Non-SNARE-mediated fusion Less common is non-SNARE-mediated fusion, which is mediated by a variety of different proteins and mechanisms. For example, some viruses use their own fusion proteins to fuse with host cell membranes. * * Here are some ways to generate charge from scratch: * Triboelectric effect: This is a type of contact electrification that occurs when two materials are rubbed together. When two materials are rubbed together, electrons are transferred from one material to the other. This results in one material gaining a positive charge and the other material gaining a negative charge. * Photoelectric effect: This is the emission of electrons from a metal surface when light shines on it. The energy of the light must be greater than or equal to the work function of the metal in order to emit an electron. * Thermionic emission: This is the emission of electrons from a metal surface when it is heated. The electrons gain enough energy to escape the metal surface when it is heated. * Field ionization: This is the ionization of an atom or molecule by a strong electric field. The electric field strips the electrons away from the atom or molecule. * Beta decay: This is a type of radioactive decay in which a neutron decays into a proton and an electron. The electron is emitted from the nucleus of the atom. These are just a few of the ways to generate charge from scratch. There are many other methods, and scientists are constantly developing new ways to generate charge. Here are some examples of how these methods are used in practice: * Triboelectric effect: The triboelectric effect is used in wind turbines to generate electricity. The blades of the wind turbine are made of a material that is high in the triboelectric series. As the blades spin through the air, they rub against the air molecules and gain a negative charge. This negative charge is then transferred to a generator, which produces electricity. * Photoelectric effect: The photoelectric effect is used in solar cells to generate electricity. Solar cells are made of a semiconductor material. When light shines on the solar cell, it generates electron-hole pairs. The electrons and holes are separated by an electric field, and this creates an electric current. * Thermionic emission: Thermionic emission is used in vacuum tubes to generate an electric current. Vacuum tubes have a heated filament that emits electrons. The electrons are then accelerated across a vacuum and collected by a plate. This creates an electric current. * Field ionization: Field ionization is used in particle accelerators to accelerate charged particles. Particle accelerators use strong electric fields to accelerate charged particles to high speeds. * Beta decay: Beta decay is used in nuclear power plants to generate electricity. Nuclear power plants use the energy of beta decay to heat water and produce steam. The steam then drives a turbine, which generates electricity. I hope this helps! Nonpolar molecules are typically attracted to each other through weak intermolecular forces, such as London dispersion forces. These forces are much weaker than the ionic bonds and covalent bonds that hold molecules together, which is why nonpolar molecules tend to have lower melting and boiling points than polar molecules. * * Nonpolar molecules have a net charge of zero. This means that the positive and negative charges in the molecule are evenly distributed. Nonpolar molecules are typically formed when atoms with similar electronegativity values share electrons equally. Here are some examples of nonpolar molecules: * Hydrogen (H2) * Nitrogen (N2) * Oxygen (O2) * Carbon dioxide (CO2) * Methane (CH4) * Ethane (C2H6) * Propane (C3H8) * Hexane (C6H14) Nonpolar molecules are generally insoluble in polar solvents, such as water. This is because the nonpolar molecules are not attracted to the polar solvent molecules. Instead, nonpolar molecules tend to be soluble in nonpolar solvents, such as oil and gasoline. Nonpolar molecules play an important role in many different processes, including:
