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Revised Stratigraphy and Mineral Resources of Kirthar Basin, Pakistan
Technical Report · January 2017
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Government of Pakistan
Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Resource
Geological Survey of Pakistan
Information Release No. 1010
Revised Stratigraphy and Mineral Resources of Kirthar Basin,
Pakistan
By
M. Sadiq Malkani
Zafar Mahmood
Nasir Somro
Sohaib Iqbal Shaikh
Issued by Director General, Geological Survey of Pakistan
2017
CONTENTS
Page
Executive Summary
01
Introduction
02
Materials and Methods
03
Results and Discussion
03
Revised Stratigraphy of Kirthar Basin (Lower Indus Basin), Pakistan
03
Revised Stratigraphy of Western Kirthar Basin (Kirthar Range and 03
Surroundings), Balochistan Province
Revised Stratigraphy of Eastern Kirthar Basin (Laki Range and Surroundings) 18
Basin, Sindh Province
23
Stratigraphy of Indus Offshore (Gondwana Fragment)
Rocks of Nager Parker Igneous Complex (A Geo-Heritage of Indo-Pak Shield)
23
Stratigraphic Correlation of Kirthar Basin (part of Gondwana) with adjoining
Balochistan Basin (part of Tethys), Pakistan
Correlation of Revised Stratigraphic Set Up (At Group and Formation Level) of
Lower, Middle and Upper Indus basins
Mineral Resources of Kirthar Basin (Lower Indus Basin), Pakistan
24
Mineral Resources of Western Indus Suture (WIS; Suture between Indus and
Balochistan Basins), Balochistan Province
Mineral Resources of Western Kirthar Basin (Kirthar Range and surroundings),
Balochistan Province
Mineral Resources of Eastern Kirthar Basin (Laki Range and surroundings),
Sindh Province
Mineral Resources of Indus Offshore
27
Mineral Resources of Nagar Parker (A Remnant of Indo-Pak Shield), Sindh
Province
Installation of Museums, Global and National Geoparks-An Innovation for
Sustainable Development of Provinces and Pakistan
References
40
ii
25
27
27
31
39
40
42
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Kirthar Basin is subdivided into western Kirthar (Kirthar range and westward upto western
Indus Suture) under Balochistan Province while eastern Kirthar (Laki range and eastward up to
Nagar Parker Igneous Complex of Indo-Pak shield). Western Indus suture is a suture between the
Indus basin (part of Indo-Pak subcontinental plate) and Balochistan basin (a heritage of Tethys).
Western Indus Suture consists of ophiolitic, igneous and associated sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks. So ophiolite related minerals like chromite, asbestos, magnesite, manganese, iron, barite,
fluorite, etc are found.
The western Kirthar Basin under the territory of Balochistan Province consists of exposed
Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. This area includes mineral commodities like coal, iron,
fluorite, sulphur, building stones, decorative stones, marble, celestite, etc.
The eastern Kirthar Basin under the territory of Sindh Province consists of exposed Late
Cretaceous and whole Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. This area hosts coal, iron, laterite, ochre,
celestite, placer tungston/sheelite, gold and other heavy mineral concentrates (magnetite, ilmenite,
garnet, epidote, zircon, tourmaline, amphibole/hornblende and tremolite, apatite, pyroxene, etc),
alum from pyritiferous shales, trona (source of Na), potash slats associated with rock salt deposits
and lakes, gypsum, china clay, fuller’s earth, fire clay, cement industry raw materials, disseminated
pyrite in carbonaceous shale and coal; abrasives type red ochre, coal, grity Pab sandstone, silica
sands, radioactive mineral/uranium resources, construction stone, gemstone like agate and
chalcedony, chert, flint and jasper from placer deposits.
The Kirthar basin has vast natural resources like solar, air/wind, terrestrial water, marine
water/ocean, tides, waves, current, land, biomass, etc. It is our urgent need to convert the non
conventional energy resources into conventional energy resources. Kirthar land is receiving huge
amount of energy from sun. The coastal areas have high potential of wind energy. Gravitational
force of moon produces tidal energy in sea which can be converted in energy by the construction of
dams which can store water at high tides and release water at low tides. Kirthar basin has a long sea
shore from Nagar Parker to west of Karachi. Energy from sea waves can also be benefited by stable
and non stable plate’s movements. Sindh also has a large waste biomass.
The Nagar Parker Igneous complex consists of varicoloured igneous granite, other acidic and
basic, and with some metamorphic rocks. This area host the significant construction/dimension stone
resources like varicoloured granite and other basic and igneous rocks, gold and radioactive minerals
like uranium, thorium etc can be explored), china clay, orthoclase feldspar and jewelry and
gemstones like agate, chert, chalcedony, etc.
1
INTRODUCTION
At the time of independence in August 1947, Pakistan was generally perceived to be a country of
low mineral potential, despite the knowledge regarding occurrences of large deposits of salt,
gypsum, limestone, marble, etc. During 1950-1980, the geological community of Pakistan can be
credited with several major achievements in economic geology such as discovery of major gas fields
in Balochistan, uranium from foothills of Sulaiman Range in Punjab and southern Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa (KP), barite from Balochistan and KP, chromite and China clay in KP, famous
emerald in KP, copper-gold and lead-zinc in Balochistan and KP. What has been found so far is
much too small than what is expected to be discovered in not too distant future (Jan and Gauhar
2013). From independence to so far many economic geologists presented revised and updated data
and papers on mineral deposits of Pakistan. From the beginning of Pakistan, many geoscientists
incorporated the new discoveries in the previous records and reported the review of mineral/minerals
of Pakistan or part of it. Gee (1949) presented a summary of known minerals of northwestern India
(now Pakistan) with suggestions for development and use. Heron (1950) and Heron and Crookshank
(1954) reported economic minerals of Pakistan. Ahmad (1969), Ahmad and Siddiqui (1992), Kazmi
and Abbas (2001), recently Malkani and Mahmood (2016a;2017a) and Malkani et al. (2016)
presented a comprehensive report on mineral resources of Pakistan. Malkani (2010a, 2011a)
presented the mineral potential of Sulaiman foldbelt and Balochistan provinces respectively.
Recently many discoveries of fluorite (Malkani 2002,2004b,2012b,2015a; Malkani and Mahmood
2016d,g; Malkani et al. 2007,2016), gypsum (Malkani 2000,2010a,2011a,2013a), celestite (Malkani
2012c,2015a; Malkani and Mahmood 2016d; Malkani et al. 2016), coal (Malkani
2004c,2012a,2013b,2016a; Malkani and Mahmood 2016c,f; Malkani and Shah 2014,2016),
construction materials (Malkani 2016b), clay and ceramic (Malkani and Mahmood 2016e), goldsilver associated with antimony (Malkani 2004a,c, 2011a), cement resources (Malkani
2010a,2011a,2013a), marble (Malkani 2004a,2010a,2011a), barite (Malkani and Tariq 2000,2004),
gemstones (Khan and Kausar 1996,2004,2010a), K-T boundary minerals (Malkani 2010b), copper,
REE, etc are made. Further recently the abstracts on minerals of provinces (except Balochistan detail
report by Malkani 2011a), like Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Malkani 2012d,2013a,b; Malkani et al. 2013;
Malkani and Mahmood 2016g), Sindh (Malkani 2014a), Punjab (Malkani 2012e), Gilgit-Baltistan
and Azad Kashmir (Malkani 2012d,2014b; Malkani and Mahmood 2016g), and areas like Sulaiman
(Malkani 2004a), Siahan-Makran (Malkani 2004a,d), etc are presented but detailed reports are
lacking. Ahmad (1975) and Malkani (2011a) reported the mineral resources of Balochistan Province
but other provinces were ignored continuously. Recently Malkani et al. (2017a) reported mineral
resources of and basins (Malkani et al. 2017a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i) and Kirthar basin here. Akhtar et al.
(2012) prepared the Geological map of Sindh province (including only eastern Kirthar and Nagar
Parker) with some description of stratigraphic units. Here the revised staratigraphy and mineral
resources of western and eastern Kirthar basins are presented in brief. Previously the Kirthar basin
was ignored and also received little attention but the present authors filled the missing link. This
report is handy, comprehensive reviewed, easy access and easy to read for the researcher, mine
owners and planners. This report will add insights on revised stratigraphy and mineral resources of
western and eastern Kirthar basin.
2
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The materials belong to compiled data from previous work and also new field data collected by
Malkani (the principal author) during many field seasons and vast field work in Kirthar basin and
also adjoining other basins of Pakistan (Fig.1,2) about revised stratigraphy, paleontology, mineral
commodities, lithology, structure, geological history, paleobiogeography, geodynamics/tectonics,
etc. The methods applied here are many discipline of purely geological description.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF KIRTHAR BASIN (LOWER INDUS BASIN), PAKISTAN
Kirthar basin shows mostly the same lithological units like Sulaiman basin during Mesozoic and
Quaternary but vary in Tertiary strata. Further the Tertiary strata of western Kirthar basin (QuettaMastung-Kalat-Khuzdar and Lasbela areas of Balochistan) are also slightly different than eastern
Kirtan basin (all areas of Sindh province).
REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF WESTERN KIRTHAR BASIN (KIRTHAR RANGE AND
SURROUNDINGS), BALOCHISTAN PROVINCE
Western Kirthar basin as name shows it is located in the western part of Kirthar basin occupied by
Kirthar range and surrounding areas. On the west it is bounded by southern part (Khuzdar-Lasbela)
of Western Indus Suture belt and then Makran range of Balochistan basin, on the east by eastern
Kirthar basin, on the south by Indo-Pak Ocean and on the north by Sulaiman basin. Western Kirthar
basin represents exposed Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks, however in subsurface the Paleozoic and
Precambrian rocks may be found. The exposed stratigraphic sequences in the western Kirthar basin
under the Balochistan Province are being described as follows.
Triassic Khanozai Group
It is named by Fatmi et al. (1986) for Gwal and Wulgai formations exposed in the Western Indus
Suture (Shirinab area of Mastung and Kalat, Gwal-Khanozai, Zhob) and at the contact of Sulaiman
with Balochistan basins.
Gwal Formation
Gwal named by Anwar et al. (1991) after Gwal village. It consists of variegated shale and thin
bedded limestone and marl with rare mafic intrusion and diabase flow. On the basis of ammonites
including Meekoceras, Owenites, Anakashmirites, Anasibirites, Durgaites, Hemiprionites, etc the
age is Early Triassic (Late-Middle Scythian). It is exposed in Khanozai, Zhob, Quetta, Shirinab
(Mastung, Kalat), etc, areas. It is 350 m thick in the Trakai-Gwal section. It contains exotic blocks of
Permian limestone containing brachiopods, corals etc. Its lower contact is not exposed and upper
contact with Wulgai is sharp and conforable with fossiliferous conglomeratic and dense limestone.
Wulgai Formation
3
Wulgai is named by Williams 1959 after Wulgai village for variegated shale with medium bedded
limestone of Middle to Late Triassic age exposed in the Western Indus Suture regions like Shirinab
area of Mastung and Kalat, Khanozai, Zhob, etc. It is 180 m thick in the Trakai-Gwal section. Its
lower contact with Gwal is sharp with fossiliferous conglomeratic and dense limestone and upper
contact with Spingwar formation seems to be conformable. The fossils like radiolarian, conodonts
and some Spiriferinid brachiopods in basal limestone indicates Middle Triassic age and Holobia,
Daonella (Bivalves) and ammonites like Cladescites, Jovites, Arietoceltites, Anatomites, Juvavites,
Arcetes indicating Late Triassic.
Jurassic Sulaiman Group
The term “Sulaiman limestone” was first used by Pinfold (1939), the type section in the gorge
between Mughal Kot and Dhana Sar (lat. 310 26’N; long. 700 01’E) was formally described by
Williams (1959), and later “Sulaiman Limestone Group” is used by the Geological Survey of
Pakistan. The Alozai group was used by Shah (2009) for Spingwar and Loralai formations only on
the suggestions of A.N Fatmi that the Alozai group is well exposed in the Quetta to Zhob. Malkani
(2009a) used the term Sulaiman Group for the Spingwar, Loralai/Anjira, Chiltan/Takatu/Zidi and
Dilband formations. Mesozoic rocks are mostly pericratonic marine shelf sloping westward from
Indo-Pak Peninsula. The sequence show igneous rocks in and near vicinity of western Indus suture.
Spingwar Formation
The Spingwar member of Shirinab Formation was named by Williams (1959) and he designated the
type section at Spingwar at the north of Zamari Tangi, about 35 km northwest of Loralai (lat. 300 32’
52’’N; long. 680 19’ 16’’E). Stratigraphic committee (Shah, 2009) upgraded it to the formation level
due to wide and thick exposures and clear cut differences among the under and overlying strata. It
consists of grey to greenish grey shale, grey to whitish grey marl and limestone with some igneous
sills especially in the vicinity of Western Indus suture (Axial Belt). It is mostly exposed near the
western Indus suture. It is 665m in Zamari Tangi, 215m in the Mara Tangi, and 140m in the Tazi
Kach sections (Fatmi 1977; Shah 2009). It is conformably contacted on the base with Triassic
Wulgai Formation and upper contact with Anjira/Loralai Limestone. Its Upper Triassic to Early
Jurassic age is based on fossils of ammonites, brachiopods, bivalves, crinoids, corals and shell
fragments (Williams, 1959; Anwar, et al, 1991; Fatmi 1977).
Anjira Formation
The Anjira member of Shirinab Formation was named by Williams (1959) after Anjira village
(34L/7) with type locality 12 km east of Anjira (Anwar et al. 1991). It is correlative to Loralai
limestone of Sulaiman basin. It represents mainly thin to medium bedded grey limestone with some
grey shale and marl. Its lower contact with Spingwar Formation and upper contact with Chiltan
(Takatu, Zidi) Limestone is conformable. The age assigned by Williams (1959) and Woodward
(1959) is Early Jurassic but HSC (1961) have recorded Torcian fossils from its lower part. Its age
ranges from Late Liassic to Bajocian (Early-Middle Jurassic).
Chiltan (Takatu/Zidi Limestone) Formation
The famous name Chiltan limestone was introduced by Hunting Survey Corporation (1961) after the
Chiltan Range southwest of Quetta. The type locality of Chiltan is after the Chiltan Range (Lat. 30 0
4
01’ N; Long. 660 46’E). Shah (2002,2009) named the Takatu Formation after the Williams (1959).
Its name was derived from the Takatu Range in the Northeast of Quetta. The type section is along
Data Manda Nala, a small stream passing throughout the entire formation in very deep narrow gorge
and enters the plain about 3km south of Bostan village (Lat. 300 20’N; Long. 670 03’E). The term
Chiltan Limestone is well known in all geoscientists. It is also valid in most of the Kirthar, Sulaiman
and Axial belt areas. It consists of massive thick bedded limestone which forms prominent ranges
and high peaks in the surrounding of Quetta, Ziarat and then in the Takht Sulaiman area, however in
the vicinity of Loralai, the peak forming equilent is Loralai formation. This limestone is considered
as biohermal or reefal. This formation is 800m thick in the type locality and 1100m in the Takht
Sulaiman and in other areas varies from 600 to 1100m (Fatmi 1977; Shah 2009). The lower contact
of Chiltan (Takatu) Limestone with Anjira/Loralai Formation is conformable while upper contact
with Dilband/Sembar Formation is disconfirmable and at places conformable. Arkell (1956) reported
Late Bathonian ammonites from the lower part of Mazar Drik unit/Dilband Formation, its age can be
considered as Early Callovian to Late Bathonian (Middle Jurassic) (Fatmi 1977). Its stratigraphic
position also tells the age range from Middle Jurassic to Late Jurassic.
Dilband Formation
Dilband Formation which is about 20m thick in the type area (northern Kirthar range) was named by
Abbas et al. (1998) and designated three members like lower Jarositic clay member (light grey to
brown), middle ironstone member (reddish), and upper green glauconitic shale member. The
Dilband Formation (synonym Mazar Drik Formation) is less than 30 m and exposed also in the
Dilband Johan-Moola Zahri Range of Kirthan foldbelt and Loralai, Duki and Gadebar areas of
Sulaiman foldbelt. It includes mostly the transitional and disconfirmable horizons representing
Jurassic Cretaceous (J-K) boundary. This J-K boundary exposed in Duki, Loralai, Daman Ghar and
Gadebar areas is represented by light brown shale alternated with light grey fresh colour and light
brown weathered colour limestone belong to Dilband Formation. Its lower contact with Chiltan
(Takatu/Zidi) Limestone and upper contact with Sembar Formation is disconfirmable and at places
conformable. Ammonits from Mazar Drik and Moro area include Macrocephalites, Dolikephalites,
Indocephalites, Pleurocephalites, Indosphinctes and Choffatia (Fatmi 1977). Arkell (1956) reported
Bullatimorphites bullatus and Clydoniceras from the lower part of Mazar Drik unit/Dilband
Formation, representing Late Bathonian age. Recently Malkani (2003c) has found dinosaurs
(Brohisaurus kirthari) fossils from Sun Chaku (Karkh area) and Charoh (Zidi area) localities of
Khuzdar district (Kirthar range) from the Dilband formation (transition beds of lower Sembar from
Chiltan Limestone to Sembar shale). Its stratigraphic position tells the age range from Middle
Jurassic to Late Jurassic. Its age can be considered as Late Jurassic.
Early Cretaceous Parh Group
The term Parh was first used by Blanford (1879) for rocks of Parh Range. The name was later
applied by Vredenburg (1909) to a prominent white limestone in his Cretaceous succession.
Williams (1959) redefined it as a limestone between the Goru and Mughal Kot formations. The type
area lies in the Parh Range in the upper reaches of the Gaj River (lat. 260 54’ 45’’N; long. 670 05’
45’’E). Goru and Parh formations are well exposed in the Goru and Parh ranges but the Sembar is
well exposed in the Lakha Pir Charoh area just east of Parh Range. Parh Group represents Sembar,
Mekhtar, Goru and Parh formations, however Mekhtar sandstone (Lower Goru Sandstone) is not
5
exposed in Parh range while it is exposed in Mekhtar area (Loralai District) and Murgha Kibzai area
(Zhob District) of Balochistan and also found in subsurface in eastern Kirthar basin. Shah (2009)
mentioned the Mona Jhal Group after the Fatmi et al. (1996) from Mona Jhal Anticline, 13 km north
of Khuzdar and it includes the Sembar, Goru, Parh and Mughal Kot. According to the author’s
opinion the Mughal Kot Formation is arenaceous clastic in the Eastern Sulaiman and fit with the Fort
Munro Group which is mostly clastic, except Fort Munro Limestone.
Sembar Formation
The term Sembar Formation was proposed by Williams (1959) to replace the term Belemnite beds of
Oldham (1890). The type section is Sembar Pass (lat. 290 55’ 05’’N; long. 680 34’ 48’’E). Malkani
(2010a) reported three members of Sembar Formation in the Mekhtar and Murgha Kibzai area of
Sulaiman Foldbelt like Sembar lower and upper shale members and middle member is named as
Mekhtar member/Mekhtar sandstone member. The type locality of Mekhtar member is just south of
Mekhtar town, near the Kareez (39F/7). This sandstone unit is about 100m thick. It is also found in
the north of Mekhtar like Murgha Kibzai area. The shale is greenish grey and khaki, mostly
calcareous, with rare glauconitic. The Mekhtar sandstone is Pab like white to grey, quartzose, thin to
thick bedded and medium to coarse grained, mostly weathered as dark grey to black. The marl is
grey to cream white, thin bedded and porcelaneous. Malkani and Mahmood (2016b) updated the
Mekhtar member as Mekhtar Formation (Mekhtar sandstone or it is commonly called as lower Goru
sandstone). Sembar Formation is estimated as about 1000m in the Loralai, Gadebar Range and Tor
Thana areas. As lateral variation, this formation is relatively more and maximum thick in the Loralai,
Tor Thana and Gadebar areas. It is being reduced in towards the Kirthar basin and Western Indus
suture regions and also toward the northern Sulaiman Foldbelt. It is 133m thick in the type locality
and 262m in the Mughal Kot area (Fatmi 1977; Shah 2009). It is about 200m near the Lakha Pir of
Charoh anticline in Zidi area in the east of Khuzdar town. Its lower contact with the
Loralai/Chiltan/Dilband formations is disconfirmable and at places conformable and upper contact
with Goru formation is transitional and conformable. It contains foraminifers and most common
belemnites Hibolithes pistilliformis, H. subfusiformis and Duvalia sp. From Windar River in
Lasbela, Nuttal (in Arkell 1956) reported fragments of Virgatosphinctes denseplicatus and V. cf. V.
subquadratus. The age varies from latest Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (Fatmi 1977).
Mekhtar Formation (or Mekhtar Sandstone)
Mekhtar Formation (or Mekhtar Sandstone or it is commonly called as lower Goru sandstone) is
upgraded by Malkani and Mahmood (2016b) as formation (from previous Mekhtar member) due to
its wide occurrence and lateral extension in the Eastern Sulaiman and also Eastern Kirthar basins
(subsurface). It is not exposed in the Kirthar basin but found in subsurface, however it is exposed in
Mekhtar and Murgha Kibzai areas of Sulaiman basin. Malkani (2010a) established three members of
Sembar formation. But here the Middle Sandstone and upper shale and marl are considered as
Mekhtar Formation. Its type locality is near the Mekhtar town just south of Mekhtar on Chamalang
Mekhtar road (39F/7). At type locality it is round about 100m thick lensoid shape. This sandstone is
oil producing/reservoir rocks in Kirthar basin commonly called Lower Goru Sandstone. Actually it is
a Mekhtar Formation. It mostly consists of sandstone (Pab like) with some shale and marl. The lower
contact with Sembar is gradational and sharp marked on Sandstone facies variation from Shale facies
6
of Sembar. The upper contact with Goru Formation is also sharp. According to law of superposition
its age can be considered as Early Cretaceous.
Goru Formation
The term Goru Formation was introduced by Williams (1959). The type section is located near Goru
village on the Nar river in the southern Kirthar Range (lat. 27 0 50’ 00’’N; long. 660 54’ 00’’E). It
consists of alternations of about 3 thick marl units and two shale units. The shale is grey to khaki and
calcareous. The marl is grey to cream white, thin bedded to thick bedded and porcelaneous. It is
relatively reduced towards the axial belt regions. It is about 500m thick in the type area and also
same in the Mekhtar area. It is being reduced towards western Indus Suture near Quetta upto 60m
thick. Its lower contact with Sembar Formation is transitional and conformable where Mekhtar
sandstone (Lower Goru Sandstone) is missing, otherwise its upper contact with Mekhtar sandstone is
sharp. The upper contact with Parh Limestone is marked by a marine maroon red beds which also
show conformable contact, however some author have suggested the maroon beds are indicator of
disconformity but in actual these are marine red beds. The most of the fossils found belong to
foraminifers and belemnite (Hibolithes spp.). Fritz and Khan (1967) described the foraminifers from
Bangu Nala in Quetta as Globigerinelloides algeriana, G. breggiensis, G. caseyi, Ticinella roberti,
Gavelinella, Rotallipora ticinensis, R. appennenica, R. brotzeni, R. reicheli, Praeglobo-truncana
stephani and Planomallina buxtorfi. According to stratigraphic position, its age can be considered as
Early Cretaceous.
Parh Formation
It consists of mainly limestone with minor shale and marly beds. Limestone and marl is cream white
to grey, thin to thick bedded and porcelaneous. The shale is grey, khaki and calcareous. It is 60-70m
thick in Sulaiman Basin. As lateral variation, this formation is relatively more and maximum thick
(about 300-400m) in Karkh, Kharzan and the type locality areas of Kirthar Foldbelt. Its lower
contact with Goru Formation is conformable and upper contact with Mughal Kot Formation is also
transitional and conformable represented by about 12m marly beds. The formation is rich in
foraminifers like Globotruncana Spp., G. ventricosa, G. lapparenti, G. sigali, Pseudotextularia
elegans (Gigon 1962). The age of the Parh limestone is middle Cretaceous in the Sulaiman and
Kirthar foldbelts, however it is maintained from middle Cretaceous to Late Cretaceous in the
western Indus Suture (Axial Belt) areas where the Fort Munro Group is not developed and also
lower and middle Sangiali group is not developed. For example the Ziarat Laterite showing K-T
boundary is contacted by Cretaceous Parh Limestone and Paleocene Dungan Limestone.
Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group
The term Fort Munro Group was first time used by Malkani (2009a) for Mughal Kot, Fort Munro,
Pab and Vitakri formations. Its type section is Rakhi Gaj and Girdu are in Toposheet 39 K/1. The
lower contact of this group is also found in Shadiani section in Toposheet 39 J/4.
Mughal Kot Formation
Williams (1959) named and designated the type section of the Mughal Kot Formation to be in the
gorge 1-3 miles west of Mughal Kot post (lat. 310 26’ 52’’N; long. 700 02’ 58’’E). Its synonym is
Nishpa formation. It has variable lithology like marly mudstone in the Rakhi Gaj area and its
7
vicinity, alternation of shale, lenticular sandstone and limestone in the Tor Thana and Murgha Kibzai
area, and alternations of shale with subordinate sandstone is common in all other areas of eastern
Sulaiman Foldbelt. In the western Sulaiman like the vicinity of Loralai, the Fort Munro Group is
represented by about 100m shale further reducing to western Indus Suture belt, in the Ziarat laterite
area, it is not developed. In the western vicinity of Ziarat, it is represented by shale and volcanics
(Bibai Formation), and in the eastern vicinity of Quetta like Hana Lake and Sor Range areas it is
represented by limestone with negligible shale. The shale is grey, khaki and calcareous and rarely
noncalcareous. The sandstone is grey to white, quartzose to muddy, thin to thick bedded and medium
to coarse grained, mostly weathered as dark grey to black. The marl and mudstone is grey to cream
white. The Parh like limestone is creamy white, porcelaneous, thick bedded and lenticular observed
in the Tor Thana area (39 F/3). It is estimated about 1200m in the Musa Khel and type locality area.
Petroleum seep is reported in Toi River of Mughal Kot area, on the contact of Mughal Kot and Pab
formations. As lateral variation, this formation is relatively more and maximum thick in the type
locality and Musa Khel district. It is being reduced in towards the Kirthar basin and western Indus
suture regions. It is mostly developed in shallow marine, prodeltaic and deltaic environments. Its
lower contact with Parh Formation is transitional and conformable represented by marly beds well
exposed in the Tor Thana and its vicinity areas, and upper contact with Fort Munro Limestone is also
transitional and conformable, however where the Fort Munro Limestone is absent its upper contact
with Pab sandstone is transitional. Williams (1959) reported Omphaocyclus sp. and Orbitoides sp.
showing Maastrichtian ages, while Marks (1962) reported Siderolites cf. calcitrapoides, Orbitoides
tissoti minima and O. tissoti compressa from upper part of Mughalkot formation in Rakhi Nala
showing late to middle Campanion age, so its lower part may extends up to early Campanion. So its
age is Early to Late Campanion
Fort Munro Formation
The name Fort Munro limestone member was introduced by Williams (1959) for the upper
dominantly limestone unit of the Mughal Kot Formation and he designated the type section in the
western flank of the Fort Munro anticline along the Fort Munro-Dera Ghazi Khan road (lat. 290 57’
14’’N; long. 700 10’ 38’’E). Fatmi (1977) assigned it a separate formation status because of its
distinct lithology and regional extent. It consists of grey to brown and thin to thick bedded limestone
with minor greenish grey shale. It is 100m thick at type locality, 248m in subsurface at Dabbo Creek
i,e due to dip it actual thickness may be 100-150m. The lower contact with Mughal Kot Formation
and upper contact with Pab Formation are transitional and conformable. Blanford (1879) correlated
the unit with Hippuritic limestone of Iran on the base of fragments of Hippurite found from the scree
of this unit. Williams (1959) reported Omphaocyclus sp. and Orbitoides sp. showing Maastrichtian
ages. HSC (1961) reported Actinosiphon punjabensis, Orbitoides media, Siderolites sp. etc from
Kirthar range and assigned Maastrichtian gae. According to Williams (1959), HSC (1961) and
Marks (1962, its age may be late companion to Early Maastrichtian.
Pab Formation
The term Pab Sandstone was introduced by Vredenburg (1907) and the type section in the Pab
Range (lat. 250 31’ 12’’N; long. 700 02’ 58’’E) was designated by Williams (1959). Malkani (2006d)
divided the Pab Formation into three members like lower Dhaola member (Dhaola Nala, lat. 29 0 42’
41’’N; long. 690 29’ 48’’E), middle as Kali member (Kali hills of Dhaola Range, lat. 29 0 42’ 41’’N;
8
long. 690 29’ 42’’E) and upper Vitakri member). The best reference section for Dhaola member is
Fort Munro area (lat. 290 57’ 14’’N; long. 700 10’ 38’’E) of D.G.Khan district, and for Kali member
is Tor Thana area (lat. 300 12’ N; long. 690 11’E) of Loralai District. The Dhaola member (white
quartzose sandstone with minor to moderate black weathering) represents the environments of
proximal delta, near the coastline and consistent in the eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt. Kali member
(shale and black weathering sandstone) represent middle and distal deltaic environments and mostly
exposed in the western part of Sulaiman Foldbelt. Two members are not consistent every where in
the Sulaiman basin. In the Dhaola and Chamalang sections, both Dhaola and Kali member are
existed well. The thickness of Pab Formation is estimated 500m in the Fort Munro area. It is
pinching toward north like Mughal Kot section (300m), and also pinching toward south in the
Khairpur- Jacob Abad high. This high separates the northern delta (Sulaiman Basin) from southern
delta (Kirthar Basin). In the western Kirthar it is about 600m or more thick. It is not absent in MariBugti Hills but shale proportion increases. The thickness of this formation is relatively less in the
Mughal Kot and toward north and Western Indus Suture (WIS) but uniform in the eastern Sulaiman
Foldbelt. Its lower contact with Fort Munro Limestone or Mughal Kot Formation (when Fort Munro
Limestone is absent) is transitional and conformable and upper contact with Vitakri is
disconfirmable, when Vitakri Formation is missing, its upper contact with Sangiali/Rakhi Gaj
Formation is conformable. Vredenburg (1908) reported Orbitoides (Lepidorbitoides) minor from
lower part of the unit in Rakhi Nala representing early Maestrichtian age. Williams (1959) reported
mixed bentonic-pelagic foraminifers of Maestrichtrian age from type locality area. HSC (1961)
reported Globotruncana aff. G. linnei, Lituola sp., Omphalocyclus macropora, Orbitella media,
Orbitoides sp., Siderolites sp., from Moro area with Maestrichtian age. Recently, dinosaurs,
crocodiles and pterosaurs are found from Vitakri Formation (Previously upper member of Pab
formation, for detail see in Vitakri Formation) of Sulaiman foldbelt. The fossil of
gymnosperm/conifer wood of Baradarakht goeswangai Malkani 2014, with 20 cm in diameter, is
found from the Latest Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Pab Formation in Goeswanga Pass, Barkhan
District, Balochistan (Malkani 2014f). According to dinosaur fossils and stratigraphic position, the
age is considered as Middle to Late Maastrichtian.
Vitakri Formation
Malkani (2006c) introduced first time the upper member of Pab Formation as Vitakri member and
Malkani (2009a) upgraded this member into Vitakri Formation (Type Vitakri area, lat. 29 0 41’
19’’N; long. 690 23’ 02’’E) due to its distinct lithology, depositional environments and lateral
extension. Vitakri village is about 30 Km in the south-southwest of Barkhan town. Vitakri Formation
(15-35m, extended mostly in the eastern Sulaiman Fold and Thrust Belt) consist of alternated two
units of red mud/clay (2-15m each unit) of over bank flood plain deposits and two quartzose
sandstone units (2-15meach unit) with black weathering of meandering river system. Lower red mud
horizon is based on Kali member or Dhaola member and capped by middle sandstone horizon of
Vitakri Formation. The upper red mud horizon is based on middle sandstone horizon and capped by
a resistant sandstone horizon. Its coeval strata (coal, carbonaceous shale and sandstone) represent the
lacustrine and deltaic environment, and laterite represent the erosional disconformity. The sandstone
is white to grey, thin to thick bedded and fine to coarse grained, quartzose, mostly weathered as dark
grey to black. The shale is red, maroon, and greenish grey and calcareous to noncalcareous. The red
muds of this disconformity and just below this are the host of latest Cretaceous dinosaurs in
9
Pakistan. Vitakri Formation is regional extension in eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt and also Ziarat
laterite is a part of Vitakri Formation. Vitakri Formation was the Park for the latest Cretaceous
dinosaurs and crocodiles of Pakistan. Its lower and upper contact with Pab and Sangiali formations is
disconfirmable. The Vitakri Formation has dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles and pterosaurs and
invertebrates like fresh water bivalves, etc. More fossil plants may be found further from the Kingri
coal of Vitakri Formation (Malkani 2014f).
Pakistan appeared for the first time on the world dinosaur’s map based on recent geological
and paleontological exploration. The Mesozoic strata and their internal and external boundaries are
well exposed in the Lower, Middle and Upper Indus basins of Pakistan which allowed the
discoveries of numerous remains of dinosaurs and associated vertebrates. The lower Indus (Kirthar)
Basin yielded a partial rib and an egg of the Cretaceous Mesoeucrocodile Khuzdarcroco zahri and
few remains of Late Jurassic titanosauriform or early titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur Brohisaurus
kirthari. Furthermore, the lower Indus basin yielded a footprint of a Middle Jurassic
titanosauriform/early titanosaurian sauropod.
The red muds of the Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation of Middle Indus (Sulaiman) Basin
yielded well developed and well preserved remains of the herbivorous pakisaurids Khetranisaurus
barkhani, Sulaimanisaurus gingerichi and Pakisaurus balochistani, of the balochisaurids
Marisaurus jeffi, Balochisaurus malkani and Maojandino alami, of the saltasaurids Nicksaurus
razashahi, as well as of the most advanced and large-sized titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs
Gspsaurus pakistani and Saraikimasoom vitakri. Carnivorous large bodied abelisaurians
Vitakridrinda sulaimani and small bodied noasaurian theropods Vitakrisaurus saraiki have also been
identified, as well as carnivorous large to medium bodied mesoeucrocodilians Sulaimanisuchus
kinwai of Sulaimanisuchidae and large bodied Pabwehshi pakistanensis and Induszalim bala of
Induszalimidae. Other fossil remains include the toothed pterosaur Saraikisaurus minhui and a wood
fossil of the conifer Baradarakht goeswangai. Further titanosaur (Pashtosaurus zhobi) trackways
have been found on the thick sandstone bed of the Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation of Western
Sulaiman basin and eastern extremity of Western Indus Suture as well as bony remains of the
titanosaurs found in the same basin and same formation.
Pakiring kharzani Malkani 2014 (bivalves) is found from the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg)
boundary laterite/thin rust on the last bed of Pab sandstone and it belongs to Vitakri Formation in the
Kharzan area of Khuzdar district (Malkani 2014f). It is sub ring type and rough surface ornamented
bivalves with rope like shape.
According to dinosaur fossils and stratigraphic position, the age is considered as Latest
Maastrichtian or Latest Cretaceous (67-66Mya).
Paleocene Sangiali Group
Malkani (2009a) introduced Sangiali Group representing Sangiali, Rakhi Gaj and Dungan
formations. The type section (Sangiali village area, lat. 290 41’ 53’’N; long. 690 23’ 54’’E) is
exposed just 1km south southeast of Village Sangiali. Sangiali Village is 4km north of Vitakri
Village. Sangiali Village is about 26 Km in the south-southwest of Barkhan town. The best and
easily approachable reference section (close to type locality of Kingri Formation) is about 5km in the
northwest of Kingri town (39F/15). The Khadro Formation of Kirthar Foldbelt has much volcanics.
In Sulaiman Range there are no volcanics but its green shale and sandstone may be glauconitic or
may show some volcanic source. Further the dominant sandstone in Khadro can hurdle for
10
identification of Rakhi Gaj formation. Further the upper sequence is again different from Ranikot
group. It is about 30m thick in the type area and it is being reduced on every side from type locality
area but existed in the eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt. Sangiali Formation and Group is suggested to
remove the problems. Mesozoic in Sulaiman and Kirthar are closely resemble while Paleocene is
different because the Bara and also part of Khadro formations were deposited by fluvial to deltaic
while in the Sulaiman the deposition was marine and deltaic.
Sangiali Formation
Malkani (2009a) introduced first time the Sangiali Formation (due to its distinct lithology,
depositional environments and lateral extension) with type section (Sangiali village area, lat. 290 41’
53’’N; long. 690 23’ 54’’E) exposed just 1km south southeast of Village Sangiali. It is extensive in
most part of eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt and consists of green shale and sandstone with resistant
brown limestone. The shale is found in the lowermost part, which is graded in to sandstone. The
sandstone is capped by limestone. The shale is green and glauconitic and may be phosphate bearing.
The sandstone is greenish grey to grey and white and thin to medium bedded. The limestone is
brown, thin to thick bedded and bivalves bearing. The Sangiali Formation is 30m thick at the type
locality and pinching into few metres beds toward all vicinity areas. Nautiloids are common in the
type and just south in Vitakri area. Its lower contact with Vitakri Formation is disconfirmable and
upper contact with Rakhi Gaj Formation is transitional and conformable. The Nautiloids and
bivalves are common in this formation found from the Sangiali and Vitakri area. Pakiwheel vitakri
Malkani 2014, the stocky type nautiloids is found just after the K- Pg boundary in Sangiali
Formation close to east of Vitakri town (Malkani 2014f), and Pakiwheel karkhi Malkani 2014, the
slender type nautiloids, is found in the green mudstone, may be of volcanic origin, of the Early
Paleocene Sangiali Formation, 5 km east of Karkh town (Malkani 2014f). Eames (1952) reported
Early Paleocene fossils from Rakhi Nala. The possible bony fishes, the Teleostei or holostei fish or
ichthyosaur Karkhimachli sangiali Malkani 2014 are found fragmentary on the Early Paleocene part
of Sangiali Group of Karkh area of Khuzdar District but its nearby higher areas consists of Late
Cretaceous Mughalkot and Pab formations. Its preserved portion mostly belongs to body cross
section having herring bone type structure. It is small sized fish/ichthyosaur. Further some cross
sections are also referred to it. A body cross section of marine fish found in the Jurassic Chiltan
Limestone of Kharzan of Mula-Zahri area, Kirthar Range (Malkani 2014f). So its age is considered
as Early Paleocene.
Rakhi Gaj Formation
Williams (1959) introduced the lower Rakhi Gaj shales. The Rakhi Gaj formation is mentioned by
Shah (2002). The Rakhi Gaj Formation is also used by the present author in many Geological maps.
Upon the suggestions of S.M.Hussain of American Oil Company, the Stratigraphic Committee (Shah
2009) has adopted the name Girdu Member for the Gorge beds of Eames (1952). The Rakhi Gaj
Nala is designated as the type section (Lat. 290 57’ 14’’ N; Long. 700 11’ 30’’ E). Malkani (2010a)
reported two members of Rakhi Gaj formation like lower Girdu member (Gorge beds) and upper
Bawata members (Fig.1g in Malkani 2010a). It is the middle formation of Sangiali Group and lower
formation where Sangiali Formation is absent. The Girdu member is about 100m thick at type area
(Lat. 290 57’ 27’’ N; Long. 700 04’ 40’’ E) where it consists of thick and resistant beds of sandstone
with minor shale. The sandstone is grey, greenish grey, thin to thick bedded and fine to coarse
11
grained, bivalve bearings, hematitic and glauconitic weathered as dark reddish grey to dark grey.
Iron and potash from glauconitic and hematitic sandstone seems to be significant especially in the
Fort Munro, Rakhi Gaj and its vicinity areas of eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt. The Bawata member
named by Malkani (2010a) to fill the missing link. This upper member can be named Rakhi Gaj
member which lacks the well developed contact with Dungan Formation while Bawata locality has
well developed contact with Dungan Formation. The Bawata member (Bawata as type section; Lat.
300 00’ N; Long. 690 57’ 30’’ E) consists of mainly shale along with alternation of sandstone (Fig.1g
in Malkani 2010a) is about 200m thick. The Shale is common in the uppermost part. The shale is
grey, khaki and calcareous. The sandstone is greenish grey to grey, bivalves and iron bearings. The
shale and sandstone of Fort Munro area show green colour may due to glauconitic or igneous origin
from volcanism of Deccan trap. The Girdu member is about 100m and Bawata member is about 200
m in its type areas. Both members are exposed in the eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt and its contact is
transitional. The lower contact of Girdu member with Sangiali and upper contact of Bawata member
with Dungan Formation is conformable. The lower contact of Rakhi Gaj Formation with Vitakri
Formation and Pab Formation (when Vitakri and Sangiali both are absent) is disconformable. Eames
(1952) reported Corbula (Varicorbula) harpa, Leionucula rakhiensis, Venericardia vredenburgi,
Tibia (Tibiochilus) rakhiensis and other fossils from Rakhi Nala with Early Paleocene age. Abundant
Cardita (Venericardia) beaumonti of Danian age reported many works from different areas. Nagappa
(1959) reported Globogerina pseudobulloides and G. triloculinoides. Sohn (1959) recorded
ostracodes such as Howecythereis multispinosa, H. micromma and Paracypris rectoventra from Laki
Range. HSC (1961) also reported many list of foraminifers. Latif (1964) has reported pelagic
foraminifera possibly from the Rakhi Gaj Formation of Rakhi Nala. Its age is considered as middle
Paleocene due to stratigraphic positions.
Dungan Formation
The term Dungan limestone was introduced by Oldham (1890). Williams (1859) designated the type
section to be near Harnai (lat. 300 08’ 38’’N; long. 670 59’ 33’’E) and renamed the unit Dungan
Formation. It consists of limestone, shale and marl. The limestone is grey to buff, thin to medium
bedded and conglomeratic. Shale is grey, khaki and calcareous. The marl is brown to grey, thin to
medium bedded and fine grained. This formation is 50-300m maximum thick. Laterally this
formational facies is more diverse, at places thick limestone deposits while at places minor limestone
showings. The Sui main limestone is an upper part of Dungan limestone due to its variable behavior.
It is thick in the Zinda Pir, Duki, Sanjawi, Harand, and also in Mughal Kot section but negligible as
in Rakhi Gaj and Mekhtar areas. Petroleum showings are common in this formation especially in the
Khatan area (Oldham 1890). Its lower contact with Bawata member of Rakhi Gaj Formation is
conformable, near the western Indus Suture belt it has disconformity at the base, while the upper
contact with Shaheed Ghat Formation is transitional and conformable. It has many mega forams. It
age is considered as Late Paleocene, rarely exceeding to early Eocene. However it is maintained all
Paleocene in the Ziarat area and the Western Indus suture (Axial belt) areas where the Sangiali and
Rakhi Gaj formations i.e. the lower and middle Sangiali group is not developed. For example the
Ziarat Laterite showing K-T boundary is contacted by Parh and Dungan formation. A rich fossil
assemblage including foraminifers, gastropods, bivalves and algae are reported by Davies (1941),
Khan M.H. (in Lexique 1956), HSC (1961), Latif (1964), Iqbal (1969a) and others. Khan M.H. (in
Lexique 1956) reported presence of rich assemblages of foraminifers (Davies 1927; Nuttal 1931),
12
corals (Duncan 1880), mollusces (Vredenburg 1909, 1928b) and echinoids (Duncan and Sladen
1882). The foraminifers include Nummulites nuttali, N. thalicus, N. globules, N. sindensis, Assilina
ranikotensis, Miscellanea miscella, M. stampi, Lockhartia haemei, Lepidocyclina (Polylepidina)
punjabensis and Discocyclina ranikotensis. Foraminifers are generally abundant and most of these
belong to Fasciolites, Nummulites, Coskinolina, Dictyoconoides, Linderina, Lockhartia, Operculina,
Miscellanea, Globorotalia, Cibicides, etc. Species like Miscellanea miscella, M. stampi, nummulites
nuttali, n. thalicus, N. sindensis, Assilina dandotica, Kathina selveri and Lockhartia tipper indicate
Paleocene to Early Eocene age which is also confirmed by some algae such as Distichoplax sp.,
Lithothamnium sp., Mesophyllum sp. However now these fossils and law of superposition suggests
the age of this formation as Late Paleocene.
Early Eocene Chamalang (=Ghazij) Group
The term Chamalang Group was first used by Malkani (2010a). The term Ghazij was introduced by
Oldham (1890). Williams (1959) proposed that the type section be at Spintangi (lat. 290 57’ 06’’N;
long. 680 05’ 00’’E) and used the term Ghazij formation. It is upgraded as group by Shah, (2002).
Chamalang (Ghazij) group represents Shaheed Ghat, Toi, Kingri and Baska formations. Drug and
Kingri formations are not well developed in the Spintangi area, so the Malkani (2010a) suggests for
the Chamalang Group where all the formations of Ghazij group are well developed along with new
formation like Kingri Formation. The type section for Chamalang Group is the Chamalang area
(lat.300 10’ N; long. 690 25’ E).
Shaheed Ghat Formation
Sibghatullah Siddiqui, Jamiluddin, I.H. Qureshi and A.H. Kidwai (1965) (verbal communications
with Sibghatullah Siddiqui and Jamiluddin) used the name Shaheed Ghat Formation for the upper
Rakhi Gaj and green nodular shales of Eames (1952). The type locality is Shaheed Ghat, Zinda Pir
area of Dera Ghazi Khan District (lat. 300 24’N; long. 700 28’E). It consists of mainly shale/mud
with negligible silt and sandy beds. The shale is grey, greenish grey, khaki and calcareous. The
shale is rarely intercalated with silty and sandy lenses. The formation contains thin limestone beds in
the upper part with nummulites, gastropods and lamellibranchs. The thickness of this formation is
estimated 500m in Sulaiman and northern Kirthar foldbelt. The thickness of this formation is
relatively slightly less than the other exposures in eastern Sulaiman Basin. Mulastar zahri Malkani
2014, a star fish (Malkani 2014f), two pectin type other bivalves, 3 gastropods and 1 coral like
fossils are found from Shaheed Ghat Formation of Kharzan area, Mula-Zahri range. Its lower contact
with Dungan and upper contact with Toi Formation (in the coal bearing areas like Johan and Mach)
or Drug Formation (when Toi and Kingri formations are absent especially in the Karkh area) are
conformable. This formation contains foraminifera, gastropods and bivalves. The pelecypods include
Venericardia pakistanica, Lucina yawensis, Corbula (Bicorbula) subexarata, C.(B.) paraexarata
and gastropods include Crommium polihathra, Turritella (stiracolpus) harnaiensis,
Chondrocerithium pakistanicum, Gisortia cf. G. murchisoni (Iqbal 1969b). These fossils and
Siddiqui et al (1965) suggested Early Eocene age.
Toi Formation
The Toi Formation has been formalized after S. M. Hussain of American Oil Company’s briefing
and verbal communication before the stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan (Shah, 2002). The Shah
13
(2002) mentioned the Mughal Kot type locality with wrong grid reference, while correct references
seams to be (lat. 310 29’ N; long. 700 07’E). Its name is derived from the Toi River/Nala flowing
near the Mughal Kot locality. It consists of sandstone, greenish grey to grey shale and white to light
brown marl/rubbly limestone along with some coal. The sandstone is greenish grey to grey and thin
to thick bedded. The shale is greenish grey, khaki and calcareous. The marl or limestone is white to
light brown and rubbly. The coal is sub bituminous and have metallic luster. It is exposed in the
Mach and Johan area located in the northern part of eastern Kirthar basin. The thickness of Toi
Formation is about 600m in the type area of Mughal Kot section and about 1200m in the Kingri,
Bahlol and Chamalang sections. The lower contact of Toi Formation with Shaheed Ghat Formation
is conformable while the upper contact with Kingri formation is disconfirmable. It has many
fossiliferous sandstone/coquina beds. Malkani (2014f,2015c) and Malkani and Sun (2016) reported
Bolanicyon shahani from Mach coal mine area. Bolanicyon shahani Malkani 2014 (Quettacyonidae)
is found (Malkani 2014f) at the coal mining at depth of about 500m in the Early Eocene Toi
Formation of south western Mach (Gishtari) area. Its 1 incisor, 1 canine, 4 premolar and 3 molar
teeth are preserved (Malkani and Sun 2016). According to its stratigraphic position and fauna, its age
can be considered as Early Eocene.
Kingri Formation
The tem Kingri Formation was first used by Malkani (2009a). The type section of Kingri formation
is the just northwest of Kingri town (lat. 300 28’ N; long. 690 47’E). It consists of reds shale/mud
with subordinate grey sandstone. The shale is mostly red and maroon and sandy and silty and
calcareous. The sandstone is grey to light brown, thin to thick bedded. It is exposed in the Mach and
Johan area located in the northern part of eastern Kirthar basin. The thickness of this formation is
estimated about 700m in the type section of Kingri (Musakhel district Balochistan) and also same in
Shirani section (FR D.I.Khan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa). It extends toward Mach and Johan (Kalat),
Balochistan in the southwest and also extends in the north upto Hangu (Kohat sub basin) where it is
called Gurguri snadstone. It represents the flood plain or overbank fines along with channel
sandstone. It is pinching rapidly eastward and absent in areas of D.G. Khan, Rajan Pur and Dera
Bugti districts. Its lower contact with Toi and upper contact with Drug Formation are
disconfirmable. Gingerich, et al (2001) has also found a unique mammalian fauna from the
Kingri/Toi formation of Gandhera (Kingri) area. According to its stratigraphic position, its age can
be considered as Early Eocene.
Drug Formation
Sibghatullah Siddiqui, Jamiluddin, I.H. Qureshi and A.H. Kidwai (1965) (verbal communications
with Sibghatullah Sidique and Jamiluddin), and Iqbal (1969) used the name Drug Formation for
rubbly limestone of Eames (1952). The type section (lat. 30 0 49’ 15’’N; long. 700 12’ 30’’E) has
been designated in Drug Tangi located about 3 km southeast of Drug village (Shah, 2002). The Shah
(2002, 2009) mentioned the wrong order or position of Ghazij group formations like Toi and Drug
formations. The actual position of Toi Formation is below the Drug Formation while Shah (2002,
2009) mentioned every where the Toi formation is above the Drug formation. It is confirmed in the
north and southwest of Sulaiman province. It consists of limestone, marl and shale. The limestone
and marl is chalky white to light brown and grey, rubbly and thin to thick bedded. The shale is grey,
khaki and calcareous. The formation is maximum thick in the core of Sulaiman foldbelt like Baghao
14
and Rar Khan Areas of Barkhan District and estimated about 200-300m thick. It is being reduced in
all directions from these maximum thick areas. It is absent in the Western Indus Suture and also in
Mughal Kot section of Sulaiman Foldbelt and further north. It is exposed in the Mach and Johan area
located in the northern part of eastern Kirthar basin. Its lower contact with Shaheed Ghat Formation
in the easternmost and southeastern Sulaiman Foldbelt is transitional and conformable, and upper
contact in the northeast, central and western Sulaiman Foldbelt is disconfirmable with the Kingri
Formation, and in the eastern and southeastern Sulaiman Foldbelt the upper contact with Baska
Formation is conformable and marked at the first bed of alabaster gypsum. The Drug limestone and
shale is the host of celestite mineralization in Sulaiman Foldbelt. It has many fossiliferous
sandstone/coquina beds especially in the Chamalang area. Iqbal (1969b) reported gastropods like
Euspirocrommium oveni, Cancelluluria soriensis, Ringicuia pseudopunjabensis, and a pelecypod
Lucina exquiscia. These fossils and Siddiqui et al (1965) suggested Early Eocene.
Baska Formation
The name Baska shale is proposed by the Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) to replace the descriptive
term “shale with alabaster” of Eames (1952). Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) designated the type
section exposed about 2 km east-northeast of Baska village (lat. 310 29’N; long. 700 08’E). It
consists of gypsum, shale, limestone, marl and rare siltstone. The gypsum is grey to grayish white,
medium to thick bedded and massive. . Shale is grey, khaki and calcareous. The marl is cream white,
thin to medium bedded and porcelaneous. Its thin exposure is found in the Mach area located in the
northern part of eastern Kirthar basin. Further southward it is not reported. The siltstone is greenish
grey to grey and thin to medium bedded. Its thickness is estimated variable from 100m to 30m. As
lateral variation, this formation is relatively more and maximum thick than the other exposures in the
Chamalang, Nisau, Manjhail, Toi Nala, Toi River and Barkhan areas and minimum thick in the
south eastern and southern Sulaiman located in the central core of Sulaiman Basin. Its lower contact
with Drug Formation and upper contact with Habib Rahi Formation are conformable. It has many
fossiliferous rubbly limestone beds especially in the Chamalang and Mughal Kot sections. Iqbal
(1969b) reported foraminifers like Cuneoline sp., Lockhartia hunti, and Dictyoconoides vredenburgi,
pelecypods like Bulsella sp., A. Eames and Barbatia drougensis, the later being restricted to Early
Eocene, gastropods like Euspira cf. E. punjabensis and Gosavia humberti. Its age is Early Eocene.
Kirthar Group
It was initially introduced as Kirthar Series by Blanford (1876) after the Kirthar Range to describe
Eocene strata between his Ranikot group and Nari in western Sind while Noetling (1905) separated
the lower part as Laki series and retained the name Kirthar for the upper part only. The term Kirthar
Group is being used here for the Kirthar and Gorag formations. Kirthar group in western Kirthar
Basin is correlated with Laki Formation (upper formation of Laki Group) of eastern Kirthar basin
(Laki range and surroundings), Kahan group (Habib Rahi, Domanda, Pirkoh and Drazinda
formations) of Sulaiman Basin and Kohat sub basin, and Sakesar limestone of Nammal Group. Its
age is late Early-Middle Eocene.
Kirthar Formation
It is named by Cheema et al. (1977) and now it comprises of mixed lithology like shale, marl,
limestone of lower Kirthar member of Brahui limestone (HSC, 1961). Its lower contact with
15
Kingri/Shaheed Ghat formations are transitional and conforable. The Formation contains
foraminifers, gastropods, bivalves, echinoids and algae reported by Noetling (1905), Nuttall (1925),
Davies (1926), Haque and Khan (in Lexique 1956), Haque (1962a), HSC (1961) and Iqbal (1973).
The foraminifers include Assilina granulose, A. pustulosa, Lockhartia hunti, var. pustulosa,
Flosculina globosa, Opertorbitolites douvillei, Fasciolites oblonga, Linderina brugesi and
Dictyoconoides vredenburgi, important mollusces include Gisortia murchisoni, Velates perversus,
and Blagraveia sindensis and echinoids include Amblypygus subrotundus and Echinolampas
nummulitica. These fossils indicate an Early Eocene (Ypresian) age. Hunting Survey
Corporation/HSC (1961) reported middle Eocene fauna like Actinocyclina alticostata, Assilina
cancellata, A. rota, A. irregularis, Nummulites beaumonti, N. gizehensis, Dictyoconoides cooki and
Early Eocene fauna like Assilina laminose, Coskinolina balsilliei and Dictyoconoides vredenburgi.
So its age is Early Eocene to middle Eocene.
Gorag Formation
It is originally named as Gorag member of Brahui limestone by HSC (1961) after Gorag peak in
south of Gaj river in Kirthar range and it consists of resistant and peak forming limestone with
negligible shale and marl. It is well recognised in the Kirthar Range. This formation include the Laki
limestone member (following Laki limestone named after Laki Range and Laki village by Nuttal
1925, and Laki limestone member of Brouwers and Fatmi 1993) which is 200-300m thick exposed
as prominent scarp on flanks of Laki Range, hills south of Hyderabad and near Thano Bula Khan.
There was confusion in the Laki limestone member (upper part of Laki Group) and Kirthar
limestone in the Laki Range, Hyderabad and Thano Bula Khan Areas. Now this confusion is
removed by correlating Gorag limestone with Laki limestone member which is thick upto 200m. Its
lower contact with Kirthar and upper contact with Nari Formation is transitional and conformable. It
contains foraminifers, gastropods, bivalves, echinoids and algae reported by Noetling (1905), Nuttall
(1925), Davies (1926), Haque and Khan (in Lexique 1956), Haque (1962a), HSC (1961) and Iqbal
(1973). The foraminifers include Assilina granulose, A. pustulosa, Lockhartia hunti, var. pustulosa,
Flosculina globosa, Opertorbitolites douvillei, Fasciolites oblonga, Linderina brugesi and
Dictyoconoides vredenburgi, important mollusces include Gisortia murchisoni, Velates perversus,
and Blagraveia sindensis and echinoids include Amblypygus subrotundus and Echinolampas
nummulitica. These fossils indicate an Early Eocene (Ypresian) age.
Hunting Survey
Corporation/HSC (1961) reported middle Eocene fauna like Actinocyclina alticostata, Assilina
cancellata, A. rota, A. irregularis, Nummulites beaumonti, N. gizehensis, Dictyoconoides cooki and
Early Eocene fauna like Assilina laminose, Coskinolina balsilliei and Dictyoconoides vredenburgi.
So its age is late Early Eocene to middle Eocene.
Gaj Group
To remove missing link the Gaj group is here being established after the Gaj River in Kirthar Range
for the Nari and Gaj formations. Duncan and laden (1884, 1886), Vredenburg (1906b, 1909b),
Nuttall (1925, 1926), HSC (1961), Pascoe (1963) Khan M.H. (1968) and Iqbal (1969a) reported
foraminifers, corals, mollusks, echinoid, algae and other fossils. The foraminifers include
Nummulites intermedius, N. vascus, N. fichteli, N. clypeus, Lepidocyclina (Eulepidina) dilatata, etc.,
bivalves include Crassatella sulcata, Venus (Ventricola) multilamella, V. (Antigona) peepera,
gastropods include Scaphander oligoturritus, Lyria anceps and Tritonsium (Saia) indicum. Pascoe
16
(1936) concluded Stamian of Europe and ranges from Rupelian to Chattian. Khan (1968) assigned
Rupelian to early Aquitanian age. HSC (1961) assigned the age of this group as Oligocene to
Miocene.
Nari Formation
It was named by Williams (1959) for the Nari Series by Blanford (1876) after the Nari river. It
consists of marine brown sandstone, red, brown and yellow shale, and brown limestone. It is
equalent to Chitarwata formation of Sulaiman Basin. Its lower contact with Gorag and upper contact
with Gaj Formation is transitional and conformable. Fossils details are also mentioned in the above
Gaj group. Its stratigraphic position and above mentioned fauna tells Oligocene age.
Gaj Formation
It was named by Williams (1959) for the Gaj Series by Blanford (1876) after the Gaj river. It
consists of estuarine to terrestrial deposits dominantly varicoloured shale with subordinate sandstone
and limestone. It mostly resembles with Nari formation however the contact is being marked at the
end of massive sandstone and at the start of dominant shale lithology. It is correlative to Early
Miocene Vihowa Formation of Sulaiman basin. Its lower contact with Nari is conformable and upper
contact with Litra/Chaudhwan Formation is disconformable. Fossils details are also mentioned in the
above Gaj group. Its stratigraphic position and above mentioned fauna tells Miocene age.
Manchar Group
The term Manchar is derived from Manchar series of Blanford (1876) after the Manchar lake a few
kms west of Sehwan. Late Miocene to Pliocene Manchar group represents Litra Formation and
Chaudhwan Formation. The Litra formation is exposed in the Sor Range-Deghar syncline and also
on the eastern foothills of Kirthar Range. The Sor Range-Deghar syncline is a transition
zone/boarder zone of Sulaiman and Kirthar basins. The Sor Range-Deghar syncline is located in the
east of Quetta town. The Manchar group is mostly equalent to upper part of Vihowa Group (Litra
and Chaudhwan formations). These are exposed in the eastern foot mountains of Kirthar and Laki
ranges.
Litra Formation
The Litra Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973). The type section designated to
be Litra Nala (lat. 310 01’N; long. 700 25’E). It consists of sandstone with subordinate shale and
conglomerate. The sandstone is grey, thin to thick bedded and massive, fine to coarse grained, gritty
and calcareous. The shale is maroon, khaki and calcareous. The conglomerate is thin to thick bedded
and dominantly sandy and calcareous. Its lower contact with Gaj/Laki/Kirthar/Gorag Formation and
upper contact with Chaudhwan Formation is disconfirmable or angular. This formation is the host of
continental vertebrates. Raza et al. (2002) placed the lower age of Litra formation at 11 Ma based on
Hipparaion in the lower part of this formation. They also estimated the age of Litra Formation from
11 to 6 Ma i.e. Late Miocene.
Chaudhwan Formation
The Chaudhwan Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973). The type section
designated to be in Chaudhwan Zam (lat. 310 37’N; long. 700 15’E). It consists of alternated
17
mudstone/shale, sandstone and conglomerate. The mudstone/shale is maroon, khaki and calcareous.
The sandstone is grey, brown, thin to thick bedded, fine to coarse grained, gritty and calcareous. The
conglomerate is thin to thick bedded and dominantly sandy and calcareous. Thick conglomerate beds
with some mud and sands cap the upper part of this formation. These are exposed in the eastern foot
mountains of Kirthar and Laki ranges. Its lower contact with Litra Formation is disconfirmable while
upper contact with Dada Formation is angular and at places transitional and marked at the start of
dominant and resistant conglomerate. This formation is the host of continental vertebrates.
According to stratigraphic position, its age is Pliocene.
Sakhi Sarwar Group
The term Sakhi Sarwar Group was named by Malkani (2012h) for Pleistocene Dada (mainly
conglomerate) and Holocene Sakhi Sarwar (clays, silt, sandstone and conglomerate) formations
(Malkani 2012h). These are exposed in the eastern foot mountains of Kirthar and Laki ranges.
Dada Formation
Its name is derived from Dada River south of Spintangi Railway station (HSC, 1961). It consists of
conglomerate with subordinate shale and sandstone. At places it also includes the white and red
muds especially in the valley areas. Its lower contact with Chaudhwan Formation and upper contact
with Sakhi Sarwar Formation is angular and at some places transitional. According to stratigraphic
position, its age may be Pleistocene.
Sakhi Sarwar Formation
It was named by Malkani (2012h) for the varicoloured clays, sandstone, siltstone and conglomerate.
Its lower contact with Dada Formation and upper contact with subrecent alluvium is angular and at
places transitional. Its age is Holocene.
Subrecent and Recent surficial deposits
These are represented by alluvial deposits in the footmountains (Daman) and plain areas deposited
by Indus river systems. Some minor eolian sand dunes are found in the coastal areas. In the vicinity
of high mountan ridges the colluvium scree and talus are also found.
REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF EASTERN KIRTHAR BASIN (LAKI RANGE AND
SURROUNDINGS), SINDH PROVINCE
Eastern Kirthar basin (Laki anticline and eastward upto Nagar Parker Igneous complex) as name
shows it is located in the eastern part of Kirthar basin, on the west it is bounded by western Kirthar,
on the east by Nagar Parker segment of Indo-Pak shield, on the south by Indo-Pak Ocean and on the
north by Sulaiman basin. Eastern Kirthar basin represents exposed Late Cretaceous Pab and Latest
Cretaceous Vitakri Formation of Fort Munro Group in the core of Laki anticline and on the limbs
Cenozoic rocks. However in subsurface the older Mesozoic, Triassic, Paleozoic and Precambrian
rocks may be found. The exposed stratigraphic sequences in the eastern Kirthar basin under the
Sindh Province are being described as follows.
18
Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group
The term Fort Munro Group was first time used by Malkani (2009a) for Mughal Kot, Fort Munro,
Pab and Vitakri formations. Its type section is Rakhi Gaj and Girdu are in Toposheet 39 K/1. Here
only Pab and Vitakri formations are exposed only in the core of Laki anticline. The remaining areas
show exposures of Tertiary and Quaternary deposits.
Pab Formation
The term Pab Sandstone was introduced by Vredenburg (1907) and the type section in the Pab
Range (lat. 250 31’ 12’’N; long. 700 02’ 58’’E) was designated by Williams (1959). In the core of
Laki anticline, it consists of mainly sandstone with minor shale. The thickness of Pab Formation is
estimated 100m in the core of Laki anticline. Its lower contact is not exposed in Laki Range,
however in Kirthar Range it is contacted with Fort Munro Limestone as transitional and upper
contact with Vitakri Formation (red clay and some sandstone) is disconformable. On the vertebrate
(dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles, etc) found from following Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation), the
age is being assigned as Late Cretaceous/Late Maestrichtian.
Vitakri Formation
Malkani (2006c) introduced first time the upper member of Pab Formation as Vitakri member and
Malkani (2009a) upgraded this member into Vitakri Formation (Type Vitakri area, lat. 29 0 41’
19’’N; long. 690 23’ 02’’E) due to its distinct lithology, depositional environments and lateral
extension. Vitakri village is about 30 Km in the south-southwest of Barkhan town. Here Vitakri
Formation (about 15m thick) consists of red muds with alternated sandstone of fluvial origin. Vitakri
Formation of Sulaiman basin is the host of latest Cretaceous dinosaurs and crocodiles. Its lower and
upper contact with Pab and Khadro formations are disconfirmable.
Ranikot Group
The Sangiali Group is here replaced by Ranikot group named by Ranikot (Lat. 250 54’ 24’’N; Long.
670 54’ 38’’ E) including the Khadro, Bara and Lakhra formations.
Khadro Formation
It was named after Khadro Nai/Nala which is north of Bara Nai but its type section is Bara Nai/Nala
Lat. 260 07’ 06’’N; Long. 670 53’ 12’’ E in the northern Laki Range and named by Williams (1959). It
includes the Cardita beaumonti beds of Blanford (1878), Venericardia shales of Eames (1952), basal
parts of Karkh, Gidar Dhor and Jakker groups, Bad Kachu and Thar formations of HSC (1961). It
consists of limestone, sandstone, shale and volcanics. The igneous rocks like Decan trap basalts are
found in the Earliest Paleocene Khadro formation in the Kirthar basin exposed in the Kirthar foldbelt
and also encountered in the subsurface drill hole. Nusrat Kamal Siddiqui (verbal communication in
1987 with Shah; Shah 2009) named the basalt as Khaskheli basalt. Its lower contact with Vitakri
Formation is disconformable and upper contact with Bara Formation is transitional and conformable.
Its age is Earliest Paleocene.
Bara Formation
It was named by Ahmad and Ghani (Written communication in 1971 to Cheema et al. 1977) after
Bara Nai (Lat. 260 07’ 06’’N; Long. 670 53’ 12’’ E, Type section) of Laki Range. Its principal
19
reference section is Ranikot (Lat. 250 54’ 24’’N; Long. 670 54’ 38’’ E). It includes the lower Ranikot
sandstone of Vredenburg (1906) and lower Ranikot of later workers, Ranikot formation of Williams
(1959), Lower Ranikot formation, lower parts of the Karkh, Gidar Dhor and Jakker groups, Bad
Kachu, Rottaro and Thar formations of HSC (1961). It consists of soft sandstone, shale and coal. Its
lower contact with Khadro and upper contact with Lakhra is transitional and conformable. Its age is
Early Paleocene.
Lakhra Formation
It was named by Ahmad and Ghani (Written communication in 1971 to Cheema et al. 1977) after
Lakhra of Laki Range. It includes the upper Ranikot limestone of Vredenburg (1906) and upper
Ranikot of lator workers, upper Ranikot formation of HSC (1961). It consists of dominant limestone
with minor shale. It is correlated with Dungan Limestone of western Kirthar and Sulaiman basin. Its
lower contact with Bara Formation is transitional and upper contact with Sohnar Gaj Formation is
disconformable. For fossils pl. see the Dungan Formation in western Kirthar. Its age is Late
Paleocene.
Laki Group
The term Laki group was proposed by HSC (1961) for the Laki Series of Noetling (1903) and lower
part of Kirthar Series of Blanford (1876). Laki group includes Sohnari (now upgraded as formation)
and Laki formations. It also includes the Tiyon formation of HSC (1961). It is well recognised in the
Laki Range and its surroundings. Nuttal (1925) subdivided Laki series in to basal Laki laterite (8m),
Meting limestone (45m), Meting shale (30m) and Laki limestone (70-200m). Cheema et al. (1977)
proposed two members like Sonhari member (=basal Laki laterite) represents laterite, and Meting
limestone and shale member (= Chat member of Nagappa 1959) which include the upper 3 units of
Nuttal (1925). Kazmi and Abbasi (2008) mentioned only one formation as Laki Formation. Further
Outerbridge et al. (1991) and also others stressed about the two fold divisions of Laki Group.
Akhtar et al. (2012) used the Laki Formation for all members/formations of Laki Group may be due
to scale problems. So here twofold division of Laki Group is adopted like the lower unit as Sohnai
Formation (consists of lateritic clay, ochre, shale, arenaceous limestone, sandstone and coal) and and
upper unit as Laki Formation (consists of mainly limestone with minor/subordinate shale). The age
of Laki Group is Early Eocene to Middle Eocene.
Sohnari Formation
It was named by Outerbridge et al (1989) for the basal Laki laterite (8m) of Nuttal (1925) and after
the Sonhari member of HSC (1961). Here it is being accepted as formation because other laterites
are also named as Dilband Formation (J/K boundary) of Abbas et al (1998), Vitakri Formation (latest
Cretaceous to K/T boundary) of Malkani (2009f). It mostly consists of lateritic clay, ochre, shale,
yellow arenaceous limestone, sandstone and lignite coal seams. The Sohnai Formation is correlated
with Early Eocene Chamalang (Ghazij) Group of western Kirthar and Sulaiman basin, Panoba Group
of Kohat sub basin and Nammal Formation of Nammal Group of Potwar sub-basin. Its lower contact
with Lakhra Formation and upper contact with Laki Formation is disconformable. Its age is Early
Eocene.
Laki Formation
20
It was named by Cheema et al. (1977), which is derived from Laki Series of Noetling (1903). It
consists of 3 members of Nuttal (1925) like lower member as Meting limestone (45m), middle
member as Meting shale (30m) and upper member as Laki limestone (70-200m). The lower and
middle members like Meting limestone (45m) and Meting shale (30m) are correlated with the
Kirthar Formation of Kirthar Group of western Kirthar. The upper member like Laki Limestone (70200m) is correlated with Gorag (resistant and peak forming limestone) formation of Kirthar Group
of western Kirthar. The Kirthar Formation belongs to lower part of Kirthar Group while the Gorag
Formation belongs to upper part of Kirthar Group, well exposed in western Kirthar i.e., in the typical
Kirthar range and its vicinity areas. Laki Formation consists of mainly limestone with
subordinate/minor shale and marl. Its lower contact with Sohnari Formation is disconformable and
upper contact with Nari Formation is transitional. The Laki Formation contains foraminifers,
gastropods, bivalves, echinoids and algae reported by Noetling (1905), Nuttall (1925), Davies
(1926), Haque and Khan (in Lexique 1956), Haque (1962a), HSC (1961) and Iqbal (1973). The
foraminifers include Assilina granulose, A. pustulosa, Lockhartia hunti, var. pustulosa, Flosculina
globosa, Opertorbitolites douvillei, Fasciolites oblonga, Linderina brugesi and Dictyoconoides
vredenburgi, important mollusces include Gisortia murchisoni, Velates perversus, and Blagraveia
sindensis and echinoids include Amblypygus subrotundus and Echinolampas nummulitica. These
fossils indicate an Early Eocene (Ypresian) age, however it may extends upto middle Eocene.
Gaj Group
To remove missing link the Gaj group is here being established after the Gaj River in Kirthar Range
for the Oligocene Nari and Miocene Gaj formations. Duncan and laden (1884, 1886), Vredenburg
(1906b, 1909b), Nuttall (1925, 1926), HSC (1961), Pascoe (1963) Khan M.H. (1968) and Iqbal
(1969a) reported foraminifers, corals, mollusks, echinoid, algae and other fossils. The foraminifers
include Nummulites intermedius, N. vascus, N. fichteli, N. clypeus, Lepidocyclina (Eulepidina)
dilatata, etc., bivalves include Crassatella sulcata, Venus (Ventricola) multilamella, V. (Antigona)
peepera, gastropods include Scaphander oligoturritus, Lyria anceps and Tritonsium (Saia) indicum.
Pascoe (1936) concluded Stamian of Europe and ranges from Rupelian to Chattian. Khan (1968)
assigned Rupelian to early Aquitanian age. HSC (1961) assigned the age of this group as Oligocene
to Miocene.
Nari Formation
It was named by Williams (1959) for the Nari Series by Blanford (1876) after the Nari river. It
consists of marine brown sandstone, red, brown and yellow shale, and brown limestone. It is
equalent to Chitarwata formation of Sulaiman Basin. Its lower contact with Laki Limestone and
upper contact with Gaj Formation is transitional. Fossils details are also mentioned in the above Gaj
group. Its stratigraphic position and above mentioned fauna tells Oligocene age.
Gaj Formation
It was named by Williams (1959) for the Gaj Series by Blanford (1876) after the Gaj river. It
consists of estuarine to terrestrial deposits dominantly varicoloured shale with subordinate
sandstone, gypsum and limestone. It mostly resembles with Nari formation however the contact is
being marked at the end of massive sandstone and at the start of dominant shale lithology. Three
beds of gypsum are reported by Alizai et al. (2000) ranging in thickness from 0.33 to 0.93m occurs
21
in Miocene Gaj shales near Johi and Khairpur Nathan Shah areas of Dadu district. It is correlative to
Miocene Vihowa Formation of Sulaiman basin. Its lower contact with Nari Formation is
conformable and transitional and upper contact with Litra Formation is disconformable. Fossils
details are also mentioned in the above Gaj group. Its stratigraphic position and above mentioned
fauna tells Miocene age.
Manchar Group
The term Manchar is derived from Manchar series of Blanford (1876) after the Manchar lake a few
kms west of Sehwan. Late Miocene to Pliocene Manchar group represents Litra Formation and
Chaudhwan Formation. Manchar group is mostly equalent to upper part of Vihowa Group (Litra and
Chaudhwan formations). In Gaj river section it is 2200m thick (Khan et al. 1984) while in Sehwan it
is 1000m thick (Pilgrim 1912). Previous worker divided it into lower, middle and upper Manchar.
These are exposed in the eastern foot mountains of Kirthar and Laki ranges.
Litra Formation
The Litra Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973). The type section designated to
be Litra Nala (lat. 310 01’N; long. 700 25’E). It consists of dominant sandstone with relative to red to
maroon shale and rare conglomerate. The sandstone is grey, thin to thick bedded and massive, fine to
coarse grained, gritty and calcareous. The shale is maroon, red, khaki and calcareous. The
conglomerate is thin to thick bedded and dominantly sandy and calcareous. Here due to being tail of
Indus river, the shale and alternated sandstone was deposited by river system. Its lower contact with
Gaj/Laki/Kirthar/Gorag Formation and upper contact with Chaudhwan Formation is disconfirmable
and at places angular. This formation is the host of continental vertebrates. Raza et al. (2002) placed
the lower age of Litra formation at 11 Ma based on Hipparaion in the lower part of this formation.
They also estimated the age of Litra Formation from 11 to 6 Ma i.e. Late Miocene. Khan et al.
(1984) dated the lower 1700m of the Formation paleomagnetically as 15.3 Ma to 9-10Ma.
Chaudhwan Formation
The Chaudhwan Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973). The type section
designated to be in Chaudhwan Zam (lat. 310 37’N; long. 700 15’E). It consists of alternated
mudstone/shale, sandstone and conglomerate. As a whole shale is dominant in this formation. The
mudstone/shale is maroon, khaki and calcareous. The sandstone is grey, brown, thin to thick bedded,
fine to coarse grained, gritty and calcareous. The conglomerate is thin to thick bedded and
dominantly sandy and calcareous. Thick conglomerate beds with some mud and sands cap the upper
part of this formation. These are exposed in the eastern foot mountains of Kirthar and Laki ranges.
Its lower contact with Litra Formation is transitional while upper contact with Dada Formation is
angular or transitional. This formation is the host of continental vertebrates. According to
stratigraphic position, its age may be Pliocene.
Sakhi Sarwar Group
The term Sakhi Sarwar Group was named by Malkani (2012h) for Pleistocene Dada (mainly
conglomerate) and Holocene Sakhi Sarwar (clays, silt, sandstone and conglomerate) formations
(Malkani 2012h). These are exposed in the eastern foot mountains of Kirthar and Laki ranges.
22
Dada Formation
Its name is derived from Dada River south of Spintangi Railway station (HSC, 1961). It consists of
conglomerate with subordinate shale and sandstone. At places it also includes the white and red
muds especially in the valley areas. Its lower contact with Chaudhwan Formation and upper contact
with Sakhi Sarwar Formation is at places angular or transitional. According to stratigraphic position,
its age may be Pleistocene.
Sakhi Sarwar Formation
It was named by Malkani (2012h) for the varicoloured clays, sandstone, siltstone and conglomerate.
Its lower contact with Dada Formation and upper contact with subrecent at places is angular and at
places transitional. Its age is Holocene.
Subrecent and Recent surficial deposits
These are represented by alluvial deposits in the footmountains (Daman) and plain areas deposited
by Indus river systems. Thar Desert and some coastal areas consist of eolian sand dune deposits. In
the vicinity of high mountan ridges the colluvium scree and talus are also found.
STRATIGRAPHY OF INDUS OFFSHORE (GONDWANA FRAGMENT)
The offshore areas are significant for petroleum exploration. The Makran offshore areas located in
the west of Indus Suture line and show the Balochistan basin stratigraphy and further the trench is
also located in the near offshore area. The Indus offshore area located in the east of Indus Suture line
and shows the Kirthar basin stratigraphy.
ROCKS OF NAGER PARKER IGNEOUS COMPLEX (A GEO-HERITAGE OF INDO-PAK
SHIELD)
Nager Parker Igneous complex is named by Jan et al. (1997) for acidic and basic igneous rocks.
Kazmi and Khan (1973) named as Nagar Igneous Complex, Nagar Parker granite by Shah (1977)
and Nagar Parker Massif by Muslim and Akhtar (1995). According to Jan et al. (1997) reported six
major magmatic episodes of intrusive and extrusive activities like amphibolites and related dykes,
riebeckite-aegirine grey granite, biotite-hornblende pink granite, acid dykes, rhyolite plugs and basic
dykes. Nagar Parker Igneous complex is a part of Indo-Pak shield. These rocks may be the extension
of Proterozoic granitoids of the Indian Rajasthan.
STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION OF KIRTHAR BASIN (PART OF GONDWANA)
WITH ADJOINING BALOCHISTAN BASIN (PART OF TETHYS), PAKISTAN
Kirthar Basin is located in the southern part of Supper Indus Basin which belongs to an IndoPakistan subcontinent (A Gondwana Fragment). The Super Indus Basin is subdivided in to
Uppermost/northernmost Indus, upper/north Indus, middle Indus (Sulaiman) and lower/south Indus
basins. Balochistan Basin is evolved under Tethys Sea from Cretaceous to recent. Balochistan Basin
is subdivided into Chagai-Raskoh-Wazhdad magmatic arc, northern Balochistan/Kakar Khorasan
23
(back arc) and southern Balochistan/Makran (fore arc; arc-trench gap) basins. The Cretaceous strata
of Balochistan basin is exposed in Shirin Jogezai area of Qila Saifulla district and also exposed in
Chagai and at one place near the Ispikan conglomerate in Makran but these strata not well correlated
with Indus basin, however slight resemble with porcelaneous limestone of Parh Group. The
Cainozoic of Kirthar Basin is well correlated with adjoining Balochistan basin due to collision of
Indo-Pakistan plate with Asian plate during Latest Cretaceous. Due to this terminal Cretaceous
collision, the adjoining contact Balochistan Basin occurred with the Indus Basin. Due to this
collision the birth of Paleo Indus River systems occurs and ended the dynasty of Paleo Vitakri River
systems. The Paleocene Dungan limestone of Indus basin closely resemble with Nisai
limestone/Kharan limestone/Wakai limestone of Balochistan Basin. In this way Early Eocene
Shagala Group of Balochistan Basin is well correlated with the Chamalang/Ghazij Group (Shaheed
Ghat-shale, Toi-sandstone and shale, Kingri-red muds and sandstone-Drug-rubbly limestone and
Baska-gypsum and shale) and Kahan Group (Habib Rahi-limestone, Domanda-shale, Pirkoh-marl
and shale and Drazinda-shale) of western Kirthar basin and Laki Group of eastern Kirthar (Laki
range and adjoining areas). The Murgha Faqirzai Formation (shale, 2000m thick) of Shagala Group
is correlated with Shaheed Ghat shale of western Kirthar basin, the Mina Formation (alternation of
green shale unit and sandstone unit; 3000m thick) of Balochistan is well correlated with Toi
Formation of western Kirthar Basin, and the Shagala Formation (=Shagalu; alternation of terrestrial
red shale unit and sandstone unit; 3000m thick) of Balochistan basin is well correlated with the
Kingri Formation of western Kirthar Basin and also Sohnai Formation of Laki range and adjoining
areas of eastern Kirthar basin. At the hard contact of Indo-Pakistan plate with Asia at the end of
Eocene resulted in the form of the Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa Group (synonyms; Malthanai/Dasht
Murgha group) in both basins. The Vihowa Group represents Chitarwata (which is the host of
Buzdartherium gulkirao-a baluchithere-the largest land mammals), Vihowa, Litra and Chaudhwan
formations. So far last major tectonic episode occurred at Early Pleistocene which deposited the
Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group (correlate with Boston formation) represents Dada
(conglomerate) and Sakhi Sarwar (mud and sandstone with poorly developed conglomerate, while in
centre of valleys the mud is dominant) formations well developed in both basins. The southern part
of Kakar Khorasan and Makran basins show flysch deposition like Murgha Faqirzai Shale/Hoshab
shale and Mina Formation/Panjgur Formation (green shale and sandstone) while the northern part of
Kakar-Khorasan basin shows both these formations as flysch deposition while the middle-Late
Eocene Shagala (Shaigalu) Formation (sandstone and red to maroon, brown shale and sandstone) as
terrestrial/molase deposits which is supported by continental rhinoceros-baluchithere (Pakitherium
Shagalai)-the largest land mammalian fauna (Malkani and Mahmood 2016b).
CORRELATION OF REVISED STRATIGRAPHIC SET UP (AT GROUP AND
FORMATION LEVEL) OF LOWER, MIDDLE AND UPPER INDUS BASINS
The Upper (Kohat Potwar) Basin represents Precambrian Salt Range Formation (marl, salt and
gypsum), Cambrian Khewra group consists of Khewra (sandstone), Kussak (dolomite, siltstone and
sandstone), Jutana (dolomite) and Baghanwala (red shale alternated with flaggy sandstone) and
Khisor (thick gypsum in the base and shale in the upper part) formations; Early Permian Nilawahan
Group consists of Tobra (Tillitic facies in eastern Salt Range, fresh water facies of siltstone and
shale with pollen and spore flora, and a complex facies of diamictite, sandstone and boulder beds
24
increase in westernsalt range and Khisor range), Warcha (speckled sandstone with some shale,
Dandot is synonym and lateral facies of Warcha) and Sardhi (greenish grey clay with some
sandstone, siltstone and limestone) formations; Late Permian Zaluch Group consists of Amb
(sandstone), Wargal (limestone) and Chidru (shale, quartzose sandstone with minor limestone)
formations. The Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks may extend into Middle Indus (Sulaiman) and
Lower Indus (Kirthar) basins. The Triassic Musakhel Group consists of Mianwali (marl, limestone,
sandstone, siltstone and dolomite), Tredian (terrestrial sandstone) and Kingriali (dolomite, limestone,
dolomitic limestone, marl, sandstone and shale; Chak Jabbi is synonym and lateral facies of
Kingriali) formations. Musakhel Group is correlated with the Khanozai Group of Middle
Indus/Sulaiman and Lower Indus/Kirthar basins. Khanozai Group represents Gwal (shale, thin
bedded limestone) and Wulgai (shale with medium bedded limestone) formations. The Jurassic
Surghar Group comprises of Datta (terrestrial sandstone), Shinawari (shale, limestone) and
Samanasuk (Limestone and minor shale) formations. Surghar Group is correlated with the Sulaiman
Group of Sulaiman and Kirthar basins. Sulaiman Group represents Spingwar (shale, marl and
limestone), Loralai (limestone with minor shale), Chiltan (limestone) and Dilband (ironstone, laterite
and brown beds) formations. The Cretaceous Chichali Group represents Chichali (green shale and
sandstone), Lumshiwal (cross bedded sandstone and shale of continental origin), Kawagarh (marl
and limestone- lateral facies of Lumshiwal Formation in downward slope) and Indus (named by
Malkani and Mahmood 2016a as Indus Formation for laterite and bauxite-pisolitic, oolitic, and green
chamositic/ glauconitic materials, ironstone, ferruginous and quartzose sandstone and claystone and
fire clay) formations. Chichali Group is correlated with the Parh and Fort Munro groups of Sulaiman
and Kirthar basins. Parh Group represents Sembar (shale with a sandstone body), Mekhtar
(sandstone, commonly called lower Goru, exposed only in Mekhtar and Murgha Kibzai areas of
Loralai and Zhob districts), Goru (shale and marl), and Parh (limestone) formations, and Fort Munro
Group represents Mughal Kot (shale/mudstone, sandstone, marl and limestone), Fort Munro
(limestone), Pab (sandstone with subordinate shale) and Vitakri (red muds and greyish white
sandstone) formations.
The Paleocene Hangu Group (named by Malkani and Mahmood 2016b) consists of Hangu
(synonym Patala; shale, sandstone and coal) and Lockhart (relatively fine nodular limestone as
compared to Sakesar limestone) formations. Hangu Group is correlated with the Sangiali Group of
Sulaiman basin and western Kirthar basin and Ranikot Group of eastern Kirthar basin. The western
Kirthar basin belongs to Kirthar range and westward upto western Indus Suture. Western Indus
suture (WIS) is a suture between the Indus and Balochistan basins. The eastern Kirthar basin belongs
to Laki range and eastward upto Nagar Parker Igneous complex. Sangiali Group represents Sangiali
(limestone, glauconitic sandstone and shale), Rakhi Gaj (Girdu member, glauconitic and hematitic
sandstone; Bawata member, alternation of shale and sandstone), and Dungan (limestone and shale)
formations. Ranikot Group represents Khadro (limestone, shale, sandstone and volcanics), Bara (soft
sandstone, shale and coal) and Lakhra (limestone with subordinate shale) formations. The Early
Eocene Nammal Group (named by Malkani and Mahmood 2016b) of Potwar sub-basin and eastern
Kohat sub-basin consists of Nammal (green shale and muds) and Sakesar (coarse nodular/rubbly
limestone) formations. Nammal Group is correlated with the Panoba Group of Kohat sub-basin,
Chamalang/Ghazij Group of Sulaiman basin and also western Kirthar basin and Sohnari Formation
of Laki Group of eastern Kirthar basin. The Panoba Group (named by Malkani and Mahmood
2016b) of western Kohat sub-basin represents Panoba (shale; equivalent to Shaheed Ghat shale of
25
Sulaiman basin), Chashmai (green shale and sandstone; equivalent to Toi Formation of Sulaiman
basin), Gurguri (brown shale and sandstone; equivalent to Kingri Formation of Sulaiman basin),
Shekhan (limestone, shale; equivalent to Drug rubbly limestone of Sulaiman basin), Bahadurkhel
salt and Jatta gypsum. Actually in the western Kohat the stratigraphy of Sulaiman basin is extending.
So the terms of Chamalang/Ghazij and Kahan groups should be used in the western Kohat sub-basin.
Chamalang (Ghazij) Group represents Shaheed Ghat (shale), Toi (sandstone, shale, rubbly limestone
and coal), Kingri (red shale/mud, grey and white sandstone), Drug (rubbly limestone, marl and
shale), and Baska (gypsum beds and shale) formations. Laki Group represents Sohnari (lateritic clay
and shale, yellow arenaceous limestone pockets, ochre and lignitic coal seams) and Laki (limestone
with subordiante shale) formations. The Early-Middle Eocene Kuldana Group (named by Malkani
and Mahmood 2016b) consists of Chorgali (shale and limestone and dolomite) and Kuldana (shale
and marl with minor sandstone, limestone, conglomerate and bleached dolomite) formations.
Kuldana Group is correlated with the Kahan Group of Sulaiman basin and western Kohat sub-basin
and Kirthar Group of western Kirthar basin and Laki Formation (mainly limestone with subordinate
shale) of Laki Group of Laki Range and vicinity areas of eastern Kirthar basin. Kahan Group
represents Habib Rahi (limestone, marl and shale), Domanda (shale with one bed of gypsum), Pir
Koh (limestone, marl and shale) and Drazinda (shale with subordinate marl) formations. The Early
to Middle Eocene Kahan Group consists of Habib Rahi (limestone, marl and shale), Domanda
(shale), Pirkoh (white marl, limestone and shale) and Drazinda (shale) formations, this group is well
exposed in Sulaiman basin and Kohat sub-basin. Kirthar Group represents Kirthar (limestone, marl
and shale) and Gorag (resistant and peak forming limestone with negligible shale and marl in
western Kirthar; limestone with negligible shale and marl in eastern Kirthar) formations. The
Miocene-Pliocene Potwar Group (=Siwalik Group) was named by Malkani and Mahmood 2016b)
include the Chinji (red and maroon muds), Nagri (sandstone) and Dhok Pathan (alternation of
sandstone and red/maroon/brown muds) formations. The Potwar Group is correlated with the middle
and upper part of Vihowa group (except Oligocene Chitarwata Formation) of Sulaiman basin, Gaj
Formation of Gaj Group and whole Manchar Group (Litra and Chaudhwan formations) of Kirthar
basin and Murree Formation of northern Potwar (Murree and surrounding areas and Kala Chita
Range) and southern Azad Kashmir (Muzaffarabad-Kotli-Mirpur). Kamlial formation is included in
the upper part of Murree formation (alternating sandstone and red/maroon mud units). OligocenePliocene Vihowa Group represents Chitarwata (grey ferruginous sandstone, conglomerate and mud),
Vihowa (red ferruginous shale/mud, sandstone and conglomerate), Litra (greenish grey sandstone
with subordinate conglomerate and mud), and Chaudhwan (mud, conglomerate and sandstone)
formations. The Oligocene terrestrial Chitarwata Formation of Sulaiman basin is correlated with the
marine Nari formation of Gaj Group. The terrestrial Vihowa Formation of Sulaiman basin is
correlated with the marine estuarine and subkha type supratidal evaporitic Miocene Gaj Formation
of Gaj Group. The Oligocene-Miocene Gaj Group consists of Oligocene Nari (sandstone, shale,
limestone) and Miocene Gaj (shale with subordinate gypsum, sandstone and limestone) formations.
Late Miocene-Pliocene Manchar Group represents Late Miocene Litra (greenish grey sandstone with
subordinate conglomerate and mud), and Pliocene Chaudhwan (mud, sandstone, conglomerate)
formations. The Pleistocene-Holocene Soan Group (named by Malkani and Mahmood 2016b) for
the Pleistocene coarse clastic Lei (Mirpur/Kakra) Conglomerate (massive conglomerate) and then
Holocene mixed fine and coarse clastic of Soan Formation. Soan Group consists of coarse clastic
with relative to Potwar Group. Soan Group is correlated with the Sakhi Sarwar Group of Sulaiman
26
and Kirthar basins. Sakhi Sarwar Group represents Dada (well developed conglomerate with
subordinate mud and sandstone) and Sakhi Sarwar (poorly developed conglomerate with subordinate
mud and sandstone, while in centre of valleys the mud is dominant) formations (Malkani 2012,
Malkani et al. 2017a,b,c,d). Further correlation at formation level can be seen in Fig.1.
MINERAL RESOURCES OF KIRTHAR BASIN (LOWER INDUS BASIN), PAKISTAN
The Kirthar Basin under the territory of Balochistan Province includes mineral commodities like
Coal, Iron, Fluorite, Sulphur, Building stones, Decorative stones, Marble, Celestite, etc. Mineral
Potential of Kirthar Basin/Lower Indus Basin/Southern Indus Basin under the territory of
Balochistan Province is being described as below (for detail please see the Malkani 2011a):
MINERAL RESOURCES OF WESTERN INDUS SUTURE (WIS; SUTURE BETWEEN
INDUS AND BALOCHISTAN BASINS), BALOCHISTAN PROVINCE
Western Indus Suture consists of ophiolitic, igneous and associated and faulted sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks. So ophiolite related minerals like chromite, asbestos, magnesite, manganese,
iron, barite, fluorite, etc are found. For detail please see the Malkani (2011a), Malkani and Mahmood
(2016a), Malkani et al. (2016) and Malkani et al. (2017) paper/report on Balochistan province and
Pakistan.
MINERAL RESOURCES OF WESTERN KIRTHAR BASIN (KIRTHAR RANGE AND
SURROUNDINGS), BALOCHISTAN PROVINCE
The Western Kirthar Basin under the territory of Balochistan Province includes mineral commodities
like Coal, Iron, Fluorite, Sulphur, Building stones, Decorative stones, Marble, Celestite, etc. These
are briefly described as:
Coal
The Eocene coal is reported from Johan (Kalat District) and Abe Gul (Mastung District) areas,
Paleocene coal from Dureji (Khuzdar-Bela region), Khauri (Khuzdar District) and Rodangi (Kalat
District) areas. The coal of Johan is quite extensive and lenticular, minings were tried many times but
not continued due to thin and discontinuous exposure and security reason. The coal of Abe Gul
(Mastung District is found in Toi Formation on high peak and has very small extension. Further
Malkani and Tariq (1992) reported Paleocene coal in Radangi Formation (limestone with subordinate
shale) of western Shirinab valleyof Kalat district. The Rodangi area shows upto 1 m thick
carbonaceous shale with lenticular nature. Mining was tried but no any successful coal seam was
found (Malkani and Tariq 1992). Kazmi and Abass (2001) reported the coal from Dureji in the
southern Kirthar Foldbelt but details are not provided so far. Malkani (2010f) reported first time the
coal of Khauri locality of Zidi area (Khuzdar District) and here the coal and carbonaceous shale is
about 1 foot thick seam found in the the Tertiary limestone, marl and shale. It is exposed near the
road cut of Khuzdar to Karkh road.
Iron Ore
27
Dilband iron ore found at J/K boundary in the Vicinity of Dilband and Johan area of Mastung, Kalat,
and Bolan and Quetta districts, It is found between the Jurassic Chiltan limestone and Sembar
Formation. It mostly represents and overlaps the Sembar Formation. Abbas et al 1998 has named it
as Dilband Formation. Pakistan has large iron deposits occurring as ironstone and lateritic beds
showing disconformities like Kirthar (lower Indus) foldbelt (Dilband). It is recently discovered by
GSP with considerable economic significance. It is located on the Dilband area just NE of Johan
Village. It is 70km from National Highway and 100km from Kolpur railway station. The ore is found
as J/K boundary with low to gentle dips. The iron horizon is 1-7m thick with an average value of 2m.
Mineralogically it consists of hematite with calcite, quartz and chlorite. It contains 35-48% iron. The
estimated reserves are 200mt. Due its large tonnage, low and gentle dips, favorable location (also
close to Mach and Bibi Nani with belt loading), open cast mining, simple mineralogy and acceptable
grade, it is considered better than other ores in Pakistan (Abbas et al, 1998). It comprises ironstone
ore which is being mined in Europe, North America, Russia and China. The Pakistan Steel Mills
have successfully blended 10% of raw Dilband ore with improved iron ores to produce sinter and pig
iron. Laboratory scale experiments indicate that this ratio can be raised to 15% and possibly upto
70% after beneficiation. Chemical analyses of iron ore represents Fe 45.7-48.03%, FeO 2.30-2.95%,
SiO2 13.7- 14.6%, CaO 2.23-2.4%, MgO 1.6-2.2%, MnO 0.09-0.11%, Al2O3 5.30-6.04%, TiO2
20.32-0.35%, P 0.24-0.34%, Cu 0.01-0.012%, S 0.12-0.19%, Zn 0.07%, Loi 4.5-7.45%. Pakistan
Steel mill is started to use the iron of Dilband area but due to security it was abandoned. So
necessary security arrangement may be provided to develop the Dilband iron ore for Pakistan Steel
and to save the export fundings. In this impmkill In Sindh lateritric clay and ochre, pockets of
limonite and ochre are found in Eocene Sohnari Formation at Lakhra, Meting and Makli hills
(Abbass et al., 1998).
Witherite
It is a barium carbonate with 4.3 specific gravity. It occurs as gange minerals with galena and barite.
It is a source of barium salts and also used for pottery industry. Due to high specific gravity, it can be
used for drilling industry. A deposit of witherite has recently been discovered a few kilometers west
of Deghari in Balochistan. It occurs in veins and lenses in the Jurassic Chiltan limestone and
mineralization extends for about 1 km (Sispal Kella, verbal communication with Kazmi and Abbas,
2001).
Fluorite
The attraction of mineral specimen as distinct from a facetted stone lies in its form and
colour. Mineral specimens do not have to be of gem quality, though the gem crystals that escape
cutting are admittedly most beautiful. In recent years a large and a flourishing market for good
mineral specimen as collector’s items has developed world wide. Attractive violet fluorite crystals
occur in the Koh-Dilband (290 30’N; 660 55’E) fluorite mines in Kalat Division. In the vicinity of
Dilband, the fluorite is reported from Pad Maran, Chah Bali and Dobranzel (Isplinji) areas (Bakr,
1965a; Mohsin and Sarwar, 1980). Fluorite occurs in veins and fractures in the Jurassic Chiltan/Zidi
limestone. The calcite, quartz, barite, etc are the gangue minerals in fluorite veins. Abbas et al.
(1980) estimated 0.1 million tons of fluorite deposit of Dilband-Maran-Phad Maran, District Kalat.
Malkani (2010a) discovered the second largest deposits of fluorite in Pakistan from Loalai
District and surrounding areas in Jurassic Loralai Limestone. New fluorite deposits have been
28
discovered by Malkani (2010a,2011,2012a) from the Jurassic Loralai limestone of Gadebar, Daman
Ghar, tor Thana, Wategam, Mekhtar, Balao, Mahiwal areas of Loralai District, Balochistan Province
(Fig.1a,d). The first largest deposit of fluorite (over 0.1million ton) from Pakistan are located in
Dilband and in its vicinity in Kirthar foldbelt (Bakr 1962, 1965; Mohsin and Sarwar 1974; Abbas et
al., 1980). New fluorite deposits from Loralai regions are the second largest deposits of Pakistan
(Malkani 2010a, 2011, 2012a). The fluorite of Loralai area occurs as veins and as disseminated
grains in fractures and faults which are found in limestone of Loralai Formation of Jurassic age
forming anticlinal core. Fluorite has many colors such as light-yellow, pink, light-grey, blue and
green. Chemical analysis shows CaF2 varies from 95.20-95.40%, CaCO3 from 3.20-3.40% and SiO2
from 1.40-1.44%. Average weight % concentration of Ca is 49%, F is 45%, SiO2 is 2.30%, CuO is
0.5%, Al2O3 is 2%, Fe2O3 is 0.08% and LOI is 1.47%. This type of fluorite can be used for acid
preparation and also as gemstones. The mining is started in Zarah, Tor Thana and Mekhtar (Balao,
Sande, Inde and Zhizhghi) areas. Here the reserves estimated are 50000 tons. Attractive gem quality
fluorite crystals are found in light-green, yellow and light-blue colors from Mekhtar, Wategam Zarah
of Loralai district. The significant area for fluorite exploration is the Jurassic strata of Sulaiman and
Kirthar fold belts and Western Indus Suture (WIS) (Malkani 2010a,2011,2012a).
The third largest deposit of fluorite from Pakistan has been discovered by Malkani
(2002,2004c) and Malkani et al. (2007) from Jurassic Chiltan Limestone of Mula-Zahri Range,
Kirthar foldbelt. Malkani (2002; 2004d) reported 6750 tons of fluorite. Malkani et al. (2007) reported
20,000 tons of fluorite deposit. The main fluorite localities are Koath, Mardan-Jhakkur-Korangani
and adjoining areas of Moola Zahri Range of western Kirthar Basin. Mula Zahri range is located 85
km northeast of Khuzdar town. The base area is accessibile from Khuzdar via mototable track. The
Koath locality is found in the southern part of fluorite bearing Range and Mardan-JhakkurKorangani localities are found in the northern part of fluorite bearing range. Many other localities in
the Mula Zahri range host the fluorite. The fluorite ore areas are on the peak of range which can be
accessed only by footwalk climbing of many hours to two days. The Koath fluorite locality is two
hour climbing from Lakha Pir (the base area on Mula river bank). The Mardan-Jhakkur-Korangani
localities need two days climbing from east and one day climbing from west. The relief of Mula
Zahri range varies from 500m to 2280m. Mula Zahri range is a major anticlinorium trending north
south. The core formation is Jurassic Chiltan/Zidi limestone which is also host of fluorite. Fluorite is
found on and around the hinge line of anticlinorium. Fluorite (CaF2) is the fluxing materials used in
preparation of steel. It used for preparation of HF acid and elemental fluorine. It is being used as
jewelry and gemstones. It is also used for the manufacturing of white and cloured opalescent glass,
paints, as binder for abrasive wheels and carbon electrodes, in pigments, and enameling of cooking
utencils. The colour of fluorite is light green to deep green, bluish grey to pinkish grey, and rarely
brown to pinkish brown. The intensity of bluish grey and dark green fluorite is increasing toward
north. It is transparent to opaque and massive to perfect crystals. So fluorite deposits are in high
demands in Pakistan. Mula Zahri fluorite deposits are the third largest deposits of fluorite in Pakistan
after the first Dilband and second Loralai deposits. The fluorite occurs in veins and fracture fillings
showing clearly formed by hydrothermal activities. The individual vein varies in width from few
centimeters to half meter and length varies from 10 to 50m. The chemical analyses show CaF2
content varies from 95.20 to 96.50%. The ore contains about 60% fluorite. The gangue mineral of
fluorite ore is calcite. No detailed exploratory work is done, however the estimated deposts of
fluorite from Koath and Mardan-Jhakkur-Korangani is about 20,000 tons (upto 50 m easy mineable
29
depth). The other localities of fluorite from Mula Zahri Range are Kil, Chinoka, Bhai Jov, Patham,
Hanjiri, Bilawal, Zardak, etc. Further the other areas having best exposures of Chiltan limestones like
Saplao, Siah Koh, Patk, Gazg, Nagau, etc areas are significant for further exploration of fluorite and
also overlying iron of Dilband Formation. Further exploration in Jurassic Chiltan/Zidi limestone of
Kirthar basin, Chiltan/Takatu and Loralai limestones of Sulaiman basin and Samanasuk limestones
of Kohat-Potwar basin are promising for exploration of fluorite, trackways of reptiles (dinosaurs,
pterosaurs, crocodiles, etc) and birds, and petroleum.
Celestite
The celestite nodules are commonly found in Eocene Kirthar (limestone shale) and Gorag (mainly
resistant peak forming limestone) formations of Kirthar Group of Karkh area (Malkani, 2010a;2012;
Malkani and Mahmood 2016b). The Kirthar foldbelt have wide exposures of Eocene Kirthar and
Gorag formations of Kirthar Group. As the Kirthar Group is correlative to upper Laki limestone and
also Tiyon limestone which are also the host of Thano Bula Khan celestite deposits.
Sulphur
Sanni (south of Dhadhar) and Koh-i-Sultan (near Nokkundi) in Balochistan is the main sulphur
localities. Sanni deposit is located in the foothills of Kirthar Range in the south of Dhadhar town.
The Sanni deposit (280 02’N; 670 27’E) is about 20km to the SW of Sanni Village. It is 60km west of
Bellpat railway station and reached from there by a dirt road which passes through Bagh and Shoran.
The mine was active to the prior to the visit of C. Massn in 1943. In 1888 the mine caught fire and
collapsed. The shortage of sulphur early in World War II promoted the Geological Survey of India to
reopen the mine. Seven audits were started and works abandoned at 1942 due to caving ground and
poor ventilations. Three beds of sulphur totaling 20feet in thickness and containing from 32-68%
sulphur were described by Krishnaswamy in 1941. Each bed is separated by 15feet of sandstone.
Cotter (1919) estimated an ore bed 11 feet thick and 1700,000 square feet in area and calculated
36,000 tons of ore allowing 25% for mining losses. An estimate (HSC, 1961) of 18,000 tons of
reserves was based on an assumed extent of ore 200 feet from the face of the hill having thicknes of
10 feet. The ore is controlled by competence of beds. The sulphur is confined to porous and
breecciated zones, joints and bedding planes in soft argillaceous sandstone. The tar or martha was
noted in the lower working representing a genetic association of petroleum and sulphur. The
hydrogen sulphide gas migrated and deposited by oxygen bearing water precipitated sulphur. The
gypsum bearing Eocene limestone probably underlies the area. A gypsum layer 3-4feet thick overlies
the sulphur formation at Sanni. Sulphur occurs as veins or as replacement of sandstone matrix in the
Nari Formation. The ore contains 45% sulphur and the reserves are estimated at about 58,000 tons
(Muslim, 1973a). Following minor showings of sulphur are also reported. Laki Sulphur deposit (260
16’N; 670 57’E) was described by Vicary (1847) around the vicinity of hot spring near the town of
Laki (Nagell, 1965). Gokurt sulphur deposit (290 33’N; 670 28’E) was reported by Tipper (1909) in
the Bolan Pass in massive limestone of Late Cretaceous age. HSC (1961) shows the deposits in the
Eocene limestone. It is 50km north of Sunni sulphur deposit.
Buildings, Construction and Decorative Stones
Large reserves of recrystallised limestone and marble occur widely in the western Kirthar range and
now it is being used from the near road Kirthar range. Marble or Zidi limestone (Chiltan limestone)
30
deposits are found in Goru and other areas of Mula Zahri range, Khuzdar district. Further Paleocene
Dungan limestone of Karkh, Mandhre Jove (best deposit) and Moola-Zahri (Mula Zahri) ranges,
Khuzdar District, Balochistan. Several varieties of fossiliferous limestone of Jurassic to Eocene
sequences in various parts of western Kirthar are being mined and marketed under different names.
During 1997-98 about 344,000 tonnes of marble was produced. The private sector exclusively deals
with the production, processing and marketing of marble and other decorative stones.
Gemstone and Jewelry Resources
Gemstones and jewelry resources are growing rapidly in Balochistan. Gemstones and jewelry
resources like jasper, chert, flint, onyx, fluorite, etc production is growing rapidly in Balochistan.
Thick jasper, chert beds upto 1 meter thick and beautiful calcite veins upto 1 m thick are found in
Jurassic limestone of the southern part of western range of Khad Kucha valley, District Mastung and
also found in Goru and Parh limestone in Western Indus suture and also Khuzdar areas. The chert,
flint, Jasper, etc are found in the conglomerate, gritstone, conglomeratic sandstone of OligoceneHolocene detritial rocks.
Others
Phosphate from Pabni Dhora to Shah (Lasbela area) (Kazmi and Abbas, 2001) and celestite in
Eocene Kirthar and Gorag formations of Kirthar Group of Karkh area (Malkani, 2010) have been
reported. The Kirthar foldbelt have some valleys and plain areas inside, suitable for dam
construction, and also fore deep (Daman) of Kirthar foldbet which have much barren areas, indicate
for urgent dams construction. The Dams on Mula and Gaj Nalas are urgent demand due to
population increase and also having barren areas for water utilization. Ahmad (1962) reported the
bituminous residues known as Salajeet were found in some parts of the Pab Sandstone in the
Khuzdar region
MINERAL RESOURCES OF EASTERN KIRTHAR BASIN (LAKI RANGE AND
SURROUNDINGS), SINDH PROVINCE
The Kirthar basin consists of Kirthar fold belt in the west and Sindh plain in the east. The eastern
part of Kirthar fold belt is situated under the Territory of Sindh Province and western part is situated
under the territory of Balochistan Province. The Sindh plain is located under the territory of Sindh
Province. Mineral Potential of Kirthar Basin/Lower Indus Basin/Southern Indus Basin under the
territory of Sindh provinces is being described as below:
Metallic and Non-Metallic Mineral Resources
Abrasives
Abrasive type red ochre is found in Eocene Sohnari beds, nodular flints between Rohri and Kot diji;
in west of Jhol Dhaund, around Harmon Mohatta coal mine west of Sohnari Dhand (west of
Jhimpir), west of Ongar Jhol Dhand (north of Thatta) and Sohnari 15km east of Jhimpir; Grity Pab
sandstone of Khadro and Bara areas (can be used for abrasive purposes); Quartz deposits of
Cretaceous Pab Formation from eastern slope of Lakhi range district Dadu (Ahmad 1969).
31
Alum, Trona (Source of Na) and Potash Salts
Alum, Trona (source of Na) and potash salts associated with rock salt deposits and lakes are found in
the vicinity of Sindh coastal areas (Malkani and Mahmood 2016a). Alum from pyritiferous shales of
Gajbeds from Maki Nai, shales of Ranikot group and Nari/Gaj group and at Shah Hassan near Trimi
(Heron 1954).
Celestite
The Thano Bula Khan celestite deposits occur as celestite-calcite veins along a major fault in the
Eocene Laki Formation in the northern vicinity of Thano Bula Khan. The ore contains 98.75% SrSo 4
and the reserves are 320,000 tones (Moosvi 1973).
Gypsum
Gypsum has multi-uses like soil conditioning, cement resources, construction materials, etc. Alizai et
al. (2000) reported 10.4mt gypsum in three beds ranging in thickness from 0.33 to 0.93m occurs in
Oligocene-Miocene Gaj shales near Johi and Khairpur Nathan Shah areas of Dadu district. Gypsum
upto 1m thick are found at many places in Thar Desert.
Heavy Mineral Concentrates
Tungston/sheelite, gold and other heavy mineral concentrates (magnetite, ilmenite, garnet, epidote,
zircon, tourmaline, amphibole/hornblende and tremolite, apatite, pyroxene, etc) from placer in the
Indus River and molase rocks like Vihowa group, Manchar group and recent sea; Zircon from the
shore areas, gold (can be explored) from Nagar Parker and Indus placer.
Iron Ore
Iron, laterite and ochre reported from Lakhra, Meting and Makli hills, Nagar Parker, Jhal Dhand,
Sohnari Dhand, and Noriabad (Ahsan 2006); Nari Formation and in Manchar/Vihowa group in the
eastern Kirthar foldbelt; in Sindh lateritic clay and ochre, pockets of limonite and ochre are found in
Eocene Sohnari Formation at Lakhra, Meting and Makli hills (Kazmi and Abbas 2001).
Pyrite
Pyrite is found as disseminated in carbonaceous shale and coal strata at different places.
Gemstone and Jewelry Resources
Gemstones like agate and chalcedony from Nagar Parker, chert, flint and Jasper from Vihowa
group/Manchar group especially from the conglomerate, gritstone, conglomeratic sandstone of
Manchar/Vihowa group of eastern Kirthar and Lakhi range and other areas. So far flint stone is
being produced from Sindh.
Agromineral Resources
These may be found in Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments of Kirthar fold belt regions.
Cement Raw Material Resources
32
Cement raw materials like limestones and shales of different age are found as large quantity in Sind
Province while gypsum deposits are very small and limited. However very large/ huge deposits of
gypsum (Malkani 2010a,2011a; Malkani and Mahmood 2016a) are found in Sulaiman Foldbelt
which is located just north of Sindh Province.
Ceramic Mineral Resources
Clays/shales are used in earthenware works, brick making, mud houses, etc. Practically clays depend
upon physical properties and specific test must be made for specific requirements. Chemical
analyses have little value for the quality and its use. Ball clay is being produced from Sindh. Various
types of Clay deposits are found in Chamalang/Ghazij, Kahan, Kirthar and Vihowa/Manchar
groups. Ceramic Mineral Resources/clays found from Laki, Kirthar and Vihowa/Manchar groups;
China clay from Nagar Parkar and Islamkot Thar, Dhed Vero, Parodhoro, Karkhi, Dungri, Motijo,
Vandio, Ramji-jo-Vandio, and Didwa-Surachand areas; China clays from Nagar Parker area;
fuller’s earth from Thano Bulla Khan (Dadu district) and Shadi Shahid (Khairpur; near Jheruk and
Rohri and at Begamji; fire clay from Dadu district, Sohnari Dhand/Jhimpir; Laki group, Ranikot
group and Vihowa/Manchar group of eastern Kirthar Foldbelt;
China Clay
It is formed due to alteration of feldspars. It is used in the manufacture of tablewares, sanitary
fittings, tiles and electric insulators, paper filling and special type of cement. GSP has discovered
and studied in detail the Shah Dheri, Nagar Parkar and Islamkot deposits (Moosvi et al., 1974; Kella,
1983; Griffith, 1987; Jafry undated). In Nagar Parker it occurs as several large pockets which occur
in a plain area at shallow depths a few cm to 2m depth. The deposits are largely covered by a thin
cover of soil. Deposits occur at Dhed Vero, Parodhoro, Karkhi, Dungri, Motijo, Vandio, Ramji-joVandio, and Didwa-Surachand area. Laboratory studies have shown that the alteration of feldspar
into kaolinite is complete. It is coarse grained and 31-40% particle are below 3 microns and 12.3 to
19.1% below 2 microns. X-Ray analysis shows that the Kaolinite and quartz are the major
constituents with some gypsum, calcite, and dolomite, with traces of zircon, rutile, hematite and
amphiboles. Different thermal analyses show a large exothermic peak between 970 0 C and 9900
further confirming that kaolinite is the major constituents. The measured reserves are 3.6mt (Kella,
1983). The Nagar clay contains upto 2.56% CaO, which is however reduced to1.31% on washing.
The raw and washed chemical composition of Nagar Parker China Clay deposit show SiO 2 66.46%,
46.06%; Fe2 O3 0.38%, 0.85%; TiO2 0.86%, not analyzed; Al2 O3 21.57%, 35.70%; CaO 2.56%,
1.31%; MgO 0.34%, 0.34%; Na2 O 0.05%, 0.15%; K20 0.21%, 0.21%, and loss on ignition 14.23%
respectively (Griffith, 1987). Beneficiation studies show that the Nagar clay separates easily from
quartz, calcite, dolomite, gypsum, etc by simple washing and there is high recovery of kaolinite 8895% when sieved through 240 mesh. Drilling for evaluation of Thar coal has revealed large deposits
of China clay in Islamkot area. The clay occurs in beds 0.4m to 7.1m thick, overlying and underlying
the coal beds. The clay has been encountered at depth 133 to 201m. The estimated reserves are 20mt
in Islamkot area (Jafry, undated; Kazmi and Abbas 2001). Smaller deposits found from Dir, Hazara
and Gilgit also. So far China clay is being produced from KPK and Sindh.
Fire Clay
33
It is resistant to shrinkage, abrasion and corrosion under high temperature and withstands thermal
spalling. It is very low in iron oxide content <2% and high in alumina (24-45%). It is mostly
associated with the coal bearing strata. It is also found from Dadu district. These are residual
sedimentary deposits generally found at the base of Eocene Sohnari Formation of Laki group from
Sindh.
Fuller’s Earth/ Bentonite
It was formerly used for fulling or cleaning woolen fabrics and cloth, its absorbent properties
causing it to remove greasy and oily matters. Its modern use is reefing of oil and fats. It is nonplastic,
greenish grey, bluish grey and greenish brown clay with soapy feel. It is use for fulling valued for its
decolorizing and purifying properties. The Khairpur deposits show SiO2 49.6%, 46.20%; Fe2 O3
6.66%, 8.76%; Al2 O3 11.94%, 22.86%; CaO 9.12%, 2.43%; MgO 3.13%, 1.94%; Na2 O 0.25%,
1.25%; K20 1.94%, 2.62%; and loss on ignition 16.18% and 12.65% respectively (Ahmad et al.,
1987). In Sindh the Thano Bulla Khan (Dadu district) and Shadi Shahid (Khairpur) is main
producer. Fuller’s earth is formed in the flood plains of Tertiary river channels which also deposited
coal in Pakistan. In recent years it is being utilized in oil refining and other industries in the country.
With activation this clay may be used in vegetable oil and ghee industries. It is also being used in
insecticide, foundries and steel industries. Its demands are being increased. It is being produced from
Punjab, Sindh and KPK.
Silica Sand
It is used as an abrasive, for the manufacture of glass and some chemicals. It is used in refractory, in
sinter and allied complexes of steel mills and has metallurgical applications. Quartzose sand free of
impurities is used as silica sand or glass sand. Silica sand is found from Meting to Jhimpir railway
stations and in Eocene and Oligocene strata near Thano Bula Khan in Dadu district and Jangshahi
deposits. Large deposits of silica sands are found in the Eocene and Oligocene strata near Thano
Bula Khan in Dadu district. Pakistan steel alone used 80,000 tons annually from Thano Bula Khan.
The demand of silica sand is likely to increase in the production of iron and steel and with expansion
of glass and other user industries (Kazmi and Ahmad 2001).
Construction, Dinension and Decorative Stone Resources
Large reserves of limestone/marble occur widely in the Kirthar and Laki ranges and now it is being
used from the near road Kirthar range. Several varieties of fossiliferous limestone of Paleocene to
Eocene sequences in various parts of Sindh are being mined and marketed under different names.
During 1097-98 about 344,000 tones of marble was produced. The private sector exclusively deals
with the production, processing and marketing of marble and other decorative stones. large
Construction stone, dolomite and Industrial rocks Resources from Jurassic to Eocene sequences in
Kirthar and Lakhi ranges, Thar and Cholistan desert; different type of granites and other Igneous
along with some metamorphic rocks from Nagar Parker,
Coal Resources-Promising Subsurface Extension
Pakistan is ranked 7th internationally regarding lignitic coal reserves but unluckily importing coal.
Due to energy crises and increasing population it is vital to discover new coalfields in order to meet
requirements. Coal deposits are extensively developed in all the four provinces of Pakistan and also
34
Azad Kashmir. Coal from different areas of Pakistan generally ranges from lignite to high volatile
bituminous. These coals are friable, with relatively high content of ash and sulphur. As a result of
research by Malkani in 2012 the total coal reserves of Pakistan are increased upto 186,282.43
million tones/mt due to some extensions of previous coalfields and also many new coalfields of
Balochistan. Due to recent research by Malkani and Mahmood in early 2016 the total coal reserves
of Pakistan increased upto 186,288.05mt with break up as Sind 185457mt, Balochistan 458.72mt,
Punjab 235mt, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 126.74mt and Azad Kashmir 10.59 mt. Pakistan has huge coal
reserves of 186,288.05 mt. Out of which 3479.86mt are proved, 12023.93mt are indicated,
56951.96mt are inferred and 113832.30mt are hypothetical. The bulk of coal reserves are found
more than 99% in Sind Province and more than 94% in Thar coalfields of Sind. In Sind it occurs in
Sonda-Thatta (3700mt), Lakhra (1328mt), Indus East (1777mt), Badin (850mt), Meting-Jhimpir
(161mt), Jheruck (1823mt) Ongar (312mt) and Thar (175506mt, which is one of the largest
coalfields in the world). The summary of coal quality and quantity are shown in Table 1.
Thar Coalfields
Thar coalfield is among the largest coalfields of world. Thar Coalfields host 175,506mt which puts
Pakistan amongst the 7th largest lignite deposits of world. This coalfield is spread over 9000 km2
with 140km N-S and 65km E-W extension (40L/1, 2, 5, 6). About 410km metalled road upto Mithi
from Karachi via Hyderabad-Mirpurkhas-Naukot and also via Thatta-Badin-Naukot to Mithi is
available. From Mithi to the coalfield, sandy track is covered by 4*4 vehicles. The area is semi arid
with low rainfall. The coalfield rests on Pre-Cambrian shield rocks and is covered by sand dunes.
The coal thickness varies from 0.20-22.81m. There are maximum 20 coal seams. The most common
depth is 150-203m. The overburden varies from 114-245m above the top coal seam. The claystone is
the roof and floor rock. There are 4 blocks. The reserves of Block-I show 3566mt with detail as
620mt measured, 1918mt indicated and 1028 inferred. Block-II shows 1584mt with 640mt measured
and 944mt indicated whereas Block-III shows 2006mt with 411mt measured, 1337mt indicated and
258mt inferred reserves. Finally, Block-IV shows 2559 mt with 637mt measured, 1640mt indicated
and 282mt inferred reserves with rest of Thar coalfield showing 165,791mt with a detail of 392mt
measured, 3556mt indicated and 49138mt inferred reserves. The grand total of Thar coalfield
reserves is 175,506mt with 2700mt measured, 9395mt indicated, 50706 inferred, 112,705mt
hypothetical reserves. The coal is formed from herbaceous plants (reed), does not reveal a warm
climate in the past and also indicate little fluctuation in water-table. The low ash and low sulphur
show raised peat bogs and acidic environments. The marine fossils interfingerings with terrestrial
coal show transgression and regressions of sea. The drainage pattern was smaller and delta was
reworked by waves to produce barriers for broad peat blankets. The thick coal seam with low ash
and sulphur indicate stable upper delta environments (Ghaznavi, 2002).
Lakhra Coalfield
Coal from Lakhra Sindh is found in 1853 by Baloch Nomads. Lakhra Coalfields (Dadu district)
shows 1.3bt of coal discovered by GSP. The coal is found in the Paleocene Bara Formation. The
environment is marine, lacustrine, estuarine, deltaic and lagoonal deposits containing plant fossils
and carbonaceous beds at several horizons (Ghaznavi, 2002). The coal is found in the gentle Lakhra
anticline. All the coal is found in shallow depth 50 to 150m. The beds are faulted with 1.5-9m
dislocation. A large number of coal seams are encountered in drill hole but only 3 coal seams namely
35
Dhanwari, Lalian and Kath are significant. The Lailan seam has persistent thickness (0.75-2.5m with
aver. 1.5m) for mining. About 369 drill holes have been drilled so far. This coal has high contents of
ash and sulphur. Most of the sulphur is pyritic (70%) whereas 25% is organic. Rank of coal is lignite
B to sub bituminous C. Its heating value varies 5503-9452 (mmmf). The coal is dull black and
contains a lot of resin. The moisture content is 27%. It is often susceptible to spontaneous
combustion. Ahmed et al. (1986) estimated 300mt. Ghaznavi (2002) estimated 1,328mt with 244mt
measured, 629mt indicated and 455mt inferred. Mineable reserves are 60% of the measured reserves.
The coal is being used for brick kiln, power generation and cement factories.
Sonda-Thatta Coalfields
Sonda-Thatta Coalfields (Thatta district) are located east and west of Indus River. It shows two
horizons of coal. The lower coal horizon belongs to Bara Formation and upper coal horizon belongs
to Sohnari Formation of Laki group. Most of the coal deposits are of Bara Formation. 10 coal zones
have been recognised. Each zone shows 1-5 coal seams which are 5-10m apart with 0.5-15m
thickness of each zone. The maximum coal thickness is 2.40m and minimum coal thickness is
0.07m. Sohnari Formation shows a few relatively thin (09.34m) coal seams. It is deposited in lower
delta plain with reed marsh in oxic-anoxic conditions. The swamp seams indicate low water-table
with dry and high degradational environments in the past. These coalfields show in place total
resources (alongwith Ongar and Indus east) of about 5,789mt with 129mt measured, 758mt indicated
and 4902mt inferred reserves. Whilst resources with 0.6m cut off grade is 3766mt with detail as
85mt measured, 495mt indicated and 3186mt inferred. The Jherruk area show thickest coal seams
and is the extension of Sonda coalfield. The total resources of Jherruk block is 1.8mt and over 1.2bt
with 0.6m cut off grade. The resources of Jherruk block is 1823mt with 106mt measured, 810mt
indicated and 907mt inferred whereas the reserves are (0.6m cut off grade) 1282mt with 75mt
measured, 572mt indicated and 635mt inferred.
Jherruck Coalfields
Jherruck Coalfields show reserves of 1823mt, whilst those at Ongar Coalfields, Indus East
Coalfields and Badin Coalfields have reserves of 312mt, 1777m and 850mt, respectively.
Meting-Jhimpir Coalfields
Meting-Jhimpir Coalfields (Thatta district) is 125km east of Karachi on the vicinity of Meting and
Jhimpir railway stations. Railway line runs on the western limit of the Karachi-Hyderabad highway
limit with the eastern boundary of coalfields. It is found in the Early Eocene Sohnari Formation of
Laki group. There is 1 coal seam (0.3-1m with aver 0.6m) which is thin and lenticular. The dips are
gentle with 100 west, the ash and sulphur contents are relatively low, ranks are lignite A to sub
bituminous C whilst the composition splits into moisture at 26.6-36.6%, volatile matter at 25.2-34%,
fixed carbon between 24.1 and 32.2%, ash at 8.2-16.8, sulphur 2.9-5.1% and heating value 67257660BTU/lb (Ahmed et al. 1986) with total reserves of 161mt detailed as 10mt measured, 43mt
indicated and 108mt inferred reserves. Small scale mining is in progress.
Petroleum Resources
Asia contains 75% of oil and 78% of global gas reserves. The Asian reserves are however
concentrated in the Middle Eastern countries around the Persian Gulf where 65% of the world
36
known reserves are located and other Asian countries have 10% of global oil reserves. The other
continents have 25% oil reserves while Asia alone has 75% (Siddiqui, N.K. 2004)”. Petroleum is
known from Kohat area of Pakistan since 1833. First well was drilled at Kundal in Khisor range
(KP) during 1866, soon followed by borings near Khattan (Balochistan). The first commercial oil
discovery was done in 1920 when Attack Oil Company discover the Khaur oil field in Potwar
Plateau. In 1879 survey for petroleum in Punjab reported many oil seepage (Heron and Crookshank
1954). Since early to now many oil and gas seepage have been reported in various localities of
Punjab, KP, Sindh and Balochistan. In the early oil shows were considered significant for petroleum
exploration though now lost their importance, they are still of interest to search for petroleum
(Kazmi and Abbas 2001). Oil resources are frequently being developed from upper Indus basin,
while gas resources are being developed from middle and lower Indus basin. The 716 exploratory
wells with 213 discoveries, 67 of oil and 146 of gas and condensate have been drilled until July 2008
(Energy year book 2008). Giants gas fields are Sui, Mari, Uch and Qadir Pur, Majors are Pir Koh
and Khairpur.
Indus Basin (533,500 km2) subdivided in to northernmost (uppermost) Indus, northern
(upper) Indus, Central/middle Indus and southern/lower Indus basins. The rectangle shape Sulaiman
Basin is the largest basin of main Indus Basin and consists of more than 170,000 km2, while the
triangle shape Kirthar basin more than 120,000 km2, square shape Kohat and Potwar basin more than
100,000 km2and almost square shape Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basin more than 100,000 km2. The
Western Indus Suture (Lasbela-Khuzdar-Quetta-Muslimbagh-Zhob-Waziristan-Kuram) and
Northern Indus Suture (Mohmand-Swat-Besham-Sapat-Chila-Haramosh-Astor-Shontar-Burzil PassKargil), Kirana and Nagar Parkar areas show more than 50,000 km2.
Kirthar Basin (Southern/lower Indus) consists of exposed Mesozoic to recent rocks
(Malkani 2010a,2012k; Malkani and Mahmood 2016b) more than 15km thick. However the Nagar
Parker area contains Precambrain Ignesous rocks of Indo-Pak shield. Kirthar basin consists of
Kirthar fold and thrust belts, Jacobabad-Khairpur high/horst (Sukkur Rift), Kirthar depressions and
Sindh monocline. The main reservoir rocks in Sindh monocline are Cretaceous Mekhtar
Sandstone/Mekhtar Formation (Lower Goru sandstone) and from Karachi Depressions production is
from Paleocene Ranikot group limestone and sandstone. The Cretaceous Mekhtar
Sandstone/Mekhtar Formation (commonly called lower Goru sandstone) was named by Malkani
(2010a) as member but Malkani and Mahmood (2016b) upgraded it as Mekhtar Formation (Mekhtar
Sandstone) for sandstone well exposed in Mekhtar (Loralai District) and Murgha Kibzai (District
Zhob), Balochistan (Sulaiman foldbelt). It is found in subsurface in Sindh as Lower Goru sandstone.
In Kirthar depressions and Jacobabad-Khairpur high/Sukkur rift zone it may be from Eocene Habib
Rahi and Paleocene Dungan limestone. This basin contains best reservoir (sandstone/limestone),
source (mostly shale) and cap rocks (shale) briefly mentioned here. Triassic Khanozai Group
represents Gwal (shale, thin bedded limestone) and Wulgai (shale with medium bedded limestone)
formations. Jurassic Sulaiman Group represents Spingwar (shale, marl and limestone),
Loralai/Anjira (limestone with minor shale), Chiltan (Zidi/Takatu; limestone) and Dilband (iron
stone) formations. Early Cretaceous Parh Group represents Sembar (shale with a sandstone body),
Mekhtar (sandstone, commonly called lower Goru), Goru (shale and marl), and Parh (limestone)
formations. Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group represents Mughal Kot (shale/mudstone,
sandstone, marl and limestone), Fort Munro (limestone), Pab (sandstone with subordinate shale) and
Vitakri (red muds and greyish white sandstone) formations. Paleocene Sangiali Group in the
37
western Kirthar represents Sangiali (limestone, sandstone, shale with common bivalves), Rakhi Gaj
(sandstone and shale) and Dungan (limestone and shale) formations. Paleocene Ranikot Group in
the eastern Kirthar basin (Laki and surroundings) represents Khadro (limestone, sandstone, shale and
volcanics), Bara (soft sandstone, shale and coal) and Lakhra (limestone with subordinate shale)
formations. Early Eocene Chamalang (Ghazij) Group in the western Kirthar represents Shaheed
Ghat (shale), Toi (sandstone, shale, rubbly limestone and coal), Kingri (red shale/mud, grey and
white sandstone), Drug (rubbly limestone, marl and shale), and Baska (gypsum beds and shale)
formations. Early Eocene Laki Group in the eastern Kirthar basin (Laki range and surroundings)
represents Sohnari (lateritic clay and shale, yellow arenaceous limestone pockets, ochre and lignitic
coal seams) and Laki (limestone with subordinate shalel) formations. Early-Middle Eocene Kirthar
Group represents Kirthar (limestone, marl and shale) and Gorag (resistant and peak forming
limestone with negligible shale and marl) formations. Oligocene-Miocene Gaj Group represents
Oligocene Nari (sandstone, shale, limestone) and Miocene Gaj (shale with subordinate sandstone
and limestone) formations. Late Miocene-Pliocene Manchar Group represents Late Miocene Litra
(greenish grey sandstone with subordinate conglomerate and mud), and Pliocene Chaudhwan (mud,
sandstone and conglomerate) formations. Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group represents
Dada (well developed conglomerate with subordinate mud and sandstone) and Sakhi Sarwar
Formation (poorly developed conglomerate with subordinate mud and sandstone, while in centre of
valleys the mud is dominant) which are concealed in the valleys and plain areas by the
Subrecent/Recent fluvial, eolian and colluvial deposits. Thar and some coastal consists of eolian
sand dune deposits.
Radioactive Mineralresources
The primary (uranium, may be thorium, etc) and secondary (uranophane, metatyuyamunite,
carnotite, etc) are found in fluviatile cross bedded sandstones/placer of Vihowa/Manchar group, as
derived from igneous rocks of northern Pakistan.
Geothermal Energy Resources
Some hot springs may be found in Kirthar foldbelt but not economic so far.
Water Resources and Dam Constructions
Water resources of the Sindh Province are too much but needs its utilization. It has many valleys and
plain areas inside, have many larger fans and surrounding plain lands for cultivation, suitable for
many smaller and also larger dam construction, and also fore deep (Daman) of Kirthar foldbelts
which have much barren areas, demands for urgent dams construction. Many gorges are also suitable
for smaller dam for water storage for cultivation and population which can play best for the
development of the area. In short, the barren areas can be converted into cultivation and vegetation
by some efforts. Water resources wasting as flood suggests for small dams construction especially in
Kirthar and its Daman areas which holds its vast plain areas. Water resources have also large
potential in alluvial and bed rocks (Malkani 2012a).
Natural Resources
The minerals, coal, oil, natural gas, etc are non-renewable resources while the solar, air/wind,
terrestrial water, marine water/ocean, tides, waves, current, land, biomass, etc are renewable
38
(recycled) resources. It is our urgent need to convert the non conventional energy resources into
conventional energy resources. Kirthar land is receiving huge amount of energy from sun. The
coastal areas have high potential of wind energy. Gravitational force of moon produces tidal energy
in sea which can be converted in energy by the construction of dams which can store water at high
tides and release water at low tides. Sindh has a long sea shore from Nagar Parker to west of
Karachi. Energy from sea waves can also be benefited by stable and non stable plate’s movements.
Sindh also has a large waste biomass.
MINERAL RESOURCES OF INDUS OFFSHORE
Pakistan has a long sea with Indus and Makran onshore and offshore regions. The Indo-Pak Sea and
their offshore can be explored for economic minerals. The sea mund may be explored for manganese
nodules containing zinc, copper, silica, nickel, cobalt and phosphates. According to Roonwal (1986)
the common salt, magnesium and bromine have long been extracted from sea water. Sand and
gravel, tin bearing sands, magnetite sands and calcium carbonate are already being mined.
According to Roonwal (1986) as traditional mineral deposits become depleted and technological
developments make ocean mining more feasible. In sea there is no need of removing overburden.
The marine minerals are open deposits lying on sea floor and continental slopes, etc. The shallow sea
contains relatively large thichness of placers while the deep sea which contains very low thickness of
muds. The sea beds of Indian ocean contains a variety of exploitable resources ranging from beach
sand and gravel, through heavy minerals associated with beach deposits of phosphorite and
manganese nodules to subsurface petroleum reserves. The marine minerals may be explored by
simple technology like under water photography, inexpensive coring and sampling. The manganese
nodule survey need a simple free ball grabs system for sampling, estimating and photographing. The
methods are available for shallow areas while deep water areas need special technology. The marine
minerals are present in all parts of the ocean while metallic minerals containg zinc, lead, copper,
cobalt, nickel occur in mid oceanic ridge systems and deep ocean plains away from continents. The
smelter for these deposits is also worth. The Pacific floor is estimated 1.5 trillion tons of manganese
nodules which are also rich in copper, cobalt, nickel, and other metals (Roonwal 1986). Likwise
Indo-Pak ocean floor may have also significant manganese nodules, so try should be made. In many
cases both onshore and offshore can yield best results.
MINERAL RESOURCES OF NAGAR PARKER (A REMNANT OF INDO-PAK SHIELD),
SINDH PROVINCE
Potash/Orthoclase Feldspar
It is associated with acidic group while sodic feldspar is associated with intermediate and basic
group. It is used in ceramic and glass industry. The potash and sodic feldspar occur widespread in
Nagar Parker area of southeastern Sindh Province.
Construction, Dinension and Decorative Stone Resources
Different type and varicolour granites and other plutonic igneous (dolerite, etc) along with some
metamorphic rocks are found in Nagar Parker Igneous Complex area (Jan 2016; verbal
39
communication of Principal author with Qasid Jan) which are significant for construction and
dimension stone resources.
INSTALLATION OF MUSEUMS, GLOBAL AND NATIONAL GEOPARKS-AN
INNOVATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF PROVINCES AND PAKISTAN
Pakistan has wonderfully exposed diverse tectonic elements like convergent collision of IndoPakistan with Asia (continent-continent collision), Chaman-Uthal regional transform fault and active
subduction like convergent of Arabian sea plate with Balochistan basin of Tethys sea plate, different
types of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, sedimentary rocks and minerals, typical
sedimentary and tectonic structures, diverse topography like sea coast in the south, plain areas in the
central east, some world class peaks in the north. Pakistan includes Gondwanan, Laurasian and
Tethyan heriaege. So its paleontology, paleobiogeography, geodynamics and tectonic evolution are
critical among world scientists because its Indus Basin was attached to Gondwana in the past but
now connected with Asia. Pakistan is museum for many significant invertebrates and vertebrates.
We should construct large museums with bones where the national and international researchers,
students and visitors can access easily. The world scientists take interest to work in Pakistan and our
students get abroad higher studies scholarship, all these go to the development of Pakistan. The
recent finding of fossils of walking whales (Gingerich et al. 2001) and basilosaurids-king of the
basal whale (Malkani et al. 2013), baluchitheres-the largest land mammals (Malkani et al. 2013),
dinosaurs and mesoeucrocodiles (Malkani and Anwar 2000; Malkani et al. 2001; Malkani 2003,
2004e, 2006a,b,c, 2007b,c,d,e, 2008a,b,c,d,e, 2009a,b,c,d,e, 2010a,b,c,d,e,f, 2011b,c, 2012f,g,h,i,j,
2013c,d,e,f,g,h,i, 2014c,d,e,f,g, 2015b,c,d,e,f,g, 2016c,d; Malkani and Sun 2016; Wilson 2010;
Wilson et al. 2001,2005), pterosaurs (2013c, 2014d, 2015c), many footprints and trackways of small
and large theropods and herd of titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs (Malkani
2007a,2008a,2014c,2015c,d,e,f), first trackways of titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs from Asia
found from Pakistan (Malkani 2007, 2008a, 2015c,d,e,f), articulated atlas-axis of titanosaurs
(Malkani 2008b), first osteoderms of titanosaurs reported in Asia found from Pakistan (Malkani
2003b,2010c,2015c,g,h), large proboscideans and other vertebrates (Malkani 2014e,2015c; Malkani
and Sun 2016; Raza and Meyer 1984, etc) from Pakistan are unique gifts for the world.
40
Chronostratigraphy
Chronostratigraphy
Age Eastern&Western
Kirthar
(Lower Indus) Sulaiman (Middle Indus) Kohat – Potwar (Upper Indus)
Recent Alluvium,Eolian,Colluv.
Holocene
Sakhi Sarwar
Pleistocene
Dada
……
Pliocene
Chaudhwan
…… Litra
Miocene
Gaj
Oligocene
Nari
Alluvium
Sakhi Sarwar
Dada
……
Chaudhwan
Litra
Vihowa
……Chitarwata
A l l u v i um
Soan
L e i
……
Dhok Pathan / Murree U
Nagri / Murree M
…… Chinji / Murree L
Laki L/ Kirthar
Sohnari U /Baska
Drazinda
Pir Koh
Domanda
Habib Rahi
Baska
Drazinda Kuldana
Pirkoh
Domanda
Habib Rahi Chorgali
Bahadurkhel,Jatta
Sohnari M/ Drug
Sohnari M/ Kingri
Sohnari L/ Toi
…Sohnari L/Shaheed Ghat
Lakhra/Dungan
Paleocene Bara/Rakhi Gaj
Khadro/Sangiali
Drug
Kingri
Toi
Shaheed Ghat
Dungan
Rakhi Gaj
Sangiali
Shekhan Sakesar
Gurguri
Chashmai
Panoba Nammal
Lockhart
Laki U/ Gorag
Eocene
H a n g u
……Disconformable Boundary... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..
Cretaceous
……
Jurassic
Triassic
Sandstone
Vitakri
Pab
Fort Munro
Mughal Kot
Parh
Goru
Mekhtar
Sembar
Dilband
Chiltan
Anjira
Spingwar.
Wulgai
Gwal
Limestone
Sauropod dinosaur
Vitakri
Pab
Fort Munro
Mughal Kot
Parh
Goru
Mekhtar
Sembar
Dilband
Chiltan
Loralai
Spingwar.
Wulgai
Gwal
Dolomite
Conglomerate
Theropod dinosaur
Shale
Indus
Kawagarh
L u mshiwal
C h i c h ali
Samanasuk
Shinawari
Datta
Kingriali/Chalk Jabi
Tredian
Mianwali
Marl
Mesoeucrocodile
Gypsum/salt
Alluvium
Pterosaur-flying reptile
Figure 1. Revised Stratigraphic Correlation of Lower Indus (Eastern and Western Kirthar),
Middle Indus (Sulaiman) and Upper Indus (Kohat-Potwar) basins of Pakistan.
Abbreviations; L-Lower, M-Middle, U-Upper.
41
Map of Pakistan showing major mineral localities:
Copper
Legend
Iron
Lead-Zinc
Chromite
Magnesite
Gold
Coal
Fluorite
Celestite
Gypsum
Uranium
Sulphur
Manganese
Mica
Graphite
Soapstone
Asbestos
Silica Sand
Fuller Earth
China clay
Fire clay
Salt
Barite
Phosphate
Figure 2. Map of Pakistan
showing
major
mineral
localities of Western and
Eastern Kirthar basin (lower
Indus basin).
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Malkani M.S. 2004c. Coal resources of Chamalang, Bahney Wali and Nosham-Bahlol areas of Kohlu, Barkhan, Loralai and Musa
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Malkani M.S. 2004d. Mineral potential of Siahan and north Makran ranges, Balochistan, Pakistan. In abstract volume National
Conference on Economic and Environmental sustainability of Mineral resources of Pakistan, Baragali, Pakistan, 46-47.
Malkani M.S. 2004e. Saurischian dinosaurs from Late Cretaceous of Pakistan. In abstract volume of Fifth Pakistan Geological
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Malkani M.S. 2006a. Biodiversity of saurischian dinosaurs from the latest Cretaceous Park of Pakistan. Journal of Applied and
Emerging Sciences, 1(3), 108-140.
Malkani M.S. 2006b. Cervicodorsal, Dorsal and Sacral vertebrae of Titanosauria (Sauropod Dinosaurs) discovered from the Latest
Cretaceous Dinosaur beds/Vitakri Member of Pab Formation, Sulaiman Foldbelt, Pakistan. Jour.Appl. Emer.Sci. 1(3), 188-196.
Malkani M.S. 2006c. Lithofacies and Lateral extension of Latest Cretaceous Dinosaur beds from Sulaiman foldbelt, Pakistan. Sindh
University Research Journal (Science Series) 38 (1), 1-32.
Malkani M.S. 2007a. Trackways evidence of sauropod dinosaurs confronted by a theropod found from Middle Jurassic Samana Suk
Limestone of Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series) 39 (1), 1-14.
Malkani M.S. 2007b. Cretaceous Geology and dinosaurs from terrestrial strata of Pakistan. In abstract volume of 2nd International
Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates in Asia during the Cretaceous: theirvariations, causes, and biotic and environmental
responses, Seoul, Korea, 57-63.
Malkani M.S. 2007c. Lateral and vertical rapid variable Cretaceous depositional environments and Terrestrial dinosaurs from
Pakistan. In abstracts volume of IGCP 555 on Joint Workshop on Rapid Environmental/Climate Change in Cretaceous Greenhouse
World: Ocean-Land Interaction and Deep Terrestrial Scientific Drilling Project of the Cretaceous Songliao Basin, Daqing, China,
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Malkani M.S., 2007d. First diagnostic fossils of Late Cretaceous Crocodyliform (Mesoeucrocodylia, Reptilia) from Vitakri area,
Barkhan District, Balochistan, Pakistan. In; Ashraf, M., Hussain, S. S., and Akbar, H. D. eds. Contribution to Geology of Pakistan
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Malkani M.S. 2007e. Paleobiogeographic implications of titanosaurian sauropod and abelisaurian theropod dinosaurs from Pakistan.
Sindh University Research Journal (Science Ser.) 39 (2), 33-54.
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Malkani M.S. 2008a. Marisaurus (Balochisauridae, Titanosauria) remains from the latest Cretaceous of Pakistan. Sindh University
Research Journal (Science Series), 40 (2), 55-78.
Malkani M.S. 2008b. First articulated Atlas-axis complex of Titanosauria (Sauropoda, Dinosauria) uncovered from the latest
Cretaceous Vitakri member (Dinosaur beds) of upper Pab Formation, Kinwa locality of Sulaiman Basin, Pakistan. Sindh University
Research Journal (Science Series) 40 (1), 55-70.
Malkani M.S. 2008c. Mesozoic terrestrial ecosystem from Pakistan. In Abstracts of the 33rd International Geological Congress,
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Malkani M.S. 2008d. Titanosaur (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) osteoderms from Pakistan. . In abstract volume of the 3rd International
Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates in Asia during the Cretaceous: their variations, causes, and biotic and environmental
responses, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 56-60.
Malkani M.S. 2008e. Mesozoic Continental Vertebrate Community from Pakistan-An overview. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
Volume 28, Supplement to Number 3, 111A.
Malkani M.S. 2009a. New Balochisaurus (Balochisauridae, Titanosauria, Sauropoda) and Vitakridrinda (Theropoda) remains from
Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series), 41 (2), 65-92.
Malkani M.S. 2009b. Terrestrial vertebrates from the Mesozoic of Pakistan. In abstract volume of 8th International Symposium on the
Cretaceous System, University of Plymouth, UK, 49-50.
Malkani M.S. 2009c. Basal (J/K) and upper (K/T) boundaries of Cretaceous System in Pakistan. In abstract volume of 8 th International
Symposium on the Cretaceous System, University of Plymouth, UK, 58-59.
Malkani M.S. 2009d. Cretaceous marine and continental fluvial deposits from Pakistan. In abstract volume of 8 th International
Symposium on the Cretaceous System, University of Plymouth, UK, 59.
Malkani M.S. 2009e. Dinosaur biota of the continental Mesozoic of Pakistan. In Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium of the
IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and their global correlation, Kumamoto University and Mifune Dinosaur
Museum, Japan, 66-67.
Malkani M.S. 2010a. Updated Stratigraphy and Mineral potential of Sulaiman (Middle Indus) basin, Pakistan. Sindh University
Research Journal (Science Series). 42 (2), 39-66.
Malkani M.S. 2010b. New Pakisaurus (Pakisauridae, Titanosauria, Sauropoda) remains, and Cretaceous Tertiary (K-T) boundary
from Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series). 42 (1), 39-64.
Malkani M.S. 2010c. Osteoderms of Pakisauridae and Balochisauridae (Titanosauria, Sauropoda, Dinosauria) in Pakistan. Journal of
Earth Science, Vol. 21, Special Issue 3, 198-203; doi: 1007/s12583-010-0212-z.
Malkani M.S. 2010d. Pakisauridae and Balochisauridae Titanosaurian Sauropod Dinosaurs from the Non Marine Mesozoic of
Pakistan. In Proceedings of the 5th Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in .Asia and their global correlation,
October 7-8, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, extended abstract no 61, 13p.
Malkani M.S. 2010e. Lithostratigraphy and Vertebrates from the Indus Basin of Pakistan. In Proceedings of the 5th Symposium of
IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and their global correlation, October 7-8, 2010, Yogyakarta, Indonesian,
extended abstract no 65, 4p.
Malkani M.S. 2010f. Dinosaurs and Cretaceous Tertiary (K-T) boundary of Pakistan-a big disaster alerts for present disaster advances.
Proceeding volume of International Conference of Disaster Prevention Technology and Management (DPTM; Chongqing, China,
October 23-25, Journal Disaster Advances 3 (4), 567-572.
Malkani M.S. 2011a. Stratigraphy, Mineral Potential, Geological History and Paleobiogeography of Balochistan Province, Pakistan.
Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series). 43 (2), 269-290.
Malkani M.S. 2011b. Vitakridrinda and Vitakrisaurus of Vitakrisauridae theropoda from Pakistan. In Proceedings of the 6th
Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and their global correlation, August 15-16, 2011, Beijing,
China, 59-66.
Malkani M.S. 2011c. Trackways: Confrontation Scenario among A Theropoda and A Herd of Wide Gauge Titanosaurian Sauropods
from Middle Jurassic of Pakistan. In Proceedings of 6th Symp. of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and their
global correlation, August 15-16, Beijing, China, 67-75.
Malkani M.S. 2012a. A review of Coal and Water resources of Pakistan. Journal of “Science, Technology and Development” 31(3),
202-218.
50
Malkani M.S. 2012b. Discovery of fluorite deposits from Loralai District, Balochistan, Pakistan. Abstract Volume and Program, Earth
Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 45
(2), 69.
Malkani M.S. 2012c. Discovery of celestite deposits in the Sulaiman (Middle Indus) Basin, Balochistan, Pakistan. Abstract Volume
and Program, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of
Himalayan Earth Sciences, 45 (2), 68-69.
Malkani M.S. 2012d. Natural Resources of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Abstract Volume and
Program, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan
Earth Sciences, 45 (2), 70.
Malkani M.S. 2012e. A review on the mineral and coal resources of northern and southern Punjab, Pakistan. Abstract Volume and
Program, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan
Earth Sciences, 45 (2), 67.
Malkani M.S. 2012f. New Look of titanosaurs: Tail Special of Pakisauridae and Balochisauridae, Titanosauria from Pakistan. In
abstract volume of 11th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 2012), Biota and Ecosystem and their Global
Correltion” August 15-18, Gwanju, Korea.
Malkani M.S. 2012g. New Styles of locomotion: Less wide gauge movement in Balochisauridae and More Wide gauge movement in
Pakisauridae (Titanosauria) of Pakistan. In abstract volume of 11 th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 2012),
Biota and Ecosystem and their Global Correltion” August 15-18, Gwanju, Korea.
Malkani M.S. 2012h. Paleobiogeography and Wandering of Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent. In abstract volume of 11 th Symposium on
“Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 2012), Biota and Ecosystem and their Global Correltion” August 15-18, Gwanju, Korea.
Malkani M.S. 2012i. Paleobiogeography and first collision of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent with Asia. Abstract Volume and Program,
Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth
Sciences, 45 (2), 71-72.
Malkani M.S. 2012j. Biodiversity of Dinosaurs from the Mesozoic of Pakistan. In abstract volume of International Conference on
“Climate Change: Opportunities and Challenges” May 9-11, 2012, Islamabad, Pakistan, 83-84.
Malkani M.S. 2013a. Natural resources of Southern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA regions (Kohat sub-basin and part of northern
Sulaiman Basin and Western Indus Suture), Pakistan-A review. Abstract Volume, Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources of the
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA, February 11, Peshawar, Pakistan. Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, Special volume 2013, 3031.
Malkani M.S. 2012k. Revised lithostratigraphy of Sulaiman and Kirthar Basins, Pakistan. Abstract Volume and Program, Earth
Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 45
(2), 72.
Malkani M.S. 2013b. Coal and petroleum resources of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA (Pakistan)-An overview. Abstract,
Sustainable utilization of Natural Resources of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA. Abstract Volume, Sustainable Utilization of
Natural Resources of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA, February 11, Peshawar, Pakistan. Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences,
Special Volume 2013, 27-29.
Malkani M.S. 2013c. New pterosaur from the latest Cretaceous Terrestrial Strata of Pakistan. In; Abstract Book of 9 th International
Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 62.
Malkani M.S. 2013d. Dinosaurs and Crocodiles from the Cretaceous Terrestrial Ecosystem of Pakistan. In; Abstract Book of 9 th
International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 114.
Malkani M.S. 2013e. Geodynamics of Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent (South Asia). In; Abstract Book of 9 th International Symposium on
the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 36.
Malkani M.S. 2013f. Paleobiogeographic implications of Cretaceous dinosaurs and mesoeucrocodiles from Pakistan. In; Abstract
Book of 9th International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 35.
Malkani M.S. 2013g. Depositional environments of Cretaceous strata of Indus basin (Pakistan). In; Abstract Book of 9 th International
Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 66.
Malkani M.S. 2013h. Major Bioevents and extinction of land vertebrates in Pakistan; Cretaceous-Tertiary and other boundaries. In;
Abstract Book of 9th International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 44.
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Malkani M.S. 2013i. Latest Cretaceous land vertebrates in Pakistan; a paradise and a graveyard. In; Abstract Book of 9th International
Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 41.
Malkani M.S. 2014a. Mineral resources of Sindh Province, Pakistan. Abstract Volume, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer
Campus, University of Peshawar, August 29-31, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, abstract volume, 57-58.
Malkani M.S. 2014b. Mineral and gemstone resources of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan). Abstract Volume, Earth
Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, August 29-31, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences,
abstract volume, 58-59.
Malkani M.S. 2014b. Mineral and gemstone resources of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan). Abstract Volume, Earth
Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, August 29-31, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences,
abstract volume, 58-59.
Malkani M.S. 2014c. Revised Stratigraphy of Balochistan Basin, Pakistan. Abstract Volume, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali
Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, August 29-31, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, abstract volume, 59-60.
Malkani M.S. 2014d. Titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs from the Latest Cretaceous of Pakistan. In abstract volume; 2nd symposium of
International Geoscience Program 608 (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” September 04-06, 2014, Tokyo,
Japan, 108-111.
Malkani M.S. 2014e. Theropod dinosaurs and mesoeucrocodiles from the Terminal Cretaceous of Pakistan. In abstract volume; 2nd
Symposium of International Geoscience Program 608 (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” September 04-06,
2014, Tokyo, Japan, 169-172.
Malkani M.S. 2014f. Records of fauna and flora from Pakistan; Evolution of Indo-Pakistan Peninsula. In abstract volume; 2nd
symposium of International Geoscience Program 608 (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” September 04-06,
2014, Tokyo, Japan, 165-168.
Malkani M.S. 2014g. Dinosaurs from the Jurassic and Cretaceous Systems of Pakistan: their Paleobiogeographic link. In Abstract
Volume of 1st Symposium of IGCP 632 “Geologic and biotic events on the continent during the Jurassic/Cretaceous transition” and 4 th
International Palaeontological Congress, September 28 to October 03, 2014, Mendoza, Argentina, 872.
Malkani M.S. 2014h. Terrestrial Ecosystem from the Mesozoic Geopark of Pakistan. In Abstract Volume of 6th Symposium of
UNESCO Conference on Global Geoparks, September 19-22, Stonehammer Geopark, Saint John, Canada, 56.
Malkani M.S. 2015a. Mesozoic tectonics and Sedimentary Mineral Resources of Pakistan. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds.,
abstract volume, 12th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and 3 rd Symposium of International Geoscience
Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific”, August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of
Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, China, 261-266.
Malkani M.S. 2015b. Geodiverse and biodiverse heritage of Pakistan demands for protection as national and global Geoparks: an
innovation for the sustainable development of Pakistan. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12 th Symposium on
“Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12) and 3 rd Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous
Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang,
China, 247-249.
Malkani M.S. 2015c. Dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles, pterosaurs, new fauna and flora from Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan,
Information Release No. 823: i-iii,1-32 (Total 35 pages).
Malkani M.S. 2015d. Titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs from Pakistan. In: Zhang Y.,Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12th
Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and 3 rd Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608)
“Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University,
Shenyang, China, 93-98
Malkani M.S. 2015e. Footprints and trackways of dinosaurs from Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent-Recent Advances in discoveries from
Pakistan. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and
3rd Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” August 15-20, 2015,
Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, China, 186-191.
Malkani M.S. 2015f. First Trackways of Titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs from Asia found from the Latest Cretaceous of Pakistan:
Recent Advances in discoveries of dinosaur trackways from South Asia. In abstract volume of 2nd Symposium of IGCP 632 “Geologic
and biotic events on the Continent during Jurassic/Cretaceous transition” September 12-13, 2015, Shenyang, China,86-88.
Malkani M.S. 2015g. Osteoderms and dermal plates of titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs found from Pakistan; Reported first time in
Asia. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and 3 rd
Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” August 15-20, 2015,
Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, China, 250-254.
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Malkani M.S. 2015h. Titanosaurian (Sauropoda, Dinosauria) Osteoderms: First Reports from Asia. In abstract volume, 2nd
Symposium of IGCP 632 “Geologic and biotic events on the continent during the Jurassic/Cretaceous transition” September 12-13,
2015, Shenyang, China, 82-85.
Malkani M.S. 2016a. New Coalfields of Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, FATA and Azad Kashmir. Abstract Volume, Qazi, M.S.,
Ali, W. eds., International Conference on Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources, October 03, National Centre of Excellence in
Geology, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan. Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 53-54.
Malkani M.S. 2016b. Petroleum and construction stone resources of Balochistan, Sulaiman and Kirthar basins (Pakistan). Abstract
Volume, Earth Sciences Pakistan 2016, 15-17 July, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, Pakistan, Journal of
Himalayan Earth Sciences, 104.
Malkani M.S. 2016c. Vitakri Dome of Pakistan-a richest graveyard of Titanosaurian Sauropod Dinosaurs and Mesoeucrocodiles in
Asia. In: Dzyuba, O.S., Pestchevitskaya, E.B., and Shurygin, B.N. Eds., (ISBN 978-5-4262-0073-9) Cretaceous Ecosystems and Their
Responses to Paleoenvironmental Changes in Asia and the Western Pacific: Short papers for the Fourth International Symposium of
International Geoscience Programme IGCP Project 608, August 15-20, 2016, Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and
Geophysics, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Science (IPGG SB RAS), Novosibirsk, Russia, 129-132.
Malkani M.S. 2016d. Revised stratigraphy of Indus Basin (Pakistan): Sea level changes. In: Dzyuba, O.S., Pestchevitskaya, E.B., and
Shurygin, B.N. Eds., (ISBN 978-5-4262-0073-9) Cretaceous Ecosystems and Their Responses to Paleoenvironmental Changes in Asia
and the Western Pacific: Short papers for the Fourth International Symposium of International Geoscience Programme IGCP Project
608, August 15-20, 2016, Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Science
(IPGG SB RAS), Novosibirsk, Russia, 96-99.
Malkani M.S. 2016e. Pakistan Paleoclimate under greenhouse conditions; Closure of Tethys from Pakistan; Geobiological evolution
of South Asia (Indo-Pak subcontinent). In: Dzyuba, O.S., Pestchevitskaya, E.B., and Shurygin, B.N. Eds., (ISBN 978-5-4262-0073-9)
Cretaceous Ecosystems and Their Responses to Paleoenvironmental Changes in Asia and the Western Pacific: Short papers for the
Fourth International Symposium of International Geoscience Programme IGCP Project 608, August 15-20, 2016, Trofimuk Institute
of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Science (IPGG SB RAS), Novosibirsk, Russia, 59-61.
Malkani M.S., Alyani M.I. Khosa M.H., Tariq S., Buzdar F.S., Khan G., Faiz J. 2016. Mineral Resources of Pakistan-an update.
Lasbela University Journal of Science & Technology Volume 5, 90-114.
Malkani M.S., Alyani M.I. Khosa M.H., Buzdar F.S., Zahid M.A. 2016. Coal resources of Pakistan; new coalfields. Lasbela University
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