Wiley
International Journal of Food Science
Volume 2025, Article ID 2106508, 11 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/ijfo/2106508
Research Article
Optimizing Young Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.)
Processing for Plant-Based Meatballs: Impact of Thermal
Treatments on Quality Parameters and Organoleptic Properties
Wisutthana Samutsri
and Sujittra Thimthuad
Food Science and Technology Programme, Faculty of Science and Technology, Phranakhon Rajabhat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Correspondence should be addressed to Wisutthana Samutsri; wisutthana@pnru.ac.th
Received 1 August 2024; Accepted 11 December 2024
Academic Editor: Mitsuru Yoshida
Copyright © 2025 Wisutthana Samutsri and Sujittra Thimthuad. International Journal of Food Science published by John Wiley &
Sons Ltd. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use,
distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
As global demand for plant-based foods increases due to their nutritional and environmental benefits, young jackfruit (Artocarpus
heterophyllus) is emerging as a promising meat alternative. This study evaluates the effects of heat treatments—specifically
blanching for 5 min and boiling for 15, 30, and 45 min—on the quality and sensory attributes of jackfruit-based meatballs. The
results indicate consistent color values (L∗ , a∗ , and b∗ ) across the samples, with L∗ values ranging from 53.68 to 54.92 and a∗
values from 3.02 to 3.38. The browning index increased with longer boiling times, while the water holding capacity improved
from 2.22 to 4.35 as the cooking time extended. Blanching increased the hardness (536.93 g) and springiness (8.30%) of the
meatballs. However, these properties decreased with longer boiling times, reaching 317.44 g and 7.68%, respectively, after
45 min. Sensory analysis revealed a strong preference for meatballs made from young jackfruit boiled for 45 min, with the
highest score in appearance, flavor, and overall acceptability. These findings suggest that boiling young jackfruit for 45 min
optimizes its texture and sensory qualities, highlighting its potential as a sustainable, nutritious, and appealing ingredient for
plant-based meat substitutes.
Keywords: heat treatment; meatball formulation; physicochemical properties; plant-based meat; sensory evaluation; young
jackfruit
1. Introduction
The global shift towards plant-based foods is intensifying
due to their nutritional benefits, environmental sustainability, and consumer interest in alternative protein sources.
As consumers become more health-conscious and environmentally aware, the demand for plant-based products has
surged. Alternative meat products, valued at $4.6 billion in
2018, are projected to reach $85 billion by 2030 [1]. Furthermore, Sha and Xiong [2] estimate a market worth of $30.9
billion by 2026, underscoring rapid growth fueled by those
following vegetarian or vegan lifestyles. Plant-based diets
offer a viable route to meet nutritional needs while addressing ethical and environmental concerns surrounding traditional animal agriculture.
Young jackfruit (JF) (Artocarpus heterophyllus) has gained
considerable attention as a versatile meat alternative due to its
unique fibrous texture and nutritional profile. This tropical
fruit, originating in Western India and now cultivated in
various regions, including Asia, Africa, and South America,
is a sustainable option that requires minimal maintenance
and thrives in diverse environments [3, 4]. Young JF is known
for its meat-like texture, making it a popular choice for plantbased diets. It is high in fiber, low in calories, and rich in various vitamins and minerals [5]. The potential of JF as a meat
substitute is further supported by its use in traditional dishes
and its increasing popularity in modern culinary applications,
such as pulled “pork” sandwiches and tacos [6].
Innovative processing methods have been explored to
enhance the physicochemical properties of young JF-based
meat analogues. For instance, recent research investigated
the effects of drying methods, including tray drying and
vacuum freeze drying, on chicken meat analogues made
from young JF. The findings demonstrated that vacuum
freeze drying at lower temperatures preserved superior sensory qualities [7]. The study by Mohammad and Nur [8]
found that substituting fat with JF or breadfruit in low-fat
chicken patties significantly enhanced water holding capacity (WHC), moisture, and protein levels while reducing fat
content. Sensory evaluations indicated consumer preferences for the reformulated chicken patties. Overall, JF proves
to be an effective and appealing fat substitute for healthier,
low-fat patties. Furthermore, the fibrous structure of young
JF contributes to its ability to mimic the texture of animal
meat, making it an attractive ingredient for creating plantbased products such as meatballs [9, 10]. Plant-based products can deliver key health benefits, including high dietary
fiber and essential vitamins, which can enhance physical
performance and overall well-being. Meat alternatives with
about 30% protein and low-fat content can effectively replace
traditional meats [11]. Research indicates that plant-based
meat alternatives can reduce metabolic risks linked to obesity
and cardiovascular disease [12, 13] and exhibit anticancer,
anti-inflammatory, and immune-enhancing properties [14].
Given these advantages, plant-based foods present a valuable
option for consumers aiming to improve their health and
physical performance.
Beyond health, traditional livestock farming poses
substantial environmental challenges, including greenhouse
gas emissions and water pollution. Reducing meat consumption significantly lowers resource use and greenhouse gas
output [15]. Reports indicate that components of plantbased meats generate far lower greenhouse emissions than
conventional meats, although nutritional content and processing methods may vary [16]. The exploration of alternative raw materials continues, with research focusing on
plant-based options that offer meat-like textures and robust
nutritional profiles [5, 17–19].
Given the considerable volume of young JF left as waste—up to 120 fruits per mature tree, with only about 15
selected for consumption [4]—this study seeks to utilize
young JF by-products to develop plant-based meatballs. Furthermore, the research will investigate how different heat
treatments affect the physicochemical and sensory properties of these meatballs, optimizing JF processing for plantbased applications.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials. Three young Thai commercial “Thong Prasert”
JFs (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.), approximately 7–11
weeks postflowering, with an average circumference of
45–55 cm, were sourced from a local market in Lopburi Province, Thailand, to serve as independent samples, with one JF
used per experimental run. The JFs were categorized by maturity stages, with stage two, corresponding to 9 weeks postflowering, selected as per Konsue, Bunyameen, and Donlao [18].
Soy protein isolate and wheat gluten were obtained from Siam
Modified Starch Co., Ltd. (Thailand), and citric acid was
International Journal of Food Science
Table 1: Physical characteristics of fresh young jackfruit.
Characteristics
Measurement
Growth stage (weeks)
Weight per fruit (g)
Circumference (cm)
Length (cm)
Number of seeds per 2 ± 0 5 cm slice
Yield (%)
7–11
2500–3000
45–55
60–70
8–10
42.8–44.0
sourced from Krungthepchemi Co., Ltd. (Thailand). Additional ingredients approved by the Thai FDA, including sugar,
salt, vegetarian seasoning powder, garlic powder, ground pepper, and soybean oil, were sourced from a local market in
Bangkok, Thailand.
2.2. JF Preparation. To prepare the young JF, the fruit was first
thoroughly cleaned and sliced horizontally with 2 ± 0 5 cm
thickness and 10 ± 2 cm diameter (Table 1). Each slice was
soaked in a 0.3% w/v citric acid solution for 5 min to prevent
oxidation. Heat processing was then applied to the sliced JF,
with treatments including blanching for 5 min, followed by
boiling for varied durations of 15, 30, and 45 min. After each
heat treatment, the JF was immediately immersed in cold
water (4° C ± 2° C) to stop further cooking. The cooled samples
were then manually squeezed to remove excess water, cut into
smaller pieces (approximately 3 ± 3 cm), and blended by using
an electric blender (Philips Model HR2051/00/A, 450 W,
1.25 L capacity) at a speed level of 1 for 5 min to achieve a uniform consistency. Three uniformly treated JF samples were
individually stored in sealed plastic containers at 4° C ± 2° C.
A detailed flowchart for JF preparation is presented in
Figure 1.
2.3. Plant-Based Meatball Production. The objective of this
method was to determine the most suitable heating process
for JF in the production of plant-based meatballs. Uniform
JF mash from the initial processing stage was utilized to produce the meatballs, following the methodology outlined in
Figure 2. Initially, 27 g of uniform JF mash from three different heating treatments (as described in Section 2.2) were
equally combined with seasoning and stabilizing ingredients,
including sugar, salt, vegetarian seasoning powder, garlic
powder, ground pepper, and soybean oil, in the amounts
specified in Table 2, according to the method described by
Samutsri, Oumaree, and Thimthuad [20]. The mixture was
kneaded in a double-arm kneading machine (TONG HOR
machine Lex Product 0.85 kW, 0.5–6.0 kg/batch of capacity)
for approximately 10 min to ensure thorough homogenization, after which it was manually formed into globularshaped meatballs with an approximate diameter of 2 5 ±
0 2 cm. These meatballs were then immersed in hot water
at 60°C–65°C for 20 min for cooking. Once the meatballs
floated to the surface, they were immediately removed from
the warm water and transferred to cold water at 4° C ± 2° C
for at least 10 s to halt the cooking process. Finally, the
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Peel & slice
(i) Horizontally slice young jackfruit into circular
pieces (1+0.2 inch thick, 10 cm diameter).
Prevent oxidation
(i) Soak slices in 0.3% w/v citric acid solution
for 3 – 5 min.
Heat treatment
(i) Divide slices into 4 groups: blanch for 5 min.
or boil for 15, 30, and 45 min.
Mashed jackfruit preparation
(i) Chop heat-treated slices into ~3 cm lengths.
(ii) Blend using an electric blender.
Figure 1: The preparation process of young jackfruit samples. Note: The flowchart was adapted with minor modifications from Samutsri,
Oumaree, and Thimthuad [20].
Meshed JF
Form the blend into meatballs. Heat in hot water
until meatballs float, dunk meatballs in cold water
Ingredients
Mix the ingredients in a double-arm
kneading machine for 3-5 min
Mashed jackfruit (JF) and protein blends
Figure 2: The production of plant-based young jackfruit (JF) meatballs.
meatballs were stored in a plastic container in the refrigerator as the final product until further analysis.
2.4. Characterizations of Plant-Based Meatballs
2.4.1. Color Measurement. The color analysis of meshed JF
paste and JF meatballs, subjected to three different heat
treatments as detailed in Sections 2.2 and 2.3, was performed. For the mashed JF, three samples weighing 3 g each
were prepared, resulting in a total of nine samples. The JF
meatballs included one piece per treatment with three replicates each, also totalling nine samples. All 18 samples were
placed in Petri dishes and sealed with single-use transparent
plastic film to facilitate color readings with the colorimeter
probe. Color evaluations were conducted using a colorimeter
(Minolta, model CR-10, Japan), with readings taken from
the surface of each sample. Assessments were performed in
triplicate according to the method outlined by Maisont et al.
[21]. The color parameters were reported in Commission
Internationale de l'Éclairage (CIE) chromaticity coordinates:
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Table 2: Formulation of young jackfruit-based plant-based
meatballs in this study.
Ingredients
Content (g)
Jackfruit
Soy protein isolate
Wheat gluten
Sugar
Salt
Vegetarian seasoning powder
Garlic powder
Ground pepper
Soybean oil
Water
27.0
13.5
12.7
0.5
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.6
44.3
Note: Adapted from Samutsri, Oumaree, and Thimthuad [20].
lightness (L∗ ), redness (a∗ ), and yellowness (b∗ ). Lightness (L∗ )
ranged from 0 (black) to 100 (white). Redness (a∗ ) exhibited
positive values for red undertones and negative values for green
undertones, while yellowness (b∗ ) displayed positive values for
yellow undertones and negative values for blue undertones.
Water holding capacity =
The colorimeter was calibrated using a standard white porcelain plate.
Browning indexes (BIs) were calculated using the L∗ , a∗ ,
and b∗ values to assess color changes relative to the control
meatball sample. The BI was computed using the following
formula [22]:
Browning index BI = 100
x − 0 31
0 172
where x = a∗ + 1 75 L∗ / 5 645 L∗ + a∗ − 3 012b∗ x =
5 645 × L∗ − 3 012 × b∗ .
2.4.2. WHC Measurements. WHC was analyzed according to
the method of Dobson, Laredo, and Marangoni[23], with a
modification to accommodate 2 g of sample mixed with
20 mL of distilled water in a 50-mL centrifuge tube. The
slurry was allowed to stand for 10 min and then centrifuged
at 6000 × g for 20 min. After centrifugation, the supernatant
was drained, and the wet sample residue was weighed. The
result was expressed as the amount of water the sample
could hold. All samples were analyzed in triplicate. The
WHC was calculated using the following equation:
weight of hydrated sample − weight of sample
weight of sample
2.4.3. Textural Measurements. Texture profile analysis
(TPA) was performed on plant-based meatball samples subjected to various young JF processing treatments using a
CTX Texture Analyzer (CTX50K, Brookfield, United States).
Samples were positioned on a standard fixture on the analyzer table. Test conditions were as follows: Each sample
underwent double compression with a TA36 probe (36 mm
diameter flat cylinder) and a trigger force of 10 × g. The pre-
test, test, and posttest speeds were set to 10, 1, and 10 mm/s,
respectively, with a compression distance of 6 mm at ambient temperature. At least 10 replicates were measured per
treatment. TPA curves were generated for each sample,
and textural parameters including hardness, springiness,
and chewiness were analyzed and defined according to
established criteria [23, 24].
Hardness g = maximum peak force of the first compression
Springiness % = ratio of maximum peak force of the first compression and maximum peak force of the second compression × 100
Chewiness = hardness × cohesiveness × springiness
2.5. Sensory Evaluation. The sensory evaluation for optimizing the plant-based meatball formulation involved assessing
samples with different heat-treated young JF variations. Fifteen semitrained panellists aged 18–22, participated in individual booths within the sensory laboratory of the Food
Science and Technology program at Phranakhon Rajabhat
University. Panellists were instructed on using a sevenpoint hedonic scale to rate each attribute: appearance, color,
taste, flavor, texture, and overall liking, where 1 represented
“dislike extremely” and 7 represented “like extremely.” Data were
analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) with blocked
randomization in Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS) Statistics (Version 18.0). The final plant-based meatball
formulation was selected based on these sensory results.
2.6. Statistical Analysis. All experiments were conducted in
triplicate. Mean values and standard deviations were calculated for each set of results. A one-way ANOVA was
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 3: Photographic representation of the appearance, color, and texture of 3 g of mashed young jackfruit on a Petri dish subjected to
various heat treatments: blanched for (a) 5 min and boiled for (b) 15 min, (c) 30 min, and (d) 45 min, before color measurement analysis.
Colour of JF paste at various heat durations
100
90
80
A
B
B
B
L⁎ a⁎ b⁎ value
70
60
50
40
30
NS
20
10
0
A
BC
AB
C
L⁎
a⁎
b⁎
ABC The color bar displays mean ± standard deviation values for each sample. Distinct letter
groupings indicate statistically significant differences (p ≤ 0.05).
NS The color bar displays mean ± standard deviation values for each sample. Letter groupings
indicate statistically non-significant differences (p ≤ 0.05).
Blanch 5 min
Boil 15 min
Boil 30 min
Boil 45 min
(a)
BI of JF paste at various heat durations
160
Browning index (BI)
158
156.7
157.4
Boil 30 min
Boil 45 min
156
154
152
150.6
152.5
150
148
146
Blanch 5 min
Boil 15 min
(b)
Figure 4: (a) Color values and (b) calculated browning index of mashed jackfruit (JF) subjected to varying durations of heat treatment.
performed using SPSS Statistics (Version 18.0) to assess differences among treatments. Significant differences between
mean values (p ≤ 0 05) were determined using Duncan’s
multiple range test.
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Characteristics of Young JF. Young JF harvested in this
study was selected during the second growth stage, from
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Colour of JF meatball at various heat durations
100
90
80
L⁎ a⁎ b⁎ value
70
ns
60
50
40
30
ns
20
ns
10
0
L⁎
a⁎
b
⁎
nsThe color bar displays mean ± standard deviation values for each sample. Letter
groupings indicate statistically non-significant differences (p ≤ 0.05).
Boil 30 min
Boil 45 min
Blanch 5 min
Boil 15 min
(a)
BI of JF meatball at various heat durations
154
151.6
Browning index (BI)
153
153
152.5
151.0
152
152
150.6
151
151
150
150
149
Blanch 5 min
Boil 15 min
Boil 30 min
Boil 45 min
(b)
Figure 5: (a) Color values and (b) calculated browning index of plant-based meatballs made from jackfruit (JF) subjected to varying
durations of heat treatment.
Table 3: Average water holding capacity of plant-based meatballs
made from young jackfruit at various heat treatment durations.
Heating process
Water holding capacity
Blanch 5 min
Boil 15 min
Boil 30 min
Boil 45 min
2 65 ± 0 25b
2 22 ± 0 71b
4 35 ± 1 59a
3 69 ± 1 01ab
Note: Mean ± standard deviation values in the same column with different
superscript letters are significantly different (p ≤ 0 05).
Weeks 7 to 11, which corresponds to the optimal period for
developing desirable physical and textural qualities for culinary applications (Table 1). At this stage, each fruit exhibited
an average weight of 2500–3000 g, with a circumference of
45–55 cm and a length of 60–70 cm, as shown in Table 1.
These size parameters are significant for both yield estimation and processing requirements.
Each horizontal slice of young JF, approximately 1 ± 0 2
inches thick, contained an average of 8 to 10 seeds, which
contributes to the textural profile important in product formulation. The usable flesh yield per fruit ranged from 1100
to 1284 g, representing 42.8%–44.0% of the total fruit weight.
This yield percentage is particularly relevant for food processing applications, where maximizing edible portion is
critical for commercial viability.
These findings suggest that young JF, harvested within
this specific growth window, offers a consistent and substantial yield of usable flesh, supporting its potential as a plantbased ingredient. The high flesh yield, coupled with uniform
physical characteristics, underscores the fruit’s suitability for
processed food products, aligning with consumer demand
for plant-based alternatives.
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Table 4: Textural characteristics of plant-based meatballs made from young jackfruit under different heat treatment durations.
Heating process
Hardness (g)
Blanch 5 min
Boil 15 min
Chewiness#
Springiness (%)
a
536 93 ± 43 32
a
8 30 ± 0 48
27 13 ± 2 48
b
b
28 39 ± 3 50
ab
25 97 ± 3 21
b
25 06 ± 3 29
7 84 ± 0 26
445 20 ± 33 20
c
Boil 30 min
380 43 ± 38 05
Boil 45 min
d
7 97 ± 0 31
7 68 ± 0 26
317 44 ± 31 87
Note: Mean ± standard deviation values in the same column with different superscript letters are significantly different (p ≤ 0 05).
#
Mean ± standard deviation in the same column with different superscript letters is nonsignificantly different (p ≥ 0 05).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 6: The appearance of plant-based meatballs made with young jackfruit, each with a globular shape approximately 2.5 cm in diameter.
Images include a cross-section to display the internal texture of samples subjected to different heat treatments: blanched for (a) 5 min and
boiled for (b) 15, (c) 30, and (d) 45 min.
3.2. Formulation of Young JF-Based Plant-Based Meatballs.
The formulation and processing of plant-based meatballs
were optimized based on the sensory characteristics, as summarized in Table 2. Young JF was subjected to scalding or
boiling at various times before being ground into a paste to
produce the meatballs (Figure 3).
In developing plant-based meatballs, various measures
were implemented to ensure product consistency. Young
JF was selected for its ability to mimic the texture of pork
[25]. Typically, soy and its derivatives dominate meat substitutes; however, the inclusion of a mixture of wheat flour,
corn flour, and powdered rice flakes provides a necessary
fiber boost to maintain gastrointestinal health [26, 27].
Wheat gluten plays a crucial role in producing meat analogues, acting as both a binding agent and a structural
component by forming fibrous textures under mechanical
deformation [11, 27].
3.3. Color and BI of Plant-Based Meatballs Made From
Young JF. Various heat treatments, including blanching for
5 min and boiling for 15, 30, and 45 min, were applied to the
JF. Significant differences (p ≤ 0 05) in color values of JF pastes
were observed across the heat treatments (Figure 4(a)). The L∗
values ranged from 70.80 to 82.53, a∗ values ranged from 2.30
to 5.73, and b∗ values ranged from 9.93 to 14.20. The BI was
lowest for blanched samples and increased with boiling time
(Figure 4(b)), indicating the extent of the Maillard reaction
and caramelization processes at higher temperatures.
The color values of the meatballs showed no significant
differences (p > 0 05) across heat treatments (Figure 5(a)),
with average L∗ values ranging from 53.68 to 54.92, a∗ values
ranging from 3.02 to 3.38, and b∗ values ranging from 14.18 to
16.04. The BI also demonstrated no significant changes
(p > 0 05) (Figure 5(b)). Although the heat treatments significantly impacted the mashed JF color (Figure 4), the final
meatballs exhibited consistent color values. This consistency
suggests that the meatball matrix’s structure and composition
mitigated the visual effects of browning, allowing the inherent
qualities of JF to prevail in the final product.
3.4. WHC of Young JF-Based Plant-Based Meatballs. The
WHC of the meatballs was significantly influenced by the
heat treatments (p ≤ 0 05) (Table 3). Extended processing
times led to higher WHC, attributed to the solubilization
of pectin in young JF, which forms a gel-like structure
capable of entrapping water [28]. This moisture retention
is crucial for enhancing product juiciness and overall sensory experience, aligning with consumer expectations for
desirable meat substitutes.
3.5. Textural Characteristics of Young JF-Based Plant-Based
Meatballs. TPA is a technique used to simulate the biting
actions of the mouth through a two-compression process
[24]. This method involves using a device that measures
the chewing mechanism by applying a pressure probe twice.
This texture profile illustrates the relationship between force
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Appearance
7
6
5
4
Overall acceptability
Colour
3
2
1
0
Texture
Flavour
Taste
Blanch 5 min
Boil 15 min
Boil 30 min
Boil 45 min
Figure 7: Radar chart of sensory evaluation scores for plant-based meatballs from young jackfruit under varying heat treatment durations.
and time. Significant differences in texture profile characteristics are crucial for consumer acceptance. Achieving a
balanced relationship between hardness, springiness, and
chewiness is crucial for creating a texture that mimics traditional meat. This is particularly important for plant-based
and imitation meat products that are aimed at replicating
the eating experience of real meat, aligning with consumer
expectations.
Hardness is the force required to break or separate the
food. This measurement is obtained by pressing the product
between the molars or between the tongue and the roof of
the mouth. The maximum pressure recorded during this
process determines the hardness value of the sample [23].
Hardness significantly decreased with extended heating,
from 536.93 g for blanched samples to 317.44 g for those
boiled for 45 min (p ≤ 0 05) (Table 4). The observed effect
is due to the heat extraction of the pectin structure in young
JF, which serves as the primary structural component of
meatballs. According to Saxena, Bawa, and Raju [29], JF is
an excellent source of pectin. Consequently, the gel-like
structure formed by pectin in the JF pulp reaches its peak
when heated for an extended period, resulting in the lowest
hardness value of the meatballs [28]. Moreover, this reduction correlates with increased moisture content, enhancing
the tenderness of samples [30]. Silva et al. [31] reported that
as the moisture content in the extrusion feed increased, the
hardness of soy protein–based high-moisture meat analogues decreased. This finding supports the observation that
higher levels of heating result in reduced hardness, which
correlates with the increased WHC noted at elevated heating
levels (as illustrated in Table 3).
Springiness is defined as the rate at which a material
returns to its shape after being pressed twice, measured by
the distance between them. The results exhibited significant
differences, with blanched meatballs showing the highest
springiness values (8.30%), gradually declining with increased
boiling time (p ≤ 0 05) (Table 4). This trend suggests that while
short heat treatments can enhance the springiness of the meatball structure, prolonged boiling may lead to the extraction of
structural components like pectin, which diminishes overall
flexibility. The mechanical properties of plant fiber/soy protein
adhesive composites mainly depended on the morphology of
the plant fiber, the content of the main components of fiber,
and the interfacial addition between plant fiber and protein
adhesives [32]. As the heating level increased, the springiness
of the young JF decreased due to its high WHC. This resulted
in a loose and soft product that provided minimal resistance
during the compression test. This observation aligns with the
findings of Taikerd and Leelawat [33].
Chewiness is defined as the energy required to masticate
food until it can be swallowed. The chewability of meatballs
made with young JF subjected to different heat treatment durations was analyzed. The average values of chewiness showed no
significant differences across treatments (p > 0 05) (Table 4),
indicating that the formulations maintained consistent chewability despite variations in hardness and springiness.
3.6. Sensory Evaluation of Young JF-Based Plant-Based
Meatballs. The sensory characteristics of the meatballs were
evaluated based on the appearance of plant-based meatballs
made from young JF. These meatballs underwent different
heat treatments: blanched for 5 min and boiled for 15, 30,
and 45 min, as illustrated in Figure 6.
Based on the sensory evaluation results for each characteristic (Figure 7), meatballs made with young JF boiled for
45 min received the highest liking scores for appearance,
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 8: Close-up photographs illustrating the internal characteristics, including texture, color, and fiber structure, of young jackfruitbased plant-based meatballs subjected to different heat treatments: blanched for (a) 5 min and (b) boiled for 15, (c) 30, (d) and 45 min.
color, flavor, taste, texture, and overall satisfaction. The
preference for these meatballs can be attributed to their
nonfibrous texture, in contrast to those boiled for shorter
durations, such as 30 min (Figure 8).
This study evaluated the quality of meatballs made from
young JF subjected to different heat treatments. Blanching
for 5 min or boiling for 15, 30, and 45 min impacted their
physical properties, including color (L∗ , a∗ , and b∗ values),
texture characteristics (hardness, springiness, chewiness),
and sensory quality. Color is a primary sensory attribute that
influences the initial appeal of food products. In this study,
while heat treatments significantly impacted the color values
of JF pastes, the final meatball color remained consistent
across treatments. This stability ensures a uniform product
appearance, essential for consumer expectations of meat
substitutes. Notably, meatballs made from young JF boiled
for 15 min exhibited desirable color and flexibility. In contrast, the sensory evaluation revealed that panellists rated
the meatballs boiled for 45 min as the best across all attributes. Longer boiling time enhances juiciness and tenderness
by increasing WHC and reducing hardness; however, excessive boiling led to a decline in springiness, indicating a tradeoff between moisture retention and structural flexibility.
Reduced hardness and springiness at higher WHC levels,
which is a key sensory attribute, align with consumer preferences for moist and tender products. The study indicates
that the optimizing heat treatment achieves a balance
between improved juiciness and tenderness while maintaining acceptable texture and structural integrity, which meets
sensory expectations for plant-based meat alternatives. Thus,
meatballs made from young JF that were heat-treated by
boiling for 45 min were chosen as the optimal product.
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International Journal of Food Science
4. Conclusions
This study evaluated the impact of varying heat treatment
durations on the physicochemical and sensory attributes of
young JF in plant-based meatball formulations. Heat treatments included blanching for 5 min and boiling for 15, 30,
and 45 min to assess their effects on product quality. Results
indicated that heating duration significantly influenced the
color and BI of JF paste, though these changes did not persist
in the final meatball product. Extended heating times
improved WHC due to pectin extraction, forming gel-like
structures that resulted in softer textures. Sensory evaluation
showed that meatballs boiled for 45 min were preferred
across all attributes—appearance, color, flavor, taste, texture,
and overall acceptability—primarily due to reduced fibrousness. These findings offer valuable insights for optimizing
processing conditions for JF-based products in the plantbased meat industry.
Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in the study are
included in the article material. Further inquiries can be
directed to the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Funding
This research was funded by Thailand Science Research and
Innovation (TSRI) under the fundamental fund for basic
research, fiscal year 2023.
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