TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHAPTER
1:
Introduction:
CHAPTEq
2:
Natal's
About t h e Study
Immigrants Under t h e
I n d e n t u r e d System
CHAPTER
3:
Places o f Origin:
Taluks,
CHAPTER
4:
5:
Tahsils/
43
a n d Towns
The S o c i o - E c o n o m i c
Immigrants:
CHAPTER
Zillahs,
Background o f t h e
Caste and R e l i g i o n
The P l a c e o f W o r k :
Employers,
W o r k e r s a n d C o n d i t i o n s o f Work
CHAPTER
6:
Conclusion
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(There
are
23
Tables
and
11
Graphs)
68
Acknowledgements
Many p e o p l e h a v e a s s i s t e d i n t h e f o u r - a n d - o n e - h a l f
years
t h a t t h e p r o j e c t h a s r u n f r o m O c t o b e r 1 9 8 1 t o March 1986.
My c o l l e a g u e P r o f e s s o r J B B r a i n r a n k s h i g h among t h e
p e o p l e t o b e t h a n k e d b e c a u s e i t was s h e who i n s p i r e d t h e
idea o f analysing the ship's registers,
a n d who a s s i s t e d
i n the i n i t i a l stages o f the p r o j e c t ' s implementation.
P r o f e s s o r M G G L a i d l a w o f t h e Computer S c i e n c e Department
was o f e n o r m o u s h e l p .
He t o o k o u r i d e a s a n d d e v i s e d a
programme a r o u n d them,
and s u p e r v i s e d t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s o f
t h e w o r k a l m o s t a s i f i t was h i s own.
The R e c t o r ,
Professor
J J C G r e y l i n g was m o s t s u p p o r t i v e i n o u r e n d e a v o u r s .
t o o was D r R de W e t ,
readers,
So
who made a v a i l a b l e t h e u s e o f m i c r o f i l m
s t o r a g e space,
and so on.
No r e s e a r c h i s p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t f i n a n c i a l b a c k i n g .
University o f Durban-Westville
The
made a v a i l a b l e a n o p e n i n g
g r a n t through i t s research committee;
i t s contribution
was m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l i n t h e f o r m o f i n f r a - s t r u c t u r a l
support.
L a r g e a n d s m a l l d o n o r s came f o r w a r d w i t h
when t h e y w e r e m o s t n e e d e d .
M r G R H K i n g o f De B e e r s
C o n s o l i d a t e d g e n e r o u s l y made a g r a n t
Fund E d u c a t i o n a l T r u s t ;
funds
from t h e Chairman's
and s m a l l e r amounts were r e c e i v e d
f r o m i n d i v i d u a l s a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n s who a l s o r e c o g n i s e d t h e
h i s t o r i c a l worth o f the project.
Professor P M Krishna,
R K Mistri,
M r K
These were:
T Manjee,
Professor G C Oosthuizen,
Dr Yusuf Minty,
Research C o u n c i l ,
however,
M r
a n d M e s s r s A S Vahed
and I K a t h r a d a o f t h e A M M o o l l a C h a r i t y T r u s t .
t h e most i m p o r t a n t sponsor,
M r V Gosai,
By f a r
was t h e Human S c i e n c e s
w i t h o u t whose f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t i t w o u l d
have been i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o c e e d t o t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e p r o j e c t
reached.
The a s s i s t a n c e o f c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m e r s a n d a s s i s t a n t s was
invaluable.
M a u r i c e P r e s s l e y w r o t e a d e t a i l e d programme
when t h e i n f o r m a t i o n was t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e H e w l e t t -
Packard t o t h e ICL system.
The p e o p l e m a n n i n g C o m p u t e r
S e r v i c e s were u e r y generous w i t h t h e i r t i m e and t h e i r
>:-J
e x p e r t adviEe,
a m o n g whom v e r e :
M r P 3 Rodman,
M r R K Skinner,
Professor K N Greggor,
a n d Ms V a l A N a i d o o .
Three i n d i v i d u a l s were i n t i m a t e l y i n v o l v e d i n
important day-to-day
running o f the project,
N i r u p p a Beesham i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s ,
the crucially
and they are:
and G e e t h a ' ~ o v e n d e rand
V a s i e N a y a g e r who w e r e t h e r e r i g h t u n t i l t h e p r o j e c t was
ended.
T h e i r enthusiasm,
dedication,
when t h e m a c h i n e r y v e r e n o t w o r k i n g ,
Finally,
Ms R i t a C h e t t y w a s ,
preparing the tables,
the proof-reading.
and sense o f humour
were q u i t e a d m i r a b l e .
as usual,
typing the text,
marvellous i n
and h e l p i n g with
CHAPTER
Introduction:
I
About t h e Study
The D u r b a n o f f i c e o f w h a t was f o r m e r l y p a r t o f t h e D e p a r t ment o f
Indian Affairs,
has i n i t s p o s s e s s i o n 9 1 volumes
o f s h i p ' s l i s t s f o r t h e t o t a l o f 152 1 8 4 i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s
who came t o N a t a l b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 9 1 1 .
Each o f t h e 384
s h i p ' s r e g i s t e r s has against i n d i v i d u a l e n t r i e s i n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t t h e p e r s o n ' s names,
markings i f any,
caste o r religion,
age,
physical
and p l a c e s o f o r i g i n i n t h e form o f v i l l a g e ,
thanna ( p o l i c e c i r c l e ) ,
and z i l l a h ( d i s t r i c t ) .
The e n t i r e
s e t o f d o c u m e n t s was m i c r o f i l m e d w i t h t h e a i d o f a g r a n t
from the U n i v e r s i t y o f Durban-Westville
W
(UDW).
Once t h e i n i t i a l g r a n t h a d b e e n s e c u r e d f r o m t h e u n i v e r s i t y ,
a computer-related
information.
p r o g r a m m e was d e v i s e d t o r e t r i e v e t h e
The 3 8 4 s h i p ' s r e g i s t e r s w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o 2 6
chronologically arranged groups a l p h a b e t i c a l l y ordered from
A t o Z.
E a c h g r o u p was a s s i g n e d a t w o - l e t t e r
example,
i n t h e A g r o u p c o n s i s t i n g o f 6 4 4 5 p e r s o n s who
a r r i v e d b e t w e e n 1860 a n d 1 8 6 6 i n 20 s h i p s ,
the Truro,
was l a b e l l e d A A ;
was l a b e l l e d AB;
the Belvedere,
t h e t h i r d s h i p was a s s i g n e d A C ,
was g i v e n t h e s y m b o l A T .
For
the f i r s t ship,
t h e second s h i p ,
down t h e l i s t u n t i l t h e t w e n t i e t h s h i p ,
were grouped,
symbol.
and so on
t h e I s a b e l l a Hercus,
And t h u s a l l t h e s h i p ' s r e g i s t e r s
and each one a s s i g n e d a t w o - l e t t e r
The A g r o u p c o n v e n i e n t l y e n d e d a t 1 8 6 6 ,
symbol.
when a s e v e r e
d e p r e s s i o n i n t h e c o l o n y made f u r t h e r i m p o r t a t i o n o f i n dentured Indians impossible.
I t was r e s u m e d i n 1 8 7 4 ,
d i d n o t s t o p u n t i l J u l y 1911.
The l a t e r b a t c h e s o f a r r i v a l s
were g r o u p e d i n t o p e r i o d s o f 2 t o 3 y e a r s ,
a n d 1 9 0 0 s w h e n i m p o r t a t i o n was h e a v y ,
and,
and
i n t h e 1890s
i n t o s i n g l e years.
The m i c r o f i l m s a r e i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e l i b r a r y a t
the University o f Durban-Westville.
Indeed,
t h e h e a v y i m m i g r a t i o n i n 1 9 0 6 made i t n e c e s s a r y t o
d i v i d e t h a t y e a r i n t o two g r o u p s .
C a r e was t a k e n i n e a c h
i n s t a n c e n o t t o a l l o c a t e t o o many i n d i v i d u a l s p e r g r o u p s o
a s t o make a n a l y s i s m a n a g e a b l e .
6 000 p e r s o n s p e r group.
On t h e a v e r a g e t h e r e a r e
There a r e , however,
l a r g e r groups r a n g i n g from 2 487 t o 8 206.
s m a l l e r and
Since chronology
was t h e main b a s i s o f g r o u p i n g , Madras a n d C a l c u t t a s h i p s
were n o t s e p a r a t e d .
C o l o n i a l numbers a p p e a r on t h e s h i p ' s r e g i s t e r f o r each and
every i n d e n t u r e d person i n c l u d i n g accompanying c h i l d r e n .
The c o l o n i a l n u m b e r s f o r w i v e s a n d c h i l d r e n f o l l o w e d i m m e d i a t e l y those o f t h e husbands.
These numbers a r e e x t r e m e l y
helpful i n locating the individuals within the ship's registers
and t h e chronology.
The f i r s t p e r s o n on t h e T r u r o was a s s i g n e d
t h e c o l o n i a l number 1, a n d t h e l a s t i n d i v i d u a l on t h e s h i p
was g i v e n number 342.
the next ship,
The f i r s t p e r s o n on t h e r e g i s t e r o f
the Belvedere,
was a s s i g n e d 343.
And s o
c o l o n i a l numbers were a s s i g n e d c u m u l a t i v e l y one r e g i s t e r
a f t e r the next.
The v e r y l a s t number f o r t h e f i n a l s h i p ' s
r e g i s t e r i n J u l y 1 9 1 1 was 1 5 2 1 8 4 .
Madras and C a l c u t t a
s h i p s were n o t s e p a r a t e d f o r number-assignment.
The d e t a i l s f o r a l l t h e g r o u p s a r e shown i n T a b l e 1 b e l o w :
TABLEI
Groups and Symbols f o r I n d e n t u r e d S h i p ' s R e g i s t e r s ,
No.
of Ships
Groups
Symbols
A
AA-AT
20
Not.. 1 8 6 0
B
BA-BQ
17
Jun-
1874 - Oct,
1877
8 206
C
CA-CQ
17
Oct.
1877 - NOV.
1878
6 477
D
DA-DT
20
Jan.
1 8 7 9 - Dec.
1882
7 003
E
EA-ET
20
Apr.
1 8 8 3 - Apr.
1885
6 601
F
FA-FT
20
Mar.
1886
1889
5 480
G
GA-GS
19
Feb.
- Nov.
1 8 9 0 - Dec.
1891
7 502
.
Period
1860-1911
-
Total
July 1866
6 445
Groups
Symbols
No.
o f Ships
Period
Feb.
IA-IR
Jan.
JA- JJ
Jan.
KA-KN
Jan.
LA-LO
Jan.
MA-MP
Feb.
NA-NQ
Jan.
- Dec.
1 8 9 7 - Dec.
1 8 9 8 - Dec.
1899 - Dec.
1 9 0 1 - Dec.
OA-OP
Jan.
1902
PA-PN
Jan.
- Dec. 1902
1903 - Dec. 1903
QA-4R
Jan.
1904
RA-RK
1892
1896
Dec.
1896
1897
1898
1900
1901
1904
Jan.
1905
UA-UL
- June 1905
J u l y 1 9 0 5 - Dec. 1 9 0 5
Jan. 1906 - June 1906
J u l y 1 9 0 6 - Dec. 1 9 0 6
VA-VP
Jan.
1907
- Dec. 1908
1 9 0 9 - Nov. 1 9 0 9
1910 - Nov. 1909
1911 - J u l y 1911
TA-TM
W
WA-WG
7
Jan.
X
XA-XG
7
Jan.
Y
YA-YL
12
Jan.
Z
ZA-ZK'
11
Jan.
AA-ZK
384
-
26
- Dec. 1893
1 8 9 4 - Dec. 1 8 9 5
HA-HQ
SA-SG
-
Total
- Dec. 1907
1908
The g r o u p i n g p r o c e s s h a v i n g b e e n c o m p l e t e d ,
3 173
2 487
5 860
5 065
the next step
was t o t r a n s f e r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e m i c r o f i l m o n t o
s p e c i a l l y p r e p a r e d forms,
n e x t page.
a copy o f w h i c h a p p e a r s on t h e
One f o r m was u s e d p e r p a s s e n g e r .
The s h i p U m z i n t o L I I I i s t h i s g r o u p
c a l l e d b o t h a t t h e C a l c u t t a and Madras
p o r t s o f embarkation.
ORIGIN
--HEIGHT
I
FATHER'S NAME
NAME
z
L p a T e a A a J s u a a q q e d a q q j o a a u e a r j r u 6 y s ~ e a r a o q s r qa q q
puv
ST
qe4m
~ p a ~ a r a q auao r q e t u a o j u y j o s a r a o 6 a q e a s n o r a e ~a q q u r z 0 6 T
0 7 0 9 8 ~p o r a a d
a 0 4 P T ~ ~Aaqq
A
OP
suaaqqed 40 p u r y 7 e q ~
* p a s s a a o a d s a w e u z 8 < 5 6 a q q j o s a s A ~ e u ea q q q n o q e s r A p n q s s r q l
'saaqqo
p u e s a a q a a e a s a a o q a T q e ~ r e ~aea e p u e ' p u n o q A ~ a a d o a d
aae 0 07
v woaj sdnoa6 T
T ~ ~paanqdea-eqepse uorqewaojur
f i u r u r e q u o a q a q e q 0 a q q 07 d n s d y q s a q q T T a~ o j s q a a q s q n o
-quyad
'uorqrppe
u o ~ q e w a o j u ra q l
Aauedaaasyp a q 1
ur
'aae
'aanqdea
aaaql
*sadeq arqau6ew uo paaoqs s r
e q e p u y a o a a a o q p a q n q y a q q e a q qsnw
* a a q n d w o a a q q 07 6 u y p a o a a e z 8 < 56 q e s p u e q s
q n q ' < < L 9 6 u a a q a A e q p ~ n o q sq u r o d q e q q o q d n p a s s a a o a d
s a w e u j o a a q w n u ~ e q o qa q l
* p a s s a a o a d u a a q p e q 0 dnoa6
6 u y p n ~ a u rue oq dn s a a q s r 6 a a s , d r q s aqq
' 9 8 6 ~ q 3 a e ~Ag
'SSdS
all7
j o s u e a w Aq p a s A ~ e u ea q p ~ n o aq a r q m p a s r ~ a psem awweafioad
* u m o u y sem e q e p s n o u y w n ~ o n6 u y . [ p u e q
'aaqndwoa
sem 7 1
a o j A q r a e d e a asoqm
131 a q q o q e q e p a q q a a j s u e a q o q a a o j a a a q q p a p r a a p
* a ~ q r s s o dq o u sem p o r a a d 6 u o ~e f i u r ~ ~ o ~u ou r rq e w a o j u r
a ~ r s s e w q q r m s r s A ~ e u v = a a ~ a m o q' p a q r w r ~ sem A q r a e d e a a 6 e a o q s
s,waqsAs a q l
aqq 'ssaaoad
* p a s n sem a a q n d w o a 0 0 0 T p a e y a e d - q q a ~ m e ~
a a n q d e a e q e p a q q j o s a 6 e q s ~ e y q r u ra q q
* a a q n d w o a a q q o q u r p a j sem q r
'dnoa6
UI
q a e a a o j a a q s r 6 a a Aq
a a q s r 6 a a p a q a ~ d w o a sem 6 u y a a q q e 6 u o y q e w a o j u r a q q s e u o o s s v
* u o os pue
s a T a q u a T e a ~ d A qa w o s
, , ' e y p u ~ 0 7 p a u a n q a a sem
* u w n ~ o as y ~ e w a a a q q u ~ p a a a q u a sem q ~
' s ~ e n p ~ ~a q~q pj ou s~q u a w a ~ o w q u a n b a s q n s a q q u o u o T q e w a o j u ~
sem a J a q q a J a q ~ * p a ~ j ~ q u aaJam
p ~ s a j ~ j w e js e p a q e a f i j u
- -. ..--..-.--..-------------------""-"z..+..
--,I-
oqm s ~ e n p ~ ~ - p~a apa quu a~ o s ~ esem s a A ~ q a a v T e q e N a q q u ~
--.-
w
s a a q s T 6 a y , s ~ a A o ~ d awq q~ s e s a a a n o s a a q q o q a n s o o a j paaaq;e6
p a q r J a s u e J q aJam T e n p T A ~ p ua~q q u o s ~ ~ e q aa ap q q o a q q TTe p u e
a q q u o p a J a q u a sem a a q u n u u o r q e a q s ~ 6 a a a o T e T u o T o a a q 1
'UJJOJ
These q u e s t i o n s have r e l e v a n c e
colonial Natal.
f o r both I n d i a and f o r
Many q u e s t i o n s a r e r a i s e d ,
d o e s n o t p r o v i d e a n s w e r s t o a l l o f them.
and t h e study
Nevertheless,
t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d a n a l y s e s t h a t f o l l o w t h r o w much l i g h t
on t h e i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m a s i t m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f i n N a t a l
between 1860 and 1902.
I t b r i d g e s somewhat t h e gap i n
h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l k n o w l e d g e , a l t h o u g h much r e m a i n s t o b e
done.
Chapter 2 d e a l s with t h e indentured system a s a whole,
and
the s p e c i f i c circumstances t h a t brought indentured immigrants
t o Natal.
The g l o b a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e o u t w a r d m i g r a t i o n s
Chapters 3 and 4 c l e a r l y p o i n t
o f I n d i a n s cannot be ignored.
t o t h e importance of t h e Indian backgrounds of t h e immigrants.
I n c h a p t e r 3 , t h e p l a c e s o f o r i g i n , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e who c a m e
t o Natal,
a r e examined;
and i n c h a p t e r 4 c a s t e and r e l i g i o n
a r e v i t a l components i n t h e socio-economic backgrounds o f
the emigrating Indians.
Those f a c t o r s a r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e
d i s c u s s i o n o f e m p l o y e r s a n d e m p l o y m e n t i n N a t a l i n c h a p t e r 5.
C h a p t e r 6 c o n c l u d e s w i t h comments a b o u t t h e o v e r a l l s i g n i f i cance of the study.
A word o f c a u t i o n must be s o u n d e d a b o u t t h e c o m p u t e r - r e l a t e d
analysis.
A h i s t o r i a n unfamiliar with "computer-ology"
o f t e n a t t h e m e r c y o f t h o s e who d r a w u p p r o g r a m m e s .
is
He c a n
o u t l i n e i n broad terms h i s o b j e c t i v e s , and he can e x p l a i n
t h e kind o f a n a l y s i s he wants.
and what is n o t p o s s i b l e .
the experts.
He i s n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o q u e s t i o n
T h i s r e s e a r c h e r was t o l d t h a t w i t h s u c h a
m a s s i v e body o f i n f o r m a t i o n ,
not possible.
He i s t o l d w h a t i s p o s s i b l e
c e r t a i n kind o f a n a l y s e s were
The c o m p u t e r t o o k a b o u t o n e - h a l f
day t o produce
frequency c o u n t s o f q u a n t i f i a b l e d a t a l i k e numbers o f males
and females, age and h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n s ,
d i s t r i b u t i o n s , and s o on.
c a s t e and r e l i g i o n
B u t t h e programme was n o t d e s i g n e d
(and c o u l d n o t be d e s i g n e d g i v e n t h e volume) t o c o r r e l a t e
and c r o s s - c o r r e l a t e
categories of information.
So,
f o r example,
sex d i s t r i b u t i o n could not be c o r r e l a t e d t o c a s t e , p l a c e s of
a J o w a q 07 o s o p o q s q u e m oqm u e r J o q s r q a q q
JOJ
*asrm-~aqndwoa
d ~ a qpTnom 71
* s u o r q e q n w J a d Xuew s q r u r s a s X ~ e u ep ~ a r Xq q 6 r w 71347 a J n q n j
a q q u r a w w e ~ 6 o ~adT T q e s J a n a J o w e
aqq
'0s
JOJ
sqsrxa X~runq~odd
* u r 6 r ~ oj o s a a e ~ doq p a q e T a J J o a a q q o u p ~ n o au o r q n q
- r ~ q s r p s n o r 6 r ~ a ~ / a q s e 'a X ~ ~ e ~ r w *r qsu a w X o ~ d w aJ O
'ur6r~o
CtiAPTER
Natal's
Immiqrants
Under
2
the
N a t a l ' s indentured immigrants
o f t h e n e a r l y 11/4
Indentured
System
from 1860 t o 1911 were p a r t
m i l l i o n I n d i a n s who m i g r a t e d a b r o a d a s
l a b o u r e r s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s .
T h i s m o v e m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l s was n o t a s m a s s i v e i n . p r o p o r t i o n
t o t h a t o f the emigrants
f r o m E u r o p e who w e n t i n t h e i r
m i l l i o n s t o t h e New W o r l d i n t h e same p e r i o d .
Rather i t s
significance l i e s i n the unique set o f circumstances t h a t
saw t h e m i g r a t i o n o f l a b o u r e r s t o m a i n l y B r i t i s h p a r t s o f
the world.
I t i s r e l a t e d t o t h e g r o w t h and e x p a n s i o n o f
capitalism;
and more s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
i n t h e B r i t i s h empire.
t o the abolition o f slavery
This chapter i s concerned l a r g e l y w i t h
t h e way i n w h i c h t h e i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m was e s t a b l i s h e d ,
and
t h e circumstances t h a t surround t h e coming o f i n d e n t u r e d
Indians t o Natal.
The n a t u r e a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n d e n t u r e d
I n d i a n s t o N a t a l w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d a t some l e n g t h .
A b a n was i m p o s e d i n 1 8 0 7 o n s l a v e t r a d e i n t h e B r i t i s h
empire.
Mauritius,
w h i c h was a c q u i r e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n
1 8 1 0 , was r e q u i r e d t o o b s e r v e t h e b a n i n 1 8 1 1 .
The i l l e g a l
i m p o r t a t i o n o f s l a v e s i n M a u r i t i u s and o t h e r B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s
continued,
however.
I n 1834,
a year a f t e r the emancipation
o f a l l slaves i n B r i t i s h possessions,
the slave population
was a s f o l l o w s :
82 8 2 4 i n D e m a r a r a ,
311 070 i n Jamaica,
20 657 i n T r i n i d a d ,
a n d 67 6 1 9 i n M a u r i t i u s .
p l a n t e r s r e c e i v e d £20 m i l l i o n i n compensation,
The W e s t I n d i a n
while their
M a u r i t i a n c o u n t e r p a r t r e c e i v e d £2 m i l l i o n .
The B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t c r e a t e d s a f e q u a r d s a g a i n s t new f o r m s
o f slavery.
S t i p e n d i a r y j u d g e s were e x p e c t e d t o e n s u r e
f a i r p l a y i n the employers'
However,
these "busha"
treatment o f ex-slave
labourers.
m a g i s t r a t e s w e r e f a r t o o much u n d e r
t h e sway o f f o r m e r m a s t e r s a n d o v e r s e e r s t o b e o f g r e a t h e l p .
L o c a l l e g i s l a t u r e s passed laws t o p r e v e n t abuses.
But the
Natal's
Immiqrants
CHAPTER
2
Under
the
Indentured
System
N a t a l ' s i n d e n t u r e d i m m i g r a n t s f r o m 1 8 6 0 t o 1 9 1 1 were p a r t
o f t h e n e a r l y 11/4
m i l l i o n I n d i a n s who m i g r a t e d a b r o a d a s
labourers i n the nineteenth and e a r l y twentieth centuries.
T h i s m o v e m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l s was n o t a s m a s s i v e i n . p r o p o r t i o n
t o t h a t o f t h e e m i g r a n t s f r o m E u r o p e who w e n t i n t h e i r
m i l l i o n s t o t h e New W o r l d i n t h e same p e r i o d .
Rather its
significance l i e s i n the unique set of circumstances t h a t
saw t h e m i g r a t i o n o f l a b o u r e r s t o m a i n l y B r i t i s h p a r t s o f
t h e world.
I t is r e l a t e d t o t h e growth and expansion o f
capitalism;
and more s p e c i f i c a l l y , t o t h e a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y
i n t h e B r i t i s h empire.
This chapter is concerned largely with
t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m was e s t a b l i s h e d ,
and
t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t s u r r o u n d t h e coming o f i n d e n t u r e d
Indians t o Natal.
The n a t u r e a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n d e n t u r e d
I n d i a n s t o N a t a l w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d a t some l e n g t h .
A b a n was imposed i n 1 8 0 7 on s l a v e t r a d e i n t h e B r i t i s h
empire.
Mauritius,
which was a c q u i r e d by t h e B r i t i s h i n
1810, was r e q u i r e d t o o b s e r v e t h e ban i n 1811.
The i l l e g a l
importation of slaves i n Mauritius and other B r i t i s h colonies
continued,
however.
In 1834, a year a f t e r t h e emancipation
of a l l slaves i n British possessions,
was a s f o l l o w s :
the slave population
311 070 i n Jamaica, 82 824 i n Demarara,
20 657 i n T r i n i d a d , and 67 619 i n M a u r i t i u s .
T h e West I n d i a n
p l a n t e r s received £20 m i l l i o n i n compensation, while t h e i r
M a u r i t i a n c ' o u n t e r p a r t r e c e i v e d £2 m i l l i o n .
T h e B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t c r e a t e d s a f e q u a r d s a g a i n s t new f o r m s
of slavery.
Stipendiary judges were expected t o e n s u r e
fairplay i n the employers1 treatment of ex-slave
However,
labourers.
t h e s e " b u s h a 1 ' m a g i s t r a t e s were f a r t o o m u c h u n d e r
t h e sway o f former m a s t e r s a n d o v e r s e e r s t o b e o f g r e a t h e l p .
Local l e g i s l a t u r e s passed laws t o prevent abuses.
But the
awos
- 6 ~ 8 1U T e q q n a l e 3 p u e s e a p e w j o s q ~ o da q q u r p a q r n ~ a a ~
aaam s a a y a o m q a e a q u o a V a n s q s a ~ ja q l
q a e a q u o a 6 u ~ a r qq n o q e q q 6 n o q q Aaqq
-al6urs
s,puelsr
* e ~ p uw o~a j s ~ a ~ n o q e l
' d o ~ aq u e q a o d w ~ q s o w
a q q a q 07 6 ~ ~ s0 e n
6 ae6ns qeqq p a s ~ l e a ~
A a q q uaqm q n q ' L E ~ Tp u e 5 ~ 8 1u a a m q a q e r p u ~w o a j s q a y ~ u o a
p u e s a ~ e l sq q ~ r np a q u a w r a a d x a p e q s n ~ q ~ a nu ye ~s ~ a q u e l da q l
* s a a q u e l d a q q p a s s a a d w r s n ~ q r ~ n e uw? s a a a n o q e l
p a a n q u a p u r u e ~ p uq q~~ r nq u a w ~ a a d x a a q 1
a r a q q pauanq s a a q u e l d aqq os
* e T p u ~o q u o r q u a q q e
a a n o q e ~j o a a a n o s q u e a ~ j ~ u 6
e a q o q A a a ~ e l sq q r m p a q e y a o s s e A l a s o l a o o q sem q u a u r q u o a
s ~ q q' e a r a j v
-oaqur
aoj sv
* s 0 5 8 l aqq u y a s a u r q 3 maj e paanp
p e p r u r a l paapur p u e ' p a a a p r s u o a s e n ooq e u r q 3 ! l ~ z e a g
pue 'le6nqaod
' p u e l a a ~ ' p u e l 6 u 3 w o a j s a a a n o q e ~a q r q m p a a n p
- o a q u ~ e u e ~ n 3q s ~ q ~ a g
p u e 9 ~ 8 1u a a m q a q u ~ e q w
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q a q o a s A l u ~ e w ' s q u e ~ 6 r w w y a q r q m O O E A ~ a e a up a q a o d w r e a r e w e r
* a n o q e l j o s a a a n o s a f i ~ q e u a a q l e~
o p ja q a a e a s s a a q u e l d p a r a a o m
* A a e s s a a a u sem a n o q e l a A r s
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* a u e a j o 6 u r q u e l d aqq
a a o j a q syaarn x r s ~ r o sj o u o r q e a e d a a d 6 ) a s u a q u y a q q j o s q a e d
A a e s s a a a u aaarn 6 u ~ s ~ l r q a ap uj e ' 6 u ~ a o q ' 6 u ~ p a a f l
u o r q a n p o a d a q q u ~ p a ~ l o ~ uyaorn
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q q r m p a q a a u u o a A l q a a ~ y p Aem o u u ~ sem q e q q q u a w A o l d w a - j l a s
q u a t u A o l d w a p a ~ ~ a j a ap u
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s a ~ e l sa a w J o j a q l
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a s a q q u ? waqsAs a q q p a ~ r a a a a d
z * s a q e q s eqes s e ,,'wopaaaj
A a a ~ e l sl l n j a a q q ~ a u , , s e n q 1
l l n j aou
OwaqsAs a A e l s a a ~ l a e aa q q w o a j
q u a a a j j ~ pa l q q r l s e n w a q s A s a a r q u a a d d e p a s r A a p Alrnau a q 1
* q u a ~ aAue u r s u o r q
- e q u e ~ d a q q u o 6 u r y a o r n a n u r q u o a o q u o ~ q e u ~ l a ua rl q q r l parnoqs
s a ~ e l sp a q e J a q r l a q 1
* s a s o d a n d umo a ~ a q q07 A l a q a l d w o a
l
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'qno
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Chinese r e c r u i t s from S i n g a p o r e t o o a r r i v e d .
The
Colonial
Office agreed t o M a u r i t i u s ' s importation o f Dhangars o r " H i l l
Coolies"
from C h o t a Nagpur.
The D h a n g a r s h a d worked i n
producing i n d i g o , and were t h o u g h t t o be s u i t a b l e f o r s u g a r
plantation labour.
The f i r s t b a t c h o f D h a n g a r s a r r i v e d i n
1834 on c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e i r r e t u r n p a s s a g e s t o I n d i a were
ensured.
However,
abuses occurred i n recruitment,
i n trans-
p o r t a t i o n , a n d on t h e p l a n t a t i o n s , which l e d t h e G,overnment
o f I n d i a t o s t o p t h e scheme i n 1839.
By t h a t d a t e , o v e r
26 000 l a b o u r e r s had been i n t r o d u c e d i n M a u r i t i u s ,
o f whom
o n l y a b o u t 1 0 0 0 w e r e women. 3
The M a u r i t i a n e x p e r i m e n t l e d u l t i m a t e l y t o t h e w i d e s p r e a d u s e
o f i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r by o t h e r s u g a r - p r o d u c i n g
areas.
Since it
was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t a b u s e s r e s u l t e d m a i n l y t h r o u g h i n s u f f i c i e n t
c o n t r o l s , s t r i c t r e g u l a t i o n s were e n a c t e d b e f o r e t h e l a b o u r
t r a f f i c was a l l o w e d t o resume.
1839 Act, and provided,
Act 1 5 o f 1842 r e p e a l e d t h e
among o t h e r s ,
f o r t h e appointment o f
a n Emigration Agent t o h a n d l e consignment and o t h e r m a t t e r s
a t t h e p o r t s o f embarkation, and a P r o t e c t o r o f Emigrants t o
safeguard the interests of the recruits.
Act 21 o f 1844
l i f t e d the prohibition a g a i n s t emigration t o B r i t i s h Guiana,
Trinidad, and Jamaica.
The p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t e m i g r a t i o n
having been l i f t e d , 12 t e r r i t o r i e s r e c e i v e d i n d e n t u r e d
l a b o u r e r s by 1 8 6 5 . 4
The c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h e m i g r a t i o n t o o k p l a c e f r o m 1 8 4 4
t o its termination i n t h e e a r l y decades o f the twentieth
c e n t u r y , w e r e r e v i s e d f r o m t i m e t o t i m e a s a n d when a b u s e s
occurred.
The Government o f I n d i a q u i c k l y l e a r n e d t h a t a
way t o s t o p t h e a b u s e s w a s t o s u s p e n d e m i g r a t i o n t o t h e
offending colony.
In 1856, f o r example,
government n e g l e c t e d s h i p - l o a d s
the Mauritian
of Indians before they dis-
e m b a r k e d , a n d a s a r e s u l t many o f t h e m d i e d .
A suspension
o f a l l e m i g r a t i o n w a s i m p o s e d , a n d w a s o n l y l i f t e d when t h e
Mauritian appointed a P r o t e c t o r o f Immigrants t o ensure t h a t
s u c h n e g l e c t would n o t happen a g a i n .
This action against
M a u r i t i u s s o o n became a g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e ,
Act 19 o f 1856,
enshrined i n
a n d i t s u s e o r t h e t h r e a t o f i t s u s e was
an e f f e c t i v e weapon w i e l d e d b y t h e Government o f I n d i a t o
ensure compliance.
groups,
I n t h e e a r l y decades,
anti-slavery
and more s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e A b o r i g i n e s P r o t e c t i o n
Society (founded i n 1837),
labour t r a f f i c
k e p t a watch over t h e i n d e n t u r e d
t o r e p o r t on abuses.
T h e i r a c t i v i t i e s made
t h e Government o f I n d i a v i g i l a n t a b o u t abuses , i n t h e system.
How d i d t h e s y s t e m o p e r a t e ?
Calcutta,
Madras,
a n d Bombay
were d e s i g n a t e d a s p o r t s o f e m b a r k a t i o n f o r a l l i n d e n t u r e d
emigrants.
Bombay was d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 8 6 5 ,
o n l y C a l c u t t a and Madras were used.
and t h e r e a f t e r
K a r i k a l and Pondichery
served as p o r t s o f embarkation f o r I n d i a n emigrants t o t h e
French colonies,
from 1870.
t h e B r i t i s h consul a c t i n g as P r o t e c t o r as
T h e F r e n c h I n d i a n p o r t s c l e a r e d some 4 9 8 9 0
e m i g r a n t s between 1842 and 1916,
o f f i c i a l l y a t any r a t e . 5
Except f o r N a t a l which received two-thirds
from South I n d i a ,
o f the emigrants
C a l c u t t a remained t h e major p o r t o f
embarkation throughout the period.
As m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r ,
the law r e q u i r e d the appointment o f Emigration Agents by t h e
importing colony.
M a u r i t i u s a p p o i n t e d a n a g e n t who s e r v e d
minor Caribbean i s l a n d s as well.
B r i t i s h Guiana and Jamaica
h a d t h e i r own a g e n t s a t C a l c u t t a o n l y .
an i m p o r t e r i n 1860,
When N a t a l b e c a m e
i t sent i t s Postmaster General W M
C o l l i n s as an E m i g r a t i o n Agent.
Later the agent serving
B r i t i s h Guiana a l s o served N a t a l .
The l e n g t h o f t h e c o n t r a c t was a p r o t r a c t e d p o i n t o f d i s p u t e .
The C o l o n i a l O f f i c e was i n f a v o u r o f 3 y e a r s ,
but the
p l a n t e r s wanted a l o n g e r p e r i o d o f s e r v i c e .
I n 1862,
five-
y e a r p e r i o d s were s a n c t i o n e d w i t h t h e o p t i o n o f a second
term o f indenture.
"industrial
passages.
Employers c l e v e r l y l i n k e d t h e p e r i o d o f
residence"
with the issue o f sponsoring r e t u r n
Should t h e indentured person be e n t i t l e d t o a
r e t u r n passage a f t e r 5 o r 10 y e a r s o f s e r v i c e ?
The C o l o n i a l
A
Office
10.
f a v o u r e d 5,
I n t h e end,
b u t t h e Government o f I n d i a argued f o r
i t was a g r e e d t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l was
e n t i t l e d t o a r e t u r n passage a f t e r he had served t h e
o p t i o n a l second f i v e - y e a r
o f "industrial
residence."
But
colonial legislatures often attached conditions o f the "fineprint"
v a r i e t y t o escape t h e o b l i g a t i o n .
example,
Trinidad,
for
gave f r e e r e t u r n passages t o t h o s e e l i g i b l e o n l y i f
t h e y were c l a i m e d w i t h i n 18 months o f t h e i r becoming a v a i l a b l e .
M a u r i t i u s a b o l i s h e d t h e r e t u r n passages as e a r l y as 1853.
I n Natal,
indentured individuals could
passages f o r crown l a n d .
commute
their return
About 52 t o o k advantage o f t h i s
p r o v i s i o n b e f o r e i t was a b o l i s h e d i n 1 8 7 4 . 6
The r a t i o o f f e m a l e t o m a l e was a s e r i o u s i s s u e f r o m t h e v e r y
beginning.
E m p l o y e r s g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r r e d s i n g l e m a l e s who
w o u l d s e r v e o u t t h e i r i n d e n t u r e s and r e t u r n .
w h o l e f a m i l i e s t o o was f r o w n e d
upon.
Recruitment o f
Whatever o t h e r reasons
t h e y may h a v e h a d a g a i n s t f e m a l e i n d e n t u r e d p e r s o n s ,
employers
w o r r i e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a b o u t how u s e f u l women w e r e a s
labourers.
A t t i t u d e s c e r t a i n l y c h a n g e d among N a t a l ' s e m p l o y e r s
i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s when i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y
of
women c o u l d b e u s e d t o t h e p l a n t e r s 1 a d ~ a n t a g e . ~B e s i d e s ,
women w o r k e d e x t r e m e l y w e l l i n some s e c t o r s .
The G o v e r n m e n t
o f I n d i a r e c o g n i s e d t h e e v i l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h womenless
communities
o f s i n g l e males,
and a t t e m p t e d t o c o r r e c t i t .
I n t h e 1850s,
l e g i s l a t i o n p r o v i d e d f o r 25% f e m a l e component.
For Mauritius,
t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f women was f i x e d a t 4 0 i n
1860,
which t h e p l a n t e r s considered as t o o h i g h e s p e c i a l l y
s i n c e i t was d i f f i c u l t t o r e c r u i t s i n g l e women i n N o r t h I n d i a ,
Act 13 o f 1864 s t i p u l a t e d a r a t i o n o f
7 5 men t o 2 5 women,
but
t h e r a t i o o f 60 t o 4 0 s t i p u l a t e d b y S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e S i r
S t r a f f o r d N o r t h c o t e i n J u l y 1868 remained t h e s t a n d a r d p r o portion throughout the indentured period.
T h e r e i s much
c o n t r o v e r s y a b o u t t h e d e c e i t f u l ways i n w h i c h t h e r e q u i r e d
4 0 % o f women was made u p .
S t o r i e s a b o u n d a b o u t s i n g l e women
being l u r e d t o emigration depots.
I n some i n s t a n c e s ,
"depot
marriages" took place t o avoid suspicions about single,
girls. 8
young
p a s u a a y ~ u na q q 6 u o w e a J a n ( s ~ a d a a yp ~ o a a ~, , )s r ~ e n q e d , , p u e
( s p ~ e n 6 ), , s ~ e p r y n e q a , , qeqq p u n o j ~
srq
UI
e ' si u e y p u ~ rCrj u o Apnqs
i , , ~ ~ q e y ~ ea q, q, a ~ a no q ~ * w a q s A s q u a w q r n ~ a aa~q q
j o a u o q y a e q a q q d n apew o q n , , s e ~ q e y ~ e ,J ,O
71
, , s r q e y ~ e , , aqq sen
* q u a w q r n ~ a aj ~o s s a a o ~ d~ e n q a ea q q u r s q u a 6 e q u e q ~ o d w r
q s o w a q q a J a n o q n s ~ a q r n ~ ap a s~u a a r ~ a q q q o u s e n q ~ q n g
p u e s ~ n y e q 'l s u ~ u q e ~ ' sg q q s e A e ]
6uoue pue
'serueg
f s u e r e ~p u e ' s 1 n q 6 0 ~ ' s p y A r e s
j o d n a p e u a.1an s ~ a q r n ~ au ar ~~ s n wa q q
q a r ~ q s ~s pa ~ e u a ga q q ~
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'waqsAs
p a J n q u a p u r aqq q n o q e a n s s r q u e q ~ o d u rqsou-a16urs
aql
But probably a l l castes
r e c r u i t e r s i n the United Provinces.
a n d c l a s s e s were i n v o l v e d . l o
As illegal operators,
t h e advantage o f b e i n g answerable t o nobody.
they had
They h a d c o n s i d -
e r a b l e knowledge of t h e l o c a l environment, ana p r e f e r r e d
t o operate within its radius.
kept a sharp
The " a r k a t i s "
l o o k o u t f o r p e o p l e w h o were i n f i n a n c i a l d i s t r e s s o r i n o t h e r
w a y s down o n t h e i r l u c k .
They f r e q u e n t e d m a r k e t s ,
serais, railway stations,
bazaars and temples
caravan-
- . o r any
o t h e r s u c h p l a c e s were p e o p l e m i g h t g a t h e r a n d c a s u a l l y
reveal their plights i n idle chatter.
I t would be d i f f i c u l t t o s a y a t what l e v e l o f r e c r u i t m e n t
abuses occurred most frequently.
machinery,
But i n t h e v a s t recruitment
t h e a r k a t i s were p i v o t a l l y i m p o r t a n t .
The whole
o p e r a t i o n had t o succeed o r f a i l w i t h them,
a n d t h e y were
n o t above r e s o r t i n g t o underhanded methods.
Charges against
them have ranged from kidnapping t o m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e
facts.
While kidnapping o c c u r r e d i n rare i n s t a n c e s ,
p r e s e n t a t i o n probably happened f a i r l y routinely.
misre-
Recruits
were u n f a m i l i a r a b o u t t h e s y s t e m o r t h e p h y s i c a l w h e r e a b o u t s .
o f t h e p l a c e s t o w h i c h t h e y h a d a g r e e d t o go. " A r k a t i s "
may
f a i l t o m e n t i o n t h a t a sea j o u r n e y was i n v o l v e d .
Un-
just
s u s p e c t i n g r e c r u i t s may d i s c o v e r t h i s a t t h e p o r t d e p o t ;
at
t h a t p o i n t t h e y may f i n d i t i m p o s s i b l e t o o p t o u t b e c a u s e
t h e r e c r u i t e r s were demanding payments f o r expenses incurred.
C r e d u l i t y a m o n g t h e r e c r u i t s a l s o p l a y e d a r o l e i n t h e i r own
deception.
Recruiters carefully instructed the recruits t o
a n s w e r t h e m a g i s t r a t e i n a p a r t i c u l a r way.
The r e c r u i t s went
a l o n g w i t h t h e i d e a w i t h o u t f u l l y r e a l i s i n g t h a t t h e y were
s u b v e r t i n g t h e v e r y p r o c e s s t h a t was i n t e n d e d t o p r o t e c t them.ll
Fraud and d e c e p t i o n was p r e v a l e n t .
T h e r e was d i s c r e p a n c y
between t h e numbers o b t a i n e d by c o l o n i a l r e c r u i t e r s ,
highly
o r g a n i s e d , and t h o s e o b t a i n e d through a n amorphous and i n formal network o f middlemen i n t h e i n t e r i o r .
pervasiveness o f deception,
In spite of the
indentured emigration cannot be
aJam s q ~ o d a au o r q e ~ 6 r u- a~y l
. s a r ~ u a 6 e 01 a u o s s o 8 8 1 a y q
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*6urqe~6ywa
q n o q e s q y 6 n o y q p u o a a s 6 u r ~ e ya q q y 6 r w oym a r d o a d a p e n s s r p
07 s q r n ~ a aa~y q 6 u o u e p a q u e y d X r r e n s n aJam s X o 3 a a
. s q r n ~ a a ~
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pue
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m p a s e a ~ a a~~ q e q r n s u np u n o j a s o y q p u e ' X ~ ~ e a r p a pwa u r w e x a aJam
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' s ~ a q r n ~ a
' p a q r n J a a ~ aauo
p ~ a r Xu e a a q e q a p
a y q q e y q eaJe s y y q u r s r q r p u e ' a a u e q s u n a ~ r aarwouoaa-or3os
a y q u r X e I X I a ~ n s~ o q a e j1 e ~ 3 n ~aay l
* u o r s r a a p I e u ~ aj y q u r
~ o q a e j~ e r a n i aq s o w a y q q o u sem q r q e y q s q s a 6 6 n s a r j j e J q a y q
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pue q a a ~ ~ o g
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paqae Xayq q e y q s r q u r o d a y q
jr
' u o r q e w ~ o j u a~s I e j u o p a q a e X a y q
u a ~ 3 * p e q s e s ~ a y q op u e p o o 6 s e s a a e ~ da w o s p a q e J X a y q
y a r y m Xq u o r q e u J o j u r j o u o r s s a s s o d o q u r a u e a X ~ ~ e w ~ o Xuew
j u r
' s u o r q e q u a s a ~ d a ~ s r auq r d s a a
* u o r q e ~ 6 ~pwa 3 ~ o js e p a p ~ e 6 a ~
l o c a t e d a t Bhownipur f o r M a u r i t i a n passengers,
f o r B r i t i s h Guiana,
Usually,
Garden Reach
B a l l y g u n j and C h i t p u r f o r o t h e r s .
t h e f a c i l i t i e s were shared by t h e v a r i o u s agencies
a t d i f f e r e n t times i n the year.
t h e manager were w h i t e .
The E m i g r a t i o n A g e n t a n d
The r e s t o f t h e s t a f f w e r e I n d i a n s .
The d e p o r t s h a d a h i g h w a l l .
S t a f f were housed i n a bungalow;
and b a r r a c k
f a c i l i t i e s e x i s t e d f o r a t l e a s t two ship-load
passengers.
The b a r r a c k s v a r i e d i n s i z e a n d l a y o u t ,
minimum b a s i c f a c i l i t i e s were r e q u i r e d b y l a w ,
u s u a l l y met.
housed.
Males,
females,
o f
but
and these were
and m a r r i e d c o u p l e s were s e p a r a t e l y
L a t r i n e s and h o s p i t a l sheds t o o were s e p a r a t e d by sex.
Cooking sheds were p r o v i d e d .
B e f o r e 1859,
d e p o t s i n IYadras C i t y .
t h a t date,
After
were l o c a t e d a t Veperey.
t h e r e were no
M a u r i t i a n passengers
T h i s d e p o t was i n a d e q u a t e ,
a n o t h e r was s i t e d a t R o y a p u r u m i n 1 8 6 7 .
and so
For Mauritius,
V i z a g a p a t a m was s u c h a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f l a b o u r r e c r u i t ment t h a t a
subagency
was o p e n e d i n 1 8 7 1 .
d i s t r i c t s l i k e T a n j o r e and T r i c h i n o p o l y ,
e s t a b l i s h e d a t Rajamundry,
Natal,
Malaya,
subdepots
were
some 3 0 0 m i l e s f r o m M a d r a s C i t y .
and F i j i a l s o had depot
and F i j i s h a r e d t h e
For southern
facilities;
facilities.
Natal
and C e y l o n ( S r i Lanka) and
Malaya shared a d i f f e r e n t s e t o f depot
facilities.13
The n e w l y a r r i v e d i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o b a t h e s o o n
upon a r r i v a l ,
a n d w e r e g i v e n a new s e t o f c l o t h i n g .
o l d c l o t h e s were washed a n d r e t u r n e d t o them.
d o c t o r i n s p e c t e d t h e males,
for
t h e female r e c r u i t s .
Their
An I n d i a n
a n d a n I n d i a n n u r s e d i d t h e same
S i g h t and h e a r i n g were checked;
b u t t h e r e c r u i t s were most c l o s e l y checked f o r s i g n s o f
venereal diseases.
I n t h e e a r l y d a y s o f t h e s y s t e m women
were g i v e n a s u p e r f i c i a l m e d i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n so as n o t t o
s c a r e them o f f ,
b u t by t h e end o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
t h e y t o o were g i v e n a t h o r o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n .
i n i t i a l round o f inspection,
After
this
m e d i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n was p e r f o r m e d
by t h e depot surgeon and t h e government d o c t o r a p p o i n t e d by
the Protector o f Emigrants.
These m e d i c a l o f f i c e r s were
f i n a l l y responsible for clearing the recruits with c e r t i f i -
u o a j 6 u r ~ e a 1d y q s 6 u r ~ r e s1 p u e s d r q s w e a q s
8 0 6 ~Ag
aq7
UT
' e q q n JTP3
z 1 aaam a a a q q
* s ~ r e sa a p u n 6 u r q e a a d o s d y q s m a j e aaam a a a q q
UaAa q 6 n o q 7 1 e
'so681
' ~ ~ U8T 1S a r P u I 7 s a M a q 7 a 0 4 P u e ' ~ 5 8 1
u r 1 e q e ~p u e s n r q r a n e w a o j p a a n p o a q u r sem a a r n a a s a a w e a q s
* a a q q a q p u e ( s o 8 8 1 a q q u o a j s u o q 0 0 0 9 1 a a ~ o )a a 6 6 r q a w e a a q
sdyqs
'awrq
UI
u o s a ~ n aa q q
- a A r s u a q a a d w o a A q q a a d aaam s a a n s e a w A q a j e s
' ~ 0 ~ 8a q1q Ag
.saauey1dde a a r j pue s q e o q a j r ~
a q e n b a p e a a n s u a o q apew aaam s u o y s y ~ o a da a q a r a q s
a 1 d o a d 66E VJTqm u r 6 5 8 1
aaqjy
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a a a 6 u a s s e d q ~ n p eAaaAa a o j p a q e a o ~ ~aeq o q sem a a e d s
j o q a a j a r q n a Z L ' s o 5 8 1 a q q Ag
.squea6rua
aqq 6urqaodsueaq
s d y q s a o j s a T n a q a r a q s p a 3 e ~ n d r q se r p u ~j o q u a t u u a a ~ o 3 a q l
mearetuer a o j a a q u y m
A ~ a e ap u e ' p e p r u r a l p u e e u e y n 3 q s r q r a g a o j u u n q n e p u e aatuuns
' r r r j a o j p a ~ a a s a asem 6 u y a d s A ~ a e ap u e a a q u r m b p a a n p o a q u r
aaam s d r q s a a 6 u a s s e d u e a q s uaqm p o r a a d p a a n q u a p u y a q q j o p u a
a q q spaem01
* a e a A a q q q n o q 6 n o a q q q u a u d r q s sem a a a q q ' A ~ e a q
sem s n r q r a n e w o q a r j j e a q uaqm ~ 0 ~ a8q q1 u r q G n o q q 1 e
'sqquou
omq a s o q q j o a p r s q n o a u r q Aue q e q a e d a p p ~ n o m1 e q e N p u e
* A ~ a ~ r q a a d s arar r j p u e s a r p u ~
s n r q r a n e w a o j 6 u r ~ e as d~ r q s
q s a ~a q q a o j p a ~ a a s a a aaam A a e n a q a j p u e a a q t u a q d a s
aqq
UI
b6uruur6aq
* s u o r q r p u o a a a q q e a m q s a q a q q j o a 6 e q u e ~ p ea y e q o q s e
o s s u o ~ q e u ~ q s a aps a a n y p a q q o q a a n q a e d a p j o s a u r q q u a y u a ~ u o a
q s o u a q q u o s a r a u a 6 e s n o r a e ~a q q 6 u o u e p a q a e a a sem q u a u a a a 6 ~
s T * s a ~ r q e ~ aAqa p a u r e ~ aaaam a o ' a n u r q u o a
0 7 6 u r ~ ~ r m ua n~ a m: ; v b ~ J a q q a n j e p u e ! : ; g 6 1 ~ sem p o r a a d a u e s
aqq
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u o r q ~ a s a pAq u o r q a n p a u
*sqodapqns aqq qe saanpaaoad
6 u r u a a a a s u r a a u e ~ r 6 rs~s a ~sem a J a q q q e q q s q s a 6 6 n s a 6 e q u a a
ad q 6 r q a q l
* p a q a a C a a aaam
: ; z b ~ v ' 0 0 6 ~p u e 1 8 8 ~u a a m q a g
* u o r q a a d s u r aqq j o ssauq6noaoqq aqq j o u o r q e a r p u r ue a ~ r 6
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vT
* s A e p J n o j 07
* q q ~ e a qp o o 6 j o s a q e a
s h i p ' s surgeon.
vaccination,
P r e c i s e r u l e s were e s t a b l i s h e d regarding
sick bays,
rationing scales, daily bathing i n
warm l a t t i t u d e s , a n d s o o n .
The d o c t o r on t h e s h i p s bound
f o r M a u r i t i u s a n d Malaya was o f t e n a n I n d i a n o r a E u r o a s i a n .
But a f t e r e a r l y t r a g e d i e s ,
Britain.
d o c t o r s were a p p o i n t e d f r o m
T h e y were p a i d 8 s h i l l i n g s f o r e a c h p e r s o n l a n d e d
alive i n the early years;
a f t e r 1 8 5 7 , t h e f e e was i n c r e a s e d
t o 1 0 s h i l l i n g s f o r t h e f i r s t voyage,
11 s h i l l i n g s f o r t h e
second, and 1 2 s h i l l i n g s f o r t h e t h i r d and subsequent voyages.
T h e y were a s s i s t e d b y t w o companders.
S i n g l e women were
placed i n the rear of the ship, married couple with children
amidship,
and s i n g l e males i n t h e front.
A t first, the
emigrants s l e p t on p l a t f o r m s ,
later i n two-tier
Despite a l l the precautions,
t h i n g s c o u l d a n d d i d go wrong.
bunks.
B e f o r e t h e s t e a m s h i p s made t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e a v o y a g e t o o k
from 9 0 t o 120 d a y s ; s a i l b o a t s from C a l c u t t a t o Jamaica t o o k
180 d a y s , b u t o n l y 8 4 d a y s t o Natal, and 70 d a y s t o M a u r i t i u s
and Reunion.
T h i s was a l o n g t i m e f o r a n a v e r a g e o f between
3 0 0 t o 550 p a s s e n g e r s t o s p e n d i n c o n f i n e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
I l l n e s s e s and d i s e a s e s were bound t o occur.
high i n t h e e a r l y days.
M o r t a l i t y was
O f t h e 4 0 318 p e r s o n s who w e n t t o
Mauritius between 1842 to 1843, 1 251 d i e d during t h e middle
passage,
293 soon a f t e r l a n d i n g , and 6 107 upon e n t e r i n g
s e r v i c e . l6
The m o r t a l i t y r a t e s d e c r e a s e d q u i t e d r a m a t i c a l l y
a f t e r s t e a m s h i p v o y a g e s came i n t o b e i n g ,
which reduced t h e
t i m e t a k e n f o r j o u r n e y s by 5 0 % .
One o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e l o n g v o y a g e s w a s t o c r e a t e a
b o n d o f f r i e n d s h i p a m o n g p e o p l e who were s t r a n g e r s t o o n e
a n o t h e r b e f o r e they embarked.
A s "jehajibhais"
(shipmates),
t h e y d e v e l o p e d a s o l i d a r i t y known a s " b h a i a c h a r a y a "
(brother-
h o o d ) , which l e s s e n e d t h e f e a r o f t h e unknown, a n d s t r e n g t h ened t i e s t h a t c o u l d h e l p them i n t h e f u t u r e .
c u t across c a s t e and r e l i g i o u s b a r r i e r s .
a l r e a d y i n t h e making.
As a
Such bonds
A new i d e n t i t y w a s
Pariah t o l d a Brahmin,
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much t o d o w i t h t h e t e r m i n a t i o n a s t h e o p p o s i t i o n i n I n d i a .
I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s were p e r s i s t e n t l y c r i t i c a l o f t h e
indentured system i n the f i r s t decades o f the twentieth
century.
T h e i r c r i t i c i s m l e d t o two m a j o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
within three years of each other.
The S a n d e r s o n c o m m i t t e e
o f 1910 misread t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n and argued
for the modification of the system;
t h e McNeill-La1 c o m m i t t e e
o f 1 9 1 3 was c r i t i c a l o f t h e s y s t e m .
T h e r e was m o u n t i n g
e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e system was i n h e r e n t l y bad;
and even before
it was o f f i c i a l l y t e r m i n a t e d i n 1 9 1 7 , r e c r u i t m e n t had ground
t o a h a l t . 20
r\
*
By 1 9 1 7 , a b o u t
l1I4
p a r t s o f t h e world
m i l l i o n I n d i a n s had gone t o v a r i o u s
as indentured labourers.
The number t o
t h e West I n d i e s t o t a l l e d 5 3 4 1 0 9 , d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
way:
B r i t i s h Guiana 238 909;
Trinidad 143 939; Jamaica 36 412;
S u r i n a m 3 4 304; Windward I s l a n d s ( G r e n a d a , S t .
St.
Vincent, and
Lucia) 10 026; Martinique 25 519;
and Goudeloupe 4 500.
Of t h e t o t a l o f 5 3 4 1 0 9 a b o u t 1 4 9 0 5 4 r e t u r n e d t o I n d i a . 2 1
Mauritius,
t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y " s u g a r bowl"
i n the Indian
Ocean r e c e i v e d t h e l a r g e s t number o f i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s .
The G e o g h e g a n R e p o r t c a l c u l a t e d t h a t I Y a u r i t i u s h a d r e c e i v e d
351 401 between 1842 and 1870.
I f one adds about 30 000
I n d i a n s who w e n t t o M a u r i t i u s b e f o r e 1 8 4 2 , t h e n u m b e r u p t o
1 8 7 0 w o u l d t h e n b e o v e r 3 8 0 0 0 0 . ~ T~ h i s f i g u r e c o r r e s p o n d s
w i t h 387 1 2 1 computed by a M a u r i t i a n s c h 0 l a r . ~ 3 A f u r t h e r
78 897 I n d i a n s went t o M a u r i t i u s a s i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s from
1871 forward.
The t o t a l ,
the statistics available,
t h e n , s t a n d s a t 4 6 6 0 1 8 . ~ ~F r o m
168 747 o r 36% r e t u r n e d t o ~ n d i a . ~ ~
The F r e n c h i s l a n d i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n , R e u n i o n ,
received
118 000 i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s , b u t a s u b s t a n t i a l number,
88 0 0 0 ,
r e t u r n e d between 1835 and 1900. 26
I n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s were i n t r o d u c e d l a t e i n F i j i .
I t was
s t a r t e d i n 1 8 7 9 , a n d by t h e time i m p o r t a t i o n w a s s t o p p e d
i n 1916, 87 voyages had brought 60 533 I n d i a n s t o t h i s
A l l c o n t r a c t s were ended i n 1 9 2 0 . ~ ~
South P a c i f i c i s l a n d .
Finally,
N a t a l r e c e i v e d 152 184 i n d e n t u r e d immigrants
O f these,
between 1860 and 1911.
j u s t o v e r 23% r e t u r n e d
t o I n d i a b y t h e t i m e i m p o r t a t i o n was s t o p p e d .
i f
However,
o n e i n c l u d e s t h o s e o f t h e o r i g i n a l i m m i g r a n t s who l e f t
between 1 9 1 1 and 1929,
the
f i g u r e a l m o s t d o u b l e s t o 42%.
a b o u t 9% o f t h o s e t e r m i n a t i n g . t h e i r c o n t r a c t s
I n N a t a l ' s case,
went t o o t h e r p a r t s o f southern A f r i c a .
The r e s t o f t h i s
c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h N a t a l ' s i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s between 1860
and 1902.
Natal
N a t a l d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e 1850s t h a t t h e s o i l and c l i m a t e were
i d e a l f o r growing sugar.
By t h e m i d d l e o f t h e d e c a d e ,
white
f a r m e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t s u g a r c o u l d become t h e m a i n s t a y o f t h e
c o l o n i a l economy.
And n o d o u b t i t was b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e
resident black population,
wage l a b o u r e r s .
the Zulus,
w o u l d w i l l i n g l y become
T h e Z u l u s w e r e p a s t o r a l i s t s a n d f a r m e r s who
s h o w e d l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n b e c o m i n g wage e a r n e r s .
event,
as a p r e - i n d u s t r i a l
I n any
group o f i n d i v i d u a l s they would
r e q u i r e t i m e t o a d j u s t a s l a b o u r e r s w i t h i n a c a p i t a l i s t mode
o f production,
which i s what
t h e s u g a r p l a n t a t i o n s y s t e m was.
The p r o b l e m was t o s e c u r e p l a n t a t i o n l a b o u r i m m e d i a t e l y .
N a t a l ' s sugar
farmers decided i n t h e end t o use i n d e n t u r e d
form o f labour,
they
saw d e c i d e d a d v a n t a g e s i n i t .
s y s t e m made f o r e a s i e r c o n t r o l ,
were
I f
from a f o r e i g n land.
especially
Such a
i f the labourers
N a t a l ' s p l a n t e r s knew t h a t t h e
i n d e n t u r e d system worked w e l l i n M a u r i t i u s ,
a n d t h e r e was
reason t o b e l i e v e i t would work i n N a t a l as w e l l .
The N a t a l g o v e r n m e n t p r e v a i l e d u p o n S i r G e o r g e G r e y ,
the
Cape g o v e r n o r v i s i t i n g N a t a l i n 1 8 5 5 ,
t o t a k e up t h e m a t t e r
with the B r i t i s h colonial authorities.
T h e r e was a l i t t l e
delay
i n f i n a l i s i n g matters,
b u t i n t h e end t h e N a t a l
L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l e n a c t e d Laws 1 3 ,
14 and 15 t o e s t a b l i s h
t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s t o s a t i s f y t h e Government o f I n d i a .
A c t 3 3 o f 1 8 6 0 b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a c l e a r e d t h e way
f o r the introduction o f indentured Indians.
As m e n t i o n e d
P o s t m a s t e r G e n e r a l W M C o l l i n s was s e n t t o I n d i a
earlier,
i n 1860 t o a c t as E m i g r a t i o n Act.28
The f i r s t t w o s h i p -
l o a d s o f i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s a r r i v e d i n Novernber 1 8 6 0 ,
one
each from Madras and C a l c u t t a .
The f i r s t g r o u p o f i n d e n t u r e d i m m i g r a n t s a r r i v e d b e t w e e n
1860 and 1866,
a s s t a t e d i n c h a p t e r 1.
A depression i n the
colony temporarily halted the importation.
improved,
When c o n d i t i o n s
t h e i m p o r t a t i o n was r e s u m e d i n 1 8 7 4 .
The N a t a l
government c o m p l i e d w i t h t h e Government o f I n d i a ' s d i r e c t i v e
for tighter controls,
o n e o f w h i c h was t o a p p o i n t a s a l a r i e d
o f f i c i a l t o look a f t e r the i n t e r e s t s o f the immigrants,
who,
a f t e r t h e M a u r i t i a n f a s h i o n was d e s i g n a t e d t h e P r o t e c t o r o f
Indian Immigrants.
The i m p o r t a t i o n c o n t i n u e d f r o m t h e n u n t i l
i t was f i n a l l y s t o p p e d i n J u l y 1 9 1 1 .
brought nearly one-third
The l a s t 1 0 y e a r s
o f t h e t o t a l o f 152 184.
The s a m p l e d i s c u s s e d h e r e c o v e r s t h e p e r i o d 1 8 6 0 t o 1 9 0 2 .
During that period,
1 6 8 s h i p ' s voyages b r o u g h t 59 662
passengers from t h e Madras C i t y p o r t ;
a n d 88 s h i p ' s
voyages
f r o m t h e p o r t o f C a l c u t t a l a n d e d 35 720 i n d e n t u r e d i m m i g r a n t s .
(See T a b l e 2 )
The c o m b i n e d t o t a l o f p a s s e n g e r s b e t w e e n
1 8 7 6 a n d 1 9 0 2 was 9 1 7 9 8 .
years
(See T a b l e 3 ) .
y e a r s was 0 , 5 % .
The a v e r a g e m o r t a l i t y r a t e f o r 2 6
The h i g h e s t d e a t h r a t e was i n 1 8 8 1 w h e n t h e
r a t e s t o o d a t 1,5%.
years:
477 d i e d o n t h e v o y a g e s i n 26
M o r t a l i t y r a t e was h i g h e r i n t h e e a r l y
between 1876 and 1884,
occasions.
t h e r a t e e x c e e d e d 1%o n f i v e
As c o n d i t i o n s i m p r o v e d o n t h e v o y a g e s ,
did the survival rate.
After
1885,
so t o o
a s T a b l e 3 shows,
the
r a t e o f m o r t a l i t y d i d n o t e x c e e d 1%.
The t a b l e s o n s e x d i s t r i b u t i o n s h o w t h a t m a l e s p r e d o m i n a t e d
i n b o t h t h e Madras and C a l c u t t a batches.
p a s s e n g e r s shows t h a t
T a b l e 4 f o r Madras
f o r e v e r y 65% o f males,
t h e r e w e r e 2896
females.
The r a t i o f o r
1883-85,
was p a r t i c u l a r l y u n e v e n .
f o r 1899-1900
Low m a l e p e r c e n t a g e s a r e r e c o r d e d
and 1902 o n l y because t h e unknown component i s
unusually high f o r
these years.
r a t i o f o r C a l c u t t a passengers,
2776,
7276 m a l e t o 2 4 % f e m a l e ,
The a v e r a g e m a l e t o
a s T a b l e 5 shows,
w i t h t h e 1890s showing p a r t i c u l a r l y
However,
female
was 625'6 t o
favourable ratios.
when o n e c o m b i n e s M a d r a s a n d C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s ,
f l u c t u a t i o n s tend t o even out.
i s 6376 m a l e t o 2776 f e m a l e .
the proportions.
the
The r a t i o a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 6
G r a p h s 1, 2 ,
and 3 i l l u s t r a t e w e l l
The s t a t i s t i c s show t h a t t h e 6 0 t o 4 0 r a t i o
t h e Government o f I n d i a hoped t o m a i n t a i n d i d n o t m a t e r i a l i s e
i n N a t a l ' s case.
The i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s e x p e r i e n c e d a s h o r t a g e
o f women t h r o u g h o u t
the period.
Family recruitment,
as mentioned e a r l i e r ,
discouraged
from t h e 1890s.
M a d r a s s h o w s t h a t 17,676
t h e ages o f 1 t o 9.
was i n c r e a s i n g l y
An e x a m i n a t i o n o f T a b l e 7 f o r
o f a l l t h e p a s s e n g e r s were between
Those b e t w e e n t h e ages o f 1 0 and 1 4
would a l s o have been accompanying c h i l d r e n ,
19,676
so t h a t
totally,
came a s p a r t o f a f a m i l y .
Some came w i t h b o t h p a r e n t s ,
and o t h e r s w i t h s i n g l e p a r e n t s .
The p e r c e n t a g e o f a c c o m p a n y -
i n g c h i l d r e n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h d u r i n g 1899-1900.
Table 7).
Similarly,
f o r C . a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s 14,776
between t h e ages 1 t o 9,
(See T a b l e 8 ) ,
a n d 2,376
18,376
were
between t h e ages 1 0 t o 14
and t h e percentage o f accompanying c h i l d r e n
was v e r y h i g h i n 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 0 0 .
then,
(See
F o r b o t h Madras and C a l c u t t a ,
were accompanying c h i l d r e n .
I f one adds t h e
number o f m a r r i e d c o u p l e s i n t h e sample w i t h o u t c h i l d r e n
( t h e computer
r e t r i e v a l o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n was n o t p o s s i b l e ) ,
then the
family
and 1902,
i s a b o u t 2076.
reasonably high,
Nevertheless,
component o f t h e t o t a l o f 95 382 b e t w e e n 1860
M i g r a t i o n i n f a m i l y g r o u p s was
despite o f f i c i a l discouragement.
r e c r u i t m e n t e f f o r t s went towards
young m a l e s b e t w e e n t h e ages o f 18 and 30.
finding
Table 7
for
M a d r a s s h o w s t h a t t h i s c a t e g o r y made u p 6476 o f t h e t o t a l ;
and f o r C a l c u t t a passengers,
8).
i t made u p o v e r 7276 ( S e e T a b l e
The p e r c e n t a g e s a r o u n d t h e a g e s 20,
25 and 30 t e n d t o c l u s t e r .
One s u s p e c t s t h a t b o t h r e c r u i t s a n d r e c r u i t e r s r o u n d e d o f f
especially i f
t h e ages,
such rounded f i g u r e s were l i k e l y t o
i n c r e a s e t h e r e c r u i t s 1 chances o f b e i n g accepted as emigrants.
T h e a g e c a t e g o r y 3 1 t o 3 5 made u p 7,476
f o r C a l c u t t a passengers.
M a d r a s a n d 1,276
f o r M a d r a s a n d 2,776
Those b e y o n d 36,
for Calcutta.
a v e r a g e d 2,676
There a r e f l u c t u a t i o n s
c a t e g o r i e s o u t s i d e o f t h e 15 t o 30 range,
for
i n age
and t h e s e a r e no
doubt r e l a t e d t o varying recruitment p a t t e r n s from year t o
year.
More w o u l d o b v i o u s l y have t o b e known a b o u t s o u r c e s
o f recruitment t o explain the fluctuations.
(See Graph 4 ) .
Two o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s o f p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e h e i g h t
and markings.
The m a j o r i t y o f r e c o r d e d h e i g h t s f a l l b e t w e e n
1 5 6 a n d 1 7 0 cms.
((see Table 9),
Table 10).
F o r Madras passengers,
t h e f i g u r e i s 54,5%
a n d f o r C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s i t i s 44,67;
(see
Graph 5 p r e s e n t s t h e h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n by
graphic i l l u s t r a t i o n .
No i n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e a b o u t
h e i g h t s and s t a t u r e s f o r n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y
nationally or
regionally;
Indians,
but the figures presented here are
l i k e l y t o correlate with the general s t a t i s t i c s i n India.
T h e s h i p ' s l i s t s c a r e f u l l y n o t e d i n , many i n s t a n c e s t h e
I t was n o t
p h y s i c a l markings o f the N a t a l immigrants.
p o s s i b l e t o t a b u l a t e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n because i t i s uneven
and unknown f o r most y e a r s .
t o disease,
By f a r
religious beliefs,
h e a l i n g o r p e r s o n a l adornment.
the largest are related to injuries.
related category,
faces appear
t h e 65%
I n the disease-
t h e s t a t i s t i c s f o r p e o p l e w i t h pock-marked
f o r e v e r y y e a r between 1860 and 1902.
p a r t i c u l a r l y numerous f o r
group
The p h y s i c a l m a r k i n g s a r e r e l a t e d
the e a r l y years.
They a r e
N e a r l y 13% o f
r e c o r d e d w i t h p h y s i c a l m a r k i n g s among t h e M a d r a s
(1860-1866)
had pock marks;
i n t h e same p e r i o d ,
and f o r
t h e C a l c u t t a group
n e a r l y 11%o f t h e 7 8 % r e c o r d e d w i t h
p h y s i c a l markings had faces s c a r r e d by smallpox.
epidemics were widespread i n I n d i a ,
Smallpox
and t h e areas from which
t h e i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s were drawn were n o t f r e e f r o m them.
T h e i n c i d e n c e o f s m a l l p o x e p i d e m i c s i n I n d i a was h i g h e r i n
t h e e a r l y period (1870-90),
than i n t h e p e r i o d a f t e r 1890. 29
T h e r e are fewer p e o p l e w i t h pock-marked
faces i n the later
years o f t h e sample.
Among t h e M a d r a s p a s s e n g e r s b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 8 6 6 , t h e r e
was a h i g h p e r c e n t a g e w i t h "godna"
o r caste s i g n i f i c a n c e .
marks,
indicating religious
C i c a t r i x m a r k s were s o m e t i m e s t h e
r e s u l t of healing procedures,
a n d t h e s a m p l e h a d many o f t h e s e .
T a t o o marks on a l l p a r t s o f t h e body were numerous f o r b o t h
t h e Madras and C a l c u t t a passengers.
But by f a r t h e l a r g e s t
c a t e g o r y o f p h y s i c a l m a r k i n g s was t h a t o f s c a r s .
abdomen,
S c a r s on
arms, b a c k s , b e l l i e s , c h e e k s , c h e s t s , c h i n s , c o l l a r -
bones, elbows, eyebrows,
shoulders, spine,
regular frequency.
forehead,
temples,
thighs,
knees,
legs, neck,
nose,
and t h r o a t appear with
D o u b t l e s s m o s t o f t h e m were l e f t b y
i n j u r i e s , b u t t h e frequency w i t h which t h e y o c c u r r e d on t h e
l e f t o r r i g h t s i d e o f t h e body s u g g e s t s t h a t i n some i n s t a n c e s
a t l e a s t , t h e s c a r s may h a v e r e l i g i o u s o r c a s t e s i g n i f i c a n c e .
Three o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s o f information
of origin,
c a s t e and r e l i g i o n ,
-
namely, d i s t r i c t s
and employers
important i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r spcio-economic
require full discussions,
the next three chapters.
-
are
contexts.
They
and w i l l be t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y i n
TABLE
VOYAGES
2
AND PASSENGERS FROM MADRAS
AND CALCUTTA,
1860-1902
MADRAS
7 --
CALCUTTA
I
I
SYMBOL
--
DATE
SHIPS
PASSENGERS
SHIPS
PASSENGERS
NOV. 1860 -
J u l y 1866
June 1874 Oct. 1877
Jan. 1879 Dec. 1882
E
A p r i l 1883 A p r i l 1885
13
3 515
7
3 179
F
Flar. 1886 Nov. 1889
18
4 782
2
699
G
Feb. 1890 Dec. 1891
11
4 482
8
3 020
H
Feb. 1892 Dec. 1893
12
4 527
5
1 620
Jan. 1894 -
11
3 529
7
2 786
5
1 977
5
7
3 130
7
I
Dec. 1895
Jan. 1896 1896
J
Dec.
Jan. 1897 -
K
Dec. 1897
Jan. 1898 Dec. 1898
M
Feb. 1899 Dec. 1900
12
5 169
4
1 570
N
Jan. 19Ul Dec. 1901
15
6 199
2
816
168
59 662
88
35 720
Jan. 1902 Dec. 1902
- --
TOTALS
27
TABLE 3
BIRTHS
YEAR
Source:
AND
NU OF
SHIPS
DEATHS
ON
EMIGRANT
EMBARKED
SHIPS
TO
BIRTHS
NATAL
1876-1902
DEATHS
Reports o f P r o t e c t o r o f I n d i a n Immigrants, 1876-1902
LANDED
28
TABLE 4
SEX
MADRAS
DISTRIBUTION
PASSENGERS,
1860-1902
NUMBERS
PERCENTAGES
DATE
TOTAL
IJNKNOWN
MALE
FEMALE
UNKNOWN
TOTAL
59 662
4 223
38 5 9 9
1 6 840
6,577;
MALE
FEMALE
29
TABLE
SEX
CALCUTTA
5
DISTRIBUTION
PASSENGERS,
1860-1902
NUMBERS
.DATE
.TOTAL
.UNKNOWN
MALE
FEMALE
UNKhlOWN
TOTAL
3 5 720
2 882
22 874
9 964
10,3476
'
MALE
FEMALE
62,0976
27,5776
TABLE 6
SEX
MADRAS
AND
DISTRIBUTION
CALCUTTA
PASSENGERS,
NUMBERS
1860-1902
PERCENTAGES
-
DATE
TOTAL
UNKNOWN
MALE
FEMALE
-
UNKNOWN
MALE
-
TOTAL
95 382
7 105
6 1 473
26 804
8,3%
-
FEMALE
-
63,73% 27,9%%
No, of People
9
31d03d 30 'ON
No. o f People
TABLE 7
AGE
DISTRIBUTION
FOR
MADRAS
PASSENGERS,
1860-1902
'(PERCENTAGE)
AGE
Unknowri
1 - 9
10 - 14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21'
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
34
40
41
42
43
44
45
46 +
b
2
W
Q
Q
'
O
I-
a
w
4
-
W
'
Ln
I
'
I
2
w
w
m
w
w
4
-
4
4
4
w
1
m
w
N
w
4
I
4
I
w
4
0
w
4
w
-
4
N
0
4
4
4
4
1
4
4
TABLE 8
AGE
DISTRIBUTION
FOR
CALCUTTA
PASSENGERS,
1860-1902
(PERCENTAGES
-
-
-
-
8 , 4 13,9 1 6 , 3 14,6 1 4 , 3
14,11 13,l 8,7
31,2
7 , 8 1 9 , 5 29,8 27,6 897
2,9
2,2
3,3
2,8
198
1,5
198
098
190
0,7
2,2
194
0,4
097
0,3
094
0,3
0,2
0,l
0,l
- 092 0,4 O,? 0 , 9 091
1,l 4 , 5
0,9
0,8
0,2
0,6
0,7
0,7
1,o
0,7
1,l 0 , l
0,7
0,9
2,7
1,3
17
195 397
OB8
095
093
0,3
197
190
197
098
098
094
095
197
3,7
399
18
3,9
6,l
3,5
2,9
1,7
1,7
3,l
3,3
4,l
3,4
4,4
2,5
4,2
5,5
5,9
5,8
19
2,8
3,9
3,8
1,7
2,l
2,5
1,4
2,3
2,2
l,8
2,5
3,O
2,O
3,8
5,3
397
20
13,9
6 , 3 10,O
9 , 9 18,2 13,8 15,2 18,O 16,4
14,O 1 5 , 9 18,2 1 6 , 3 1 4 , 6 10,7 11.1
21
3,5
4,O
4,5
2,3
3,l
22
10,7
5,6
7,8
23
3,6
2,8
24
7,l
3,l
25
Unknown
3,9
0,7
2,6
6,7
1- 9
14,7
9 , l 14,O 14,7
10-14
290
591
197
15
095
2,7
16
1,5
0,2
0,l
0,8
1,O
1,2
2,3
3,2
4,3
2,9
8 , 3 14,4 11,7 10,O 13,O 11,l
1 0 , 3 13,O 1 6 , 5 16,O
8,2
8,5
6,6
4,4
4,4
3,4
2,8
5,2
3,6
3,O
3,l
5,9
4,O
3,2
2,9
2,3
6,8
7,l
7,4
5,5
5,4
6,7
6,8
7,9 1 1 , O 11,7
9,6
7,8
5,5
3,5
i0,98 4,3
8 , 6 1 1 , O 15,4 1 4 , 3 1 1 , 4 1 4 , 2 11,0
1 2 , l 15,2 1 3 , 2
9,9
8,4
8,0
7,7
26
4,6
4,7
6,4
4,6
4,4
3,8
3,3
3,4
4,6
4,2
7,8
6,l
5,7
3,4
3,8
3,O
27
2,2
4,8
28
3,9
5,5
4,O
4,O
1 , 3 2,3
6,O 3,8
2,l
4,5
1,l 1 , 7
5,2 3,9
2,8
4,3
1,8
3,4
2,5
5,O
1,8
3,5
1,7
2,8
2,O
2,7
1,5
2,6
1,7
1,7
29
0,97 2 , 6
2,4
1,7
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
1,5
0,4
0,8
0,8
0,4
0,8
0,6
0,3
30
4,l
4,6
6,O
5,6
6,3
5,8
7,6
4,2
5,5
2,4
3,3
2,2
1,9
1,7
2,3
1,9
31
0,2
1,2
0,l
0,3
0,l
0,2
0,l
-
0,3
0,l
0,l
0,2
0,l
0,l
-
-
32
0,9
2,7
1,9
0,9
0,9
1,5
2,6
0,8
1,O
0,5
0,4
0,2
0,l
0,l
0,l
0,l
33
0,2
0,7
0,9
0,3
0,3
0,3
-
0,l
0,l
0,l
-
0,l
-
093
-
34
0,4
1,l 1 , 4
0,5
0,4
0,6
0,6
0,3
0,l
O,2
032
O,2
0,l
35
0,961,7
0,7
2,7
1,3
1,2
0,2
099
1,4
0,6
-
091
072
091
-
-
091
097
094
-
091
-
-
-
0,5
0,2
37
0,5
0,2
034
0,l
0,5
0,3
039
091
-
36
1,l 1 , 8
0,2 0,4
0,l
0,5
-
-
-
-
0,l
-
-
38
093
199 093
091
-
-
-
0,l
0,l
0,Ol 098
091
-
0,l
0,l
091
39
-
-
-
-
0,2 1,2
0,02 0 , 2
0,2
-
0,3
0,l
-
0,l
-
-
0,l
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
40
-
-
-
0,1
-
0,2
-
-
0,l
0,2
0,l
-
3,8
4,3
3,3
2,9
3,8
097
094
092
092
093
-
091
0,4
0,9
-
0,l
0,l
-
-
0,l
-
0,l
0,2
43
0,05 0 , 4
0904 0,2
-
091
0,l
091
-
44
0,02 0 , l
-
0,l
-
0,l
-
-
45
0,090,2
-
0,l
-
0,7
-
091
-
46+
0,l
-
0,l
0,l
0,3
0,4
0,l
0,2
41
42
0,3
-
2,9
3,O
4,4
-
-
-
-
-
-
091
-
-
37
TABLE
DISTRIBUTION
OF
HEIGHT
AMONG
9
MADRAS
PASSENGERS,
1860-1902
189293
1896
(PERCENTAGES)
HEIGHT
Total
Ave
186066
187477
Unknown
25,9
50,l
-
30 - 130
O,5
0,5
-
1 3 1 - 135
O,5
095
-
136 - 140
0,95
O,3
-
1 4 1 - 145
3,6
0,5
-
146 - 150
4,9
1,l
1 5 1 - 155
6,7
4,O
-
156 - 160
17,6
11,l
-
1 6 1 - 165
21,8
15,O
166 - 170
15,l
10,O
1 7 1 - 175
3,5
4,2
176 - 180
O,6
1,l
1 8 1 - 185
0,07
0,4
1.86 - 190
0,03
O,3
1 9 1 and o v e r
0,2
0,5
-
(cm)
187778
187982
188385
188689
189091
189495
1897
1898
18991900
1901
1902
38
TABLE
DISTRIBUTION
OF
HEIGHT
AMONG
10
CALCUTTA
PASSENGERS,
1860-1902
(PERCENTAGES)
- -- - -
-- -
-
-
HEIGHT
Total
1860-
1874-
1877-
1879-
1883-
1886-
1890-
1892-
1894-
(cm 1
Ave
66
77
78
82
85
89
91
93
95
Unknown
30 - 130
131 - 135
136 - 140
141
-
- 145
146 - 150
1 5 1 - 155
156 - 160
161 - 165
166 - 170
171 - 175
176 - 180
181 - 185
186 - 190
191 and over
1896
--
1897
1898
18991900
1901
1902
M & C: HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
U
130 131 136 141 146 151 156 161 166 171 176 181 186 191
IiEIGIiT DISTRIBUTION ( c m )
MADRAS
NOTES
A New S y s t e m o f S l a v e r y :
Hugh T i n k e r :
I n d i a n Labour Overseas,
s i t y Press,
P Saha:
1974,
pp.
1830-1920,
16-17.
P e o p l e ' s P u b l i s h i n g House,
Pineo:
1970,
1834-1900,
L u r e d Away:
pp.
Gandhi I n s t i t u t e ,
I M Cumpston:
1834-1854,
B r i j V Lal:
1984,
London:
The O r i q i n s o f
Journal o f Pacific
Cape Town,
op.
cit.,
cit.,
Ibid.,
-
p.
23.
Saha,
op.
cit.,
pp.
18-19.
January
-
Caribbean Univ.
Press,
"Women U n d e r I n d e n t u r e i n N a t a l , "
op.
pp.
o f Indians i n South
Conference on Indentured Indians,
Tinker,
1983,
I m m i g r a t i o n I n t o West I n d i e s i n
Mona:
Durban-Westville,
90-96.
Paper presented a t South A f r i c a n
K 0 Laurence:
19th century,
pp.
the F i j i Indians,
History,
"Movements
1860-1911,"
J D Beall:
Mahatma
1-38.
H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y Conference,
1985;
Moka:
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press,
S Bhana and J B B r a i n :
Africa,
6-7.
I n d i a n s Overseas i n B r i t i s h T e r r i t o r i e s ,
Girmitiyas:
Canberra:
pp.
Delhi:
The L i f e H i s t o r y o f
I n d i a n Cane W o r k e r s i n M a u r i t i u s ,
Lal,
Oxford Univer-
E m i g r a t i o n o f I n d i a n Labour,
H Ly-Tio-Fane
The E x p o r t o f
Oct.
1985.
89,
105.
p.
23.
p.
80f;
Tinker,
op.
1971,
p.
Paper,
University o f
cit.,
pp.
122-130.
57
s z i ~ q ~ ~q os ~d 3 e uj o s u y 6 r a o ~ e u o ~ q n q ~ q s upou 3
e a~wouo33
a41
aql,,
+
: < T ~ T - E o ~ T ' e u e ~ n g 4 s r q r a g u r a n s s ~u o ~ q e ~ 6 ~ w w 1
: ~ a s e a ja a q a d ! L C
'9z
'dd
" 7 ~ 3 *do 'aauaanel
'?LC-V<<
'~<<-88Z 'dd
'*??a
.do
' ~ a 7 u ? l OsTe aaS
'VVLL
'P3
' 5 ~ 6 ~
' ( q a o d a u T e i - T ~ r a N 3 l d ) w e u r a n s p u e s a r u o ~ o 3q s r q ~ a g~ n o j
u r s q u e a 6 ~ w w 1 u e ~ p u4 0~ s u o r q r p u o 3 a q q u o e ~ p ju o ~ quaw
-uJaAo3
a 4 7 07 7 ~ o d a k lP u e ' ~ 6 ~' P 5
3
' 0 ~ 6' L Z~
'TOA
'OT6T
' ( a a q q ~ w w o 3 u o s a a p u e s ) s a q e a o q a a q o a d p u e s a ~ u 0 ~ 0u 3
moa3 oq
e T p u I w o a j u o ~ q e a 6 r w ] uo aaqqrwwo3 aqq 4 0 qaodau aas
* z < ' 9 ~* d d ' 6 ~ 6' s s~a a d
' A T U ~paojxo
e ~ e n ] b a a o d e b u r s p u e e r s A e ~ e Wu r s u e T p u 1
s o s ~ ea a s
* V T < aaded 'LV
T
oz
:andun1
:weuqeaeseav
- 9 9 * d " q ~ 3 * d o ' ~ e ui ~ p a q r 3 s a a n 6 y j
8~
- 1 0 n ' s a a d e d A a e q u a w e r ~ a e d ' 9 ~ 8A ~~ n r
' e r p u 1 w o a j u o ~ q e a 6 r w 3a r ~ o o 3u o q a o d a u u e 6 a q 6 0 a g
aqq osTe aas
'66
* d ' * q r 3 *do 'eves
Aq p a q o n b s a J n 6 r j
91
-A~snornaad
p a q r 3 T T ~' ~ a y u r l p u e ' o a u r d
' T e i j o s y ~ o ma q q
u r p u n o j a q oq a J e sqodaa u o r q e a 6 r w ]
qnoqe sTyeqaa
<T
22
Geoghegan R e p o r t ,
23
J Manrakhan:
op.
p.
"Examination
Slavery-Indenture
66.
o f C e r t a i n Aspects o f the
Continuum o f M a u r i t i u s I n c l u d i n g a
S c e n a r i o T h a t N e v e r Was,"
i n U B i s s o o n d o y a l and
S B C Servansing (eds.):
I n d i a n Labour Immigration,
Moka:
24
cit.,
Mahatma G a n d h i I n s t i t u t e ,
Ibid..See
a l s o T i n k e r op,
Benedict:
cit.,
1986,
p.
p.
371,
40.
and B u r t o n
A Report
Indians i n a P l u r a l Society:
on M a u r i t i u s i n s e r i e s C o l o n i a l Research S t u d i e s
No.
34,
London,
op.
1961.
p.
40.
25
Manrakhan,
26
The f i g u r e s a r e f r o m t t S i n g a r a v e l o u : "
cit.,
Indians i n the
French Overseas Departments (Guadeloupe,
Reunion,"
Abroad,
Paper,
Martinique,
Conference on South Asian Communities
March 1987,
Oxford University.
See a l s o J e a n
B e n o i t ' s a r t i c l e i n Bissoondoyal and Servansing (eds.):
op.
27
cit.,
p.
255.
K L Gillion:
F i j i ' s Indian Migrants:
t h e End o f I n d e n t u r e i n 1920,
Press,
28
1962,
p.
See J o y B r a i n :
59.
Melbourne:
See a l s o L a l ,
op.
Oxford Univ.
cit.,
passim.
" I n d e n t u r e d and f r e e I n d i a n s i n t h e
Economy o f C o l o n i a l N a t a l , "
M Sellers (eds.):
i n B i l l Guest and John
E n t e r p r i s e and E x p l o i t a t i o n i n a
V i c t o r i a n Colony:
Aspects o f t h e S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f
Colonial Natal,
Pietermaritzburg:
1985,
pp.
199-233,
1851-1917,
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e o f
vol.
1, p .
525,
Univ.
o f Natal Press,
and Y S Meer e t a 1 ( e d s . ) :
o f Indentured Labour,
29
A History to
India:
Durban,
Documents
1980.
The I n d i a n F m p i r e ,
CHAPTER
Places o f Origin:
3
Zillahs, Tahsils/Taluks,
a n d Towns.
B r i t i s h I n d i a was o v e r o n e m i l l i o n s q u a r e m i l e s i n e x t e n t
a t t h e t u r n o f t h e century, and consisted o f e i g h t l a r g e
provinces and f i v e smaller a r e a s o f administration.
The
p o p u l a t i o n i n 1901 was j u s t u n d e r 232 m i l l i o n , . m o r e o r l e s s
evenly divided between males and females.
Those a r e a s n o t
d i r e c t l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e B r i t i s h , were i n t h e h a n d s o f
t h e Indians themselves.
T h e r e were 7 0 0 I n d i a n S t a t e s o f
v a r y i n g s i z e s covering 770 000 s q u a r e m i l e s , and they were
i n h a b i t e d i n 1 9 0 1 by a p o p u l a t i o n o f o v e r 62 m i 1 l i o n . l
This chapter is divided i n t o three parts.
The f i r s t p a r t
d e s c r i b e s t h e major a r e a s from which N a t a l ' s i n d e n t u r e d
i m m i g r a n t s were d r a w n ;
t h e second p a r t d e a l s with t h e z i l l a h s
(districts), tahsils/taluks,
and towns from which t h e e m i g r a n t s
came; and t h e t h i r d p a r t is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a c t u a l d a t a
on geographical sources i n our sample.
The t h r e e p r i n c i p a l a r e a s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h e s o u r c e s o f
i n d e n t u r e d m i g r a t i o n were t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y , t h e U n i t e d
P r o v i n c e s o f Agra a n d Ough, a n d t h e Bengal P r e s i d e n c y i n
which only Bihar f e a t u r e d prominently.
( S e e Map 1 )
Even though t h e s e a r e a s i n d i v i d u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d m a s s i v e
expanses of land of great diversity, there a r e nevertheless
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t these provincial l e v e l s t h a t w i l l shed
much l i g h t o n t h e l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s p e r t i n e n t t o o u r s t u d y .
The Madras P r e s i d e n c v
T h e M a d r a s P r e ~ i d e n c y , f ~r o m w h i c h t w o - t h i r d s
of Natal's
i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s came, is a v a s t a r e a covering 141 705
square miles.
On t h e w e s t i t i s b o u n d e d b y t h e I n d i a n O c e a n ,
a n d o n t h e e a s t by t h e Bay o f B e n g a l ;
and its n o r t h e r n
b o u n d a r y r u n s f r o m H y d e r a b a d o n t h e west t o t h e C e n t r a l
P r o v i n c e s and O r i s s a on t h e e a s t ,
touching briefly the
s o u t h e r n m o s t b o u n d a r y o f t h e Bombay P r e s i d e n c y .
It has
t h r e e g r e a t r i v e r s , namely t h e Godavari, K i s t n a , and
Cauvery,
running through it.
The f i r s t two r i s e 5 0 miles
i n t h e Bombay P r e s i d e n c y a n d f l o w f o r 8 0 0 m i l e s a c r o s s t h e
peninsula.
Cauvery rises i n t h e Western Ghats i n t h e Coorg,
a n d p a s s e s e a s t w a r d s i n t o t h e Bay o f B e n g a l .
h a s no g r e a t l a k e s ;
coast,
The p r e s i d e n c y
a n d w h i l e i t h a s 1 7 0 0 m i l e s o,f s e a
t h e r e a r e no g r e a t harbours except Madras C i t y ,
which is a l s o t h e c a p i t a l .
The p r e s i d e n c y was d i v i d e d i n 1 9 0 1 i n t o 22 d i s t r i c t s which
were f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o 8 4 s u b d i v i s i o n s , 2 3 1 t a l u k s , 6 5 7
f i r k a s , and 55 000 v i l l a g e s .
The l a r g e s t d i s t r i c t was
V i z a g a p a t a m , c o v e r i n g 1 7 2 0 0 s q u a r e miles a n d c o n s i s t i n g o f
2 900 000 people i n 1901.
The a v e r a g e s i z e o f t h e d i s t r i c t s
was 7 036 s q u a r e miles, and t h e a v e r a g e p o p u l a t i o n was j u s t
o v e r 1 800 000.
The d i s t r i c t s on t h e w e s t c o a s t had h i g h
density of population,
T a n j o r e b e i n g t h e most t h i c k l y popu-
l a t e d w i t h 6 0 5 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e mile.
I n 1 9 0 1 , t h e p r e s i d e n c y ' s p o p u l a t i o n w a s 3 8 2 0 9 4 3 6 o f whom
89% l i v e d i n v i l l a g e s , whose a v e r a g e s i z e was a b o u t 600
persons.
M a d r a s , M a d u r a , a n d T r i c h i n o p o l y were t h e o n l y 3
c i t i e s with populations over 100 000;
i n excess o f 50 000 individuals.
8 towns had p o p u l a t i o n s
Tamil and Telugu were t h e
p r e d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g e s i n t h e p r e s i d e n c y , w i t h 15 m i l l i o n a n d
14 million speakers respectively.
Malayalam was c o n f i n e d t o
t h e west c o a s t o f M a l a b a r d i s t r i c t ; K a n a r e s e s p e a k e r s w e r e
t o be found i n t h e upland r e g i o n s bordering Mysore, and
O r i y a was spoken m a i n l y i n t h e d i s t r i c t s o f Ganjam and
Vizagapatam.
H i n d u s t a n i s p e a k e r s made up a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e
(2!%) a n d a v a r i e t y o f s m a l l e r l a n g u a g e s a n d d i a l e c t s w e r e
s p o k e n by t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n .
Hindus p r e d o m i n a t e d i n t h e p r e s i d e n c y w i t h 89%, t r a i l e d by
M u s l i m s a n d C h r i s t i a n s who m a d e u p 6 % a n d 3 % r e s p e c t i v e l y
* w a 7 s A s r ~ e m 7 o Aa~q 7 ~ a p u n7 ; ~ t ,
pue
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a q 7 u r 7 e q 7 a 7 0 u 07 ~ u a y a r ~ j ns sr 7 y a
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* a 6 e 7 y ~ a qq u e ~ 6 r w w r y e u y 6 r ~ o ~ r a q 74 0 a s n e a a q s r e q q e i p u e
s e ~ ~ y d d e awy y ~A 3 u a p r s a ~ d a q 7 u r s 7 ~ a ~ u oaan r 7 e u 07 ~ o y ~ a d ns se
s a ~ ~ a s w ap qa ~p ~ e 6 as ~u e q ~ e da y 7 p u e ' s p ~ A y e s a q 7
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- 0 0 7 s w y ~ s na q~7 6 u o w e p a q s r x a s a ~ n 7 3 n ~a ~y sr ~
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* d y q s ~ a u n op u e r 0 7 w o p j ~ a s~ e r p a ~~ Od J J u a s r J p e q seTeW a q 7 4 0
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pue s q e r J e d aqq 4 0
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s q r a ~ o q ea s y ~0 7 a q s e a a u o 4 0 ~ a q w a ue~ J O J
' a ~ n J a n J 7 s T e y a o s a q 7 4 0 A 7 r p r 6 r ~ q u a ~ e d d ea q 7
u o r s r ~ r p q n say4rro~d e
*saqseaqns pue saqsea 40
s e n a J a q 7 s a ~ s e a~ o c e wa s a q 7 p u o X a g
'wefueg
' s r J ~ 6 T r Np u e ' a J o c u e l
' e ~ e u e ] q 7 n o s u y s n o ~ a w n u ? s o w aJam ' s y u u n s
'swrrsnw a q l
q s o w ~ eaJam o q n
~'1e
* s q s T w r u e p u e ' s r s ~ e d' s u r e r
' s q s r q p p n g 6 u o w e w o ~ jd n apew s e n 762 4 0 a 3 u e ~ e qa q l
"106'1
U?
St,
The p r e s i d e n c y ' s s t a p l e f o o d c r o p s w e r e r i c e ,
and r a q i .
cambu,
Over 15% o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s a l s o p r o d u c e d
commercial crops l i k e cotton,
ground nuts,
coffee.
cholam,
indigo,
oilseeds,
s u g a r cane,
gingelly,
tobacco,
spices,
castor,
t e a and
Some 7 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n was e n g a g e d i n t h e
preparation of
food,
a m o u n t e d t o 4%.
drinks,
and dress.
T e x t i l e workers
Those engaged i n m i n i n g m i n e r a l s ,
commerce,
a n d t h e p r o f e s s i o n s made u p a v e r y s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e .
The G a z e t t e e r o f
I n d i a recorded t h a t famines and o t h e r n a t u r a l
d i s a s t e r s occurred n i n e times i n t h e post-1850
India.
p e r i o d i n South
The m o s t s e v e r e was t h e G r e a t F a m i n e o f 1 8 7 6 - 8 .
D i s t r i c t s i n t h e Deccan as w e l l a s those i n t h e p r e s i d e n c y
were a f f e c t e d .
Nellore,
Chingleput,
Salem,
and Coimbattore
were a f f e c t e d i n t h e famine t h a t l a s t e d 22 months.
m i l l i o n people perished.
t h e 1890s,
Famine.
Some 3 3 / 4
There were t h r e e m a j o r famines i n
b u t t h e y were n o t a s s e r i o u s a s t h e 1876-8
By t h e n ,
Great
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e r a i l w a y s h a d made
r e l i e f work e a s i e r .
U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s o f A g r a a n d Oudh
The P r o v i n c e o f A g r a ,
miles i n extent,
founded i n 1834,
w h i l e t h a t o f Oudh,
was 8 3 1 9 8 s q u a r e
founded i n 1856,
covered
23 966 s q u a r e m i l e s .
(They w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o as U n i t e d
Provinces hereinafter).
I n the north,
Tibet.
t h e y were bounded b y
Nepal b o r d e r e d on t h e n o r t h - e a s t ,
and south-east
while i n the east
t h e r e g i o n was b o u n d e d b y f o u r B e n g a l d i s t r i c t s .
To t h e s o u t h l a y t w o o f t h e C h o t a N a g p u r s t a t e s i n t h e C e n t r a l
Provinces;
and t o t h e west were t h e P u n j a b and t h e R a j p u t a n a
Agency.
The U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s ( U P )
t h e Himalayan,
had f o u r d i s t i n c t t r a c t s ,
t h e sub-Himalayan,
and t h e C e n t r a l I n d i a n h i l l t r a c t .
the Indo-Gangetic
UP.
Plain,
the Indo-Gangetic
namely,
Plain,
By f a r t h e l a r g e s t was
w h i c h made u p o v e r o n e - h a l f
o f the
To t h e w e s t o f t h e g r e a t p l a i n w e r e 1 3 d i s t r i c t s i n t h e
'snoJawnu
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aJam
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' ( 7 ; ~ ' o ) s ~ e q h n wp u e
' ( 7 ~ 5 ' 0 ) s p ? A r e s '(769'1)
s q y r e q s a q q a ~ a ms d n o ~ 6a y y l - a q s e a
a q 7 6uowW
'(76L)
sqndrekl
'(5'6Z)
S e q P o l Pue
'(%6'L)
sJ?qW
suewed
s n o ~ a w n uq s o w a q q
' (765'2)
'(760'6)
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: a ~ a m s a q s e a s n o ~ a u n uq s o u q q 6 r a a q q
'(%L'Z)
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'(7621)
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-qsrl6u]
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p u e r l e d a ~' r ~ e 6 u a g
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sem r ~ e q e d~ e ~ q u a' 3s l l ? ~a q q u 1
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sa6en6uel
JO
u r e w a a ~ q qa q q aJam r J e q r g p u e r p u r ~u ~ a q s e 3 ' r p u r ~ u J a q s a M
"106T
u ? OL 0 7 P a q u n o w e ( 0 0 0 O Z P u e 0 0 0 O l u a a m q a q ) sumo7
l l e w s a l r q m ' 0 ~p a J a q w n u ( 0 0 0 0 0 l J a p u n )
* q n ~ a ap u~e
'AllraJag
sumoq p a z r s - u n ~ p a w
' p e q e q e ~ ~ 'w e ~ 6' ( ~~ n d u e ] ) a ~ o d u m e 3
' s a ~ e u a g Aq p a m o ~ ~ osem
j
71
1061 u y q a ~ q m' m o u y a n l
' 6 9 0 1792 j o u o ~ q e l n d o de p e q
sem q a r q m j o q s a b ~ e la q q
u o r q e l n d o d e p e q s a r q ~ aJ O
sumoq ~ o r e wu a A a S
'000
0 0 1 JaAo
Oaldoad 000
z pue
0 0 5 u a a m q a q s a z r s u r 6 u r A ~ es ~a 6 e l l r ~u r p a q e a o l aJam woqm j o
jleq-auo
J ~ A O ' s e a ~ el
e
~ un~ ~p a ~ r al l d o a d a q q j o 7668
a ~ q a 6 u e 9a q q j o q ~ e du J a q s e a a q q u ?
*uTeld
o q q a e ~ qu e A e l e w 7 ~
a q q u ~ a l ~ wa ~ e n b sa q q o q s u o s ~ a d5 6 w o ~ j6 u r 6 u e ~A q ~ s u a p q q ~ m
' u o r ~ ~8f7
~ w
A l ~ e a usem 1 0 6 1
dn aqq
UT
JO
u o ~ q e l n d o dl e q o q a q l
* s e u e b ~ e ds e umouy s u o r s r ~ r p~ a l l e w ss n o ~ a w n u
P u e s l r s q e q L T Z o q u ? P a P ? A ? P q n s aJam s 7 a T J q s T P
a47
* u o ~ l l ~a uwo j o u o r q e l n d o d a 6 e ~ a ~u e q q r m a u o q a e a
of7 aJam a J a q 1
qaea
'l06l
'l06l
U I
' s q a r ~ q s ~ p
* u o r l l r w 9 oq 5 uaamqaq j o u o r q e l n d o d e q q ~ m
u? suo?s?A?P 6 Peq dn a 4 1
's73TJqSrp
5 pun04
! s q a ~ ~ q s ? ZpT A e l a J q u a a a q q u r
a q o q aJam q s e a a q q u ~ p u e
! ( s ~ a n r ue u n w e r a q q p u e s a 6 u e 3 a q q u a a m q a q e a J e a q q ) q e o a
J u s t o v e r 3 1 m i l l i o n p e o p l e ( o r 66%) depended on a g r i c u l t u r e
i n t h e UP,
o f whom 7 5 % w e r e t e n a n t s ,
11%l a n d l o r d s .
14% f i e l d l a b o u r e r s ,
and
T h e l a n d t e n u r e was z a m i n d a r i g e n e r a l l y ,
although i n t h e eastern p a r t s t h e l a n d tenure resembled the
r y o t w a r i system.
I n non-agricultural
engaged i n f a c t o r y work,
occupations,
14% were
a n d 3,7% were i n v o l v e d i n t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f t e x t i l e f a b r i c s and dress.
Wheat ( 1 8 X ) ,
r i c e ( 1 4 % ) , g r a m ( 1 3 % ) , a n d b a r l e y ( 1 0 % ) made
up t h e s t a p l e c r o p s ;
sesame,
mustard,
and c o m m e r c i a l l y v i a b l e c r o p s were:
castor,
cotton,
hemp a n d o p i u m .
was g r o w n i n p l a c e s l i k e B a r e i l l y ,
and Benares,
Gorakhpore (Gorakpur),
b u t made u p o n l y 3 % o f t h e c o m m e r c i a l c r o p .
Weaving and d y e i n g were i m p o r t a n t i n d u s t r i e s ,
l i k e K o i r i s (Hindus) and Julahas
weavers.
Cane s u g a r
Brass-
w i t h castes
(Muslims) being the c h i e f
and copper-making
and p o t t e r y t o o were
i m p o r t a n t i n t h e UP.
T h e UP was p e r i o d i c a l l y a f f e c t e d b y n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s .
S c a r c i t i e s and famines occurred.
These n a t u r a l e v e n t s were
p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e massive i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l
m o v e m e n t s o f t h e UP p e o p l e .
I n t h e 1890s,
800 000 p e o p l e
a r e s a i d t o h a v e moved t o o t h e r p a r t s o f I n d i a ,
and o v e r
100 000 abroad a s i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s .
Bihar
B i h a r was o n e o f t h e f o u r s u b d i v i s i o n s i n t h e l a r g e s t a n d
most p o p u l o u s r e g i o n i n B r i t i s h I n d i a i n 1901,
Bengal Presidency.
Chota Nagpur,
The o t h e r t h r e e w e r e B e n g a l p r o p e r ,
and Orissa.
million,
namely t h e
I t s p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 was n e a r l y
w i t h 95% b e i n g r u r a l l y based.
w h i c h N a t a l ' s i m m i g r a n t s came,
quarter o f the presidency,
Bihar,
from
occupied the north-western
a n d was o r g a n i s e d i n t o t w o d i v i s i o n s .
B i h a r ' s p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 was ~
4 m~
i l l i o' n . ~ P a t n a D i v i s i o n
c o n s i s t e d o f 1 5 1 j 2 m i l l i o n p e o p l e w i t h 35 t o w n s a n d 34 1 6 9
villages,
w h i l e t h e Bhagalpur D i v i s i o n had a p o p u l a t i o n o f
e 3 / 4 m i l l i o n w i t h 15 towns and 2 1 656 v i l l a g e s .
were 63% H i n d u s and 33% M u s l i m s f o r
H i n d u s were numerous i n B i h a r .
While there
t h e p r e s i d e n c y a s a whole,
The t w o m a j o r l a n g u a g e s i n
t h e p r e s i d e n c y were B e n g a l i spoken b y 53% o f t h e p e o p l e ,
and
H i n d i ( i n c l u d i n g B i h a r i ) spoken b y 34% o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s .
As f o r
t h e Hindu c a s t e system,
Kayasths,
the Ahirs,
Brahmins,
Chamars,
and T e l i s were t o be f o u n d a l m o s t everywhere i n
the presidency.
The A h i r s w e r e t h e m o s t n u m e r o u s w i t h a
p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 m i l l i o n i n 1901.
However,
Rajputs,
and Babhans were t o be
Kurmis,
Koiris,
Dosadhs,
castes l i k e
found . i n B i h a r only.
R i c e was t h e s i n g l e - m o s t
i n w h i c h 71:;
important food crop i n a presidency
o f t h e p e o p l e depended on a g r i c u l t u r e .
was a n i m p o r t a n t c o m m e r c i a l c r o p ;
and t h e Bengal c o a l mines
p r o d u c e d 83% o f t h e t o t a l c o a l o u t p u t i n I n d i a .
s i l k goods were p r o d u c e d ,
Jute
b u t machine-made
goods f r o m Europe
had a s e r i o u s i m p a c t upon I n d i a ' s e x p o r t t r a d e .
Imperial Gazetteer o f I n d i a recorded,
C o t t o n and
The
As
"The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
machinery i n Europe has n o t o n l y k i l l e d t h e e x p o r t t r a d e ,
but
has f l o o d e d t h e c o u n t r y w i t h cheap piecegoods and s e r i o u s l y
c r i p p l e d t h e w e a v i n g i n d u s t r y . '15
Finally,
over one-half
o f B i h a r was l i a b l e t o
famine.
These
were s e r i o u s c r o p f a i l u r e s i n 1874 and i n 1896-97,
and t h e
consequences o f t h e s e n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s were w i d e l y
felt.
Geoqraphical Sources for
Natal's Indians
T h o s e among N a t a l ' s i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s who w e r e r e c r u i t e d
from d i s t r i c t s i n t h e Madras P r e s i d e n c y embarked a t Madras
C i t y p o r t have been r e f e r r e d t o as Madras Passengers i n Table
11.
T h o s e r e c r u i t e d i n t h e UP a n d B i h a r ,
a n d who e m b a r k e d
a t t h e p o r t o f C a l c u t t a have f o r convenience been c a l l e d
C a l c u t t a Passengers.
(See T a b l e 1 3 )
The p l a c e s o f
origin
i n c o r p o r a t e names o f
zillahs (districts),
towns,
O f t e n t h e name o f t h e t o w n was t h e
and thannas.
A taluk,
same a s t h a t o f z i l l a h a n d t h a n n a .
i n Arcot,
taluks/tahsil,
as f o r example
b o r e t h e same name a s t h e z i l l a h .
Names o f p l a c e s
were e n t e r e d i n t o t h e computer a s t h e y appeared i n t h e
ship's lists.
D i s t r i c t s were n o t separated from t a l u k s f o r
fear o f misidentifying places.
i n the tables.
F o r example,
Hence,
t h e r e a r e some a n o m a l i e s
i n T a b l e 11 f o r M a d r a s P a s s e n g e r ,
N o r t h and South A r c o t a r e combined,
but nine taluks within
these two d i s t r i c t s a r e e n t e r e d s e p a r a t e l y .
Nevertheless,
a
I t should
p a t t e r n o f geographic d i s t r i b u t i o n does appear.
a l s o be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e v i l l a g e s a r e t o o numerous and
d i v e r s e t o add up t o s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n t a g e s i n t h e f r e q u e n c y
counts.
H e n c e v i l l a g e names d o n o t a p p e a r i n t h e t a b l e s .
I t should a l s o be noted,
further,
t h a t t h e p l a c e names a s
they appear i n t h e t a b l e s have been t a k e n v e r b a t i m from t h e
ship's
lists.
No a t t e m p t h a s b e e n made t o s t a n d a r d i s e t h e
names o f p l a c e s .
The m o d e r n v e r s i o n o f t h e s p e l l i n g i s
p l a c e d i n b r a c k e t s a f t e r t h e o r i g i n a l p l a c e names.
(a)
Madras Passengers
The p l a c e s i n N o r t h a n d S o u t h A r c o t s u p p l i e d 2 4 % o f
the
t o t a l o f 5 9 6 6 2 i n T a b l e 11.
The N o r t h A r c o t t a l u k s t h a t
appear i n t h e t a b l e a r e Arnee,
Chittoor,
Tirutani,
Vellore,
Gudiyatam,
W a l l a j a h a n d Wandewash.
t h e t a l u k p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 was 1 8 0 0 0 0 .
Poloor,
On t h e a v e r a g e
The d i s t r i c t i t -
s e l f h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f n e a r l y 21/4
m i l l i o n i n 1901.
o f t h e m a j o r towns were:
Vellore,
T i r u p a t i , Walajapet,
quarters,
Chittoor,
and A r c o t .
Chittoor,
Gudiyatam,
t h e d i s t r i c t head-
had a p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 0 893 i n 1901.
up 94% o f t h e d i s t r i c t ' s p o p u l a t i o n ,
Some
H i n d u s made
w h i l e M u s l i m and
C h r i s t i a n made u p 5 % a n d 1%r e s p e c t i v e l y i n 1 9 0 1 .
Tamil
was s p o k e n b y 5 6 % a n d T e l u g u b y 3 9 % o f t h e r e s i d e n t s .
most numerous T a m i l c a s t e s i n 1 9 0 1 were:
Palli,
The
Pariah,
and
\
awos
* s u o r q e ~ 6 y wT e u J a q x a p u e y e u ~ a q u r
8
p a q e ~ n w r q sa ~ e q am L e u 8 ~ - 9 ~ 8u ~t a u r u e j 6 u r q e q s e n a p
- 6 u r u u e q - ~ a q q e a p~u e S u y n e a m - y ~ r s ' u o q q o a
' ~ a ~ a m o ' qs e n a J a q l
sen 'uaqsAs
p u n o ~ ea p e J q
* A e q s u y e u a r w o u o a a s , q a r ~ q s y pa q q
r ~ e n q o Ka~q q ~ a p u nA ~ j a ~ y' a ~ n q T n 3 r ~ 6. A
~~uyeu
s ~ a ~ n o q~ ee ~~ n q ~ n a aJam
r ~ 6 e'(:;oz)
'saqsea
~ r w e q
l s a 6 ~ eomq
~ aq1
s
~
~ p~u e e ' ( d7 6 ~ ~s )y e r J e d
*n6n~aa
l y o d s ~ a q ~ e n b - a u 6ou r
- u r e w a ~ a q q p u e ' ~ ~ u aey ol d s u o r q e ~ n d o da q q 4 0 s ~ a q ~ e n b - a a ~ q 1
-4aea
7;z
q n o q e p a q n q r q s u o a s u e r q s r ~ q 3p u e s w r ~ s n w a ~ r q m
' ~ 0 6u r ~ u o r q e T n d o d a q q 4 0 7696 d n apew s n p u r ~ - ( q a d e p r e s )
q n d e p A s p u e ' ( i ~ n ~ ~ e ~ a Jno T~T arA yl J 1) ' ( ~ J a U U O d ) J a u u o d
'ueyequeJnpeW
' u e ~ e A a r C u o 3 ' q n d a ~ 6 u y q 3 : T T a ~ q e lu r ~ e a d d e
s y n ~ e qx r s s q r T T V
* a ~ y ua J e n b s
ad s u o s ~ a dL ~ 4L 0 a 6 e ~ a ~ e
u e 47Fm T06T u r Z T Z ZTE T 4 0 u o r 7 e T n d o d e P e q 7 s e o 3 q s e a
a q q u o q a r ~ q s r pp a q e ~ n d o dA ~ a s u a p s r q 1
s e ~ p e wa q q 4 0 :;OT
* ~ e q e
07~ s ~ a 6 u a s s e d
A ~ ~ e ap au y ~ d d n sq n d a ~ 6 u r q 34 0 q a r ~ q s r pa q 1
* q a r ~ q s ~T pe J n q T n a r J 6 e A ~ q u e u r u o p a ~sdy q q u r a q s e 3
L
6 u r p e ~ qj a r 4 3 a q q aJam s r q q a q 3 a q 1
* ( J a ~ q q o a ) u e A r ~ r y y e q 3p u e
' ( ~ a y ~ o m - q q ~ e aap)p o ' ( J a p e J q )
rqewon 'eCrTeg
'ewwey
a y y ~s a q s e a n 6 n ~ a l4 0 s ~ a q w n u ~ ~ e w
o ss ~ eaJam a J a q l
p u e 'eTeyTaA
'qeyJed
'nden
*ueArep~
' r ~ T e d : a ~ a m s a q s e a ~ r u e ul y e u a q q
' q a r ~ q s r p6 u r y e a d s - ~ r w e l A ~ q u e u r w o p a ~vd
paqnqrqsuoa suerqsrJq3 pue ' s u r e r
'swrTsnw
apew s e n u o ~ q e ~ n d oadq q 4 0 7;~6
e o s ~ es r a J . o T e p p n 3 )
*:;q
4 0 a a u e ~ e qa q q
a ~ r q r n' s n p u r ~ 4 0 d n
* ( q a r J q s r p a q q u r umoq ~ o C e u
* 0 0 0 OOE
J ~ A Osen
'106'1 u r u o r q e ~ n d o d
a 6 e ~ a ~a seo q m ' w e a n d r ~ T r p~u e w e u e n ~ u r l ' a ~ 0 T e p p n - J a J e a s a q 1
a ~ q e lu ~ p a q a a ~ j aa ~J e s y n ~ e qa a J q q ' u o ~ ~ ~ Qr w z J a n o
/'I
0 u 6r u~o T q e ~ n d o d a s o q m ' q o a ~ v q q n o s q a r ~ q s r pa q q ~ o
* f f
sen ~
I
j
9 'SeTqqel
*ewwey p u e ' e r r ~ e g
p u e s q y r e q s aJam s w r ~ s n w a q q 6 u o u v
' e ~ e w *ride]
: a ~ a m s a q s e a n 6 n ~ a l6 u r p e a ~a q 1
* e y e ~ ~ a A
TABLE 11
PLACES
OF
ORIGIN
FOR
MADRAS
PASSENGERS,
1860-1902
(PERCENTAGES)
I
0
4
PLACES
&
i g
-
c
-
4
4
4
4
4
I
Unknown
Arcot,North
& South
Arnee
At h ur
Uangalor e
~Jellary
Dobbilli
Cassirnode
Chingleput
Chittoor
Coinbatore
Conjievararn
Cuddalore
Cuddapah
Erode
Gan jam
Godsvery
Gonda
Gudiyatarn
Kistna
Madras
Madura
::adurantakam
: .ysore
: iagery
ellore ore .
Palakonda,
Pedapore
Poloo r
Ponneri
Rajarnund r y
Salem
Sydaput
Ta(ij o r e
-(indivanam
rinnevelly
Tirutani
Trichinopoly
Trivellore
Vellore
Villupurarn
Vizagapatarn
Walla j a h
Wandew:.vh
Trinamalai
-
I
0
cr.
4
>
1
I
1
15,2
8,6
- 72,3 32,8
5,4
0,4
7,9 12,2
7,5
0,7 , 7 , 7 ' 1 2 , 3 19,4 12,2 2 3 , l
4,6
3,O
-
1,4
1,2
3,Or9,5
6,8
9,4
1,8
0,6
I
2,l
5,4
5,5
9,4
5,4
W
m
O
w
"
"
a
"
O
3
O
"
I
4
4
w
"
c
-
"
O
"
4
I
I
I
-
o
C
"
V
"
N
"
O
I
0
I
I
bl
I
I
4
"
0
I
I
)
I
I
l
I
C
o
-
"
"
W
I
V
b
"
N
"
N
I-
"
I
I
"
-
I
3
-
v
"
I
"
-
I
o
"
N
"
m
"
0
"
W
0
W
C
w
-
m
"
"
I
I-
W
W
W
C
. ! - I- " " wl
m
"
a
4
O
"
I-
"
O
N
"
I
-
v
-
m
O
h
"
-
I
"
)
I
C
O
*
LEADING PLACES
M:
KEY
ARCOT
cI~INGLEPUT
CHITTOOR
CONJIEVARAM
MADRAS
MADURANTAXA??
POLOUR
WALLAJAH
WANDEWASH
-
C
A
D
LEAD 1NG
MADRAS
E'
F
PLACES
G
H
I
m i l l i o n p o p u l a t i o n i n 1901,
Muslims,
of
a n d 8% C h r i s t i a n s .
the inhabitants,
Pariahs,
made u p o f 8 1 % H i n d u s ,
Vellalas,
fifth-most
11%
T a m i l was t h e l a n g u a g e o f 7 5 %
w h i l e T e l u g u t h a t o f t h e r e m a i n i n g 25%.
and P a l l i s worked as l a b o u r e r s i n t h e
important port o f India.
The T e l u g u B a l i j a c a s t e
made u p a n i m p o r t a n t m e r c h a n t c l a s s i n t h e c i t y .
The V a n i -
yans ( o i l p r e s s e r s )
t h e Brahmins. 9
a s were
were s u b s t a n t i a l i n numbers,
The d i s t r i c t o f V i z a g a p a t a m ,
f r o m w h i c h 2,7% o f a l l M a d r a s
p a s s e n g e r s t o N a t a l came b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 9 0 2 ,
the largest i n India.
S p r e a d o v e r 17 222 s q u a r e m i l e s ,
p o p u l a t i o n o f 2 933 650 i n 1901,
villages.
towns,
i n Table
i t s
l i v e d i n 1 2 t o w n s and 12 032
The t o w n o f V i z a g a p a t a m was o n e among t h e d o z e n
a d i s t r i c t headquarters,
i n 1901.
i s one o f
w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f 40 892
T h r e e o f t h e 23 t a l u k s i n t h e d i s t r i c t a r e r e f l e c t e d
11.
These a r e B o b b i l i ,
Palakonda,
and Vizagapatarn.
Telugu i s t h e predominant language i n t h e d i s t r i c t which
c o n s i s t e d o f 99% H i n d u s i n 1901.
Kapus,
Velamas,
culturalists.
and Telagas,
district,
t h e m a j o r i t y o f whom w e r e a g r i -
Malas and G o l l a s ,
l a b o u r e r s and shepherds.
The m a i n T e l u g u c a s t e s w e r e :
a l s o numerous,
were
field
R i c e was t h e s t a p l e c r o p i n t h i s
m a k i n g up 32% o f t h e f o o d c r o p .
Some s u g a r c a n e
was a l s o g r o w n . 1 0
The n o r t h - e a s t e r n
c o a s t a l Telugu-speaking
c o n s i s t e d o f 12 t a l u k s ,
and Rajamundry,
two o f which,
appear i n Table
1,276 o f N a t a l ' s i m m i g r a n t s came.
was o v e r 21/4
m i l l i o n i n 1901,
73% o f t h e d i s t r i c t ' s
11.
d i s t r i c t o f Godavari
Peddapore (Peddaporurn)
From G o d a v a r i i t s e l f ,
The d i s t r i c t ' s p o p u l a t i o n
97% o f t h e p e o p l e b e i n g H i n d u s .
r e s i d e n t s depended o n a g r i c u l t u r e ,
t h e c u l t i v a t i n g c a s t e s among t h e T e l u g u s w e r e :
Indiga ( a toddy-drawing
c h i e f crop,
caste),
a n d Kamma.
Kapu,
and
Mala,
R i c e was t h e
a l t h o u g h some s u g a r c a n e was g r o w n c o m m e r c i a l l y . 11
Nellore i s another coastal d i s t r i c t ,
was n e a r l y 11j2
million.
whose p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1
N e l l o r e was a l s o a t o w n a n d a
taluk.
I n 1 9 0 1 , 9 0 % o f t h e d i s t r i c t ' s p e o p l e were H i n d u s ,
6% Muslims,
and 4% C h r i s t i a n s .
93% o f t h e people.
d i s t r i c t were:
T e l u g u was t h e l a n g u a g e o f
And t h e l e a d i n g T e l u g u c a s t e s i n t h e
K a p u , Kamma, M a l a , z n d G o l l a .
Nellore's
economy was somewhat more d i v e r s i f i e d , a l t h o u g h t h e d e p e n d e n c e
o n a g r i c u l t u r e was a p p a r e n t .
making,
and cattle-breeding
economic a c t i v i t y . 12
Leather-work,
weavl~ig,bangle-
were a m o n g t h e o t h e r f o r m s o f
Salem and A t h u r ( A t u r ) a r e two t a l u k s t h a t a p p e a r i n T a b l e
11.
They f a l l w i t h i n t h e Salem d i s t r i c t whose p o p u l a t i o n
i n 1 9 0 1 was a b o u t
z1l4
million.
11 t o w n s i n t h e d i s t r i c t .
of the people,
S a l e m was a l s o o n e o f t h e
I n 1 9 0 1 , T a m i l was s p o k e n by 71%
a n d T e l u g u by 1 9 % o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s .
96% o f
t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 was made up o f H i n d u s , M u s l i m s a n d
C h r i s t i a n s c o n s t i t u t i n g 3 % a n d 0,976 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
c a s t e s were:
Palli,
Vellalan,
The m a j o r
P a r i a h , a n d Kurumban ( s h e p h e r d s ) .
An a g r i c u l t u r a l d i s t r i c t l i k e s o m a n y o t h e r d i s t r i c t s i n t h e
presidency,
i t was a l s o a c h i e f e x p o r t e r o f c a t t l e . 1 3
The d i s t r i c t s o f C o i m b a t o r e , Ganjam, K i s t n a ,
Tanjore, Tinne-
v e l l y , and Trichinopoly a r e minor s o u r c e s o f N a t a l ' s indentured
immigrants.
H i n d u s made up t h e p r e d o m i n a n t r e l i g i o u s g r o u p i n
these districts.
population.
district,
In Tinnevelly,
C h r i s t i a n s m a d e u p 8% o f t h e
And i n t h e t o w n o f C u d d a p a h i n t h e C o i m b a t o r e
507; o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s M u s l i m .
In a l l the dis-
t r i c t s a g r i c u l t u r e was t h e b a s i s o f t h e economy, and t h e popul a t i o n was p r e d o m i n a n t l y r u r a l , e x c e p t i n T i n n e v e l l y , w h e r e
23% o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n was u r b a n .
Telugu-speaking
C o i m b a t o r e and Ganjam were
with t h e usual Telugu c a s t e s , while Tanjore,
Tinnevelly, and Trichinopoly were Tamil-speaking
castes.
I n Coimbatore,
the population.
with Tamil
t h e V e l l a l a c a s t e c o n s t i t u t e d 31% o f
I n a l l t h e Tamil d i s t r i c t s ,
the percentage
o f t h e P a r i a h c a s t e w a s v e r y h i g h , a s i t was t h e c a s e f o r
o t h e r c a s t e s l i k e Pallan and P a l l i .
The d o m i n a n t Telugu
c a s t e s were K a p p u o r R e d d i , B a l i j a , C h a k k i l i y a n a n d O d d e .
Among t h e M u s l i m s ,
t h e r e w a s t h e same c a s t e - l i k e
as i n o t h e r d i s t r i c t s .
structure
Shaikhs, S a i y i d s and Pathans
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d themselves from Labbais and o thers.14
B a n g l o r e a n d M y s o r e r e f l e c t e d i n T a b l e 11, were n o t p a r t
o f t h e Madras Presidency.
S i n c e m i g r a n t s u s u a l l y were
r e q u i r e d t o g i v e home d i s t r i c t s ,
it is l i k e l y t h a t r e c r u i t s
w e r e e n l i s t e d f a r away f r o m home.
Gonda,
however,
was
l o c a t e d i n t h e UP f a r i n t h e n o r t h ,
and its presence i n
T a b l e 11 seems d i f f i c u l t t o e x p l a i n .
T a b l e 11 s h o w s t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e s o f i m m i g r a n t s f r o m
places l i k e Chingleput,
C h i t t o o r , Madras, Mysore and Salem
were high i n t h e e a r l y years.
A s the indentured system
became e s t a b l i s h e d , r e c r u i t m e n t no d o u b t became more s y s t e m a t i c .
Hence,
t h e p a t t e r n o f r e c r u i t m e n t became more e v e n l y b a l a n c e d .
Of c o u r s e ,
the fluctuations are related to conditions i n the
d i f f e r e n t a r e a s , a n d t h e r e a r e u n f o r t u n a t e l y no s t a t i s t i c s
to correlate the variations to the specific places i n the
sample.
(b)
Calcutta Passenqers
In discussing the places of origin of the Calcutta passengers,
i t w o u l d b e c o n v e n i e n t t o s e p a r a t e t h e UP a n d B i h a r .
Patterns
o f geographic and c a s t e d i s t r i b u t i o n would b e i l l u s t r a t e d
more c l e a r l y i n t h a t way.
(i)
U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s o f A g r a a n d Oudh
Of t h e 44 p l a c e n a m e s t h a t a p p e a r i n T a b l e 1 3 , n e a r l y twot h i r d s a r e f r o m t h e UP.
The f o u r l e a d i n g d i s t r i c t s were
Azimghur (Azamgarh), B u s t e e ( B a s t i ) , Ghazeepore ( G h a z i p u r )
a n d Gonda.'
H
Totally,
t h e y s u p p l i e d o v e r 27% o f t h e C a l c u t t a
For t h e sake o f consistency t h e s p e l l i n g s o f places a s
they appeared on t h e s h i p ' s lists, a s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e
Madras Presidency, a r e used.
The modern s p e l l i n g s o f
t h e names a r e g i v e n i n b r a c k e t .
passengers between 1860 and 1902.
These d i s t r i c t s r u n i n
a l i n e from t h e e a s t t o t h e north-east.
( S e e Map 4 )
A z i m g h u r ' s p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 was o v e r
l1I
2
m
illion,
r e s i d i n g i n 12 towns and 4 658 v i l l a g e s .
H i n d u s made u p
865 o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n and M u s l i m amounted t o 14% i n 1901.
B i h a r i was s p o k e n b y 9476 o f
was d i f f e r e n t
the people.
f r o m t h a t i n t h e I'ladras
w e r e m o s t n u m e r o u s (16,876),
B r a h m i n s (776),
Koiris,
Presidency.
f o l l o w e d by A h i r s
Rajputs o r Chhatris (6%).
Bhuinars ( a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s ) ,
workers),
The c a s t e p a t t e r n
.Chamars
(14k),
Bhars ( l a b o u r e r s ) ,
Lunias (saltpetre
and B a n i a s were a l s o numerous.
J u l a h a s and S h a i k h s
among t h e M u s l i m s w e r e m o r e o r l e s s e v e n l y d i v i d e d w i t h 3,576
each.
A g r i c u l t u r e s u p p o r t e d 60%.
P a t h a n s n u m b e r e d 1,776.
The l a r g e s t l a n d h o l d e r s i n t h e d i s t r i c t w e r e R a j p u t s ( 3 3 ? 6 ) ,
B h u i n a r s (1776),
a n d B r a h m i n s ( 1 0 % ) .15
Bustee ( B a s t i )
d i s t r i c t ' s p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 was 1 8 4 6 1 5 3 .
One o f t h e t a h s i l s b o r e t h e same name a s t h e d i s t r i c t .
H i n d u s made u p 8476 o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ,
and t h e Muslims 14%
i n t h i s d i s t r i c t w h i c h was a l m o s t e n t i r e l y B i h a r i - s p e a k i n g .
The f i v e l e a d i n g c a s t e s w e r e C h a m a r s ( 1 5 X ) ,
A h i r s ( l o % ) , and Kurmi ( 8 % ) .
Banias,
Muslims,
Rajputs,
Kahars,
the caste-like
Brahmins ( l o % ) ,
N o t q u i t e a s numerous were:
Kewats,
and Bhars.
s t r u c t u r e s were:
Among t h e
Shaikhs,
Julahars,
Pathans and Muslim R a j p u t s .
66% o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n l i v e d o f f
agriculture.
a n d Chamars were l a r g e c u l t i -
vators,
Rajputs.
Ahirs,
Kurmis,
but two-thirds
o f t h e l a n d was o w n e d b y B r a h m i n s a n d
The c a s t e K o i r i was n o t e d f o r i t s s k i l l i n w e a v i n g . 1 6
H i n d u s made up 9076 o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n f r o m among t h e p o p u l a t i o n
o f 913 818 i n 1 9 0 1 i n Ghazeepore ( G h a z i p u r ) .
were Muslims.
And B h o j p u r i ,
The b a l a n c e
a dialect o f Bihari,
was t h e
t o n g u e o f 97% o f t h e d i s t r i c t ' s i n h a b i t a n t s .
Ahirs,
Rajputs o r Chhatris,
Bhuinhars,
Koiris,
Brahmins,
Bhars,
and B i n d s were t h e most numerous c a s t e s .
a n d B h u i n h a r s owned t w o - t h i r d s
Brahmins,
Chamars,
Rajputs
o f the land i n a d i s t r i c t i n
* s a a p ~ o q p u ea~6 a e ~aaam e r u e g p u e ' s y r e q s
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6uowv
~ s e q e ~ np cu e s u e q q e d
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* s a o q e n r q T n a p o o 6 s e p a p a e 6 a a aaam s o e a n w p u e ' s r w a n n
'seqpol
Lsqr-,Jisu
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:;o<
paumo s q n d r e ~a q l
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A ~ ~ e u o r q r p e a aaam
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'sywann
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'saeueqg
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'(anduney)
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p e q e z r e j '(andyeaog)
'saaeuag
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aaodqyeaog
: p a p n l a u ~ q a r q m s q 3 r a q s ~ p4 0
d n o a 6 s r q q w o a j awe3 s a a 6 u a s s e d e q q n 3 T e 3 a 4 7 4 0 7 6 8 ' ~ a 6 e a a n e
a47
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a 4 7 0 7 PeqeqeTTW P u e 4 7 J o u a 4 7 0 7
a a o d q y e a o g q q ~ m ' d n a q q u r s ~ x eq q n o s - q q a o u
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e u ~ AeT awe3
s q u e a 6 y w u ~ s , ~ e q e4 ~
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'sirwan]
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aaam s d n o a 6 w r y s n b ( a a q q o
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a q q 4 0 7661 paumo oqm ' s u r w q e a g
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' ~ 0 6u r ~ s u ~ ~ s n w
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p u e s n p u r ~aaam 7658
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60
TABLE 13
PLACES OF ORIGIN FOR CALCUTTA PASSENGERS,
-(PERCENTAGES)
Unknown
Agra
Aligurh
Allahabad
Arrah
Azimghur
Badaon
Bahraich
Ballia
Bancoorah
Banda
Barabunki
Benares
Bharatpore
Bustee
Cawnpore
Chupra
Dahabad
Etah
Etawah
Faizabad
Futtehpore
Ganjam
Ghazeepore
Gonda
Go r u c k p o r e
G Y ~
Hazareebag
Jaunpore
Lucknow
Mirzapore
Monghy r
Mozaf f e r p o r e
Muthra
Nepal
Patna
Pertabgurh
Poorooleoan
Rae B e r e i l l y
Sarun
Sahabati
5001t a n p o r e
Tirhoot
Unao
Vizagapa tam
T O T A L
1860-1902
61
TABLE 1 4
LEADING
PLACES
Allahabad
Azimguhr
Benares
Bustee
Faizabad
Ghazeepore
Gonda
Goruckpore
Jaunpore
Pa t n a
Pertabgurh
Rae B e r e i l l y
Sahabad
Sooltanpore
Total
Ave
186066
187477
PLACES
187778
OF
187982
ORIGIN
188385
FOR
188689
CALCUTTA
189091
PASSENGERS,
189293
189495
1860-1902
1896
1897
1898
18991900
1901
1902
C:
LEADING PLACES
KEY
A
ALLAHBAD
B
AZIMGUHR
C
BENARES
E
BUSTEE
E
FAIZF.BAD
F
GHAZEEPORE
h
GONDA
ti
GORUCKPORE
I
JAUNPORE
J
F4TNA
K
PEriT~.BCUitH
L
RAE BEREILLY
M
SAHABAE
N
SOOLTANPORE
A
0
C
CALCUTTA
D
E
F
G
CI
I
LEAD I NG PLACES
J
K
L
M
N
G u j a r s i n Rae B e r e i l l y a n d B e h n a s ( c o t t o n - c a r d e r s )
i n Gorakh-
p o r e w e r e a l s o among t h e M u s l i m g r o u p s . 1 9
The UP d i s t r i c t s f r o m w h i c h o v e r 7 , 7 k
g r a n t s came w e r e B a l l i r ,
(Fatehpur),
o f the Natal immi-
ilirzapore (Mirzapur),
Cawnpore ( K a n p u r ) ,
Unao,
Fattehpore
and Lucknow.
These
d i s t r i c t s s u r r o u n d e d t h e e i g h t d i s t r i c t s d i s c u s s e d above.
The r e c r u i t m e n t o f t h e i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s was much l e s s
intense i n these d i s t r i c t s .
The l a r g e s t was C a w n p o r e a n d
t h e s m a l l e s t was F a t t e h p o r e .
Hindus predominated i n a l l ,
e x c e p t i n L u c k n o w w h e r e t h e M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n was 2 0 % .
B i h a r i was t h e m a i n l a n g u a g e i n M i r z a p o r e ,
but i n a l l the
o t h e r s A w a d h i was t h e m a j o r l a n g u a g e o f t h e p e o p l e .
The
c a s t e s t r u c t u r e among t h e H i n d u s was t h e same a s i n o t h e r
UP d i s t r i c t s .
I n most o f t h e p r o v i n c e s ,
the mainstay of
t h e economy,
by i t .
However,
i n Lucknow,
a g r i c u l t u r e was
w i t h o v e r 70% b e i n g s u p p o r t e d
o n l y 52% depended on a g r i c u l t u r e
f o r t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d . 20
Agra,
Barabanki (Bara Banki),
Aligurh
(Aligarh),
Bahraich,
Etah (Etawah),
f l e c t e d i n Table 13.
Banda,
Muthra ( ~ a t h u r a ) ,
and Budaun a r e a l s o r e -
The p e r c e n t a g e o f e m i g r a n t s d r a w n f r o m
t h e s e a r e a s were s m a l l i n o u r sample,
b u t t h e y do i n d i c a t e
how w i d e t h e r e c r u i t m e n t c i r c l e was.
( i i )
Bihar
N e a r l y 11%o f t h e C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s came f r o m t h e B i h a r
region.
bad),
The d i s t r i c t s m o s t p r o m i n e n t w e r e S a h a b a d ( S h a h a -
Patna,
Gya ( G a y a ) ,
(Muzaffarpur),
Plap 5 )
Monghyr,
Sarun (Saran),
and Hazareebag ( H a z a r i b a g h ) .
The p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e s e s e v e n d i s t r i c t s i n
1 9 0 1 was o v e r 1 4 m i l l i o n .
for
(See
A r r a h and Chupra were p a r t s o f Sahabad and S a r u n
respectively.
villages.
Mozafferpore
63% o f
T h e r e w e r e 36 t o w n s and 39 677
t h e p o p u l a t i o n was H i n d u a n d 3 3 % M u s l i m
t h e whole o f t h e B e n y a l P r e s i d e n c y i n 1901.
for Bihar i t s e l f ,
However,
t h e r e l i g i o u s b r e a k d o w n was 8 2 % H i n d u s a n d
18% Muslims.
The Magahi d i a l e c t o f B i h a r i was s p o k e n among
H i n d u s a n d Awadhi was s p o k e n among t h e M u s l i m s by a n d l a r g e . 2 1
The a v e r a g e p o p u l a t i o n f o r t h e s e v e n d i s t r i c t 6 m e n t i o n e d
above was a b o u t 2 m i l l i o n i n 1901.
800 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e mile.
was i n c r e d i b l y h i g h i n Sarun:
-
The d i a l e c t s o f B i h a r i
The p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y
Bhojpuri, M a i t h l i , o r Magahi
-
A w a d h i was c o m m . o n d l y
were i n u s e a m o n g H i n d u s , a l t h o u g h
On t h e a v e r a g e 8 9 % were H i n d u s a n d 11%
u s e d by t h e M u s l i m s .
Muslims i n t h e seven d i s t r i c t s .
In a l l the districts, the
A h i r s o r Goalas ( o r G o l l a s a s i n t h e Madras Presidency) were
t h e most numerous.
T h e s e t w o c a s t e s o f c o w h e r d s were f o l l o w e d
i n n u m e r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e b y o t h e r c a s t e s common t o t h e w h o l e
region,
and t h e s e were:
Brahmins,
Rajputs,
Dosadhs, Babhans, Kahars, Kurmis, Kandus,
K o i r i s , Chamars,
and Telis.
Dhanukhs, Musahars, B a r h a i s ,
and Dosadhs appear t o have been
largely confined t o Bihar.
Among t h e M u s l i m s ,
the Jolahas
were common t o a l l s e v e n d i s t r i c t s .
There were o t h e r Muslim
groups too, l i k e Dhunias and Kunjras.
Their economies were
substantially agriculture-based.
p a r t i c u l a r l y prone t o famine.
Some o f t h e d i s t r i c t s w e r e
Sahabad appeared t o be t h e
most vulnerable.
I n the 1873 disaster,
was d e s t r o y e d i n S a h a b a d . 2 2
75% o f t h e r i c e c r o p
T a b l e 13 s h o w s O a h a b a d a n d P o o r o o l e a n , w h i c h were n o t l o c a t e d .
Reference t o Vizagapatam,
o n e o f t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y , may
b e e x p l a i n e d by i n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n , a l t h o u g h i t c e r t a i n l y
was f a r from t h e n o r m a l r e c r u i t i n g g r o u n d s o f C a l c u t t a
passengers.
In concluding t h i s chapter,
it is apparent t h a t the a r e a s
d i s c u s s e d w e r e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y d o m i n a t e d by a n a g r a r i a n
economy,
with the bulk of the population r u r a l l y based.
T h i s w a s m o r e s o i n t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y t h a n i n t h e UP
o r B i h a r w h e r e c o m m e r c e a n d i n d u s t r y were m u c h m o r e s u b stantial.
I n t h e UP,
t h e upper c a s t e s l i k e Brahmins, Rajputs,
and Bhuinhars were l a r g e landowners.
In almost every region
*moqs
~
~ ~ ar q dme q aq x a u a y q s e aTdwes
no
JO
quaur6as
q s a 6 ~ ea ~
q q a q n q y q s u o a o s ~ eq e q q s d n o ~ 6a s a q q s y q r p u v
* s n o J a w n u q s o u a q q aJam A a u a p T s a J d seJpeW a q q u r s u e ~ e ~ ~ a ~
p u e s q e ~ m da y q p u e ' ~ e q ~U Tg e T e o 3
a y q u y s ~ e u e q aa q 1
JO
s ~ ~ aqq qv ' d n
* s n o ~ a t u n uaJam A q a ~ e ~ a raqq s e a a q q
JO
s 6 u n ~JamoT aqq u o a ~ d o a da q q ' ~ a q d e q a s ~ q qu r p a s s n a s r p
Notes
1
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a :
p.
2
The I n d i a n E m p i r e ,
48.
A l l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y comes from
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a , v o l .
3
A l l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s i s drawn from
The I m p e r i a l G a z a t t e e r o f I n d i a , v o l .
4
1 6 , pp. 234-363,
24, pp.
132-276.
I n f o r m a t i o n on B i h a r i s d r a w n f r o m The I m p e r i a l
Gazetteer of I n d i a , vol. 7 , pp.
pp.
vol.
8,
171-73.
266-271.
5
Ibid.,
vol.
7 , pp.
6
Ibid.,
vol.
5 , pp. 403-420.
7
Ibid.,
vol.
5 , pp. 420-437.
8
I b i d . , vol. 1 6 , pp. 364-386.
9
Ibid.
10
Ibid.,
vol.
2 4 , pp. 322-342.
11
Ibid.,
vol.
12, pp.
12
Ibid.,
vol.
1 9 , pp. 6-24.
13
Ibid.,
vol.
21, pp.
395-409.
14
Ibid.,
vol.
1 0 , pp.
356-373,
pp.
190-360,
319-334,
281-297.
V O ~ . 23,
pp.
vol.
225-244,
11, p p .
57-75,
361-380.
vol.
12,
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4
CHAPTER
The Socio-Economic Background o f t h e Immigrants:
Caste and Religion
I t h a s o f t e n been s t a t e d i n a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s t h a t t h e
p e o p l e who m i g r a t e d w e r e u s u a l l y o f l o w c a s t e .
A s low
c a s t e o r o u t c a s t e i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e y were v e r y m u c h o n t h e
periphery o f s o c i e t y , and had nothing b u t t h i e r degradation
t o l o s e by m i g r a t i n g .
I t i s t r u e t h a t a m o n g t h o s e who
m i g r a t e d were p e o p l e o f l o w c a s t e a n d o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s who
were considered s o degraded as n o t t o even f i t i n t o t h e
caste hierarchy.
However, s u c h p e r c e p t i o n s p l a c e f a r t o o
much e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e c a s t e s t r u c t u r e a s s u c h , a n d f a r t o o
l i t t l e on t h e socio-economic
system operated.
c o n t e x t w i t h i n which t h e c a s t e
I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d why p e o p l e o f e v e n
low c a s t e backgrounds m i g r a t e d ,
i t is necessary t o examine
t h e s o c i a l and economic development i n n i n e t e e n t h century
I n d i a t h a t d i s l o d g e d people from t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l moorings.
Those developments a f f e c t e d t h e p o o r e s t s e c t i o n s o f t h e
people,
t o b e s u r e , b u t o f t e n among them w e r e i n d i v i d u a l s o f
h i g h a n d medium s o c i o - e c o n o m i c
backgrounds.
This chapter b r i e f l y examines B r i t i s h economic p o l i c i e s i n
t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e s e may
be related t o the caste composition o f the Natal immigrants
between 1860 and 1902.
I n d i a n e c o n o m i c l i f e w a s s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d by f o r m a l B r i t i s h
i m p e r i a l r u l e , although t h e impact v a r i e d from r e g i o n t o
region.
The i n d i g e n o u s h a n d i c r a f t i n d u s t r y was a t h r i v i n g
s e c t o r i n e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y I n d i a n economy.
India's internal
m a r k e t s w e r e s m a l l , y e t I n d i a n t e x t i l e s were w i d e l y s o l d
abroad.
South-east Asia,
t h e Arab c o u n t r i e s , and East-Africa
imported t e x t i l e goods from 1 n d i a . l
T h e q u e s t i o n i s why
\this incipient industry declined i n the nineteenth century.
While t h e impact o f B r i t i s h r u l e ,
and t h e e x t e n t t o which
i t undermined I n d i a ' s i n d i g e n o u s i n d u s t r i e s , a r e controv e r s i a l s u b j e c t s among s c h o l a r s , t h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t
i m p e r i a l p o l i c i e s had a marked i n f l u e c e .
of B r i t i s h goods,
especially textiles,
The i n t r o d u c t i o n
rose substantially
from £100 000 i n 1 8 1 3 t o £18,4 m i l l i o n i n 1896.
Bengal,
Except i n
t h e home m a r k e t s f o r o t h e r p a r t s o f I n d i a w e r e
d o m i n a n t ; a n d , s i n c e t h e r e was no t a r i f f p r o t e c t i o n ,
the
a v a i l a b i l i t y o f B r i t i s h goods on I n d i a n markets had s e r i o u s
repercussions.
The f r e e a c c e s s o f B r i t i s h g o o d s i n t o t h e
subcontinent devastated the Indian handicraft cotton industry.
The s p i n n i n g s e c t o r a l s o e x p e r i e n c e d a s e r i o u s s e t b a c k ,
a l t h o u g h t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c h e a p e r y a r n i m p o r t s h e l p e d some
o f t h e l o c a l weavers.
Nearly one-third
t h e UP w a s m a d e u p o f c o t t o n g o o d s .
to de-industrialise
Presidency,
of the imports of
The e f f e c t g e n e r a l l y was
t h e i n d i g e n o u s economy.
The B e n g a l
i n c l u d i n g B i h a r which was p a r t o f i t , was
e s p e c i a l l y h a r d h i t by w e s t e r n c o m m e r c i a l i s m .
Here,
the
presidency's r i v e r system f a c i l i t a t e d t h e penetration o f
European manufactured goods, e s p e c i a l l y Lancashire c o t t o n
g o o d s , even i n t h e d a y s b e f o r e r a i l r o a d communications became
efficient.
I n a d d i t i o n , a s E n g l i s h mills opened i n I n d i a ,
t h e demand f o r I n d i a n c o t t o n f e l l away.
By t h e e n d o f t h e
nineteenth century, i n d u s t r i a l production i n the Bengal Presid e n c y , f o r e x a m p l e was l o c a t e d i n f o r e i g n - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . 2
I n s o m e a r e a s l i k e t h e Bombay P r e s i d e n c y ,
the traditional
h a n d i c r a f t i n d u s t r y was d e c e n t r a l i s e d , and t h e l o c a l m a r k e t
stronger.
I n d i a n o w n e r s h i p was g r e a t e r , a n d c o t t o n i n d u s t r y
c e n t r e s l i k e Ahmedabad a n d S h o l a p u r became more d i v e r s i f i e d .
Even t h e s e a r e a s s u f f e r e d from t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f f o r e i g n made g o o d s o r g o o d s made by f o r e i g n - o w n e d
companies i n India.
The r a p i d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r a i l r o a d o f I n d i a
- i n 1913,
I n d i a ' s 34 0 0 0 m i l e s o f r a i l r o a d c o n s t i t u t e d o n e - h a l f
railways i n Asia
of a l l
- l i n k e d up m a j o r p o r t s l i k e C a l c u t t a ,
Bombay a n d M a d r a s , a n d E u r o p e a n g o o d s g r a d u a l l y i n f i l t r a t e d
i n t e r n a l markets.
A s Charlesworth has pointed out, British
p o l i c i e s r e f l e c t e d the "subordination o f Indian t o wider
i m p e r i a l needs,
p r o v i d i n g too a sharp c o n t r a s t w i t h govern-
ment p o l i c y i n c o n t i n e n t a l Europe,
where t a r i f f
barriers
w e r e s t e a d i l y e r e c t e d . 11 3
W h i l e t h e i m p a c t was u n e v e n l y f e l t ,
that suffered crippling effects.
t h e r e w e r e many p a r t s
Thousands o f weavers and
t a n n e r s became u n e m p l o y e d a s i n d i g e n o u s i n d u s t r i e s c o l l a p s e d .
Many c o u n t r y s i d e a r e a s t o o w e r e a f f e c t e d .
F o r example,
Rajah-
mundry i n t h e Madras P r e s i d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e d a g r a d u a l d e c l i n e
i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f t h e "pan jam"
tanners,
smelters,
cloth.
Weavers,
spinners,
and o t h e r s were f o r c e d i n t o a g r i c u l t u r e
w h i c h was a l r e a d y c r ~ w d e d . ~
M o d e s t p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e e n t e r p i s e s c r e a t e d some e m p l o y m e n t
opportunities.
The t e a p l a n t a t i o n s i n Assam,
the jute m i l l s
and c o a l mines i n Bengal a t t r a c t e d workers
from neighbouring
regions o f India.
1901,
Bhatia notes t h a t after
marked i n c r e a s e i n m o b i l i t y from B i h a r ,
Orissa,
t h e r e was a
t h e UP,
C e n t r a l P r o v i n c e s a n d t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y t o Assam,
Bengal,
Bombay,
and the Punjab.
m i l l i o n w o r k e r s i n 1900,
Assam p l a n t a t i o n s h a d 3/,3
the jute mills'
a t 110 000 l a b o u r e r s i n 1906;
employment s t o o d
and t h e w o r k f o r c e on t h e
c o l l i e r i e s was 1 0 0 3 2 9 p e r s o n s i n 1 9 0 1 .
r a i l w a y s p r o v i d e d work
Burma,
I n addition,
f o r 357 000 p e o p l e i n 1901.
such i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s were s h o r t - l i v e d ,
l a t e t o absorb displaced handicraftsmen.
the
But
a n d came t o o
Saha m a i n t a i n s t h a t
o n l y massive i n j e c t i o n o f c a p i t a l i n t o i n t e r n a l c o l o n i s a t i o n
a n d i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n w o u l d h a v e h e l p e d p e o p l e who w e r e d i s located,
a n d w o u l d h a v e made u n n e c e s s a r y o v e r s e a s e m i g r a t i o n .
There were no such programmes,
however.
On t h e c o n t r a r y ,
B r i t i s h economic p o l i c i e s had t h e e f f e c t o f r e t a r d i n g
industrialisation. 6
W h i l e I n d i a ' s s t u n t e d commercial and i n d u s t r i a l g r o w t h
c a u s e d many t o m i g r a t e o v e r s e a s ,
t h e major cause f o r t h e
e m i g r a t i o n must be sought i n a g r i c u l t u r e .
The 1 8 9 1 c e n s u s
8
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6Dew~np
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ae
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omq a q q u a a m q a q ' p a a p u ~ ' ~ a q 6 y q A ~ q e ~ a p y s
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* a J n q T n a ? ~ 6 eu o q u a p u a d a p a q o q s u o s ~ a d7619 p a p J o a a a
TL
t h e l a n d r e v e n u e was t h e s i n g l e ,
t h e government
throughout
major source o f funds
-
the nineteenth century
for
i n
t h e 1 8 9 0 s i t was 2 5 % o f t h e t o t a l r e v e n u e s a n d r e c e i p t s
-
t h e z a m i n d a r i system c r e a t e d enormous p r e s s u r e s on t h e s m a l l
farmers a l r e a d y o p e r a t i n g on borrowed c a p i t a l .
Lo
~ f > a twas
t h e e x t e n t o f t h e d i s l o c a t i o n caused by t h e revenue system?
C h a r l e s w o r t h t h i n k s i t was l i m i t e d .
He q u o t e s a s t u d y o n
B e n a r e s i n w h i c h 6776 o f t h e l a n d was r e t a i n e d b y t r a d i t i o n a l l y
dominant a g r i c u l t u r a l castes l i k e Rajputs,
Bhuinars.
Yet
i n Bengal,
one-third
Brahmins,
and
o f t h e t i t l e s changed
11
hands i n o n l y 22 y e a r s .
As Saha p o i n t s o u t ,
emigrants.
t h e r e w e r e many h i g h c a s t e s among t h e
The l a n d l o r d s ,
rackrented the peasants.
o f t e n as absentee p r o p r i e t o r s ,
The m i d d l e m e n c o l l e c t i n g t h e t a x e s
often sublet the land t o others.
peasants l i t t l e reserve t o
Exorbitant rents l e f t the
f i g h t o f f seasonal vagaries.
I n
t h e UP t h e r e v e n u e amounted t o 80% o f t h e n e t a s s e t s o f t h e
land.
The e f f e c t o f t h i s was t o d i s p l a c e p e o p l e . 1 2
t h e r y o t w a r i revenue system,
Saha m a i n t a i n s ,
no m i d d l e m e n e x i s t e d .
Under
B u t as
t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s i n t e n t i o n was t o c o l l e c t
more r e v e n u e f r o m t h e p e a s a n t s t h a n u n d e r t h e z a m i n d a r i
system.
Many p e a s a n t s l i v e d b e l o w s u b s i s t e n c e l e v e l .
five-acre
h o l d i n g s o n t h e average were uneconomic,
rents excessive.
Their
and t h e i r
T h i s was t h e c a s e i n t h e Bombay a n d M a d r a s
The 1 8 8 0 F a m i n e C o o m i s s i o n r e p o r t e d t h a t o n e -
presidencies.
t h i r d o f t l ~ e l a n d h o l d i n yc l a s s e s w e r e h o p e l e s s l y i n d e b t s .
The o t h e r
t i l i r d were i n d e b t w i t h o u t
recovering.
As
for
save n o t h i n g s i n c e
concludes,
the prospect o f ever
the a g r i c u l t u r a l labourers,
they could
t h e i r e m p l o y m e n t was s e a s o n a l .
"As a r e s u l t ,
Saha
a greater p a r t o f the ryots i n the
r e c r u i t i n g cireas w e r e ,
t o a certain extent,
t o t h e moneylenders o r
l a n d l o r d s t o meet r a c k r e n t and o t h e r
cesses o r
for
seed t o meet t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s
indebted either
o f nature."13
I t i s w i t h i n the context o f the heightened v u l n e r a b i l i t y oft h e peasants and farmers t h a t t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f
famines i n
-moq
* s q a r ~ q s r pa w o q ~ r a q qj o a p r s q n o p a ~ a q s r 6 a I~ J ~
91
' s q ~ n ~ aa qa q~ j o A u e l , ~ . u o r q e ~ S ~ w pa a ~ n q u a p ua~J o u ~ s e m
a ~ a q q ' u o ~ q e ~ 6 y~e wu ~ a q u r s s a r
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ue
S
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U
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Wy ~ w
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'sem
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i
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A y ~ e a u' q n o
s q l ~ ~ o d
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y e u ~ a q u ?6 ~ ~ 0 6
a ~ a q l . s s a y p u e ~aqq A y s n o y ~ a s
p ~ r e! s p u e s n o q q
j o suaq
q u r o d aqq o q s d ? q s u o y q e y a ~y e y a o s p a q a a j j e
s s e y a aamoy
ma4
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yeu~oqur
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IWOJJ
. s q u e ~ 6 ? w a p a ~ n q u a p u ?s e s a y u o y o a ~ e 6 n ss e a s ~ a ~ o
u y Aem ~ y a q qp u r j 07
Aq p a q e q ~ a a e x a A ~ q e a ~s 6e n q a r q m A q ? y ? q o w
-uo
qsotu p a q a a j j e s a - r q ? a ; r e a s p u e s a u r w e j
6 u ~ a e y d s r pj o
w a q s A s a n u a ~ a ap u e y a q q
! s a r a ~ y o d q s ~ q j~o ~q g~ n s ae ~s e
s a y ~ q s n p us~n o u a 6 ~ p u y u ~ p a a ~ n a a oa u y y a a p e
I;T
-auaq
a s p u a ~ qa s a q
aqq qnq 'papuedxa
0 8 8 ~u a a m q a q p a ~ o a d w y A w o u o a a
'sa?q?a~eas 'sau?wej
apeJq
u e ~ p ua q~ l
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d n u ~ n s 01
~ O J J a m q r y
paqr4
u 6 ~ a ~ o' 5 j6 8 1
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aJoul
y e ~ n Jp u e s ~ a p e ~p a
qseq
e p a q ~ j a u a qA a ~ y o ds ~ q l * s d o ~ ap o o J j o
O a y q e y ~ e ~qeo u a a a m A a q q
a a e y d u!
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' a a u a ~ .pamoyyoj
A a ~ y o da q q
Pue
'sqq6no~p
6 u ~ ~ ns apb e q a o q s p o o j a q q 0 7 a y q e J a u y n A
sassem aqq apew q ? q n q
-ueqan
s d o ~ ay e ? a ~ a w w o a 4 0 q q m o ~ 6 a q q p a b e a n o a u a q s T 7 T J g a q q
-aaow
p a ~ ~ n ba aaa m~ s d o a a p o o j e a q x a u a q m
p o o j s n y d ~ n s b u ~ q a o d x aj o
01
'qqap
'Jan0
6uy~np
sem s d o ~ o
a r y q n d s , e ? p u ~L e d
s p a q a a j j e A ~ s n o ~ a aqss o w a q q o s y e a ~ a mA q ~ u n w r u o a ear^^
a q q u ~ a ~ q e a a u ~ nqns o w a s o q q q e q q q u e a w
' s a y a ~ y o da n u a n a J
p u e ~q s ~ q ~ aa qg q j o q ~ n s a ae s e a 6 u e q a 4 0 a a e d p a a J o j
. s a o q e ~ ~ q ~qnu a
euaq pue
woqm 6 u o w e
aqq
'umoqs
'paqaajje
' s a a ~ e a m 'saaanoqey
ATsno?Jas
s e q e:qeqg
se
'qng
aql
r e a n q ~ n a ? a 6 ea J a m
q s o w a q q aaam s a s s e y a s s a ~ p u e ~
* T n j s s a a a n s aaam j
a
~ q~a y nab ~
6 u ~ a q0 q p u e s q q e a p j o a a q w n u u o u m o p q n a o q s q ~ o j j aq s ~ q ~ a g
+,T'Pa?P
a ~ d o a d4 0 suo:TTTw
'aaqdeqa
pue
' e ~ p uj o~ s q ~ e da 6 a e ~p a q e q s e ~ a p
s n o ~ ~ a aa d
q q u ? q n o p a q u ~ o ds e n q ? s e
' 8 ~ - 9 ~J O8 ~
* s ~ e a A6 9 a q q 4 0 0 1 u ~ p a a a n a a o s a ~ q ~ a a e a s
a u ~ u e j7 ~ 3 a~ q 3l
ao saurwej
uaamqag
' a ~ nq s~r q r J g q a a J T p j o
saeaA
aqq
' 8 0 6 ~p u e 8 5 8 1
* a a u e a ? j ? u b ? s p a p p e u e u o a q e q A ~ n q u a aq q u a a q a u ? ~
Caste and Religions:
Natal
Immiqrants
N i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y I n d i a was overwhelmingly o r g a n i s e d a r o u n d
castes.
The o r i g i n s o f t h i s form o f s e g m e n t a t i o n go b a c k
t o a n c i e n t times.
I t was a n d still i s a most complex s y s t e m
o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s d e f y i n g e a s y d e f i n i t i o n s . l7
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c a s t e d i v i s i o n o f Brahmin,
While
Ksattriya,
Vaisya,
and Sudra is i n theory t h e b a s i s o f t h e c a s t e system,
this
d i v i s i o n h a s no " d i s t i n c t and d e t e r m i n a t e e x i s t e n c e . "
Rather,
the c a s t e segmentation has developed h i s t o r i c a l l y around the
basic division into a hierarchical
castes.
Indian society,
says
network o f c a s t e s and sub-
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r ,
had
always been composed o f " d i v e r s e and heterogeneous groups"
with d e g r e e s o f endogamous r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
modern s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d "by
o u t o f which t h e
n a t u r a l a n d i n s e n s i b l e s t a g e s . 1118
F r e s h c a s t e s c o n t i n u a l l y made t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e .
t i o n followed a t r a d i t i o n a l pattern:
Their evolu-
a new c a s t e a p p e a r e d ,
a n d a f t e r i t a c c u m u l a t e d a s i z a b l e n u m b e r o f women,
o f r a n k o c c u r r e d by means o f endogamy.
a closing
T h e new c a s t e t h e n
broke o f f a l l connection with the parent stock.
Race and c l a s s around t h e a l i e n and t h e indigenous h i s t o r i e s
became p a r t o f t h e f a c t and f i c t i o n o f d i v e r s e g r o u p s '
ceptions.
In India,
t o the caste system.
such h i s t o r i c a l circumstance gave rise
The I n d o - A r y a n s ,
o s t e n s i b l y a homo-
geneous group invaded India i n t h e d i s t a n t past.
c o n q u e r o r s h a v i n g few women,
conquered people.
blood pride.
per-
The
c a p t u r e d t h e women o f t h e
They i n t e r b r e d , m a i n t a i n i n g ,
however,
a
When t h e g r o u p h a d s u f f i c i e n t n u m b e r o f w o m e n ,
i t s members d e v e l o p e d c a s t e - l i k e
endogamy.
The g r o u p grew
w i t h t i m e , a n d t h e new n u m b e r s m i g h t s a l l y f o r t h a s c o n q u e r o r s ,
and t h u s r e p e a t t h e whole process.
In each instance,
p l e t e a m a l g a m a t i o n was a v e r t e d b e c a u s e ,
t o o k t h e women o f o t h e r s ,
a com-
while the conquerors
t h e y d i d n o t g i v e t h e i r o w n women
t o outside groups.
Once t h i s p r o c e d u r e was e s t a b l i s h e d ,
f i c t i o n was i n t r o d u c e d
. t o s t r e n g t h e n and p e r p e t u a t e
racial pride,
so on.
through language,
s o c i a l and d i e t a r y
Groups a l l o v e r
s i m i l a r processes.
o c c u p a t i o n and
the world i n a l l s o c i e t i e s experience
i t d e v e l o p e d i n a u n i q u e way
I n India,
b e c a u s e o f t h e way
customs,
religion,
i n which t h e I n d i a n mind responded t o t h e
h i s t o r i c a l p a r t i c u l a r i t y o f the subcontinent.
The c a s t e
a n d s o o n became i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e
system developed,
Brahminical tradition,
19
m i g r a t i o n o f karma.
and i n t o t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e t r a n s -
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a d i v i d e d t h e v a r i o u s c a s t e s
i n t o seven m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s . 20
t h a t h a d become H i n d u i s e d ,
structure.
The
f i r s t consisted of
tribes
and i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e c a s t e
Examples were:
UP a n d B i h a r :
Bhumij,
Ahir,
Rajputana and t h e Punjab:
Bombay:
Koli,
Bengal:
Bagdi,
Dom,
Dosadh
Gujar,
Jat,
Meo,
Rajput
Mahar
Bauri,
Chandal,
Kaibartta,
Pod,
Rajbansi-Koch
Madras:
Mal,
Nayar,
The s e c o n d was t h e
Vellala,
Pariah
functional o r occupational category.
c a s t e was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a t r a d i t i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n ,
course,
as i t o f t e n happened,
t o the original caste-related
instance,
only
l e a t h e r work;
new o c c u p a t i o n s h a d n o b e a r i n g
occupations.
tao-thirds
and i n Bengal,
i n t h i s category
I n 1901,
for
were:
o f t h e Kayasths,
were a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s .
Ahirs
(herdsmen),
workers),
The e x a m p l e s
Brahmins ( p r i e s t s ) ,
Chamars and M u c h i s
(leather
Ooms ( s c a v e n g e r s ) ,
Uosadhs ( v i l l a g e watchmen),
Chuhras,
B h a n g i s and
Goalas/Gollas
K a i b a r t t a s and Kewats ( f i s h e r m e n and c u l t i v a t o r s ) ,
Kayasths ( w r i t e r s ) ,
Kumhars
but o f
8 % o f t h e Chamars i n B i h a r were engaged i n
traditionally writers,
(milkmen),
The
(potters),
K o i r i and K a c h h i ( m a r k e t g a r d e n e r s ) ,
Pods ( f i s h e r m e n ) ,
and T e l i
The s e c t a r i a n t y p e made u p t h e t h i r d c a t e g o r y .
( o i l pressers).
The L i n g a y a t s ,
ironically established themselves i n t h e twelfth century
t o e l i m i n a t e c a s t e d i s t i n c t i o n s , were n u m e r o u s i n B o m b a y
and southern India.
inter-tribal
Bengal.
The f o u r t h c a t e g o r y d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h
marriages,
f o r example,
the Shagirdpeshas of
The f i f t h c a t e g o r y was made u p o f n a t i o n a l t y p e s ,
f o r example, Newars o f Nepal,
and t h e Marathas mainly i n
Bombay, a n d n u m b e r i n g 5 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 0 1 .
The s i x t h c a t e g o r y
b o r e t h e name o f i t s o r i g i n a l t e r r i t o r i a l home, e v e n t h o u g h
i t s members h a d r e l o c a t e d t h e m s e l v e s .
Jaunpuria,
T i r h u t i a , and Barendra.
Examples o f t h i s were:
The s e v e n t h c a t e g o r y was
f o r m e d a s a r e s u l t o f new c e r e m o n i a l p r a c t i c e s a n d / o r
tions.
Thus,
occupa-
f o r example, t h e Ayodhia Kurmis s e t themselves
a p a r t from o t h e r Kurmis,
and claimed Ksattriya o r i g i n s .
While Islam accepted no c a s t e d i s t i n c t i o n s ,
a s was p o i n t e d
o u t e a r l i e r , Muslims i n I n d i a n e v e r t h e l e s s tended t o segment
themselves i n caste-like
groups.
Muslims d i d a c c e p t c a s t e
p r i n c i p l e s generally and regionally.
The M u s l i m s o f A r a b ,
P e r s i a n , Afghan o r Moghal o r i g i n s e t t h e m s e l v e s a p a r t from
o t h e r Muslims o f l o c a l o r i g i n .
A Saiyid or a Siddiqui or a
Shaik considered himself "ashraf"
(noble class),
and d i f f e r e n t
from t h e " a j l a f "
(low people), a s converts i n Bengal were
called.
(weaver) d i d n o t have t h e same s t a t u r e a s a
A Jolaha
Saiyid o r a Shaik.
But d i s t i n c t i o n s were f l u i d i n Islam.
A
w e l l known N o r t h I n d i a n p r o v e r b c a p t u r e s t h e f l u i d i t y , b u t
also reflects the caste-like
a Jolaha,
distinctions:
" L a s t y e a r I was
now I am a S h e i k h ; n e x t y e a r i f p r i c e s r i s e ,
I
s h a l l be a S a i y i d . ~ ' ~ M
~ uslim R a j p u t s were f o r m e r l y h i g h c a s t e Hindus.
But t h e o t h e r s were converted g e n e r a l l y
lower c a s t e Hindus,
and t h e s e were:
Qassab ( b u t c h e r ) , Nai
from
Jolaha, Darzi ( t a i l o r ) ,
(barber), Kabaria
( g r e e n g r o c e r ) , Kumhar
( p o t t e r ) , Manihar ( b r a c l e t maker), Dhuniya ( c o t t o n c a r d e r ) ,
F a k i r ( b e g g a r ) , T e l i ( o i l p r e s s e r ) , Dhobi (washerman),
( m i l k m a n ) , Dam-Mirzai
Hindu c a s t e s . 22
(musician).
Gaddi
Many o f t h e s e w e r e a l s o
While
India,
t h e c a s t e s y s t e m was a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y p r e s e n t i n
i n B a l u c h i s t a n a n d B u r m a i t was " n e i t h e r
n o r known. " 2 3
Elsewhere,
however,
2 400 c a s t e s and t r i b e s i n I n d i a .
selectively,
and t h e i r
Most Provinces:
t h e r e were i n 1901,
The l e a d i n g 3 6 c a s t e s
l o c a t i o n s were:24
Brahmin,
Kahar,
Dhobi,
Kumhar,
Fakir,
Lohar,
N a p i t o r Hajjam,
Northern India:
Ahir,
Chamar,
Pathan,
North-eastern
recognised
India:
Kachhi,
Mali,
Saiyid,
Gujar,
Muchi,
Shaik,
Jat,
Teli.
Kurmi,
Pasi,
Rajput.
Kayasth
Western I n d i a :
Ko1.i
Central India:
Gadaria,
Southern India:
Kapu,
Kori,
Nayar,
Lodha
Palli,
Pariah,
Vekkaliga,
Gadaria,
Gond,
Kewat,
Gadaria,
Jolaha,
Kewat,
Vellala.
Central Provinces:
Balija,
Lodha,
United Provinces:
Mal.
Dosadh,
Koiri,
Bengal:
Dosadh,
Kori,
Gadaria,
Mal,
Lodha.
Gola,
Jolaha,
Kewat,
Rajbansi
Dosadh,
Kewat,
Koiri,
Fadras:
Balija,
Gola,
Madiga,
Mal.
Hyderabad:
Gola,
Jolaha,
Madiga,
Mal.
Plysore:
Gola,
Madiga.
Punjab:
Jolaha.
Kajputana:
Lodha.
Some c a s t e s w e r e w i d e l y d i f f u s e d .
3% i n Madras,
Brahmins,
Central India,
the Central Provinces,
weakest i n t h e non-Aryan
Koiri,
Rajbansi
Assam:
range from 10% i n t h e UP,
Kori,
areas.
f o r example,
and Rajputana t o
and Bengal.
They w e r e
Chamars and M u c h i i n
n o r t h e r n I n d i a have corresponding c a s t e s i n s o u t h e r n I n d i a ,
namely Chakkiyam and Madiga.
A l a r g e number o f l o c a l i s e d
g r o u p s e x i s t l i k e B h i l s a n d Gonds;
Dosadhs, J a t s ,
K a i b a r t t a s , Pods,
a n d many l i k e Doms,
Nayars,
Pallis,
Pariahs,
and
TABLE 17
DISTRIBUTION
OF
CASTES/RELIGIONS
AMONG
CALCUTTA
PASSENI2ERSp
1860-1902
(PERCENTAGES)
1
CASTES/
RELIGIONS
4
Unknown
7,O
0,l
4,4
1,5
2,3,
1,5
0,l
Ahir
12,2
3,9
7,7
9,6
6,5
6,4
7,9 15,7 15,8 11,4 14,8 22,O 19,9 15,5 15,O 10,7
Bagdee
0,2
293
1 9 1
-
Bania
0,2
1,0
1,0
Bhooyear
0,2
-
0,7
-
Bhur
1,6
1,O
1,4
4,2
Brahmin
1,2
4,9
4,O
1,3
Chamar
15,8
9,5 12,6 25,5
Chutree
2,8
2,5
5,8
Dhobi
0,4
1,0
0,6
1,2
Dosadh
1,5
2,9
2,9
3,O
Gararee
198
-
192
0,8
Gowala
1,4
3,2
1,9
1,2
Jat
077
092
Kachhi
074
-
094
-
Kahar
4,O
2,9
3,3
2,4
Kandoo
0,2
190
096
-
Kawote
097
-
192
096
Koiree
596
2,6
5,3
Kurnhar
094
193
079
Koonbi ( K u n b i )
C,9
-
0,3
-
Kormee
5,9
5,6
5,l
3,6
-
099
ma,
-@>
cu
+
198
-
172
2,l
Lohar
096
190
095
-
Moosohur
Cl,3
-
2,8
098
:luslim
5,512,712,9
Murao
096
-
Noonia
1,4
Pariah
(Pasi)
pa see)
Rajput
1,0 14,9
4,2 2 0 , l 26,2 1 8 , l 35,O
-
-
096
-
-
-
-
-
7,018,812,O
2,6
2,l
1,9
1,7
1,0
0,8
2,7
3,2
2,1L1,5)
-
-
-
-
-
-
0,9
0,5
1,5
1,3
2,2
1,2
2,O
-
4,5
3,1
3,1
1,3
1,7
1,3
096
2,2
-
098
098
0,5
-
-
-
-
1,7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1,3
9,l
-
-
-
197
-
196
394
0,6
1 4
298
2,2
199
297
2,7
1,l
1,3
294
-
193
2,7
4,O
1,l
-
3,8
1,G
3,l
096
2,5
2,9
0,5
-
4,2
498
7,4
-
-
-
-
-
-
6,2
0,4
-
197
9,9
496
Tellee
0,4
-
0,8
0,6
0,4
O,i
2,4
-
-
392
O,6
Thakoor
3,4
-
0,2
-
1,5
4,9
7,O
4,9
4,3
5,6
TOTAL NO.
0,3
3,5
Lodhe
Pause
0,6
35720
990 8206 1723 3077 3179
699 3020 1620 2786 1785 2922 1201 1570
- n
.-
816 2126
86
TABLE 1 8
LEADING
CASTES/
RELIGIONS
Ahir
Bhur
Chamar
Chutree
Gararee
Kahar
Koiree
Koormee
Lodhe
Muslim
Pausee
Rajput
Thakoor
Total
Ave
186066
187477
CASTES/RELIGIONS
187778
187982
108385
AMONG
CALCUTTA
188689
189091
PASSENGERS,
189293
189495
1860-1902
1896
1 8 9 7 - 1898
18991900
1901
1902
C: LEADING CASTES/RELIGIONS
KEY
A
AtiIR
I3
BHUR
C
CHAMAR
D
CHUTREE
E
GARAREE
F
KC.HAR
G
KOIREE
H
KOORMEE
I
LOGHE
J
MUSLIM
K
PAUSEE
L
RAJPUT
1"
THAKOOR
D
CALCUTTA
E
F
G
H
I
J
LEADING CASTES/RELIGIONS
NOTES
1
N e i l Charlesworth:
B r i t i s h R u l e a n d t h e I n d i a n Economy,
1800-1914
i n S t u d i e s i n Economic and S o c i a l H i s t o r y s e r i e s ,
Macmillan,
1982,
p.
33;
o f I n d i a 1860-1965,
2
Bombay:
A s i a P u b l i s h i n g House,
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a ,
vol.
op.
cit.,
pp.
34-38.
3
Charlesworth,
op.
cit.,
pp.
45,
4
Saha,
5
B
op.
cit.,
pp.
1963,
p.
306;
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a :
3,
p.
250;
Saha,
1860-1965,
Bombay:
232.
op.
The I n d i a n E m p i r e ,
cit.,
pp.
63-68.
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a :
The I n d i a n E m p i r e :
Economic,
248.
vol.
1-2,
pp.
12.
9
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a :
4,
cit.,
1908, pp.
Bhatia,
vol.
op.
3,
8
pp.
207,
vol.
3,
pp.
p.
24.
11
Charlesworth,
op.
12
Saha,
10
279,
59-60.
A s i a P u b l i s h i n g House,
vol.
pp.
F a m i n e s i n I n d i a : A S t u d y i n Some A s p e c t s
M Bhatia:
1908,
3,
63.
o f t h e Economic H i s t o r y o f I n d i a ,
7
1963,
14-15.
Charlesworth,
6
Famines i n
A S t u d y i n Some A s p e c t s o f t h e E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y
India:
pp.
see a l s o B M B h a t i a :
Ibid.,
op.
cit.,
op.
cit.,
214,
20-21,
236,
239.
89,
90-91.
cit.,
p.
pp.
48-49.
The I n d i a n E m p i r e ,
19.
See a l s o C h a r l e s w o r t h ,
Ibid.,
pp.
51-52,
53.
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a ,
A l l major famines a r e reported,
vol.
3,
pp.
476-492.
w i t h d e t a i l s about
t h e i r consequences.
Bhatia,
Lal,
cit.,
op.
op.
cit.,
pp.
pp.
15,
134-160.
63-64.
The d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n i n
India:
23,
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f
The I n d i a n E m p i r e ,
vol.
I, p .
311,
"A
is:
c a s t e may b e d e f i n e d a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f f a m i l i e s o r
groups o f f a m i l i e s ,
b e a r i n g a cornrrlon narne w h i c h
u s u a l l y denotes o r i s associated w i t h a s p e c i f i c
occupation;
ancestor,
c l a i m i n g common d e s c e n t f r o m a m y t h i c a l
human o r d i v i n e ;
same c a l l i n g ;
professing t o follow the
a n d r e g a r d e d b y t h o s e who a r e c o m p e t e n t
t o g i v e an o p i n i o n a s f o r m i n g a s i n g l e homogeneous
community. "
Ibid.,
p.
334.
See a l s o N K D u t t :
o f Caste i n I n d i a ,
Longman:
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f
Ibid.,
pp.
314-320.
Castes and S e c t s :
O r i g i n and Growth
Kegal Paul,
India,
vol.
1931.
1, p .
347.
See a l s o J N B h a t t a c h a r y a :
Hindu
An E x p o s i t i o n o f t h e O r i g i n s o f t h e
H i n d u Caste System and t h e B e a r i n q o f t h e S e c t s Towards
Each O t h e r and Towards O t h e r R e l i q i o u s Systems,
1896;
G S Ghurye:
Popular Prakashan,
21
C a s t e a n d Race i n I n d i a ,
Calcutta,
Bornbay:
1969.
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a ,
vol.
1, p .
329.
See
a l s o I m t i a z Ahmad ( e d ) :
C a s t e a n d S t r a t i f i c a t i o n Amonq
the Muslims,
Manohar Book C e n t r e ,
New D e l h i :
1973.
22
G Ansari:
"Muslim Caste i n I n d i a , "
p o l o g i s t 9 (1955-56):
Homo H i e r a r c h i c u s :
London:
23
104-11.
See a l s o L o u i s D u m o n t :
The C a s t e S y s t e m a n d I t s I m p l i c a t i o n s ,
Weidenfeld and Nicholson,
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a :
vol.
1, p p .
24
Ibid.,
p.
25
Ibid.,
-
pp.
26
Burton Benedict:
Eastern Anthro-
1966,
pp.
206-207.
The I n d i a n E m p i r e ,
329-30.
498.
331-32.
Indians i n a P l u r a l Society:
on M a u r i t i u s i n C o l o n i a l Research S t u d i e s no.
London,
1961,
p.
20;
G S u b b a Rao:
A Study o f I n d o - B r i t i s h
Oxford Univ.
27
J B Brain:
Press,
C u l t u r a l and L i n q u i s t i c R e l a t i o n s ,
1969.
H i s t o r i c a l and S t a t i s t i c a l Study,
28
pp.
243-248.
Lal,
op.
cit.,
pp.
34,
I n d i a n Words i n E n g l i s h :
Christian Indians i n Natal,
1983,
A Report
69-70
1860-1911:
Oxford Univ.
An
Press,
p a s o d d o o q n a s o q q 6 u o u e s e n p o o m a ~ o' ~a n s s ~ a q q s s n a s r p
0 7 1-581 u ~ 6 u ~ q a a ua r ~ q n dq s ~ r ja q q q y
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p a ~ n q u a p uu~e r p u 1 q q r m q u a u ~ ~ ~ a dsx, as n ~ q r ~ n e w* s u o r q e q u e ~ d
a q q u o y ~ o m0 7 6 u r o 6 s e n o q n
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6 u o u e ' s a a r A ~ a s ~ e d r a r u n up u e 6 u r p ~ r n q - A e m 1 r e ~a y r ~s p ~ a r j
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- u r u o p a ~ daq1
~ q u a u A o ~ d u Ta e J n q ~ n a r ~ 6j eo s u ~ o j~ a q q oo q u r
q n o p a q a u e J q s ~ a y ~ oj m
o s p a ~ a p u n qA u e u q n a
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e
'rr~j
' s n r q r ~ n e w a y r ~s a a e ~ du r p o r ~ a d
p a J n q u a p u r a q q q n o q 6 n o ~ q q q u a u r A o ~ d u a .j o
~ J O J q u e q ~ o d u rq s o u
a q q p a u r e i a ~y J o m 6 u r 1 1 - ~ u p u e u o r q e q u e 1 - d
. d o ~ aI e a r d o ~ q
s r q q 6 u r a n p o ~ ds a r u o I o a a q q 0 7 s q u e ~ 6 r u u r p a J n q u a p u r
a q q q q 6 n o ~ qq e q q
' ~ a r ~ ~? neo ap a q u y o d s e
y
' ~ e 6 n s sem 7 1
~ j oo s u~ o r q r p u o 3
p u e s ~ a y '~s ~oa A~o . y d u 3
: y ~ jo o ~ a a e l - d a 4 1
were mixed farmers,
who c o m b i n e d s u g a r w i t h o t h e r c r o p s
like rice,
coffee,
cotton,
and c i t r u s f r u i t .
l a r g e employers on t h e whole.>
was s t o p p e d i n J u l y 1 8 6 6 ,
labourers.
They were n o t
By t h e t i m e i m p o r t a t i o n
1 9 s h i p l o a d s h a d b r o u g h t 6 445
T h e i r r o l e was c r u c i a l i n s t a b i l i s i n g t h e i n i t i a l
p e r i o d o f growth o f t h e sugar i n d u s t r y .
The g r o w t h o f t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y o c c u r r e d i n t h e p e r i o d a f t e r
1874.
The c o m p l a i n t s b y t h e f i r s t g r o u p o f r e t u r n i n g i m m i -
grants,
a n d t h e t e m p o r a r y s u s p e n s i o n o f t h e scheme b y t h e
Government o f I n d i a ,
system.
l e d N a t a l t o i m p r o v e and c o n s o l i d a t e t h e
Natal appointed,
i n p l a c e o f t h e C o o l i e Agent,
Protector o f I n d i a n Immigrants,
a
w h o s e o v e r a l l p u r p o s e was t o
safequard the i n t e r e s t s o f the indentured workers.
He was
g i v e n m a g i s t e r i a l j u r i s d i c t i o n t o i n t e r v e n e between t h e
immigrants and t h e employers t o check abuses,
and t o mediate
i n d i s p u t e s among t h e i m m i g r a n t s t h e m s e l v e s .
The P r o t e c t o r
was r e q u i r e d t o make t w o v i s i t s a n n u a l l y t o t h e p l a n t a t i o n s .
He c o u l d r e g i s t e r I n d i a n m a r r i a g e s ,
was p a s s e d ,
Indians.
he c o u l d a l s o a d m i n i s t e r
a n d a f t e r Law 2 5 o f 1 8 9 1
t h e e s t a t e s o f deceased
The p o s i t i o n o f a D e p u t y P r o t e c t o r was c r e a t e d i n
1 8 8 2 , who t o o k o v e r t h e f u n c t i o n o f e s t a t e - v i s i t i n g
from the
P r o t e c t o r t o r e l i e v e him from t h e pressure o f work.
I n 1891,
a n A s s i s t a n t P r o t e c t o r was a p p o i n t e d who c o u l d a c t i n t h e
P r o t e c t o r ' s absence.
Another
i n n o v a t i o n i n 1 8 7 4 was t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n
Immigration T r u s t Board t o handle t h e f i n a n c i a l aspect o f
indentured importation.
The P r o t e c t o r a n d t h e C o l o n i a l
Treasurer served on t h e Board.
The B o a r d ' s c o m p o s i t i o n was
e n l a r g e d i n 1880 t o 5,
o f whom n o m o r e t h a n t w o c o u l d b e
government o f f i c e r s .
M e m b e r s h i p became e l e c t i v e i n 1 8 9 5 .
Registered employers o f indentured l a b o u r e r s e l e c t e d 5 persons
t o serve f o r a term o f f i v e years.
t o 7 i n 1902.
M e m b e r s h i p was i n c r e a s e d
The B o a r d c o n t i n u e d t o e x e r c i s e e n o r m o u s
i n f l u e n c e on a l l m a t t e r s concerning t h e I n d i a n l a b o u r e r s .
The b o d y was d i s s o l v e d i n 1 9 2 0 .
The s y s t e m h a v i n g b e e n r e f i n e d a n d c o n s o l i d a t e d i n 1 8 7 0 s
a n d t h e l 8 8 0 s , ~ t h e v a r i o u s s e c t o r s o f N a t a l ' s economy s e t
about t o u t i l i s e indentured labour.
Sugar growers remained
throughout t h e most i m p o r t a n t u s e r s o f
indentured workers.
The e m p l o y e r s w e r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y d i s t r i b u t e d a l o n g t h e c o a s t a l
belt,
a f e r t i l e sugar g r o w i n g a r e a which i n c l u d e d t h e Lower
Tugela,
Inanda,
Umlazi,
Alexandra,
and Lower Umzimkulu.
was r a p i d g r o w t h b e t w e e n 1 8 5 4 a n d 1 8 6 6 ,
l o w wages,
and p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f s .
t h a n k s t o good p r i c e s ,
The c o l o n i a l s t a t e c o n t i n -
ued t o p r o t e c t t h e i n d u s t r y through f r e e i m p o r t
I n t h e 1860s through t o t h e 1880s,
production prevailed.
t h e p l a n t a t i o n mode o f
sugar cane;
p a r t i n v o l v e d t h e c r u s h i n g o f t h e cane,
ment o f j u i c e s i n t h e m i l l ,
t h e b o i l i n g and t r e a t -
a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f the f i n a l
a l t h o u g h some l i k e t h e R e u n i o n E s t a t e
c o u l d g e n e r a t e up t o 25 h o r s e p o w e r .
of
I n 1864,
w h i c h 56 were s-team-driven.
d i d u n s k i l l e d work,
t h e r e were 60
While the majority of
t h e i n d e n t u r e d workers and non-identured
work.
and t h e i n d u s t r i a l
The e a r l y m i l l s h a d s m a l l c a p a c i t i e s r a n g i n g f r o m
6 t o 15 horsepower,
mills,
schedule^.^
The a g r i c u l t u r a l p a r t i n v o l v e d t h e
c u l t i v a t i n g and h a r v e s t i n g o f
product.
There
African labourers
some I n d i a n s w e r e h i r e d t o d o s k i l l e d
T h e s k i l l e d w o r k was d o n e a l m o s t e n t i r e l y b y w h i t e s ,
many o f whom came f r o m M a u r i t i u s w i t h sorne e x p e r i e n c e .
work assignment on t h e p l a n t a t i o n ,
The
as Richardson has p o i n t e d
o u t was " a r a c i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d h i e r a r c h y o f s k i l l a n d
control.. ."9
Cape,
N a t a l ' s sugar had three main o u t l e t s :
the
w h i c h b e t w e e n 1852 and 1900 t o o k 50% o f t h e s u g a r ;
Witwatersrand i n t h e South African
and t h e domestic market.
the
R e p u b l i c a f t e r t h e 1880s;
The p e r c e n t a g e o f
sugar exported
r a n g e d f r o m 32% t o 65% up t o 1900.
T h e r e was a d e c l i n e i n p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e l a t e r d e c a d e s o f
the nineteenth century.
T h i s was d u e t o i n t e n s i v e mono-
c u l t u r e and t h e consequent s a p p i n g o f t h e c o a s t a l s o i l ' s
natural fertility,
the lack o f capital,
and n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s
which struck the industry from time t o time.
The i n d u s t r y ' s
r e s p o n s e was t h r e e f o l d :
milling,
land consolidation,
and i n j e c t i o n o f foreign c a p i t a l .
became l a r g e r ;
centralised
The e s t a t e s
and l a r g e i n d u s t r i a l concerns with corporate
s t r u c t u r e s began o p e r a t i n g c e n t r a l i s e d m i l l i n g f a c i l i t i e s .
(The c e n t r a l m i l l i n g system,
it should be pointed o u t , had
been unsuccessfully t r i e d i n t h e e a r l y 1850s and l a t e r too.)
With t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f mainly B r i t i s h c a p i t a l ,
cum-planter
made h i s a p p e a r a n c e .
t h e miller-
Examples o f such l a r g e
b u s i n e s s e s were R e y n o l d s B r o s , L t d . ,
founded i n 1892, t h e
Natal Estates Ltd.,
By t h e 1 8 9 0 s , C G S m i t h
and Co.,
and Tongaat Ltd.
on t h e s o u t h c o a s t became one o f t h e t h r e e major
sugar-broking
companies with s u p e r i o r m i l l i n g f a c i l i t i e s .
T h e n u m b e r o f mills a c t u a l l y d e c r e a s e d b e t w e e n f r o m 7 5 i n 1 8 7 7
t o 37 i n 1 8 9 5 , b u t t h e p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s o f t h e s m a l l e r
number i n c r e a s e d a s t h e y became l a r g e r a n d more s o p h i s t i c a t e d . 1 0
I n t h e 1 8 9 0 s , t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y monopolistic i n nature.
The f i r s t r e f i n e r y a t S o u t h C o a s t J u n c t i o n
was f l o a t e d i n 1 8 9 8 , a n e n t e r p r i s e t h a t had t h e b a c k i n g o f
s u b s c r i b e r s a n d s h a r e h o l d e r s l i k e Nat.al E s t a t e s L t d . ,
Ltd.,
and t h e Smith group.
Tongaat
The s m a l l p l a n t e r s d i d n o t d i s -
a p p e a r , b u t t h e y o p e r a t e d v e r y much i n t h e s h a d o w o f g i a n t
companies.
And, w h i l e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b l e g o v e r n -
ment p l a c e d limits o n t h e e x t e n t o f t h e h e l p f r o m t h e c o l o n i a l
s t a t e , some a s s i s t a n c e c o n t i n u e d t o b e g i v e n i n d i r e c t a n d
i n d i r e c t ways.
For example, t h e c o l o n i a l s t a t e supported
N a t a l ' s a c c e s s i o n t o t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n Customs Union i n 1898;
it considered the interests of the sugar industry i n its
d e c i s i o n t o promote railway c o n s t r u c t i o n , and,
indeed,
gave
the industry preferential t a r i f f rates i n transporting sugar
t o t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n R e p u b l i c . 11
The s t a t e a s s i s t e d t h e i n d u s t r y i n two o t h e r ways.
I n 1895,
t h e Natal l e g i s l a t u r e ' s d e c i s i o n t o pass t h e £3 p o l l t a x ,
w a s a i m e d a t s l o w i n g down t h e r a t e o f t e r m i n a t i o n a n d i n
t h a t way e n s u r i n g t h e c o n t i n u e d s u p p l y o f i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r .
And,
i n o p e n i n g up Z u l u l a n d t o w h i t e s e t t l e m e n t i n 1 9 0 5 , i t
hoped t o expand t h e i n d u s t r y i n t o a t e r r i t o r y t h a t had
h i t h e r t o been closed t o it.
S u g a r , t h e n , made up t h e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e 6 5 t o 7 0 % o f
t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r t h a t employed i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r .
The o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r t h a t l u r e d t h e cont r a c t w o r k e r s was t h e t e a i n d u s t r y .
Tea p l a n t s b e f o r e 1875
I n 1875, J Liege Hulett,
f a i l e d t o y i e l d good c r o p s .
o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s , i m p o r t e d s e e d s f r o m Assam.
among
By 1 8 9 1 ,
t h e r e were 25 t e a e s t a t e s i n t h e Tugela D i v i s i o n .
Hulett's
K e a r s n e y E s t a t e was o n e o f t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l .
I n 1890-91,
h i s e s t a t e produced o v e r 300 0 0 0 l b . o f t e a with a n e s t i m a t e d
v a l u e o f £15 000.
I n 1903, H u l e t t employed 4 500 i n d e n t u r e d
workers, mainly on t h e t e a e s t a t e s b u t a l s o on t h e s u g a r
estates h e had s t a r t e d i n 1903.
million lb.
Kearsney Estate grew one
o f t e a on 1 600 a c r e s o f l a n d ( o u t o f a t o t a l
a c r e a g e o f 13 5 0 0 ) w i t h t h e h e l p o f 1 0 0 0 I n d i a n l a b o u r e r s .
T h e K i r k l y V a l e Tea E s t a t e ,
j o i n t l y owned by A r t h u r T R e y n o l d s
a n d W B L y l e , was s e c o n d o n l y t o t h e K e a r s n e y E s t a t e .
There
were a l s o o t h e r l a r g e p r o d u c e r s o f t e a u s i n g i n d e n t u r e d
l a b o u r e r s , a m o n g whom were H i n d s o n o f C l i f t o n E s t a t e a n d
Bazley E s t a t e a t Ifafa.12
Tea p i c k i n g r e q u i r e d c a r e a n d
q u i c k m a n i p u l a t i o n w i t h t h e h a n d s , a n d some o f t h e r e c r u i t s
h a d e x p e r i e n c e i n t e a p i c k i n g i n D a r j e e l i n g a n d Assam i n
India. l3
Women were t h o u g h t t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e
from t h i s p o i n t o f view.
P e r h a p s e v e n a more i m p o r t a n t
c o n s i d e r a t i o n w a s t h a t women i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r w a s c h e a p e r
and e a s i e r t o c o n t r o l , and t h e t e a e s t a t e owners were n o t
above e x p l o i t i n g t h e i r vulnerability.14
Outside o f sugar and t e a ,
farmers i n t h e i n t e r i o r growing
a v a r i e t y o f f o o d a n d c o m m e r c i a l c r o p s made i n c r e a s i n g u s e
of indentured labour despite t h e i r e a r l i e r opposition t o it.
Maize, tobacco,
a n d b e a n s w e r e among some o f t h e c r o p s .
Others were involved i n animal husbandry a s stockmen,
shepherds, and dairymen. 1 5
I n i n d u s t r y t h e two s e c t o r s t h a t employed t h e i n d e n t u r e d
I n d i a n s i n l a r g e numbers were t h e N a t a l Government R a i l w a y s
(NGR),
and t h e c o a l mines.
I n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s were
a t t r a c t e d t o t h e NGR b e c a u s e w a g e s a n d w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s
were b e t t e r t h a n i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r .
An i n d e n t u r e d
m a l e c o u l d command a wage o f 2 0 s h i l l i n g s a m o n t h ,
rations a t least one-third
And,
and r e c e i v e
more t h a n t h e s t i p u l a t e d amounts.
a s M a u r e e n Swan h a s p o i n t e d o u t ,
both the.importance o f
t h e r a i l w a y work and t h e s t a t e ' s s t a k e i n t h e p r o j e c t ,
made
t h e government more a l i v e t o e n s u r i n g b e t t e r w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s
f o r the indentured Indians.16
i n 1 8 6 0 b y a p r i v a t e company,
government i n 1874.
The r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n , b e g u n
was t a k e n o v e r b y t h e N a t a l
As f r o m 1 8 7 6 ,
e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d b y t h e NGR.
i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r was
By 1 8 9 5 ,
309 m i l e s o f t r a c k had
been l a i d t o reach t h e Transvaal border.
The w o r k t h a t t h e
i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s d i d was b o t h s k i l l e d a n d u n s k i l l e d .
Platelayers,
breaksmen,
c a r r i a g e a n d wagon b u i l d e r s ,
signalmen,
l a m p a t t e n d a n t s w e r e some among t h e s k i l l e d c a t e -
g o r i e s o f workers.
Many came w i t h t h e s e s k i l l s u p o n t h e
s p e c i a l r e q u e s t o f t h e NGR.
Heydenrych,
according t o D H
I n 1890,
t h e r e were 665 i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s ,
1 195 f r e e I n d i a n s ,
i n contrast to
200 c o n t r a c t o r ' s I n d i a n s w i t h s p e c i a l
and 1 077 A f r i c a n s .
skills,
porters,
I n 1896 t h e f i g u r e s were a s
1 215 i n d e n t u r e d w o r k e r s ,
17
963 A f r i c a n s .
follows:
813 f r e e I n d i a n s ,
C o a l m i n i n g i n N a t a l went back t o t h e 1840s.
However,
and
it
was o n l y i n t h e l a t e 1 8 8 0 s t h a t t h e i n d u s t r y l a i d t h e p r o p e r
f o u n d a t i o n w h i c h was t o s e e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f o v e r 6 0 m i n e s
by 1909.
The i n d u s t r y ' s d e v e l o p m e n t was c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o
t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r a i l r o a d b y t h e NGR;
sugar,
and,
as i n
B r i t i s h c a p i t a l a s s i s t e d i n i t s expansion.
g o v e r n m e n t t o o h e l p e d i n d i r e c t a n d i n d i r e c t ways.
t h e recruitment
o f indentured Indians,
f o r t h e m was made i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s .
The N a t a l
As f o r
a number o f r e q u e s t s
As i n s u g a r ,
t h e r e was a
debate about t h e m e r i t s and d e m e r i t s o f h a v i n g I n d i a n s o v e r
Africans.
V a r i o u s k i n d s o f a r g u m e n t s w e r e made f o r
Indians
rather than Africans,
tured"
b u t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y were " i n d e n -
s u r e l y must have weighed h e a v i l y i n t h e minds o f
t h o s e who c o n s i d e r e d f o r m s o f c o n t r o l s o v e r l a b o u r t o b e
important.
T h e r e was a s t e a d y i n c r e a s e o f i n d e n t u r e d em-
ployment.
Twelve s h i l l i n g s were p a i d f o r s u r f a c e work and
f i f t e e n s h i l l i n g s f o r underground work.
No I n d i a n was a s k e d
t o work underground w i t h o u t h i s e x p r e s s p e r m i s s i o n .
1889 t o 1901,
o f Indians,
9,3X
From
a s R u t h Edgecombe p o i n t s o u t ,
the proportion
including free Indian labourers,
i n c r e a s e d from
t o 35,476.
I n 1909,
t h e y c o n s t i t u t e d 40,8376
l a b o u r e r s engaged i n " p r o d u c t i v e work"
involved i n "unproductive
work."
a n d 24,6376
By 1 9 0 9 ,
o f the
o f those
some c o l l i e r i e s
l i k e Dundee a n d West L e n n o x t o n h a d more I n d i a n t h a n A f r i c a n
workers.
I n d i a n women u s e d f o r p i c k i n g b e l t s c o n s t i t u t e d
o v e r 3% i n t h e e a r l y 1900s,
b u t d e c l i n e d s t e a d i l y a f t e r 1906.
When t h e f u t u r e o f i n d e n t u r e d i m m i g r a t i o n was i n t h e b a l a n c e
i n t h e 1900s,
i t was c l e a r t h a t I n d i a n s w o u l d b e g r a d u a l l y
replaced by A f r i c a n s .
54,6476
a n d 61,5876
The A f r i c a n c o m p o n e n t r o s e i n 1 9 0 9 t o
i n " p r o d u ~ t i v e a~n ~
d " u n p r o d u c t i v e f 1 work
categories respectively. 18
Municipalities i n Natal,
Pietermaritzburg,
e s p e c i a l l y those o f Durban and
h i r e d s i z a b l e numbers o f i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s
i n t h e i r h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n departments.
Except f o r those
who w e r e p a r t o f t h e c i t y c o n s t a b u l a r y f o r c e
-
others,
too
-
most o f t h e i n d e n t u r e d m u n i c i p a l workers
were g e n e r a l l a b o u r e r s .
brought t o Natal,
picking.
and perhaps
I n d i a n s w i t h s p e c i a l s k i l l s were
a s we saw i n r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t e a
Similarly,
the Natal port authorities recruited
I n d i a n boatmen e x p e r i e n c e d i n h a n d l i n g Masulah b o a t s and
catamarans.
Among t h e m o r e n o t a b l e o f s p e c i a l i s e d c a t e g o r y
o f work were t h e S p e c i a l S e r v a n t s .
When i t b e c a m e k n o w n i n
N a t a l t h a t p e o p l e w i t h s p e c i a l s k i l l s c o u l d be h i r e d f a i r l y
cheaply i n India,
a v a r i e t y o f i n s t i t u t i o n s and o r g a n i s a t i o n s
requested f o r t h e i r services.
hotels,
ties.
restaurants,
Some o f t h e s e w e r e h o s p i t a l s ,
private clubs,
dockyards and m u n i c i p a l -
The S p e c i a l S e r v a n t s w o r k e d a s h o s p i t a l o r d e r l i e s
o r corrlpounders,
cooks o r waiters,
policemen,
c l e r k s and
in'terpreters.
They came l a r g e l y from I n d i a ' s u r b a n a r e a s ,
a n d were o f t e n e d u c a t e d a n d l i t e r a t e i n E n g l i s h .
Their
m o n t h l y s a l a r i e s were c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e o f
workers i n a g r i c u l t u r e . o r industry,
shillings.
v a r y i n g from 30 t o 100
S p e c i a l S e r v a n t s were c o n s c i o u s o f t h e i r s t a t u s ,
a n d were n o t h e s i t a n t a b o u t l o d g i n g c o m p l a i n t s w i t h t h e
P r o t e c t o r f o r e v e n s l i g l ~ ta b u s e s . 1 9
The r e c o r d e d number o f e m p l o y e r s o f i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s i n
S e p t e m b e r 1 9 0 4 w a s 1 3 0 0 . ~ ~And t h e l a r g e s t e i g h t e m p l o y e r s
f o r 1 8 9 5 were: N G R ( 9 1 Z O O ) , N a t a l C e n t r a l S u g a r C o l ( 1 0 1 4 ) ,
Reynolds Bros.
(752), G S Smith (566),
Reunion E s t a t e (320),
E Saunders (257), A Michel (204), and F Addison (192).
Except f o r t h e f i r s t employer,
t h e o t h e r s were i n s u g a r .
I n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s were u s e d v e r y w i d e l y a l l o v e r N a t a l .
As
e a r l y a s 1892, t h e P r o t e c t o r wrote i n h i s annual r e p o r t t h a t
t h e I n d i a n s were " e m p l o y e d a l m o s t t h r o u g h o u t t h e l e n g t h a n d
breadth o f t h e colony and very l i t t l e is s a i d a g a i n s t t h e
importation of A s i a t i c s . "21
Under what c o n d i t i o n s d i d t h e i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s work i n
Natal?
The w o r k e r on t h e p l a n t a t i o n s was e x p e c t e d t o b e
p a i d 1 0 s h i l l i n g s p e r month i n h i s f i r s t y e a r o f i n d e n t u r e ,
and a n e x t r a o n e s h i l l i n g was added f o r e v e r y a d d i t i o n a l
year of service./
In addition,
t h e employer bore t h e expendi-
t u r e f o r a s e t o f new c l o t h i n g u p o n c o r n m e n c e r n e n t o f s e r v i c e ,
and food r a t i o n s .
R a t i o n s u s u a l l y c o n s i s t e d o f 11/2 l b .
rice d a i l y o r 2 l b .
m a i z e meal t h r e e times a w e e k a n d r i c e on
t h e remaining days;
and, on a monthly b a s i s ,
1 lb.
salt, 2 lb.
s a l t f i s h and l l b .
1 2 a n d women r e c e i v e d o n e - h a l f
2 lb.
ghee o r o i l .
of
dhall,
Males under
t h e r a t i o n s f o r a d u l t males.
T h e l a b o u r e r s were r e q u i r e d t o w o r k f o r 6 d a y s i n a w e e k ,
e x c e p t on Sundays and h o l i d a y s ,
nine hours p e r day.
The
e m p l o y e r was r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e a c c o m m o d a t i o n a n d m e d i c a l
s e r v i c e when n e e d e d .
These were t h e s t i p u l a t e d c o n d i t i o n s .
were d i f f i c u l t ,
t o sector.
a l t h o u g h no d o u b t
Generally,
The a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s
they varied from sector
i n the agricultural sector,
coercion
was b u i l t i n t o t h e l a b o u r s y s t e m b y means o f f o r m a l a n d i n formal controls.
Frequently,
the hours of
exceeded t h e 9 hours s t i p u l a t e d .
services far
The s i r d a r c o n s t i t u t e d a
key f i g u r e i n f o r m a l c o n t r o l t o ensure compliance.
He h a d a
n o t i c e a b l y elevated s t a t u s (perhaps a person o f a h i g h e r
caste,
o r o f non-indentured o r i g i n ) ,
and i n N a t a l ,
was s y m b o l i s e d b y t h e d r e a d e d s j a m b o k .
t h e p u n i s t - ~ m e n tf o r n o n - c o m p l i a n c e
i n g f o r truculence,
A t the formal level,
t o o k v a r i o u s forms:
and non-payment
f o r absence
I n f o r m a l c s n t r o l was u s u a l l y i n d i r e c t ,
a system o f r e w a r d and punishment b u i l t i n t o i t .
were used.
happy;
flogg-
d e m o t i o n t o women's gang f o r s l o w work,
o r c u t i n wages o r r a t i o n s ,
through i l l n e s s .
h i s authority
with
Palliatives
A l c o h o l and n a r c o t i c s were s u p p l i e d t o keep w o r k e r s
a n d a r e b e l l i o u s s p i r i t c o u l d mean s e p a r a t i o n f r o m w i f e
o r female companions f o r a p e r i o d o f t i m e ,
i n the estate,
or relocation with-
o r r e a l l o c a t i o n t o another employer. 22
indentured workers,
Women
resented by employers i n t h e beginning,
w e r e o p e n t o g r e a t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n when t h e i r w o r t h was
belatedly recognised.
B e a l l argues t h a t "domestic
ship"
r e l t i o n s gender" were
and t h e " s o c i a l
women i n d e n t u r e d w o r k e r s p a r t i c u l a r l y
relation-
f a c t o r s t h a t made
v u l n e r a b l e i n t h e system.
The w e r e g r a d u a l l y p h a s e d o u t a f t e r 1 9 0 0 ,
and s a d l y h a d few
s k i l l s w i t h which t o e n t e r t h e labour
I n industries generally,
t h e c o n d i t i o n s were somewhat b e t t e r .
There were fewer c o l l a b o r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s t o m a n i p u l a t e
workers,
a n d much l e s s c o e r c i o n t h a n u n d e r t h e s i r d a r i s y s t e m
i n agriculture.
The NGR a n d t h e c o a l m i n e s r e l i e d u p o n i n -
c e n t i v e s r a t h e r t h a n heavy-handed
a u t h o r i t y . 24
0
W h i l e t h e l a w made p r o v i s i o n f o r h e a l t h c a r e ,
i n most i n s t a n c e s were h o p e l e s s l y i n a d e q u a t e .
the
facilities
The h i g h
i n c i d e n c e o f d i s e a s e s a n d i l l n e s s e s was a t t r i b u t a b l e t o p o o r
and i m p r o p e r s a n i t a t i o n .
O f t h e 1 300 e m p l o y e r s o f
indentured
l a b o u r e r s i n September 1904,
t h e r e was a h i g h d e a t h r a t e
A t the Umhloti Valley
a m o n g t h e w o r k e r s o f 1 0 6 o f thern.
Co.,
t h e r a t e o f d e a t h was 2 0 0 p e r 1 0 0 0 d u r i n g t h e d y s e n t e r y
e p i d e m i c e a r l y i n 1904.
E v e n when t h e e p i d e m i c e n d e d ,
d e a t h r a t e was 9 1 p e r 1 0 0 0 i n A u g u s t 1 9 0 4 .
f o r T o n g a a t S u g a r Co.
and Reynolds Bros.
the
The s t a t i s t i c s
f o r A u g u s t 1 9 0 4 was
3 6 a n d 3 5 r e s p e c t i v e l y p e r 1 0 0 0 . ~ ~ C h e s t d i s e a s e s among
t h e c o a l m i n i n g I n d i a n s w e r e common.
estates
-
were
few.
- were n o t
among t h e m t h e s h o r t a g e o f women
conducive t o a happy,
and gambled.
C o n d i t i o n s on t h e
stable life.
Men d r a n k ,
quarrelled,
The a v e n u e s f o r r e l i e f f r o m t h e d r u d g e r y o f w o r k
A l i e n a t i o n was h i g h .
T h i s was d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o
- it
t h e h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f s u i c i d e among i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s
was t h e h i g h e s t f o r a n y g r o u p i n t h e c o l o n y ,
and second o n l y
t o F i j i among t h e s u g a r c o l o n i e s u s i n g i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r .
The
s u i c i d e r a t e s among N a t a l ' s l e a d i n g e m p l o y e r s b e t w e e n 1 8 7 5 t o
32,776;
1 9 1 1 were:
Reynolds Bros.,
NGR,
D u r b a n C o r p o r a t i o n 9,276;
11,276;
G S Smith (Blackburn Estate),
6,176;
5,176.
6,176;
Hawkesworth (Beneva E s t a t e ) ,
26
T o n g a a t S u g a r Co.,
15,376;
La Mercy E s t a t e s ,
Cornubia/Natal
5,176
and M t .
9,276;
Estate,
Edgecombe,
Having b r i e f l y examined t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f employment f o r
indentured Indians,
worked,
and t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which t h e y
t h e c h a p t e r now p r o c e e d s t o a n a l y s e t h e e m p l o y e r
s t a t i s t i c s p r o v i d e d by t h e compter.
breakdown o f e'mployers
Table 19 gives a d e t a i l e d
f o r Madras passengers,
and Graph 1 0 r e f l e c t t h e l e a d i n g employers.
2 1 and 22,
and Table 20
Similarly,
Tables
a n d G r a p h 11 show t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e m p l o y e r s
f o r C a l c u t t a passengers.
I t should be p o i n t e d a t t h e o u t s e t t h a t t h e percentage o f
unknown i s v e r y h i g h f o r b o t h Madras and C a l c u t t a g r o u p s .
F r o M a d r a s i t i s 48,976
i s 45,576
(see Table 1 9 ) and f o r C a l c u t t a i t
(see Table 20).
For the l a t e r years especially,
t h e p e r c e n t a g e unknown i s e x t r e m e l y h i g h .
The i n f o r m a t i o n
o n e m p l o y e r s was e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e 1 2 v o l u m e s o f t h e R e g i s t e r s
TABLE 19
DISTRIBUTION
EMPLOYER
J
;
I
-
a
~
o
OF
EMPLOYERS
FOR
MADRAS
PASSENGERS,
1860-1902
m
.
y\~ ' c n
4
. m
I
I . O D m O D c n c n c n
I
I
I
I
I
o
c
n
m
~
~ ) c ~n \D c
~ a ) m~
m
~
m~
c~ n m
mc o m
n o c~
4
I
I
w
>a
-
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
0
0
O
D
n
c
n
4 ~ 4~
cn
4
nl
m
~
m
I
I
N
o
o
- m 1 m4
4
'
Unknown
48,9 87,2
A c u t t , C & Co
0,5
Addison,
0,7
Friend
A f r i c a n Boat093
i n g Co
Arbuckle, W
0,l
Barrow Green
0,3
Estate
Bazley, John
0,4
Beneva E s t a t e s
0,3
(EW Hawkesworth)
0,l
B i n n , Henry
Blackburn
1,5
C e n t r a l Sugar
Co (C Vause)
Cato Manor
0,l
Estates
(G C Cato)
Clare Estate
0,l
(B Clarence)
Colliers E L
Lt d
Cornubia E s t
0,2
Dhotman, A & Co
0,l
Duboissie H &
096
Co ( M a u r i c a E s t ) ,
Oundee Coal Co
0.3
Effingham E s t
1,0
(S Crookes)
Equeeza E s t
(Hawkesworth B)
Harrison, H P
H i l l , S & Co
H i l l Head E s t
(E M o l l i e r e s )
Hindson, W R
Hitchens, C
Hitchens &
Maydon
Hulett Est
( J L Hulett)
Kearsney E s t
(JL H u l e t t )
La L u c i a &
Muckle Neuk
E s t (A M i c h e l )
La Mercy E s t
CB de Gersigny
Langlois Jules
Mayer, G C
Milkwood K r a a l
E s t (H S h i r e )
M o n t i l l e de R
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
7 -
-
Employer c o n t i n u e d /
...
c
n
-
'11
-
-
-
-
-
11'0
-
8'0
-
8'0
-
' 1 11'
5'L
0'1
L'f
9'L
-
-
T'Z
-
--
-
-
L'O
11'0
9'Z
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L E A D ING E M P L O Y E R S
KEY
-.-
BLACKBURN CENTRAL
EFFINGHAM
KEARSNEY
LA LUCIA & MUCKLE
NEUK
LA MERCY
NATAL CENTRAL
NATAL ESTATE
NGR
NATAL PLANTATION
REUNION
REYNOLDS BROS.
TONGAAT
UMZINTO
u-
p
A
6
C
D
E
F
G
li
LEADING EMPLOYERS
MADRAS
1
J
K
L
M
o f Employers f o r Indentured I n d i a n s i n t h e Natal Archives.
s i n g l e d e t a i l e d s o u r c e was f o u n d t h a t l i s t s by
No o t h e r ,
names and numbers e m p l o y e r s a g a i n s t i n d i v i d u a l e m p l o y e r s .
O b v i o u s l y , a more d e t e r m i n e d s e a r c h t h r o u g h a r c h i v a l s o u r c e s
is going t o be necessary t o find o u t f u l l y employers f o r a l l
t h e indentured workers.
The p o i n t i s t h a t t h e i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o f t h e s t a t i s t i c s makes
i t d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c o v e r t h e p a t t e r n s o f employment.
For
example,
C A c u t t and Co.,
hired indentured labourers for
1877-78,
1879-82,
and 1886-89,
1883-85,
and t h e four sets o f
s t a t i s t i c s g i v e a n a v e r a g e o f 0,576 h i r e d b y t h i s c o m p a n y .
However,
no s t a t i s t i c s a p p e a r f o r t h e e l e v e n o t h e r p e r i o d s
i n Table 19.
T h i s d o e s n o t mean t h a t t h e company h i r e d i n -
dentured labourers only i n t h e four periods mentioned.
Rather,
n o i n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e o t h e r p e r i o d s t o f e e d
And s o i t i s w i t h v i r t u a l l y e v e r y o t h e r
i n t o t h e computer.
e m p l o y e r i n T a b l e s 1 9 a n d 2 1 , n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e e m p l o y e r s who
r e m a i n unknown.
The t a b l e s a r e i n c o m p l e t e i n o t h e r w a y s t o o .
The m a s s i v e n e s s
of t h e d a t a , and t h e l i m i t e d space a v a i l a b l e on computer d i s c s
made i t i m p o s s i b l e t o a r r i v e a t c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i v e a n a l y s e s
combining v a r i a b l e s l i k e employer,
of origin.
s e x , age, c a s t e , and p l a c e s
A l t e r n a t i v e programming p r o c e d u r e s w i l l have t o
b e d e v e l o p e d i n t h e f u t u r e t o a r r i v e a t more r e f i n e d a n a l y s i s .
The a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r i s m o s t h e a v i l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e
t a b l e s on employers.
In the industrial sector, the single
l a r g e s t e m p l o y e r was t h e N G R .
T a b l e 1 9 s h o w s t h a t 11 e m p l o y e r s
h i r i n g i n e x c e s s o f 176, employed 20% o f t h e w o r k e r s ;
1 4 employ-
e r s h i r e d n e a r l y 107:;
a n d t h e b a l a n c e o f 34 e n i p l o y e r s h i r e d
7076 o f t h e w o r k e r s .
Table 21 f o r C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s shows
t h a t 8 l a r g e e m p l o y e r s were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i r i n g n e a r l y 1 9 %
of the labourers;
1 3 medium-sized
employers h i r e d 15% o f a l l
t h e workers; and t h e remaining 2 5 employers h i r e d o v e r 71% o f
t h e workers.
Both s e t s o f s t a t i s t i c s ( f o r Madras and C a l c u t t a
passengers) suggest t h a t t h e smaller employers predominated.
D o e s t h i s m e a n t h a t t h e s m a l l e r e m p l o y e r s c o l l e c t i v e l y ernp l o y e a more i n d e n t u r e d workers t h a n t h e l a r g e employers?
T h e a v e r a g e s f o r 4 2 y e a r s seem t o s u g g e s t s o .
different,
I t may b e
i f employment p a t t e r n s are examined
however,
separately f o r each of t h e 1 5 period divisions i n the tables.
Then,
l a r g e c o m p a n i e s seem t o p r e d o m i n a t e .
S i n c e it is n o t p o s s i b l e t o g i v e a d e t a i l e d breakdown o f t h e
e m p l o y e r s t h a t a p p e a r i n t h e t a b l e s , a few o f t h e l a r g e r
concerns have been s e l e c t e d below f o r b r i e f discussions.
S t a t i s t i c s on t h e s i z e o f t h e l a b o u r f o r c e are u s u a l l y missing
i n t h e h i s t o r i e s o f t h e companies.
i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r i n a b i g way,
They c e r t a i n l y u s e d
and one g e t s an approximate
i d e a o f t h e s i z e from t h e companies' o p e r a t i o n s .
Discuss-
ion o f t h e l a r g e r companies a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p r o c e s s o f
c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s t o w h i c h r e f e r e n c e was m a d e e a r l i e r .
One a l r e a d y h a s some i d e a o f t h e r o l e o f t h e N G R a n d K e a r s n e y
Estate i n i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r from o u r d i s c u s s i o n e a r l i e r .
The B l a c k b u r n C e n t r a l S u g a r m i l l h a d i t s o r i g i n s when J o s e p h
B l a c k b u r n b o u g h t a s i t e i n 1 8 6 4 a l o n g t h e Umhlanga R i v e r .
The l a n d was d i v i d e d i n t o l o t s i n t e n d e d f o r c o f f e e p l a n t a t i o n .
Coffee f a i l e d , however,
a n d t h e company t u r n e d t o s u g a r .
A
m i l l was b u i l t i n 1 8 7 7 o n a n e s t a t e w i t h 2 2 1 0 a c r e s r e s e r v e d
f o r cane-growing.
I n 1 8 9 6 , B l a c k b u r n was p u r c h a s e d b y t h e
Natal E s t a t e s L t d . 2 7
M e s s r s W h e e l e r a n d H a d d o n was f o u n d e d
i n 1 8 7 6 on E f f i n g h a m Estate n e a r Avoca.
London w i t h a c a p i t a l o f £25 000.
before turning t o sugar.
I t was f l o a t e d i n
The company t r i e d c o f f e e
T h e corrlpany w a s e v e n t u a l l y a b s o r b e d
by t h e N a t a l E s t a t e s Ltd.28
William J Campbell had hoped t o
grow a r r o w r o o t when h e f i r s t a r r i v e d i n N a t a l ,
turned t o cane-planting and milling.
1 8 5 9 , w a s narned " M u c k l e Neuk"
but he eventually
The e s t a t e ,
started in
i n 1861 a f t e r t h e p l a c e Campbell
remembered i n h i s hometown o f Glasgow.
S u g a r m a c h i n e r y was
i m p o r t e d i n 1 8 6 0 , a n d by 1 8 7 2 , a modern m i l l was b u i l t by
William Jnr.,
who h a d b e c o m e t h e m a n a g e r u p o n h i s f a t h e r ' s
TABLE 21
DISTRIBUTIOIV
OF
EPIPLOYERS
b
O
FClR
CALCUTTA
1
I
V)
Q W
PASSENGERS,
D
I
1860-1902
1
'
I
1
0
EMPLOYER
4
--
0
N
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
0
C3
4
4
45,5 67,6 3 9 , 2 ' 2 0 , 3 20,6 2 1 , l 24,2 23,2 28,6 52,9 59,6 54,6 69,2 6 5 , 4 ' 7 9 , 9 76,2
Unknown
A c u t t , C & CO
0,7
- 1,5 1,9 1,4 4,7 - - 0,5 - - - - Addison, F r i e n d 0,4
- - - - - 2,O 1,l 1,7 - - 1 , O - - - B a z l e y , John
0,16 - - 1,l - - - - - 1,3 - - - Beneva E s t a t e s
0,l
- - - - - - - IEW Hawkesworth)
a i n n , Henry
0,2
- 3,3
- - - - - - - - - - Blackburn
C e n t r a l Sugar
2,4
- - 0,4 9,O 8,2 2,2 10,3 592 1,2 - - - - Ca (C Vause)
0,26 Clare Estate
- 3,9 - - - - - - - - - - - (B C l a r e n c e )
- - - - - - - - 5,8 - - 0,7
C o l l i e r s EL L t d 0,4
Cornubia E s t
0,28 0,3 3,9
- - - - - , - - - - - - Dhotman A & Co 0 , l
- 2,l - - - - - - - - - - - Duboissie H &
(Maurica E s t )
0,8
- 7 , l 2,9 2 , l - - - - - - - Dundee C o a l Co 1,3
- - - - - 0,6 - - 3,4 5,6 5 , l - - 5,2
DurbanCorp.
0,4
- 1,7 - 2,8 - - - - - - - - 1,2
Effingham E s t
0,2
0,7
- 1,9 - 1,O
(S Crookes)
Equeefa E s t
095
- 098 098 295 2 , l
- 1,l - - - - Hawkesworth Bros)
Glasgow Sugar
098
- 993 393 - - - - - - - - - C0
- - 2,8 H a r r i s o n HP
0,7
- 0,8 2,O 0,6 0,5
- 2,3 190 099 - ' - - - - - - H i l l S & Co
0,3
- 197 - 0,4 2,O
- - - - - - - - - 0,15 1,3 0,9
(E M o l l i e r e s )
Hindson, W R
0,3
- - - - - - - 1,4 0,9 1,l - 1,4 - Iiulett Est
0,2
- 3,O - - - - - - - - (JIB Hulett)
Kearsney E s t
1,4
- 099 - - 0,7 - 097 - 493 - 1,7 298 798 - 194
(JL H u l e t t )
La L u c i a &
Muckle Neuk
0,4
- - - 0,5 - 197 1 , O 0,9 - 1,6 - - - E s t (A M i c h e l )
La IPIercy E s t
(('13 n i l ' C ~ s iIg n y ) 0,6
- 2,2 0,7
- 0,9 2,5 6
- 0,6
- - - L a n g l o i s , J u l e s 0,25 - 3,7
- - - - - - - - - - :.layer G C
0,3
- 5,O - - - N i l k w o o d K r a a l 0,5 1,5
- 094 398 1,l - - - - - Estate (H Shire)
Natal Central
2,7
- - - 2,8 14,3 9,O 3,8 8,3 290 - - 3,4 - Sugar Co
Natal Estates
173
- - - - - - - - - - , 5,7 3,Ol - 9,8 196
Lt d
-
-
\
-
i
-
,
Employer
continued/
...
u)
-I
EMPLOYCR
aw
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831
990
c
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N a t a l Govt.
Railways
N a t a l Land &
C o l o n i s a t i o n Co
(C Behrens)
N a t a l Plantat i o n Co
N o r t h , George
Prospect H a l l
Estate
Ottawa E s t a t e s
(A W i l k i n s o n )
Redcliff Est
(TC M i l n e r )
Reunion E s t a t e
( D de Pass)
Reynolds B r o s
Reynolds T &
Co
Sea Cow Lake
E s t a t e (AB
Kennedy)
Shire J E
Smith G S
S n e l l E & Co
Springfield
Estates
(HJ M i l n e r )
Tongaat C e n t r a l
Sugar Co
(E Saunders)
Tongaat E s t a t e s
(JR Saunders)
Umhlanga V a l l e y
Sugar Co
!lw/ i r ~ ot E s t a t e s
IF:q)rr;~oza
Ilmii~nkuiu Suqur
Cn
V i r y i r ~ : : i Sibgar
Est- (PI Chc: on)
W:itt.rl on € s t
(T Gror~m& G
,lot ~ nt so n e )
Wilson, W
TOTAL 35720
82061723 3077 3177699
- ---
3022 1620 i2786 1785 2922 12011570 816 2126
PERCENTAGES
d e a t h i n 1865.
M u c k l e Neuk c h a n g e d h a n d s s e v e r a l t i m e s :
i t was s o l d t o M i c h e l a n d P e r r o n ;
i n 1877,
i n 1893,
Michel
b o u g h t i t ; a n d p a s s e d i t t o t h e U r r ~ h l o t iC e n t r a l S u g a r M i l l
a n d E s t a t e s Co.
Ltd.
i n 1897;
t h e T o n g a a t S u g a r Co.,
was
t h e N a t a l C e n t r a l S u g a r Co.,
I t purchased from J u l e s L a n g l o i s
formed i n 1879.
a m i l l w i t h the l a t e s t machinery,
i n g estate of
£100 000.
acres,
Mt.
was b o u g h t b y
i n 1921. 29
Turning t o the bigger firms,
Ltd.,
and f i n a l l y ,
Edgecombe,
I n August 1882,
together with the adjoin-
founded i n 1959 o r 1861,
s u g a r c a n e was g r o w n o n 3 5 0 0
p r o d u c i n g 25 t o n s o f
I t s milling-
s u g a r a day.
f a c i l i t i e s were l o c a t e d on 800 a c r e s o f l a n d ,
and e n j o y e d
such a r e p u t a t i o n as t o a t t r a c t l a r g e c l i e n t s .
a c q u i r e d C o r n u b i a Sugar E s t a t e i n 1882,
M a r s h a l l Campbell,
for
The c o m p a n y
whose m a n a g e r ,
s o o n became t h e d i r e c t o r .
C a r r ~ p b e l la n d
h i s son f l o a t e d i n London t h e N a t a l E s t a t e s L t d . ,
i n 1895,
and began b u y i n g up n e i g h b o u r i n g e s t a t e s soon t h e r e a f t e r .
Blackburn Estate,
Milkwood K r a a l ,
Saccharine H i l l Estate,
E f f i n g h a m and Umtata E s t a t e s were a c q u i r e d .
i n c o r p o r a t e d were:
Sunaerland,
cliffe,
S e a Cow L a k e E s t a t e ,
Auchenglas,
Meadowbank,
Fountains,
H i l l Head,
founded t h e
brothers,
corrlpany was r e - n a m e d ,
Red-
( l a t e r known as R o s s b u r g h )
I n the early
expanded r a p i d l y
days,
Thomas a n d L e w i s w o r k e d s e p a r a t e l y .
b o u g h t U m z i n t o S u g a r Co.;
Ottawa,
and Newlands.
l i k e the Natal Estates Ltd.,
by absorbing s m a l l e r estates.
Phoenix,
f i r s t sugar r e f i n e r y i n
South A f r i c a a t South Coast J u n c t i o n
30
i n 1897 f o r £50 000.
Reynolds Bros.,
Waterloo,
Jarlies W a t s o n ' s E s t a t e ,
The N a t a l E s t a t e s L t d . ,
Other e s t a t e s
t h e Reynolds
L Reynolds
a f t e r L e w i s ' s d e a t h i n 1875,
T R e y n o l d s a n d Sons.
the
E v e n b e f o r e Thomas
Reynolds'
d i e d i n J u n e 1 8 8 5 , his two s o n s ,
F r a n k 2nd C h a r l e s
t:eynulds
h a d become a c t i v e i n t h e b u s i n e s s .
They moved t o
Umzinto,
and i n 1889 b o u g h t t h e Equeefa Sugar E s t a t e .
the m i l l
f a c i l i t i e s were d e s t r o y e d by an e x p l o s i o n ,
o p e r a t i o n was m o v e d t o E s p e r a n z a .
When
the
A new c o m p a n y was f l o a t e d
i n 1907, w i t h a c a p i t a l o f £150 000.
I n 1915, an up-to-
d a t e m i l l was o p e n e d a t S e z e l a . 3 1
The T o n g a a t E s t a t e s h a d i t s b e g i n n i n g s i n 1 8 4 8 .
When t h e
o r i g i n a l company was d i v i d e d i n 1 8 6 0 , J a m e s R S a u n d e r s ,
who h a d w o r k e d a s a m a n a g e r ,
James R Saunders'
holdings.
acquired a s h a r e i n t h e company's
s o n Edward t o o k o v e r from h i s
f a t h e r when h e d i e d i n 1 8 9 2 .
Sugar Co.,
Ltd.,
I n 1895, h e formed t h e Tongaat
w i t h t h e h e l p o f B r i t i s h c a p i t a l o f £15 000.
The N a t a l C e n t r a l S u g a r c o . ,
a s s i s t e d f i n a n c i a l l y i n build-
ing a m i l l .
I n 1 8 9 9 , Edward S a u n d e r s f l o a t e d t h e company i n
Liverpool.
In 1922, t h e Tongaat Sugar co.,
t h e Umhloti Valley and E s t a t e Co.,
Ltd.,
Ltd.,
bought
f o r £100 000. 32
Large and small b u s i n e s s firms, m u n i c i p a l i t i e s ,
institutions,
health
service-related
c o n c e r n s , a n d s o o n made w i d e
use of indentured labourers.
The c o n t r i b u t i o n i n e c o n o m i c
terms was s u b s t a n t i a l , a n d t h e s t o r y o f t h a t c o n t r i b u t i o n
remains t o be t o l d .
However,
given a choice, indentured
labourers preferred free labour for a variety of reasons,
and i n good e c o n o m i c times i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s t e r m i n a t e d
t h e i r s e r v i c e s a f t e r o n l y o n e term i n t h e i r h u n d r e d s .
This
was t h e p r i m a r y r e a s o n f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e £ 3 t a x
referred t o earlier.
Table 23 shows t h a t t h e r a t e o f r e -
i n d e n t u r e was u n u s u a l l y h i g h a f t e r 1 9 0 6 , a n d t h i s i s r e l a t e d
t o t h e depressed economic c o n d i t i o n s i n Natal during t h e
period.
The r a t e o f r e - i n d e n t u r e
was 58% i n 1 9 1 0 ; a n d 70%
i n 1912, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Annual Report o f t h e P r o t e c t o r o f
Indian Immigrants.
1920s.
out.
I t continued t o be high u n t i l t h e e a r l y
By t h e n , o f c o u r s e , t h e s y s t e m w a s w o r k i n g i t s e l f
The l a s t c o n t r a c t s e x p i r e d i n 1 9 3 3 .
period,
tea,
sugar,
up-country
I n t h e post-1911
farming, and c o a l continued
t o make u s e o f i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r . 3 3
W h i l e t h e s y s t e m was n o t l i k e d by t h e w o r k e r s t h e m s e l v e s ,
its wide usage s u g g e s t s t h a t employers found i n it a troublef r e e mode o f l a b o u r .
There were i n s t a n c e s o f s t r i k e s and
114
TABLE 23
Year
-
Source:
Indentured
Re-indentured
-
. Free
Annual Reports of the Protector of Indian Immigrants.
protests,
t o be sure,
b u t t h e y were o f m i n o r p r o p o r t i o n s
t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d u n t i l 1913. 34
forms o f
faced
There were s u f f i c i e n t
c o n t r o l s t o ensure compliance.
The e m p l o y e r s
n o t h i n g a s d r a m a t i c and m a s s i v e a s t h e 1913-14
strike
when t h o u s a n d s o f i n d e n t u r e d a n d f r e e I n d i a n s s h o w e d w o r k e r
militancy.
T h i s m i l i t a n c y has been e x p l a i n e d i n a v a r i e t y
o f ways i n r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e ,
i n the concluding chapter.
r e a s o n s why
a b o u t w h i c h more w i l l be s a i d
More p e r t i n e n t h e r e a r e t h e
t h e i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r f o r c e was e s s e n t i a l l y d o c i l e
despite the harsh conditions.
t h e c o n t r o l s themselves,
And t h e s e a r e t o b e f o u n d i n
the transient nature o f the labour,
t h e v i r t u a l a b s e n c e o f w o r k e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s among i n d i v i d u a l s
who came f r o m a p r e - i n d u s t r i a l
non-representations.
s o c i e t y and f i n a l l y p o l i t i c a l
This i s the c o n t e x t w i t h i n which
i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r i n c o l o n i a l N a t a l must be viewed.
And t h e
r e a s o n f o r t h e p r e f e r e n c e f o r i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s becomes
obvious.
NOTES
1
Robert F Osborne:
Valiant Harvest:
t h e Suqar I n d u s t r y , 1848-1926,
The F o u n d i n q o f
Durban, 1 9 6 4 , p.
2.
1-41 f o r e a r l y development i n N a t a l ' s
See a l s o pp.
sugar industry.
2
P e t e r Richardson:
"The N a t a l S u g a r I n d u s t r y , 1 8 4 9 - 1 9 0 5 :
An I n t e r p r e t i v e E s s a y , I t i n B i l l G u e s t a n d J o h n M S e l l e r s
(eds.):
E n t e r p r i s e and E x p l o i t a t i o n i n a V i c t o r i a n
Colony:
A s p e c t s o f Economic and S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f
Colonial Natal, Pietermaritzburg:
1 9 8 5 , pp.
3
Univ.
of Natal Press,
181-197.
G H , SC8/1857 and SC 4 / 1 8 5 9 ,
N a t a l A r c h i v e s (NA).
See
a l s o PCa'ial G o v e r n ~ i ~ e i - lGt a z e t t e (,NGG), 1 7 May 1 8 5 9 ; n o .
548, vol.
11, f o r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o t h e
introduction of Indians.
4
L M Thompson:
I n d i a n Irnmiqration I n t o N a t a l , 1860-1872
i n A r c h i v e s Y e a r Book f o r S o u t h A f r i c a n H i s t o r y , v o l .
P r e t o r i a , 1 9 5 2 , p.
70.
5
R e p o r t o f t h e C o o l i e C o m m i s s i o n , CSO, 1 0 9 0 6 / 1 8 6 2 , N A .
6
See R e p o r t o f t h e C o o l i e Commission, N G G ,
7
R e p o r t o f t h e I n d i a n Immigration Commission, 1885-1887
(Wragg C o m m i s s i o n ) .
8
Pietermaritzburg,
20 S e p t . ,
1887, Supplement).
Richardson,
cit.,
181-197.
pp.
(M.A.
T h e s i s , Univ.
Richardson,
op.
of Natal,
cit.,
p.
188.
1967).
24,
1 8 7 7 , pp.
1872.
645.
S e e a l s o A G Choonoo:
"Indentured Indian Immigration i n t o Natal,
9
vol.
(See a l s o N G G ,
op.
11,
1860-1911,"
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t h e i s s u e whether t h e e m i g r a n t s c o u l d be s a i d t o have
exercised "free
sense o f
choicett i n making t h e d e c i s i o n i n t h e f u l l
t h e phrase.
The p o i n t i s w e l l t a k e n ,
c o n s i d e r s t h e enormous s c a l e o f t h e m i g r a t i o n s ,
y e t when one
the emigrants
d i d make t h e d e c i s i o n t o t r a v e l a b r o a d e v e n i f t h e y w e r e
deceived about t h e i r eventual d e s t i n a t i o n s .
fruitful
I t i s much m o r e
f o r t h e . h i s t o r i a n t o u n d e r s t a n d why p e o p l e c h o s e t o
emigrate a t a l l ,
because t h e n i t s h i f t s t h e
focus
0.f
the
debate on t h e f o r c e s t h a t d i s l o c a t e d thousands o f people.
A study o f t h e socio-economic
backgrounds o f t h e emigrants
r e v e a l s much.
A caste d i d n o t always r e f l e c t t h e occupational background
o f the emigrant.
land-owning
Brahmins,
farmers.
traditionally priests,
were o f t e n
The r a n g e o f c a s t e s s u g g e s t s a w i d e
v a r i e t y o f s k i l l s i f one a c c e p t s t h a t c a s t e and o c c u p a t i o n a l
categories coincided.
Nevertheless,
the leading castes
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e most numerous c l a s s e s were t h e l a n d l e s s
peasants,
a g r i c u l t u r a l workers,
l i k e Odda ( e a r t h w o r k e r s ) ,
Dosadhs (watchmen).
and v i l l a g e s e r v i c e - l a b o u r e r s
Chamars ( l e a t h e r t a n n e r s ) ,
A great deal i s o f t e n s a i d about the pre-
dominance o f i n d i v i d u a l s o f l o w c a s t e s .
i n t h e Madras group,
and
To b e s u r e ,
Pariahs
and Chamars and A h i r s i n t h e C a l c u t t a
group were i n t h e m a j o r i t y .
B u t when o n e e x a m i n e s t h e w h o l e
range o f caste d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
there i s a s u b s t a n t i a l percentage
o f upper t o m i d d l i n g l e v e l s o f c a s t e i n t h e sample i n b o t h
t h e Madras and C a l c u t t a groups.
non-agricultural
immigrants.
R e s p e c t a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l and
c a s t e s a r e t o b e f o u n d among b o t h g r o u p s o f
The p r e d o m i n a n c e o f t h e l o w s o c i o - e c o n o m i c
classes
s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n was m o s t s e v e r e l y
a f f e c t e d by t h e u p h e a v a l s i n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y I n d i a .
Finally,
w h i l e H i n d u s were i n t h e m a j o r i t y ,
M u s l i m s w e r e a l s o among t h e i m m i g r a n t s .
1,3% were C h r i s t i a n s ,
I
group,
I n t h e Madras group,
and 3% were M u s l i m s .
I n the Calcutta
n o C h r i s t i a n s showed up i n t h e c o m p u t e r a n a l y s i s ,
a l t h o u g h t h e r e were d o u b t l e s s a few;
5,5X.
C h r i s t i a n s and
a n d M u s l i m s made u p
A s f o r employment p a t t e r n s i n N a t a l ,
the sugar industry
p r o v i d e d t h e h i g h e s t number o f j o b s ,
Other a g r i c u l t u r a l
s e c t o r s , most n o t a b l y t e a , a l s o p r o v i d e d employment,
In
t h e i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r , t h e two l e a d i n g f o r m s o f employment
were i n r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n and c o a l mining,
Working
c o n d i t i o n s were g e n e r a l l y p o o r i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r
in relation t o the industrial sector,
A question of g r e a t
i m p o r t a n c e i s why i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r w a s p r e f e r r e d o v e r f r e e
labour.
The a s s u r a n c e o f a r e g u l a r s u p p l y o f l a b o u r f o r a
f i x e d p e r i o d w a s i m p o r t a n t f o r e m p l o y e r s who were y e t u n s u r e
o f l a b o u r s o u r c e s f r o m among t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n , many
o f whom were l u r e d a w a y by t h e g o l d a n d d i a m o n d m i n i n g
industries.
But, t h e g r e a t e r machinism o f worker c o n t r o l s
a f f o r d e d by t h e i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m , m u s t s u r e l y h a v e w e i g h e d
i n t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h i s from o f l a b o u r .
A tightly
controlled system provided employers with a docile labour
f o r c e o n t h e w h o l e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e were i n s t a n c e s o f p r o t e s t
a n d s t r i k e s among g r o u p s o f w o r k e r s ,
T h e i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s came f r o m a p r e - i n d u s t r i a l
society,
and t h e l e v e l o f w o r k e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s was i n c i p i e n t .
And,
s i n c e most o f them worked o n l y f o r one t e r m , t h e i r t r a n s i e n c e made o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d l e a d e r s h i p d i f f i c u l t .
The f o r e -
most p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e t i m e , t h e N a t a l I n d i a n
C o n g r e s s , was p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t r a d e r s .
S o , p o l i t i c a l l y t o o , t h e g r o w t h o f t h e i n d e n t u r e d w o r k e r s was
stunted.
And y e t , i t i s t h e y who p r o v i d e d i n d u s t r i a l a n d
p o l i t i c a l m i l i t a n c y i n 1913-1914.
What w a s t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s m i l i t a n c y ?
Ginwala s e e s i t i n
t e r m s o f t h e s l o w l y d e v e l o p i n g w o r k e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s among t h e
i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s which culminated around a s e t of h i s t o r i c a l
c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n 1913.
Swan d o e s n o t b e l i e v e t h a t s u c h w o r k e r
c o n s c i o u s n e s s was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a c t i o n .
Rather,
a c t i o n m u s t b e s e e n i n terms o f a s e m i - p o l i t i c i s e d ,
the
pre-
i n d u s t r i a l g r o u p r e a c t i n g t o t h e c a l l o f a p e r s o n from a
h i g h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s , namely M KGandhi.
J D B e a l l and M D
North-Coombes p l a c e t h e i n d e n t u r e d m i l i t a n c y w i t h i n t h e
" s o c i a l and economic matrix o f t h e system. 2
A s seminally important as t h e s e e x p l a n t a t i o n s are, they
n e v e r t h e l e s s p o i n t t o t h e need f o r b a s i c r e s e a r c h on t h e
i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m i n i t s many f a c e t s .
For the serious schblar
i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s , t h e r e a r e 75 l i n e a r
metres of archival materials i n t h e Natal Archives ,that await
his attention.
I t is hoped t h a t t h i s s t u d y h a s p r o v i d e d a
s u f f i c i e n t b a s i s t o i n s p i r e s c h o l a r s i n t h e f u t u r e t o undert a k e r e s e a r c h on t h e i n d e n t u r e d system.
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k k
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La Guerre,
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