Ar
ea:ENGLI
SH
Focus:I
nt
r
oduct
i
ont
oLi
ngui
st
i
cs
Compet
enci
es:
1.
demonst
r
at
ef
ami
l
i
ar
i
t
ywi
t
ht
het
heor
i
esofl
anguage
and l
anguage l
ear
ni
ng and t
hei
ri
nf
l
uence on l
anguage
t
eachi
ng
2. r
ev
i
si
tt
heknowl
edgeofl
i
ngui
st
i
ct
heor
i
esandconcept
sand
appl
yi
tt
ot
het
eachi
ngofcommuni
cat
i
onski
l
l
s–l
i
st
eni
ng,
speaki
ng,
r
eadi
ng,
wr
i
t
i
ng,
andgr
ammar
3. show under
st
andi
ngofhow l
anguager
ul
esar
eusedi
nr
eal
conv
er
sat
i
ons
A.Li
ngui
st
i
csandEngl
i
shLanguageTeachi
ng
Teacher
s’knowl
edgeont
hewor
ki
ngsofl
anguageandl
anguage
t
eachi
ngar
eessent
i
al
l
yi
nt
er
t
wi
nedwi
t
heachot
her
.Thet
eacher
s’
compet
enceonhowal
anguagebehav
eswi
l
lcer
t
ai
nl
yhel
pt
eacher
s
expl
ai
nt
ot
hest
udent
showt
hel
anguagewor
ks,
aswel
lasant
i
ci
pat
e
andr
espondappr
opr
i
at
el
yt
opossi
bl
el
ear
ni
ngdi
f
f
i
cul
t
i
es.
1.Knowl
edgeofl
i
ngui
st
i
cs,speci
f
i
cal
l
yphonol
ogy
,maybeusef
ul
f
orexpl
ai
ni
ngi
nt
er
f
er
encepr
obl
emst
hatmaybeexper
i
enced
byEngl
i
shl
anguagel
ear
ner
swi
t
ht
heEngl
i
shsoundsy
st
em.To
i
l
l
ust
r
at
e,i
nt
heabsenceoft
hef
ol
l
owi
ngsoundssuchas/
f
/
and/
v
/i
nPhi
l
i
ppi
nel
anguages,excepti
nI
v
at
anand I
banag,
Fi
l
i
pi
no Engl
i
sh l
ear
ner
s ar
el
i
kel
yt
o use /
p/and /
v
/as
subst
i
t
ut
esounds,e.
g.
,/
pæn/f
or/
f
æn/‘f
an’and/
bæn/f
or
/
v
æn/‘
v
an’
.Languaget
eacher
sar
eadv
i
sedt
or
emembert
hat
eachl
anguagehasi
t
sowni
nv
ent
or
yofphonemest
hatmay
di
f
f
erf
r
om t
hatofanot
herl
anguage.Suchdi
f
f
er
encesmay
r
esul
ti
nusi
ngsoundst
hatonl
yappr
oxi
mat
et
het
ar
getsounds,
asshowni
nt
heaf
or
eci
t
edexampl
es.
2.Languaget
eacher
sneedt
or
eal
i
zet
hatgr
ammat
i
caluni
t
ssuch
as mor
phemes,wor
ds,phr
ases and cl
auses behav
e qui
t
e
di
f
f
er
ent
l
yacr
ossl
anguages.Forexampl
e,pl
ur
al
i
t
y
,andt
ense
i
nEngl
i
shar
eexpr
essedt
hr
oughi
nf
l
ect
i
onsasi
s{
s/es}and{
ed}
.Howev
er
,
Tagal
ogpl
ur
al
i
t
yi
sexpr
essedassepar
at
ewor
ds
asi
nmgabat
a‘
chi
l
dr
en’
.Li
ngui
st
i
cal
l
yspeaki
ng,
Tagal
ogv
er
bs
hav
e no t
ense,onl
y aspect
s – per
f
ect
i
v
e“
kumai
n’and
i
mper
f
ect
i
v
e‘
kumakai
n’
,whi
ch may expl
ai
nt
he Fi
l
i
pi
nos’
pr
obl
emsi
ndeal
i
ngwi
t
hEngl
i
sht
enses.
3.Hel
pi
ngst
udent
st
odi
scov
ert
hemeani
ngofwor
dsbypar
si
ng
t
hem i
nt
o smal
lpar
t
s depends heav
i
l
y on t
he t
eacher
’
s
knowl
edge of mor
phol
ogy or wor
d f
or
mat
i
on r
ul
es. To
exempl
i
f
y
,
st
udent
smaypar
seorsegmentt
hef
ol
l
owi
ngwor
ds,
t
aki
ng not
e of t
he mor
pheme {
ment
}t
hat r
ecur
s i
n
embar
r
assment
,
gov
er
nment
,
di
si
l
l
usi
onment
,
enhancement
.As
st
udent
sdi
scov
ert
hemeani
ngof{
ment
}as‘
st
at
eorcondi
t
i
on’
,
t
heymaybeabl
et
ogi
v
et
hemeani
ngoft
heci
t
edexampl
esas:
‘
st
at
eofbei
ngembar
r
assed’
,
‘
st
at
eofgov
er
ni
ng’
,
‘
st
at
eofbei
ng
di
si
l
l
usi
oned’
,and‘
st
at
eofenhanci
ng’
.Hence,t
hepr
ocessof
wor
df
or
mat
i
onsuchasder
i
v
at
i
onmayhel
pl
ear
ner
si
nt
er
pr
et
andr
emembermeani
ngofwor
dst
hatf
ol
l
owcer
t
ai
npat
t
er
nsi
n
f
or
mi
ngshor
twor
dsi
nt
ol
ongerwor
ds.
4.Teacher
s’knowl
edgeaboutl
ar
geruni
t
sofl
anguageuse–
di
scour
se st
r
uct
ur
e – may be r
el
ev
ant when t
eachi
ng
exchangesorconv
er
sat
i
ons.Theuseofl
anguagef
orsoci
al
f
unct
i
onssuchasaski
ngper
mi
ssi
oni
nv
ol
v
esf
ami
l
i
ar
i
t
ywi
t
h
modal
st
hatex
pr
essf
or
mal
i
t
yandahi
gherdegr
eeofpol
i
t
eness
whenspeaki
ngwi
t
hsomeonewhoi
sol
der
,whooccupi
esa
hi
gherposi
t
i
on,ori
sanaut
hor
i
t
yt
hant
hespeaker
.I
nt
hi
s
cont
extappr
opr
i
acyhast
obeobser
v
edi
nsel
ect
i
ngmodal
s.
Forexampl
e,i
ti
sappr
opr
i
at
et
ousemay
,notcanwhenaski
ng
per
mi
ssi
onf
r
om someonewhoi
sol
der
,hi
gheri
nposi
t
i
ont
han
t
hespeaker
.e.
g.MayIuset
heof
f
i
cecomput
er
?
B.Vi
ewsaboutLanguage
1.
Thest
r
uct
ur
al
i
st
sbel
i
ev
et
hatl
anguagecanbedescr
i
bed
i
nt
er
msofobser
v
abl
eandv
er
i
f
i
abl
edat
aasi
ti
sbei
ng
used.They al
so descr
i
be l
anguage i
nt
er
ms of i
t
s
st
r
uct
ur
eandaccor
di
ngt
ot
her
egul
ar
i
t
i
esandpat
t
er
nsor
r
ul
es i
nl
anguage st
r
uct
ur
e.To t
hem,l
anguage i
sa
sy
st
em ofspeech sounds,ar
bi
t
r
ar
i
l
yassi
gned t
ot
he
obj
ect
s,
st
at
es,
andconcept
st
owhi
cht
heyr
ef
er
,
usedf
or
humancommuni
cat
i
on.
 Language i
s pr
i
mar
i
l
y vocal
.Language i
s speech,
pr
i
mar
i
l
ymadeupofv
ocalsoundspr
oducedbyt
he
speech appar
at
usi
nt
he human body
.The pr
i
mar
y
medi
um ofl
anguagei
sspeech;t
hewr
i
t
t
enr
ecor
di
s
but a secondar
yr
epr
esent
at
i
on of t
he l
anguage.
Wr
i
t
i
ng i
s onl
yt
he gr
aphi
cr
epr
esent
at
i
on oft
he
soundsoft
hel
anguage.Whi
l
emostl
anguageshav
e
wr
i
t
i
ngsy
st
ems,anumberofl
anguagescont
i
nuet
o
exi
st
,ev
ent
oday
,i
nt
hespokenf
or
m onl
y
,wi
t
houtany
wr
i
t
t
enf
or
m.Li
ngui
st
scl
ai
mt
hatspeechi
spr
i
mar
y
,
wr
i
t
i
ng secondar
y
.Ther
ef
or
e,i
ti
s assumed t
hat
speechhasapr
i
or
i
t
yi
nl
anguaget
eachi
ng.
 Languagei
sasy
st
em ofsy
st
ems.Languagei
snota
di
sor
gani
zed ora chaot
i
c combi
nat
i
on ofsounds.
Soundsar
ear
r
angedi
ncer
t
ai
nf
i
xedorest
abl
i
shed,
sy
st
emat
i
cor
dert
of
or
m meani
ngf
uluni
t
sorwor
ds.
Forex
ampl
e,
nowor
di
nEngl
i
shst
ar
t
swi
t
hbz,
l
r
-orzl
combi
nat
i
on,butt
her
ear
et
hoset
hatbegi
nwi
t
hspr
andst
r
-(
asi
nspr
i
ngandst
r
i
ng)
.I
nl
i
kemanner
,
wor
ds
ar
eal
soar
r
angedi
napar
t
i
cul
arsy
st
em t
ogener
at
e
accept
abl
emeani
ngf
ulsent
ences.Thesent
ence“
Shen
boughtanew nov
el
”i
saccept
abl
ebutt
hegr
oupof
wor
ds “
Shen boughtnew nov
ela”i
sunaccept
abl
e,
si
nce t
he wor
d or
der of t
he l
at
t
er v
i
ol
at
es t
he
est
abl
i
shed conv
ent
i
on i
n Engl
i
sh gr
ammar
,t
he
Subj
ect
Ver
bObj
ectorSVOwor
dor
der
.
Languagei
sasy
st
em ofst
r
uct
ur
al
l
yr
el
at
edel
ement
s
or‘
bui
l
di
ngbl
ocks’f
ort
heencodi
ngofmeani
ng,t
he
el
ement
s bei
ng phonemes (
sounds)
, mor
phemes
(
wor
ds)
,t
agmemes(
phr
asesandsent
ences/
cl
auses)
.
Languagel
ear
ni
ng,
i
ti
sassumed,
ent
ai
l
smast
er
i
ngt
he
el
ement
s orbui
l
di
ng bl
ocks oft
he l
anguage and
l
ear
ni
ng t
he r
ul
es by whi
ch t
hese el
ement
s ar
e
combi
ned,f
r
om phonemet
o mor
phemet
o wor
dt
o
phr
aset
osent
ence.
 Languagei
sar
bi
t
r
ar
y
.Ther
ei
sno i
nher
entr
el
at
i
on
bet
weent
hewor
dsofal
anguageandt
hei
rmeani
ngs
ort
hei
deasconv
ey
edbyt
hem.Putanot
herway
,t
her
e
i
s no one t
o one cor
r
espondence bet
ween t
he
st
r
uct
ur
eofawor
dandt
het
hi
ngi
tst
andsf
or
.Ther
ei
s
no‘
sacr
ed’r
easonwhyanani
malt
hatf
l
i
esi
scal
l
ed
i
bon i
n Fi
l
i
pi
no,paj
ar
oi
n Spani
sh,bi
r
di
n Engl
i
sh.
Sel
ect
i
onoft
hesewor
dsi
nt
hel
anguagesment
i
oned
her
ei
s pur
el
y an acci
dentofhi
st
or
yt
hatnat
i
v
e
speaker
soft
hel
anguageshav
eagr
eedon.Thr
ough
t
hey
ear
sr
ef
er
encet
osuchani
malhasbecomean
est
abl
i
shedconv
ent
i
ont
hatcannotbeeasi
l
ychanged.
Thatl
anguagei
sar
bi
t
r
ar
ymeanst
hatt
her
el
at
i
onshi
p
bet
ween t
he wor
dsand t
he ‘
t
hi
ngs’t
heydenot
ei
s
mer
el
yconv
ent
i
onal
,i
.
e.nat
i
v
espeaker
sofEngl
i
sh,i
n
somesense,agr
eedt
ouset
hesounds/kæt/‘
cat
’i
n
Engl
i
shbecausenat
i
v
espeaker
sofEngl
i
sh‘
want
’i
tt
o
be.
 Languagei
sameansofcommuni
cat
i
on.Languagei
s
an i
mpor
t
ant means of communi
cat
i
ng bet
ween
humansoft
hei
ri
deas,bel
i
ef
s,orf
eel
i
ngs.Language
gi
v
esshapet
opeopl
e’
st
hought
s,aswel
lasgui
des
andcont
r
ol
st
hei
ract
i
v
i
t
y
.
2.
The t
r
ansf
or
mat
i
onal
i
st
s/ cogni
t
i
v
i
st
s bel
i
ev
e t
hat
l
anguagei
sasy
st
em ofknowl
edgemademani
f
esti
n
l
i
ngui
st
i
cf
or
msbuti
nnat
eand,i
ni
t
smostabst
r
actf
or
m,
uni
v
er
sal
.
 Language i
si
nnat
e.The pr
esence oft
he l
anguage
acqui
si
t
i
on dev
i
ce (
LAD) i
n t
he human br
ai
n
pr
edi
sposesal
lnor
malchi
l
dr
ent
oacqui
r
et
hei
rf
i
r
st
l
anguagei
nanamazi
ngl
yshor
tt
i
me,ar
oundf
i
v
ey
ear
s
si
ncebi
r
t
h.
 Languagei
scr
eat
i
v
e.I
tenabl
esnat
i
v
espeaker
st
o
pr
oduce and under
st
and sent
ences t
hey hav
e not
hear
dnorusedbef
or
e.
 Language i
s a ment
al phenomenon. I
ti
s not
mechani
cal
.
 Languagei
suni
v
er
sal
.I
ti
suni
v
er
sali
nt
hesenset
hat
al
lnor
malchi
l
dr
ent
hewor
l
dov
eracqui
r
eamot
her
t
onguebuti
ti
sal
souni
v
er
sali
nt
hesenset
hat
,ata
hi
ghl
yabst
r
actl
ev
el
,al
ll
anguages mustshar
e key
f
eat
ur
esofhumanl
anguages,suchasal
ll
anguages
hav
e sounds;al
ll
anguages hav
er
ul
es t
hatf
or
m
soundsi
nt
owor
ds,wor
dsi
nt
ophr
asesandcl
auses;
and al
ll
anguages hav
et
r
ansf
or
mat
i
on r
ul
es t
hat
enabl
espeaker
st
oaskquest
i
ons,negat
esent
ences,
i
ssueor
der
s,
def
ocust
hedoeroft
heact
i
on,
et
c.
2.
The f
unct
i
onal
i
st
sbel
i
ev
et
hatl
anguage i
sa dy
nami
c
sy
st
em t
hr
oughwhi
chmember
sofspeechcommuni
t
y
exchangei
nf
or
mat
i
on.I
ti
sav
ehi
cl
ef
ort
heexpr
essi
onof
f
unct
i
onalmeani
ngsuchasexpr
essi
ngone’
semot
i
ons,
per
suadi
ngpeopl
e,
aski
ngandgi
v
i
ngi
nf
or
mat
i
on,
maki
ng
peopl
edot
hi
ngsf
orot
her
s.
Thi
sv
i
ew ofl
anguage emphasi
zes t
he meani
ng and
f
unct
i
onsr
at
hert
hant
hegr
ammat
i
calchar
act
er
i
st
i
csof
l
anguage,and l
eads t
oal
anguage t
eachi
ng cont
ent
consi
st
i
ng of cat
egor
i
es of meani
ng/
not
i
ons and
f
unct
i
ons r
at
her t
han of el
ement
s of st
r
uct
ur
e and
gr
ammar
.
3.
Thei
nt
er
act
i
oni
st
sbel
i
ev
et
hatl
anguagei
sav
ehi
cl
ef
or
est
abl
i
shi
ng i
nt
er
per
sonalr
el
at
i
onsand f
orper
f
or
mi
ng
soci
alt
r
ansact
i
onsbet
weeni
ndi
v
i
dual
s.I
ti
sat
oolf
or
cr
eat
i
ng and mai
nt
ai
ni
ng soci
al r
el
at
i
ons t
hr
ough
conv
er
sat
i
ons.Languaget
eachi
ngcont
ent
,accor
di
ngt
o
t
hi
sv
i
ew,maybespeci
f
i
edandor
gani
zedbypat
t
er
nsof
exchangeandi
nt
er
act
i
on.
B. Acqui
si
t
i
onofLanguage
1.
Behav
i
or
i
stl
ear
ni
ngt
heor
y
.Der
i
v
edf
r
om agener
alt
heor
y
ofl
ear
ni
ng,t
hebehav
i
or
i
stv
i
ewst
at
est
hatt
hel
anguage
behav
i
oroft
hei
ndi
v
i
duali
scondi
t
i
onedbysequencesof
di
f
f
er
ent
i
al
r
ewar
dsi
nhi
s/
herenv
i
r
onment
.
I
tr
egar
ds l
anguage l
ear
ni
ng as a behav
i
orl
i
ke ot
her
f
or
msofhuman behav
i
or
,nota ment
alphenomenon,
l
ear
nedbyapr
ocessofhabi
tf
or
mat
i
on.Si
ncel
anguagei
s
v
i
ewed asmechani
st
i
cand asa human act
i
v
i
t
y
,i
ti
s
bel
i
ev
edt
hatl
ear
ni
ngal
anguagei
sachi
ev
edbybui
l
di
ng
up habi
t
s on t
he basi
s ofst
i
mul
usr
esponse chai
ns.
Behav
i
or
i
sm emphasi
zes t
he consequences of t
he
r
esponseandar
guest
hati
ti
st
hebehav
i
ort
hatf
ol
l
owsa
r
esponsewhi
chr
ei
nf
or
cesi
tandt
hushel
pst
ost
r
engt
hen
t
heassoci
at
i
on.
Accor
di
ng t
o Li
t
t
l
ewood (
1984)
,t
he pr
ocess ofhabi
t
f
or
mat
i
oni
ncl
udest
hef
ol
l
owi
ng:
a.Thechi
l
di
mi
t
at
est
hesoundsandpat
t
er
nswhi
chs/
he
hear
sar
oundher
/
hi
m.
b.Peopl
er
ecogni
zet
hechi
l
d’
sat
t
empt
sasbei
ngsi
mi
l
ar
t
ot
headul
tmodel
sandr
ei
nf
or
ce(
r
ewar
d)t
hesounds
byappr
ov
al
orsomeot
herdesi
r
abl
er
eact
i
on.
c.I
nor
dert
oobt
ai
nmor
eoft
heser
ewar
ds,t
hechi
l
d
r
epeat
st
hesoundsandpat
t
er
nssot
hatt
hesebecome
habi
t
s.
d.I
nt
hi
swayt
hechi
l
d’
sv
er
balbehav
i
ori
scondi
t
i
oned
(
‘
shaped’
)unt
i
lt
he habi
t
s coi
nci
de wi
t
ht
he adul
t
model
s.
Thebehav
i
or
i
st
scl
ai
mt
hatt
het
hr
eecr
uci
alel
ement
sof
l
ear
ni
ngar
e:ast
i
mul
us,whi
chser
v
est
oel
i
ci
tbehav
i
or
;a
r
esponset
r
i
gger
edbyt
hest
i
mul
us,andr
ei
nf
or
cement
,
whi
chser
v
est
omar
kt
her
esponseasbei
ngappr
opr
i
at
e
(
ori
nappr
opr
i
at
e)and encour
ages t
he r
epet
i
t
i
on (
or
suppr
essi
on)oft
her
esponse.
2.
Cogni
t
i
v
e Lear
ni
ng Theor
y
. Chomsky ar
gues t
hat
l
anguagei
snotacqui
r
edbychi
l
dr
enbysheeri
mi
t
at
i
on
andt
hr
oughaf
or
m ofcondi
t
i
oni
ngonr
ei
nf
or
cementand
r
ewar
d.Hebel
i
ev
est
hatal
lnor
malhumanbei
ngshav
ean
i
nbor
n bi
ol
ogi
cal i
nt
er
nal mechani
sm t
hat makes
l
anguagel
ear
ni
ngpossi
bl
e.Cogni
t
i
v
i
st
s/i
nnat
i
st
scl
ai
m
t
hatt
hechi
l
di
sbor
nwi
t
han‘
i
ni
t
i
al
’
st
at
e’
aboutl
anguage
whi
chpr
edi
sposeshi
m/
hert
oacqui
r
eagr
ammaroft
hat
l
anguage.Theymai
nt
ai
nt
hatt
hel
anguageacqui
si
t
i
on
dev
i
ce (
LAD)i
s whatt
he chi
l
d br
i
ngs t
ot
he t
ask of
l
anguage acqui
si
t
i
on,gi
v
i
ng hi
m/
heran act
i
v
er
ol
ei
n
l
anguagel
ear
ni
ng.
Onei
mpor
t
antf
eat
ur
eoft
hement
al
i
staccountofsecond
l
anguageacqui
si
t
i
oni
shy
pot
hesi
st
est
i
ng,apr
ocessof
f
or
mul
at
i
ngr
ul
esandt
est
i
ngt
hesamewi
t
hcompet
ent
speaker
soft
het
ar
getl
anguage.
3.
Kr
ashen’
sMoni
t
orModel(
1981)
.Pr
obabl
yt
hi
si
st
he
mostof
t
en ci
t
ed among t
heor
i
esofsecond l
anguage
acqui
si
t
i
on;consi
der
edt
hemostcompr
ehensi
v
e,i
fnot
t
hemostambi
t
i
ous,
consi
st
i
ngoff
i
v
ecent
r
al
hy
pot
heses:
Thef
i
v
ehy
pot
hesesar
e:
a.Theacqui
si
t
i
on/l
ear
ni
ng hy
pot
hesi
s.I
tcl
ai
mst
hat
t
her
ear
et
woway
sofdev
el
opi
ngcompet
encei
nL2:
Acqui
si
t
i
on-t
hesubconsci
ouspr
ocesst
hatr
esul
t
s
f
r
om i
nf
or
mal
,nat
ur
alcommuni
cat
i
onbet
ween
peopl
ewher
el
anguagei
sameans,notaf
ocus
noranend,
i
ni
t
sel
f
.
Lear
ni
ng-t
heconsci
ouspr
ocessofknowi
ngabout
l
anguageandbei
ngabl
et
ot
al
kabouti
t
,t
hat
occur
si
namor
ef
or
malsi
t
uat
i
onwher
et
he
pr
oper
t
i
esorr
ul
esofal
anguagear
et
aught
.
Language l
ear
ni
ng has t
r
adi
t
i
onal
l
yi
nv
ol
v
ed
gr
ammarandv
ocabul
ar
yl
ear
ni
ng.
Acqui
si
t
i
onpar
al
l
el
sf
i
r
stl
anguagedev
el
opmenti
n
chi
l
dr
en whi
l
el
ear
ni
ng appr
oxi
mat
es t
he f
or
mal
t
eachi
ng ofgr
ammari
n cl
assr
ooms.Consci
ous
t
hi
nki
ngaboutt
her
ul
esi
ssai
dt
ooccuri
nsecond
l
anguagel
ear
ni
ngwhi
l
eunconsci
ousf
eel
i
ngabout
whati
scor
r
ectandappr
opr
i
at
eoccur
si
nl
anguage
acqui
si
t
i
on.
b.The nat
ur
al or
der hy
pot
hesi
s. I
t suggest
s t
hat
gr
ammat
i
calst
r
uct
ur
esar
eacqui
r
edi
napr
edi
ct
abl
e
or
derf
orbot
h chi
l
dr
en and adul
t
s,t
hati
s,cer
t
ai
n
gr
ammat
i
calst
r
uct
ur
es ar
e acqui
r
ed bef
or
e ot
her
s,
i
r
r
espect
i
v
eoft
hel
anguagebei
ng l
ear
ned.Whena
l
ear
nerengagesi
nnat
ur
alcommuni
cat
i
on,t
hent
he
st
andar
dor
derbel
owwi
l
l
occur
.
Gr
oup1: pr
esentpr
ogr
essi
v
e i
ng (
Shei
s
r
eadi
ng)
pl
ur
als(
bags)
copul
a‘
t
o be’(
The gi
r
li
s att
he
l
i
br
ar
y
.
)
Gr
oup2:auxi
l
i
ar
y‘
t
obe’
(
Shei
sr
eadi
ng.
)
ar
t
i
cl
est
heandan(
That
’
sabook.
)
Gr
oup3:i
r
r
egul
arpastf
or
ms(
Shedr
ankmi
l
k.
)
Gr
oup4: r
egul
arpast ed(
Shepr
ay
edl
ast
ni
ght
.
)
t
hi
r
dper
sonsi
ngul
ar s(
Shepr
ay
s
ev
er
yday
.
)
possessi
v
es(
Thegi
r
l
’
sbagi
snew.
)
b.The moni
t
orhy
pot
hesi
s.I
tcl
ai
ms t
hatconsci
ous
l
ear
ni
ngofgr
ammat
i
calr
ul
eshasanext
r
emel
yl
i
mi
t
ed
f
unct
i
on i
nl
anguageper
f
or
mance:asamoni
t
oror
edi
t
ort
hatchecksout
put
.Themoni
t
ori
sanedi
t
i
ng
dev
i
ce t
hatmaynor
mal
l
yoper
at
e bef
or
el
anguage
per
f
or
mance.Such edi
t
i
ng may occur bef
or
et
he
nat
ur
al
out
putoraf
t
ert
heouput
.
Kr
ashensuggest
st
hatmoni
t
or
i
ngoccur
swhent
her
e
i
s suf
f
i
ci
ent t
i
me, wher
e t
her
e i
s pr
essur
e t
o
communi
cat
ecor
r
ect
l
yandnotj
ustconv
eymeani
ng,
andwhent
heappr
opr
i
at
er
ul
esar
eknown.
d.Thei
nputhy
pot
hesi
s.Kr
ashen pr
oposest
hatwhen
l
ear
ner
sar
eexposedt
ogr
ammat
i
calf
eat
ur
esal
i
t
t
l
e
bey
ondt
hei
rcur
r
entl
ev
el(
i
.
e.
,
i+1)
,
t
hosef
eat
ur
esar
e
‘
acqui
r
ed’
.Acqui
si
t
i
on r
esul
t
sf
r
om compr
ehensi
bl
e
i
nput
,whi
ch i
smade under
st
andabl
e wi
t
ht
he hel
p
pr
ov
i
ded by t
he cont
ext
. I
f l
ear
ner
s r
ecei
v
e
under
st
andabl
ei
nput
,l
anguage st
r
uct
ur
es wi
l
lbe
nat
ur
al
l
yacqui
r
ed.Abi
l
i
t
yt
ocommuni
cat
ei
nasecond
l
anguage‘
emer
ges’r
at
hert
hani
ndi
r
ect
l
yputi
npl
ace
byt
eachi
ng.
c.The af
f
ect
i
v
ef
i
l
t
er hy
pot
hesi
s.Fi
l
t
er consi
st
s of
at
t
i
t
udet
ol
anguage,mot
i
v
at
i
on,sel
f
conf
i
denceand
anxi
et
y
.Thusl
ear
ner
swi
t
hf
av
or
abl
eat
t
i
t
udeandsel
f
conf
i
dence mayhav
ea‘
l
ow f
i
l
t
er
’whi
ch pr
omot
es
l
anguagel
ear
ni
ng.Lear
ner
swi
t
hal
ow af
f
ect
i
v
ef
i
l
t
er
seekandr
ecei
v
emor
ei
nput
,i
nt
er
actwi
t
hconf
i
dence,
andar
emor
er
ecept
i
v
et
ot
hei
nputt
heyar
eexposedt
o.
On t
he ot
herhand,anxi
ous l
ear
ner
s hav
e a hi
gh
af
f
ect
i
v
ef
i
l
t
erwhi
chpr
ev
ent
sacqui
si
t
i
onf
r
om t
aki
ng
pl
ace.
d.I
mpl
i
cat
i
onsf
ort
eachi
ng:
1.Teacher
smustcont
i
nuousl
ydel
i
v
erata l
ev
el
under
st
andabl
ebyl
ear
ner
s.
2.Teachi
ngmustpr
epar
et
hel
ear
ner
sf
orr
eall
i
f
e
communi
cat
i
on si
t
uat
i
ons. Cl
assr
ooms must
pr
ov
i
deconv
er
sat
i
onalconf
i
dencesot
hatwhen
i
nt
heout
si
dewor
l
d,t
hest
udentcancopewi
t
h
andcont
i
nuel
ear
ni
ng.
3.Teacher
s mustensur
et
hatl
ear
ner
s do not
become anxi
ous or def
ensi
v
e i
n l
anguage
l
ear
ni
ng.Theconf
i
denceofal
anguagel
ear
ner
mustbeencour
agedi
nal
anguageacqui
si
t
i
on
pr
ocess.Teacher
sshoul
dnoti
nsi
stonl
ear
ner
s
conv
er
si
ngbef
or
et
heyf
eelcomf
or
t
abl
ei
ndoi
ng
so;nei
t
hershoul
dt
heycor
r
ecter
r
or
snormake
negat
i
v
er
emar
ks t
hat i
nhi
bi
tl
ear
ner
sf
r
om
l
ear
ni
ng.Theyshoul
ddev
i
sespeci
f
i
ct
echni
ques
t
or
el
axl
ear
ner
sandpr
ot
ectt
hei
regos.
4.Teacher
s mustcr
eat
e an at
mospher
e wher
e
l
ear
ner
s ar
e notembar
r
assed byt
hei
rer
r
or
s.
Er
r
or
sshoul
dnotbecor
r
ect
edwhenacqui
si
t
i
on
i
soccur
r
i
ng.Er
r
orcor
r
ect
i
oni
sv
al
uabl
ewhen
l
ear
ni
ng si
mpl
er
ul
es butmay hav
e negat
i
v
e
ef
f
ect
si
nt
er
msofanxi
et
yandi
nhi
bi
t
i
ons.
5.For
malgr
ammart
eachi
ng i
s ofl
i
mi
t
ed v
al
ue
because i
tcont
r
i
but
est
ol
ear
ni
ng r
at
hert
han
acqui
si
t
i
on.Onl
ysi
mpl
er
ul
esshoul
dbel
ear
ned.
6.Teacher
sshoul
dnotexpectl
ear
ner
st
ol
ear
n‘
l
at
e
st
r
uct
ur
es’
suchast
hi
r
dper
sonsi
ngul
arear
l
y
.
C. I
nf
l
uencesofTheor
i
esonLanguageTeachi
ng
1.Appl
i
edl
i
ngui
st
scl
ai
mt
hatt
heor
i
esofl
anguagel
ear
ni
ngas
wel
last
heor
i
esofl
anguagemaypr
ov
i
det
hebasi
sf
ora
par
t
i
cul
art
eachi
ng appr
oach/
met
hod.To i
l
l
ust
r
at
e,t
he
l
i
nki
ngofst
r
uct
ur
al
i
sm andbehav
i
or
i
sm haspr
oducedt
he
audi
ol
i
ngual met
hod (
ALM)
, or
al appr
oach/
si
t
uat
i
onal
l
anguaget
eachi
ng,oper
antcondi
t
i
oni
ngappr
oach,bot
t
omupt
extpr
ocessi
ng,cont
r
ol
l
edt
of
r
eewr
i
t
i
ng,t
oci
t
eaf
ew.
Thesemet
hodsunder
scor
et
henecessi
t
yofov
er
l
ear
ni
ng,a
pr
i
nci
pl
et
hatl
eadst
oendl
essandmi
ndl
essmi
mi
cr
yand
memor
i
zat
i
on(
‘
mi
mmem’
)
.Theyar
eal
sochar
act
er
i
zedby
mechani
cal habi
t
f
or
mat
i
on t
eachi
ng, done t
hr
ough
unr
emi
t
t
i
ngpr
act
i
ce:sent
encepat
t
er
nsar
er
epeat
edand
dr
i
l
l
ed unt
i
lt
hey become habi
t
ualand aut
omat
i
ct
o
mi
ni
mi
ze occur
r
ences ofmi
st
akes.Gr
ammari
st
aught
t
hr
oughanal
ogy
,hence,expl
anat
i
onsofr
ul
esar
enotgi
v
en
unt
i
lt
hest
udent
shav
epr
act
i
cedapat
t
er
ni
nav
ar
i
et
yof
cont
ext
s.
2.Thecogni
t
i
v
el
ear
ni
ngt
heor
yhasgi
v
enbi
r
t
ht
ot
hecogni
t
i
v
e
appr
oacht
ol
ear
ni
ng t
hatput
sl
anguageanal
y
si
sbef
or
e
l
anguageuseand i
nst
r
uct
i
onbyt
het
eacher
,bef
or
et
he
st
udent
spr
act
i
cef
or
ms.I
ti
scompat
i
bl
ewi
t
ht
hev
i
ewt
hat
l
ear
ni
ng i
sat
hi
nki
ng pr
ocess,a bel
i
eft
hatunder
pi
ns
cogni
t
i
v
ebasedandschemaenhanci
ngst
r
at
egi
essuchas
Di
r
ect
edReadi
ngThi
nki
ngAct
i
v
i
t
y
,St
or
yGr
ammar
,Thi
nkAl
oud,
t
onameaf
ew.
3.The f
unct
i
onal v
i
ew of l
anguage has r
esul
t
ed i
n
communi
cat
i
onbased met
hods such as Communi
cat
i
v
e
Language Teachi
ng/
Communi
cat
i
v
e Appr
oach,Not
i
onal
-
Funct
i
onal Appr
oach, Nat
ur
al Appr
oach, TaskBased
LanguageTeachi
ng.Thesemet
hodsar
el
ear
ner
cent
er
ed,
al
l
owi
ngl
ear
ner
st
owor
ki
npai
r
sorgr
oupsi
ni
nf
or
mat
i
on
gap t
asks and pr
obl
emsol
v
i
ng act
i
v
i
t
i
es wher
e such
communi
cat
i
on st
r
at
egi
es as i
nf
or
mat
i
on shar
i
ng,
negot
i
at
i
onofmeani
ng,
andi
nt
er
act
i
onar
eused.
4.Thev
i
ewt
hati
sbot
hcogni
t
i
v
eandaf
f
ect
i
v
ehasgi
v
enr
i
set
o
ahol
i
st
i
cappr
oacht
ol
anguagel
ear
ni
ngorwhol
eper
son
l
ear
ni
ng whi
ch has spawned humani
st
i
ct
echni
ques i
n
l
anguagel
ear
ni
ng and Communi
t
yLanguageLear
ni
ng.I
n
t
hesemet
hods,t
hewhol
eper
soni
ncl
udi
ngemot
i
onsand
f
eel
i
ngsaswel
lasl
anguageknowl
edgeandbehav
i
orski
l
l
s
become cent
r
alt
ot
eachi
ng.The humani
st
i
c appr
oach
equi
psl
ear
ner
s“
v
ocabul
ar
yf
orexpr
essi
ngone’
sf
eel
i
ngs,
f
or
shar
i
ngone’
sv
al
uesandv
i
ewpoi
nt
swi
t
hot
her
s,andf
or
dev
el
opi
ng a bet
t
erunder
st
andi
ng oft
hei
rf
eel
i
ngs and
needs.
”
D. Li
ngui
st
i
cConcept
s:
ScopeofLi
ngui
st
i
cSt
udi
es:
1.Phonol
ogy
.I
t st
udi
es t
he combi
nat
i
on of sounds i
nt
o
or
gani
zeduni
t
sofspeech,t
hecombi
nat
i
onofsy
l
l
abl
esand
l
ar
geruni
t
s.I
tdescr
i
best
hesound sy
st
em ofa par
t
i
cul
ar
l
anguage and di
st
r
i
but
i
on ofsounds whi
ch occuri
nt
hat
l
anguage.Cl
assi
f
i
cat
i
oni
smadeont
hebasi
soft
heconceptof
t
hephoneme.
Phonol
ogyi
st
hest
udyoft
hesoundsy
st
em ofl
anguage:t
he
r
ul
est
hatgov
er
npr
onunci
at
i
on.I
tcompr
i
sest
heel
ement
sand
pr
i
nci
pl
est
hatdet
er
mi
nesoundpat
t
er
nsi
nal
anguage.
2.Phonet
i
cs.I
tst
udi
esl
anguageatt
hel
ev
elofsounds:how
soundsar
ear
t
i
cul
at
edbyt
hehumanspeechmechani
sm and
r
ecei
v
edbyt
heaudi
t
or
ymechani
sm,aswel
lashow sounds
canbedi
st
i
ngui
shedandchar
act
er
i
zedbyt
hemanneri
nwhi
ch
t
heyar
epr
oduced.
3.Mor
phol
ogy
.I
tst
udi
es t
he pat
t
er
ns off
or
mi
ng wor
ds by
combi
ni
ngsoundsi
nt
omi
ni
maldi
st
i
nct
i
v
euni
t
sofmeani
ng
cal
l
edmor
phemes.I
tdeal
swi
t
ht
her
ul
esofat
t
achi
ngsuf
f
i
xes
orpr
ef
i
xest
osi
ngl
emor
phemest
of
or
m wor
ds.
Mor
phol
ogyi
st
hest
udyofwor
df
or
mat
i
on;i
tdeal
swi
t
ht
he
i
nt
er
nal
st
r
uct
ur
eofwor
ds.I
tal
sost
udi
est
hechangest
hatt
ake
pl
acei
nt
hest
r
uct
ur
eofwor
ds,
e.
g.t
hemor
pheme‘
go’
changes
t
o‘
went
’
and‘
gone’
t
osi
gni
f
ychangesi
nt
enseandaspect
.
4.Sy
nt
ax.I
tdeal
swi
t
hhow wor
dscombi
net
of
or
m phr
ases,
phr
asescombi
net
of
or
m cl
auses,
andcl
ausesconj
oi
nt
omake
sent
ences.Sy
nt
axi
st
hest
udyoft
hewayphr
ases,
cl
ausesand
sent
ences ar
e const
r
uct
ed.I
ti
st
he sy
st
em ofr
ul
es and
cat
egor
i
est
hatunder
l
i
essent
encef
or
mat
i
on.I
tal
soi
nv
ol
v
es
t
he descr
i
pt
i
on ofr
ul
es,ofposi
t
i
oni
ng ofel
ement
si
nt
he
sent
ence such as noun phr
ases,v
er
b phr
ases,adv
er
bi
al
phr
ases,
et
c.
Sy
nt
axal
soat
t
empt
st
odescr
i
behowt
heseel
ement
sf
unct
i
on
i
nt
he sent
ence,i
.
e.
,t
he f
unct
i
on t
hatt
heyper
f
or
m i
nt
he
sent
ence. Forexampl
e,t
henounphr
ase“
t
hest
udent
”has
di
f
f
er
entf
unct
i
onsi
nt
hef
ol
l
owi
ngsent
ences:
a)Thest
udenti
swr
i
t
i
nganewpl
ay
.
b)Thet
eachergav
et
hest
udentanewpl
ay
.
I
nsent
encea)
,t
hest
udentf
unct
i
onsast
hesubj
ectoft
he
sent
encewhi
l
ei
nsent
enceb)
,
i
tf
unct
i
onsasi
ndi
r
ectobj
ect
.
5.Semant
i
cs.I
tdeal
swi
t
ht
hel
ev
elofmeani
ngi
nl
anguage.I
t
at
t
empt
st
oanal
y
z
et
hest
r
uct
ur
eofmeani
ngi
nal
anguage,
e.
g.
,how wor
dsar
er
el
at
edi
nmeani
ng;i
tat
t
empt
st
oshow
t
hese i
nt
er
r
el
at
i
onshi
ps t
hr
ough f
or
mi
ng ‘
cat
egor
i
es’
.
Semant
i
csaccount
sf
orbot
hwor
dandsent
encemeani
ng.
6.Pr
agmat
i
cs.I
tdeal
swi
t
ht
hecont
ext
ualaspect
sofmeani
ngi
n
par
t
i
cul
arsi
t
uat
i
ons.Pr
agmat
i
csi
st
hest
udyofhowl
anguage
i
susedi
nr
ealcommuni
cat
i
on.Asdi
st
i
nctf
r
om t
hest
udyof
sent
ences, pr
agmat
i
cs consi
der
s ut
t
er
ances – t
hose
sent
enceswhi
char
eact
ual
l
yut
t
er
edorsai
dbyspeaker
sofa
l
anguage.
7.Di
scour
se.I
ti
st
hest
udyofchunksofl
anguagewhi
char
e
bi
ggert
hanasi
ngl
esent
ence.Att
hi
sl
ev
el
,
i
nt
er
sent
ent
i
all
i
nks
t
hatf
or
m aconnect
edorcohesi
v
et
extar
eanal
y
zed.Theuni
t
ofl
anguagest
udi
edi
ndi
scour
seandpr
agmat
i
csmaybean
ut
t
er
ancei
nanexchangeorat
exti
nwr
i
t
t
enf
or
m.
Phonol
ogy
:
1.Phonemei
sadi
st
i
nct
i
v
e,
cont
r
ast
edsounduni
t
,
e.
g./m /
,
/æ/
,
/n/
.Thesedi
st
i
nctsoundsent
eri
nt
ocombi
nat
i
onwi
t
hot
her
soundst
of
or
m wor
ds,
e.
g.
,
/
mæn/‘
man’
.
Phonemei
st
hesmal
l
estuni
tofsoundofanyl
anguaget
hat
causesadi
f
f
er
encei
nmeani
ng.I
ti
saphonesegmentt
hathas
a cont
r
ast
i
v
e st
at
us. The basi
c t
est f
or a sound’
s
di
st
i
nct
i
v
enessi
scal
l
edami
ni
malpai
rt
est
.A mi
ni
malpai
r
consi
st
soft
wof
or
mswi
t
hdi
st
i
nctmeani
ngt
hatdi
f
f
erbyonl
y
onesegmentf
oundi
nt
hesameposi
t
i
oni
neachf
or
m.For
exampl
e,[
sɪ
p]‘
si
p’and[
zɪ
p]‘
zi
p’f
or
m ami
ni
malpai
randshow
t
hatt
hesounds[
s]and[
z]cont
r
asti
nEngl
i
shbecauset
hey
causet
hedi
f
f
er
encei
nmeani
ngbet
weent
hewor
ds‘
si
p’and
‘
zi
p’
;
hence,
t
heyar
esepar
at
ephonemes-/
s/and/
z/
.
2.Al
l
ophonesar
ev
ar
i
ant
sorot
herway
sofpr
oduci
ngaphoneme.
They ar
e phonet
i
cal
l
y si
mi
l
arand ar
ef
r
equent
l
yf
ound i
n
compl
ement
ar
y di
st
r
i
but
i
on. For exampl
e,t
he sy
st
emat
i
c
v
ar
i
at
i
onsof/
t
/ar
e:
h
The/
t
/i
nt
opi
saspi
r
at
ed[
t
]
;t
he/
t
/i
nst
opi
sr
el
eased[
t
]
;t
he
7
/
t
/i
npoti
sunr
el
eased[
t]
.
3.Soundsar
ecat
egor
i
zedi
nt
ot
womaj
orcl
asses:v
owel
sand
consonant
s.
Gl
ot
t
al
Vel
ar
Pal
at
al
Al
v
eol
ar
I
nt
er
dent
al
Labi
odent
al
Bi
l
abi
al
4.Consonantsounds ar
e pr
oduced wi
t
h some r
est
r
i
ct
i
on or
cl
osur
ei
nt
hev
ocalt
r
actast
heai
rf
r
om t
hel
ungsi
spushed
t
hr
ought
hegl
ot
t
i
soutt
hemout
h.Theai
r
f
l
owi
sei
t
herbl
ocked
moment
ar
i
l
yorr
est
r
i
ct
edsomucht
hatnoi
sei
spr
oducedasai
r
f
l
owspastt
heconst
r
i
ct
i
on.Consonant
sar
edescr
i
bedi
nt
er
ms
of phy
si
caldi
mensi
ons:pl
ace of ar
t
i
cul
at
i
on,manner of
ar
t
i
cul
at
i
on,
v
oi
ci
ng,
asshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
St
ops
v
oi
cel
ess p
t
k
v
oi
ced
b
d
g
Fr
i
cat
i
v
es v
oi
cel
ess
f θ s š
h
v
oi
ced
v ð z ž
Af
f
r
i
cat
es v
oi
cel
ess
č
ǰ
v
oi
ced
Nasal
s
v
oi
cel
ess
v
oi
ced
m
n
ŋ
Li
qui
ds v
oi
cel
ess
v
oi
ced
l r
Gl
i
des
v
oi
cel
ess
v
oi
ced
w
y
Sour
ce:Par
ker
,
F.&K.Ri
l
ey
.(
1994)
.Li
ngui
st
i
csf
orNonLi
ngui
st
s.
Bost
on:
Al
l
y
nand
Bacon.
FI
GURE1.ConsonantPhonemesofEngl
i
sh
Pl
aceofAr
t
i
cul
at
i
on.Foranyar
t
i
cul
at
i
oncor
r
espondi
ngt
oone
oft
heseconsonantphonemes,
t
hev
ocalt
r
acti
sconst
r
i
ct
edatoneof
t
hef
ol
l
owi
ngpoi
nt
s.
(
a)Bi
l
abi
al(
f
r
om bi‘
t
wo’
+l
abi
al‘
l
i
ps’
)
.Thepr
i
mar
yconst
r
i
ct
i
on
i
satt
he
l
i
ps(
/
p,
b,
m,
w/
)
.
(
b)Labi
odent
al(
f
r
om l
abi
o‘
l
i
p’+dent
al‘
t
eet
h’
)
.Thepr
i
mar
y
const
r
i
ct
i
on
i
sbet
weent
hel
owerl
i
pandt
heuppert
eet
h(
/
f
,
v
/
)
.
(
c)I
nt
er
dent
al(
f
r
om i
nt
er‘
bet
ween’+ dent
al‘
t
eet
h’
)
.The
pr
i
mar
y
const
r
i
ct
i
oni
sbet
weent
het
ongueandt
heuppert
eet
h
(
/
θ,
ð/
)
.
(
d)Al
v
eol
ar(
f
r
om al
v
eol
arr
i
dge)
.Thepr
i
mar
yconst
r
i
ct
i
oni
s
bet
weent
he
t
ongueandt
heal
v
eol
arr
i
dge(
/
t
,
d,
s,
z,
n,
l
/
)
.
(
e)Pal
at
al(
f
r
om pal
at
e)
.Thepr
i
mar
yconst
r
i
ct
oni
sbet
ween
t
het
ongueandt
hepal
at
e(
/
š,
ž,
č,
ǰ
,
r
,
y
/
)
.
(
f
)Vel
ar(
f
r
om v
el
um)
.Thepr
i
mar
yconst
r
i
ct
i
oni
sbet
weent
he
t
ongueand
t
hev
el
um (
/
k,
g,
ŋ/
)
.
(
g)Gl
ot
t
al(
f
r
om gl
ot
t
i
s,whi
chr
ef
er
st
ot
hespacebet
weent
he
v
ocalcor
ds)
.Thepr
i
mar
yconst
r
i
ct
i
oni
satt
hegl
ot
t
i
s
(
/
h/
)
.
MannerofAr
t
i
cul
at
i
on.Foranyar
t
i
cul
at
i
oncor
r
espondi
ngt
o
oneoft
heseconsonantphonemes,t
hev
ocalt
r
acti
sconst
r
i
ct
edi
n
oneoft
hef
ol
l
owi
ngway
s.
(
a)St
ops.Twoar
t
i
cul
at
or
s(
l
i
ps,
t
ongue,
t
eet
h,
et
c.
)ar
ebr
ought
t
oget
hersucht
hatt
hef
l
owofai
rt
hr
ought
hev
ocalt
r
act
i
scompl
et
el
ybl
ocked(
/
p,
b,
t
,
d,
k,
g/
)
.
(
b)Fr
i
cat
i
v
es.Twoar
t
i
cul
at
or
sar
ebr
oughtneareachot
her
sucht
hatt
hef
l
ow ofai
ri
si
mpededbutnotcompl
et
el
y
bl
ocked.Theai
rf
l
owt
hr
ought
henar
r
owopeni
ngcr
eat
es
f
r
i
ct
i
on,
hencet
het
er
mf
r
i
cat
i
v
e(
/
f
,
v
,
θ,
ð,
s,
z,
š,
ž,
h/
)
.
(
c)Af
f
r
i
cat
es.Ar
t
i
cul
at
i
ons cor
r
espondi
ng t
o af
f
r
i
cat
es ar
e
t
hoset
hatbegi
nl
i
kest
ops(
wi
t
hacompl
et
ecl
osur
ei
nt
he
v
ocalt
r
act
)andendl
i
kef
r
i
cat
i
v
es(
wi
t
hanar
r
owopeni
ng
i
nt
he v
ocalt
r
act
)(
/
č,
ǰ
/
)
.Because af
f
r
i
cat
es can be
descr
i
bed asa st
op pl
usa f
r
i
cat
i
v
e,some phonemi
c
al
phabet
st
r
anscr
i
be/č/as/
t
š/and/
ǰ
/as/
dž/
.
(
d)Nasal
s.A nasalar
t
i
cul
at
i
oni
sonei
nwhi
cht
heai
r
f
l
ow
t
hr
ought
hemout
hi
scompl
et
el
ybl
ockedbutt
hev
el
um i
s
l
ower
ed,
f
or
ci
ngt
heai
rt
hr
ought
henose(
/
m,
n,
ŋ/
)
.
(
e) Li
qui
ds and Gl
i
des. Bot
h of t
hese t
er
ms descr
i
be
ar
t
i
cul
at
i
onst
hatar
emi
dwaybet
weent
r
ueconsonant
s
(
i
.
e.
,st
ops,f
r
i
cat
i
v
es,af
f
r
i
cat
es,andnasal
s)andv
owel
s,
al
t
hought
heyar
ebot
hgener
al
l
ycl
assi
f
i
edasconsonant
s.
Li
qui
di
sacov
ert
er
mf
oral
ll
l
i
keandr
l
i
kear
t
i
cul
at
i
ons
(
/
l
,
r
/
)
.
Voi
ci
ng.Foranyar
t
i
cul
at
i
oncor
r
espondi
ngt
o oneoft
hese
consonant phonemes, t
he v
ocal cor
ds ar
e ei
t
her v
i
br
at
i
ng
(
/
b,
d,
g,
v
,
ð,
z,
ž,
ǰ
,
m,
n,
ŋ,
l
,
r
,
w,
y
/
)ornot(
p,
t
,
k,
f
,
θ,
s,
š,
č,
h/
)
.St
ops,f
r
i
cat
i
v
es,
andaf
f
r
i
cat
escomei
nv
oi
cedandv
oi
cel
esspai
r
s(
exceptf
or/
h/
)
;
nasal
s,
l
i
qui
ds,
andgl
i
desar
eal
l
v
oi
ced,
asar
ev
owel
s.
Eachconsonantphonemei
snotr
eal
l
yani
ndi
v
i
si
bl
euni
t
,but
r
at
heracomposi
t
eofv
al
uesal
ongt
heset
hr
eedi
mensi
ons.Each
suchdi
mensi
onconst
i
t
ut
esadi
st
i
nct
i
v
ef
eat
ur
e.Forexampl
e,f
r
om
oneper
spect
i
v
e/
p/and/
b/ar
enotr
eal
l
yuni
t
si
nt
hemsel
v
es,but
r
at
hereachi
sbundl
eoff
eat
ur
ev
al
ues,
asf
ol
l
ows.
+bi
l
abi
al
/
p/ = +st
op
−v
oi
ce
+bi
l
abi
al
/
b/ = +st
op
+v
oi
ce
5.Vowel
sar
epr
oducedwi
t
hl
i
t
t
l
eobst
r
uct
i
oni
nt
hev
ocalt
r
act
andar
egener
al
l
yv
oi
ced.Theyar
edescr
i
bedi
nt
er
msoft
he
f
ol
l
owi
ng phy
si
caldi
mensi
ons:t
ongue hei
ght
,f
r
ont
ness,l
i
p
r
oundi
ng,t
enseness.Di
f
f
er
entpar
t
s oft
he t
ongue maybe
r
ai
sed orl
ower
ed.Thel
i
psmaybe spr
ead orpur
sed.The
passaget
hr
oughwhi
cht
heai
rt
r
av
el
s,
howev
er
,
i
snev
ernar
r
ow
ast
oobst
r
uctt
hef
r
eef
l
owoft
heai
r
st
r
eam.
Vowelsoundscar
r
ypi
t
chandl
oudness;onecansi
ngv
owel
s.
Theymaybel
ongorshor
t
.
Fr
ont
Back
i
u
ɪ
℧
e
o
ε
Λ(
ә)
Ɔ
æ
Hi
gh
a
Spr
ead
Round
Lax
Mi
d
Tense
Low
Sour
ce:Par
ker
,
F.&K.Ri
l
ey
.(
1994)
.Li
ngui
st
i
csf
orNonLi
ngui
st
s.
Bost
on:
Al
l
y
nandBacon.
Fi
gur
e2.VowelPhonemesofEngl
i
sh
6.Supr
asegment
al
sar
epr
osodi
cpr
oper
t
i
est
hatf
or
m par
toft
he
makeupofsoundsnomat
t
erwhatt
hei
rpl
aceormannerof
ar
t
i
cul
at
i
oni
s.Thesepr
oper
t
i
esar
epi
t
ch,i
nt
onat
i
on,st
r
ess,
andj
unct
ur
e.Theyar
ev
ar
i
at
i
onsi
ni
nt
ensi
t
y
,
pi
t
ch,
andt
i
mi
ng.
7.St
r
essi
sapr
oper
t
yofasy
l
l
abl
er
at
hert
hanasegment
.I
ti
sa
cov
ert
er
mf
oracombi
nedef
f
ectofpi
t
ch,
l
oudnessandl
engt
h-t
her
esul
tofwhi
chi
sv
owelpr
omi
nence;
hence,
i
tr
ef
er
st
ot
he
r
el
at
i
v
epr
omi
nenceofsy
l
l
abl
es.Thesy
l
l
abl
et
hatr
ecei
v
est
he
mostpr
omi
nentst
r
essi
sr
ef
er
r
edt
o aspr
i
mar
yst
r
ess.To
pr
oduceast
r
essedsy
l
l
abl
e,onemaychanget
hepi
t
ch(
usual
l
y
byr
ai
si
ngi
t
)
,
maket
hesy
l
l
abl
el
ouder
,
ormakei
tl
onger
.
e.
g.
2
1
f
undament
al
secondar
y
2
1
1
i
nt
r
oduct
or
y
2
8.Pi
t
chi
st
heaudi
t
or
ypr
oper
t
yofasoundt
hatenabl
esust
o
pl
acei
tonascal
et
hatr
angesf
r
om l
owt
ohi
gh.
9.I
nt
onat
i
on i
st
her
i
seand f
al
lofpi
t
ch whi
ch maycont
r
ast
meani
ngs of sent
ences.The pi
t
ch mov
ement i
n spoken
ut
t
er
ances i
s notonl
yr
el
at
ed t
o di
f
f
er
ences i
nt
he wor
d
meani
ng,butser
v
es t
o conv
ey i
nf
or
mat
i
on ofa br
oadl
y
meani
ngf
ulnat
ur
esuchascompl
et
enessori
ncompl
et
enessof
anut
t
er
ance.I
nt
onat
i
onr
ef
er
st
ot
hepi
t
chcont
our
sast
hey
occuri
nphr
asesandsent
ences.
I
nEngl
i
sh,
t
hest
at
ement‘
Mar
i
ani
sal
i
ngui
st
’
endswi
t
haf
al
li
n
pi
t
chwhi
l
easaquest
i
on,‘
Mar
i
ani
sal
i
ngui
st
?
’t
hepi
t
chgoes
up.
10.
Junct
ur
er
ef
er
st
ot
hepausesorbr
eaksbet
weensy
l
l
abl
es.
I
tr
ef
er
st
ot
het
r
ansi
t
i
onbet
weensounds.Thel
ackofanyr
eal
br
eak bet
ween sy
l
l
abl
es ofwor
ds i
sr
ef
er
r
ed t
o as cl
ose
j
unct
ur
e;pl
usj
unct
ur
eoropenj
unct
ur
ei
susedt
odescr
i
bea
br
eakorpausebet
weensy
l
l
abl
esi
nt
hesamewor
doradj
acent
wor
d;e.
g.ni
t
r
at
ev
s.ni
ghtr
at
e;whyt
r
yv
s.whi
t
er
y
e;bl
ackbi
r
d
v
s.bl
ackbi
r
d
Mor
phol
ogy
:
1.Mor
phemei
sashor
tsegmentofl
anguaget
hatmeet
st
hr
ee
cr
i
t
er
i
a:
a.I
ti
sawor
dorpar
tofawor
dt
hathasmeani
ng.
b.I
tcannotbedi
v
i
dedi
nt
osmal
l
ermeani
ngf
ulpar
t
swi
t
hout
v
i
ol
at
i
on of i
t
s meani
ng or wi
t
hout meani
ngl
ess
r
emai
nder
s.
c.I
tr
ecur
si
n di
f
f
er
entwor
ds wi
t
har
el
at
i
v
el
y st
abl
e
meani
ng.
Thewor
dunhappi
nesshas3mor
phemes:{
un}
,
{
happy
}
,
{
ness}
whi
l
et
hewor
dsal
amanderi
sasi
ngl
emor
pheme.
2.Al
l
omor
phsar
emor
phswhi
chbel
ongt
ot
hesamemor
pheme.
Forexampl
e,/
s/
,/
z
/and/
əz/i
n/
kæt
s/‘
cat
s’
,/
bægz/‘
bags’
and/bΛsəz/‘
buses’ar
eal
l
omor
phsoft
hepl
ur
almor
phemes
{
(
e)
s}
.Al
l
omor
phsar
ev
ar
i
ant
sofamor
phemet
hatmaybe
phonol
ogi
cal
l
yormor
phol
ogi
cal
l
ycondi
t
i
oned;e.
g.{
en}asi
n
oxenandchi
l
dr
enar
eal
l
omor
phsof{
pl
ur
al
}mor
pheme.
3.Fr
eemor
phemesar
et
hoset
hatcanst
andont
hei
rownas
i
ndependentwor
ds,e.
g.{
happy
}i
nunhappi
l
y
,{
l
i
ke}i
ndi
sl
i
ke,
{
boy
}i
nboy
hood.Theycanal
sooccuri
ni
sol
at
i
on;e.
g.{
happy
}
,
{
l
i
ke}
4.Boundmor
phemesar
et
hoset
hatcannotst
andont
hei
rownas
i
ndependentwor
ds.They ar
e al
way
s at
t
ached t
oaf
r
ee
mor
phemeoraf
r
eef
or
m,e.
g.{
un}
,{
l
y
}
,{
di
s}{
hood}
.Such
mor
phemesar
eal
socal
l
edaf
f
i
xes.
Boundmor
phemesar
et
hoset
hatcannotst
andal
oneaswor
ds;
t
heyneedt
obeat
t
achedt
oanot
hermor
pheme;
e.
g.{
con}
;
{
de}
,
{
per
}t
o be at
t
ached t
o{
cei
v
e}as i
n concei
v
e,decei
v
e,
per
cei
v
e.
5.I
nf
l
ect
i
onalmor
phemesar
et
hoset
hatnev
erchanget
hef
or
m
cl
assoft
hewor
dsormor
phemest
owhi
cht
heyar
eat
t
ached.
Theyar
eal
way
sat
t
achedt
ocompl
et
ewor
ds.Theycapt
he
wor
d;t
heyar
eacl
osedendedsetofmor
phemes-Engl
i
shhas
onl
y8i
nf
l
ect
i
onal
mor
phemes.
home.
home.
s t
hi
r
dper
sonsi
ng.pr
es.
ed pastt
ense
i
ng pr
ogr
essi
v
e
Shest
ay
sathome.
Shest
ay
edathome.
Shei
sst
ay
i
ngat
en pastpar
t
i
ci
pl
e
Shehaseat
enat
s
Shewr
ot
enov
el
s.
Mar
i
e’
s car i
s
pl
ur
al
‘
s possessi
v
e
new.
er compar
at
i
v
e
ert
hant
hat
.
est super
l
at
i
v
e
estr
oad.
Thi
sr
oadi
sl
ongThi
si
st
hel
ong-
6.Der
i
v
at
i
onalmor
phemes ar
et
hose t
hatar
e added t
or
oot
mor
phemesorst
emst
oder
i
v
enewwor
ds.Theyusual
l
ychange
t
hef
or
m cl
assoft
hewor
dst
owhi
cht
heyar
eat
t
ached;
t
heyar
e
openended,t
hati
s,t
her
ear
epot
ent
i
al
l
yi
nf
i
ni
t
enumberof
t
hem;
e.
g.act
ual+{
i
ze} act
ual
i
ze;
hel
p+{
f
ul
} hel
pf
ul
;
{
un
}+l
ucky unl
ucky
.
7.Wor
d–For
mat
i
onpr
ocesses
Der
i
vat
i
on.Thi
si
nv
ol
v
est
headdi
t
i
onofader
i
v
at
i
onalaf
f
i
x,
changi
ng t
hesy
nt
act
i
ccat
egor
yoft
hei
t
em t
o whi
chi
ti
s
at
t
ached(
e.
g.
,di
scer
n(
V)di
scer
nment(
N)
;woman(
N)
womanl
y(
Adj
)
)
.
Cat
egor
y Ext
ensi
on. Thi
s i
nv
ol
v
es t
he ext
ensi
on of a
mor
phemef
r
om onesy
nt
act
i
ccat
egor
yt
oanot
her(
e.
g.
,
house
(
N) house(
V)
;
f
ast(
Adj
)f
ast(
Adv
)
)
Compoundi
ng.Thi
si
nv
ol
v
escr
eat
i
nganewwor
dbycombi
ni
ng
t
wof
r
eemor
phemes(
e.
g.
,
sunset
;
dr
ugst
or
e)
.
RootCr
eat
i
on.I
ti
sabr
andnewwor
dbasedonnopr
eexi
st
i
ng
mor
phemes(
e.
g.
,
Col
gat
e;
Xer
ox)
.
Cl
i
ppedFor
m.I
ti
sashor
t
enedf
or
m ofapr
eexi
st
i
ngf
or
ms
(
e.
g.
,
gy
m <gy
mnasi
um;
mi
ke<mi
cr
ophone)
.
Bl
end.I
ti
sacombi
nat
i
onofpar
t
soft
wopr
eexi
st
i
ngf
or
ms
(
e.
g.
,
smog<smoke+f
og;
mot
el<mot
or+hot
el
)
.
Acr
ony
m.I
ti
sawor
df
or
medf
r
om t
hef
i
r
stl
et
t
er
(
s)ofeach
wor
di
naphr
ase(
e.
g.
,
NASA<Nat
i
onalAer
onaut
i
csandSpace
Admi
ni
st
r
at
i
on;
SARS<Sev
er
eAcut
eRespi
r
at
or
ySy
ndr
ome)
.
Abbr
evi
at
i
on.I
ti
sawor
df
or
medf
r
om t
henamesoft
hef
i
r
st
l
et
t
er
soft
hepr
omi
nentsy
l
l
abl
esofawor
d(
e.
g.
,
TV<t
el
ev
i
si
on)
orofwor
ds i
n a phr
ase (
e.
g.
,FBI< Feder
alBur
eau of
I
nv
est
i
gat
i
on)
.
Pr
operName.Thi
spr
ocessf
or
msawor
df
r
om apr
opername
(
e.
g.
,hambur
ger<Hambur
g(
Ger
many
)
;sandwi
ch <Ear
lof
Sandwi
ch)
.
Fol
kEt
y
mol
ogy
.Thi
spr
ocessf
or
msawor
dbysubst
i
t
ut
i
nga
commonnat
i
v
ef
or
mf
oranexot
i
c(
of
t
enf
or
ei
gn)f
or
m(
e.
g.
,
cockr
oach<Spani
shcucur
acha‘
woodl
ouse’
)
.
BackFor
mat
i
on.Thi
spr
ocessf
or
msawor
dbyr
emov
i
ngwhat
i
smi
st
akenf
oranaf
f
i
x(
e.
g.edi
t<edi
t
or
;
beg<beggar
)
.
8.Mor
phophonemi
cPr
ocesses
Ther
ear
epr
ocessest
hatpr
oduceagr
eatdealofl
i
ngui
st
i
c
v
ar
i
abi
l
i
t
y
:assi
mi
l
at
i
on,di
ssi
mi
l
at
i
on,del
et
i
on,epent
hesi
s,
met
at
hesi
s.
Assi
mi
l
at
i
oni
sapr
ocesst
hatr
esul
t
sf
r
om asoundbecomi
ng
mor
el
i
keanot
hernear
bysoundi
nt
er
msofoneormor
eofi
t
s
phonet
i
cchar
act
er
i
st
i
cs;apr
ocessi
nwhi
chsegment
st
akeon
t
he char
act
er
i
st
i
cs ofnei
ghbor
i
ng sounds;e.
g.pr
obabl
e–
i
mpr
obabl
e; pot
ent i
mpot
ent
; separ
abl
e – i
nsepar
abl
e;
sensi
t
i
v
e–i
nsensi
t
i
v
e
Di
ssi
mi
l
at
i
oni
sapr
ocesst
hatr
esul
t
si
nt
wosoundsbecomi
ng
l
essal
i
kei
nar
t
i
cul
at
or
yoracoust
i
ct
er
ms;apr
ocessi
nwhi
ch
uni
t
swhi
choccuri
nsomecont
ext
sar
e‘
l
ost
’i
not
her
s;e.
g.
‘
l
i
bar
y
’
i
nst
eadof‘
l
i
br
ar
y
,
’
‘
gov
enor
’
f
or‘
gov
er
nor
’
Del
et
i
oni
sapr
ocesst
hatr
emov
esasegmentf
r
om cer
t
ai
n
phonet
i
ccont
ext
s.I
toccur
si
n ev
er
y
dayr
api
d speech;e.
g.
[
bl
aɪ
nmæn]‘
bl
i
ndman’
Epent
hesi
si
sapr
ocesst
hati
nser
t
sasy
l
l
abl
eoranonsy
l
l
abi
c
segmentwi
t
hi
nanexi
st
i
ngst
r
i
ngofsegment
;e.
g.[
pl
ænt
ɪ
d]
‘
pl
ant
ed’
Met
at
hesi
si
sapr
ocesst
hatr
eor
der
sorr
ev
er
sesasequence
ofsegment
s;i
toccur
swhent
wosegment
si
naser
i
esswi
t
ch
pl
aces,
e.
g.ask aks;
r
ul
er l
ur
er
;
v
i
ol
et v
i
l
oy
et
Sy
nt
act
i
cSt
r
uct
ur
es
1.St
r
uct
ur
eofPr
edi
cat
i
onhast
wocomponent
s:asubj
ectanda
pr
edi
cat
e;e.
g.t
heseagul
lf
l
i
es,t
hewat
erl
ev
elr
oseabr
upt
l
y
,
t
het
r
i
alhasbegun
2.St
r
uct
ur
eofCompl
ement
at
i
onhast
wobasi
ccomponent
s:a
v
er
bal el
ementandacompl
ement
;e.
g.di
st
ur
bedt
hecl
ass,
r
ender
edser
v
i
ce,
beconsci
ent
i
ous
3.St
r
uct
ur
eofModi
f
i
cat
i
onhast
wocomponent
s:aheadwor
d
andamodi
f
i
er
,whosemeani
ngser
v
est
o br
oaden,qual
i
f
y
,
sel
ect
,
change,
ordescr
i
be,
ori
nsomewayaf
f
ectt
hemeani
ng
oft
he head wor
d;e.
g.r
esponsi
bl
e of
f
i
cer
s,t
r
ust
ed f
r
i
end,
i
mpar
t
i
al
l
yconduct
ed
4. St
r
uct
ur
e of Coor
di
nat
i
on has t
wo basi
c component
s:
equi
v
al
entgr
ammat
i
caluni
t
sandj
oi
nedof
t
enbutnotal
way
s
byacoor
di
nat
i
ngconj
unct
i
on;
e.
g.br
eadandbut
t
er
,
peacenot
war
,
nei
t
herext
r
ov
er
tnori
nt
r
ov
er
t
Semant
i
cs
1.
Lexi
calambi
gui
t
yr
ef
er
st
oachar
act
er
i
st
i
cofawor
dt
hathas
mor
et
hanonesense,e.g.t
heEngl
i
shwor
df
l
yi
sambi
guous
becausei
thasmor
et
hanonemeani
ng:‘
ani
nsect
,
’‘
azi
pper
onapai
rofpant
s,
’
or‘
abasebal
l
hi
ti
nt
ot
heai
rwi
t
habat
.
’
2. Sy
nt
act
i
cambi
gui
t
yr
ef
er
st
ot
hechar
act
er
i
st
i
cofaphr
ase
t
hathasmor
e t
han onemeani
ng,e.
g.Engl
i
shl
i
t
er
at
ur
e
t
eachercan mean ‘
at
eacherofEngl
i
sh l
i
t
er
at
ur
e’or‘
a
l
i
t
er
at
ur
et
eacherwhoi
sf
r
om Engl
and.
’
3.Sy
nony
myr
ef
er
st
owor
dshav
i
ngt
hesamesense;
t
hati
s,
t
hey
hav
et
hesamev
al
uesf
oral
loft
hei
rsemant
i
cf
eat
ur
es.happy
and gl
ad;r
epl
y and r
espond;hast
i
l
y and hur
r
i
edl
y ar
e
sy
nony
mouswor
dsi
nEngl
i
sh.
4. Hy
pony
myi
sachar
act
er
i
st
i
cofawor
dt
hatcont
ai
nst
he
meani
ngofanot
herwor
d;
t
hecont
ai
nedwor
di
sknownast
he
super
or
di
nat
e. For exampl
e, sampagui
t
a cont
ai
ns t
he
meani
ngoff
l
ower
;t
her
ef
or
e,sampagui
t
ai
sahy
pony
m oft
he
super
or
di
nat
ef
l
ower
.Putanot
herway
,ahy
pony
mi
sawor
d
whose meani
ng cont
ai
ns al
lt
he same f
eat
ur
ev
al
ues of
anot
herwor
d,
pl
ussomeaddi
t
i
onal
f
eat
ur
ev
al
ues.
5. Ant
ony
myr
ef
er
st
ot
hechar
act
er
i
st
i
coft
wowor
dswhi
char
e
di
f
f
er
entbot
hi
nf
or
m as wel
las meani
ng.An ant
ony
m
conv
ey
st
heopposi
t
esense(
bi
nar
yant
ony
ms)
,
e.
g.r
i
ch-poor
;
good–bad.Theyar
eal
sowor
dswhosemeani
ngsdi
f
f
eronl
y
i
nt
hev
al
uef
orasi
ngl
esemant
i
cf
eat
ur
e;
e.
g.r
i
ch–poor
;
r
i
ch
i
smar
ked[
+weal
t
h]andpoori
smar
ked[
-weal
t
h]
;
dead–al
i
v
e;
dead i
smar
ked[
l
i
f
e]and al
i
v
ei
smar
ked[
+l
i
f
e]
.Gr
adabl
e
ant
ony
ms ar
e wor
ds t
hatdescr
i
be opposi
t
e ends of a
cont
i
nuousdi
mensi
on,e.
g.hotandcol
d.Notev
er
y
t
hi
ngt
hat
canbehotorcol
di
s,i
nf
act
,ei
t
herhotorcol
d.Li
qui
d,f
or
exampl
e,
maybewar
m orcool
.
6.Homony
myr
ef
er
st
osenser
el
at
i
oni
nwor
dswi
t
ht
hesame
phonet
i
cf
or
m butdi
f
f
er
enti
nmeani
ng,e.
g.batmeani
ng‘
a
noct
ur
nalani
mal
’and batmeani
ng ‘
anequi
pmentused i
n
basebal
l
orsof
t
bal
l
.
’
7.Cor
ef
er
encer
ef
er
st
ot
hesenser
el
at
i
onoft
woexpr
essi
ons
t
hathav
et
hesameext
r
al
i
ngui
st
i
cr
ef
er
ent
.I
nt
hesent
ence
“
Mer
cur
yi
st
henear
estpl
anetf
r
om t
hesun,
”Mer
cur
yandt
he
near
estpl
anetf
r
om t
hesunar
ecor
ef
er
ent
i
albecauset
hey
bot
hr
ef
ert
ot
hesameext
r
al
i
ngui
st
i
cobj
ect– t
hepl
anet
Mer
cur
yi
nt
hesol
arsy
st
em.
8.Anaphor
ai
sa l
i
ngui
st
i
cexpr
essi
on t
hatr
ef
er
st
o anot
her
l
i
ngui
st
i
cexpr
essi
on;e.
g.“
Thet
sunamiki
l
l
edt
housandsof
peopl
e.I
twasdev
ast
at
i
ng.
”I
ti
nt
hesecondsent
encei
sused
anaphor
i
cal
l
y(
t
opoi
ntbackwar
ds)t
or
ef
ert
o‘
t
het
sunami
’
.
9. Dei
xi
sr
ef
er
st
ot
hechar
act
er
i
st
i
cofanexpr
essi
ont
hathas
onemeani
ngbutcanr
ef
ert
odi
f
f
er
entent
i
t
i
eswi
t
hi
nt
hesame
cont
extofut
t
er
ance.Dei
ct
i
cex
pr
essi
onshav
ea ‘
poi
nt
i
ng
f
unct
i
on.
’Exampl
es of dei
xi
s ar
ey
ou,I
,she (
per
sonal
pr
onouns)
;her
e,t
her
e,r
i
ght
,l
ef
t
,(
expr
essi
onsofpl
ace)
;t
hi
s,
t
hat
,
t
hose,
t
hese(
demonst
r
at
i
v
es)
;
now,
y
est
er
day
,
t
oday
,
l
ast
y
ear(
t
i
meexpr
essi
ons)
.
10.
Ent
ai
l
menti
sapr
oposi
t
i
on(
expr
essedi
nasent
ence)t
hat
f
ol
l
owsnecessar
i
l
yf
r
om anot
hersent
ence.Asent
enceent
ai
l
s
anot
heri
ft
hemeani
ngoft
hef
i
r
sti
ncl
udest
hemeani
ngoft
he
second;i
ti
s al
so cal
l
ed par
aphr
ase.For exampl
e,t
he
sent
ence,‘
Raulhadaf
at
alacci
dent
’ent
ai
l
st
hat‘
Rauldi
ed’
si
ncei
ti
si
mpossi
bl
et
of
i
gur
ei
naf
at
alacci
dentwi
t
houtl
oss
ofl
i
f
e.Semant
i
cal
l
yspeaki
ng,f
at
almeans[
l
i
f
e]whi
l
edi
ed
al
someans[
l
i
f
e]
.
11.Pr
esupposi
t
i
on r
ef
er
st
o a pr
oposi
t
i
on (
expr
essed i
na
sent
ence)t
hati
sassumedt
obet
r
uei
nor
dert
oj
udget
he
t
r
ut
horf
al
si
t
yofanot
hersent
ence.I
tal
sor
ef
er
st
ot
het
r
ut
h
r
el
at
i
onbet
weent
wosent
ences;onesent
encepr
esupposes
anot
heri
ft
hef
al
si
t
yoft
hesecondr
ender
st
hef
i
r
stwi
t
houta
t
r
ut
hv
al
ue;e.
g.Thesent
ence‘
TheKi
ngofCanadai
sdead.
’
pr
esupposest
hat‘
Ther
eexi
st
s(
i
s)aKi
ngofCanada.
’
Thef
i
r
st
sent
encepr
esupposest
hesecondsent
encebecausei
ft
he
secondsent
encei
sf
al
se,t
hent
hef
i
r
stsent
encehasnot
r
ut
h
v
al
ue.
Pr
agmat
i
cs
1. Speechactt
heor
y
. Ev
er
yut
t
er
anceofspeechconst
i
t
ut
es
some sor
t of act (
pr
omi
si
ng,apol
ogi
zi
ng,t
hr
eat
eni
ng,
war
ni
ng,et
c.
)
.Ev
er
yspeechactconsi
st
soft
hr
eesepar
at
e
act
s:
Locut
i
onar
yf
or
ce an actof say
i
ng somet
hi
ng;i
ti
sa
descr
i
pt
i
onofwhataspeakersay
s,e.
g.
,Ipr
omi
set
or
et
ur
n
y
ourbookt
omor
r
ow.
I
l
l
ocut
i
onar
yact
/
f
or
ce i
st
heactofdoi
ngsomet
hi
ng;i
ti
s
whatt
hespeakeri
nt
endst
odobyut
t
er
i
ngasent
ence,
e.
g.
,
by
say
i
ng“
Ipr
omi
set
or
et
ur
ny
ourbookt
omor
r
ow,
”t
hespeaker
hasmadeanactofpr
omi
si
ng.
Per
l
ocut
i
onar
yacti
sanactofaf
f
ect
i
ngsomeone(
i
.
e.
,t
he
l
i
st
ener
)
;i
ti
st
heef
f
ectont
hehear
erofwhataspeakersay
s,
e.
g.
,bysay
i
ng“
Iwi
l
lr
et
ur
ny
ourbook t
omor
r
ow,
”t
hehear
er
mayf
eel
happyorr
el
i
ev
edt
hats/
hewi
l
l
gett
hebookback
2.Cat
egor
i
es of I
l
l
ocut
i
onar
y Act
s. These ar
e cat
egor
i
es
pr
oposed byJohnSear
l
et
o gr
oup t
oget
hercl
osel
yr
el
at
ed
i
nt
ent
i
onsf
orsay
i
ngsomet
hi
ng.
Decl
ar
at
i
on.Adecl
ar
at
i
oni
sanut
t
er
anceusedt
ochanget
he
st
at
usofsomeent
i
t
y–f
orexampl
e,
Foul
!ut
t
er
edbyar
ef
er
ee
atabasket
bal
lgame.Thi
scl
assi
ncl
udesact
sofappoi
nt
i
ng,
nami
ng,r
esi
gni
ng,bapt
i
zi
ng,sur
r
ender
i
ng,excommuni
cat
i
ng,
ar
r
est
i
ng,
andsoon.
Repr
esent
at
i
ve.A r
epr
esent
at
i
v
ei
s an ut
t
er
ance used t
o
descr
i
besomest
at
eofaf
f
ai
r
s– f
orexampl
e,Recessi
onwi
l
l
wor
seni
nEur
opei
nt
henextf
i
v
ey
ear
s.Thi
scl
assi
ncl
udes
act
s ofst
at
i
ng,asser
t
i
ng,deny
i
ng,conf
essi
ng,admi
t
t
i
ng,
not
i
f
y
i
ng,
concl
udi
ng,
pr
edi
ct
i
ng,
andsoon.
Commi
ssi
ve.Acommi
ssi
v
ei
sanut
t
er
anceusedt
ocommi
t
t
hespeakert
odosomet
hi
ng–f
orexampl
e,I
’
l
lmeety
ouat
t
hel
i
br
ar
yat10:
00a.
m.Thi
scl
assi
ncl
udesact
sofpr
omi
si
ng,
v
owi
ng,v
ol
unt
eer
i
ng,of
f
er
i
ng,guar
ant
eei
ng,pl
edgi
ng,bet
t
i
ng,
andsoon.
Di
r
ect
i
ve.A di
r
ect
i
v
ei
sanut
t
er
anceusedt
ot
r
yt
ogett
he
hear
ert
odosomet
hi
ng–f
orexampl
e,Rev
i
ewt
hor
oughl
yf
or
t
heexams.Thi
scl
assi
ncl
udesact
sofr
equest
i
ng,or
der
i
ng,
f
or
bi
ddi
ng, war
ni
ng, adv
i
si
ng, suggest
i
ng, i
nsi
st
i
ng,
r
ecommendi
ng,
andsoon.
Expr
essi
ve.Anexpr
essi
v
ei
sanut
t
er
anceusedt
oexpr
esst
he
emot
i
onalst
at
eoft
hespeaker–f
orexampl
e,
Congr
at
ul
at
i
ons
f
ort
oppi
ng t
he barexam!
.Thi
s cl
ass i
ncl
udes act
s of
apol
ogi
zi
ng,t
hanki
ng,congr
at
ul
at
i
ng,condol
i
ng,wel
comi
ng,
depl
or
i
ng,
obj
ect
i
ng,
andsoon.
Quest
i
on.Aquest
i
oni
sanut
t
er
anceusedt
ogett
hehear
ert
o
pr
ov
i
dei
nf
or
mat
i
on–f
orexampl
e,Whowont
hepr
esi
dent
i
al
el
ect
i
on?Thi
scl
assi
ncl
udesact
sofaski
ng,i
nqui
r
i
ng,andso
on.(
Not
e:Sear
l
et
r
eat
ed quest
i
ons as a subcat
egor
y of
di
r
ect
i
v
es;howev
er
,i
ti
s mor
e usef
ult
ot
r
eatt
hem as a
separ
at
ecat
egor
y
.
)
3.Conv
er
sat
i
onalMaxi
ms ar
er
ul
es t
hatar
e obser
v
ed when
communi
cat
i
ont
akespl
acei
nasi
t
uat
i
onwher
epeopl
ear
ecooper
at
i
v
e.Whenpeopl
ecommuni
cat
e,t
heyassumet
hatt
he
ot
herper
sonwi
l
lbecooper
at
i
v
eandt
heyt
hemsel
v
eswi
sht
o
cooper
at
e.
I
nt
he“
Cooper
at
i
v
ePr
i
nci
pl
e,
”t
hef
ol
l
owi
ngmaxi
msorr
ul
es
gov
er
nor
al
i
nt
er
act
i
ons:
Maxi
m ofquant
i
t
y–apar
t
i
ci
pant
’
scont
r
i
but
i
onshoul
dbeas
i
nf
or
mat
i
v
easpossi
bl
e– “
Gi
v
et
her
i
ght
amountofi
nf
or
mat
i
on,nei
t
herl
ess nor
mor
et
hanwhati
sr
equi
r
ed.
”
e.
g. A:Ar
ey
ouat
t
endi
ngt
hesemi
nar
?
B:
Yes,
Iam.
Maxi
m ofqual
i
t
y–apar
t
i
ci
pantshoul
dnotsayt
hatwhi
chi
s
f
al
se ort
hatwhi
ch t
he par
t
i
ci
pantl
acks
ev
i
dence -“
Make y
ourcont
r
i
but
i
on such
t
hati
ti
st
r
ue;donotsaywhaty
ouknow i
s
f
al
seorf
orwhi
chy
oudonothav
eadequat
e
ev
i
dence.
”
e.
g. A:Whodi
dy
ouseeent
ert
her
oom
l
ast
?
B:
Thej
ani
t
or
Maxi
m ofr
el
at
i
on – apar
t
i
ci
pant
’
scont
r
i
but
i
on shoul
d be
r
el
at
edt
ot
he subj
ectoft
heconv
er
sat
i
on–
“
Ber
el
ev
ant
.
”
e.
g. A:Whydi
dy
oucomel
at
e?
B:
Ihadt
ot
akemysont
oschool
.
Maxi
m ofmanner– apar
t
i
ci
pant
’
scont
r
i
but
i
on shoul
d be
di
r
ect
,notobscur
e,ambi
guous,orwor
dy–
“
Av
oi
dobscur
i
t
yandambi
gui
t
y
;
bebr
i
efand
or
der
l
y
.
”
e.
g.
A:
Ar
ey
ouaccept
i
ngt
heposi
t
i
on?
B:
Yes,
Iam.Thanky
ouf
ory
ourt
r
usti
nme.
4.I
mpl
i
cat
ur
esr
ef
ert
ost
at
ement
st
hati
mpl
yapr
oposi
t
i
ont
hat
i
snotpar
toft
heut
t
er
anceanddoesnotf
ol
l
owasanecessar
y
consequenceoft
heut
t
er
ance.
Forexampl
e:Dansay
st
ohi
swi
f
eNi
t
z,
“
Uncl
eEr
ni
ei
sdr
i
v
i
ngust
o
Tagay
t
ay
”t
o whi
chNi
t
zr
esponds,“
IguessI
’
d bet
t
ert
ake
t
r
anqui
l
i
zer
s.
”
Ni
t
z’
s ut
t
er
ance r
ai
ses t
he i
mpl
i
cat
ur
et
hat
Uncl
eEr
ni
emustbeaf
ast
, r
eckl
essdr
i
v
er
.