Leaders set goals and provide direction and support, employees perform well, and the leader rewards them; the leader uses a participatory style, and the employees come up with good ideas = contingent reward behaviour Management by expectation Leadership that involves the leader taking corrective action on the basis of the results of leader-follower transactions MBEA Routinely monitoring the behaviour of followers and actively searching for and correcting deviations from the norm as they happen MBEP Correcting mistakes only after they have occurred Transformational Leadership Leadership that provides followers with a new vision that instills true commitment 1. Intellectual stimulation - People are stimulated to think about problems, issues, and strategies in new ways 2. Individualized consideration - One on one attempts to meet the concerns and needs of the individual in question in the context of the overall goal or mission 3. Inspirational motivation - Strong visions for the future based on values and ideals 4. Charisma - The ability to command strong loyalty and devotion from followers and thus have the potential for strong influence among them CHAPTER 1O (10.1) Deficiencies in the Chain of Command 1. Informal communication 2. Slowness 3. Filtering → the tendency for a message to be watered down or stopped during transmission (10.7) Information Richness The potential information-carrying capacity of a communication medium CHAPTER 11 Rational Decision Making Process 1. Identify a problem 2. Search for relevant information 3. Develop alternate solutions 4. Evaluate alternative solutions 5. Choose best solution 6. Implement chosen solution 7. Monitor and evaluate chosen solution 2
