ARTICLE
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
OPEN
The effect of spiritual leadership on proactive
customer service performance: The roles of
psychological empowerment and power distance
1234567890():,;
Delong Zhu1, Waseem Bahadur2,3 & Muhammad Ali4 ✉
Scholars have consistently demonstrated that spiritual leadership yields positive outcomes
for employees. However, it is not clear how spiritual leadership influences proactive customer
service performance. The purpose of this research is to develop a model, grounded in social
cognitive theory, to identify why and when spiritual leadership promotes proactive customer
service performance. Specifically, the focus is on how spiritual leadership through employee
psychological empowerment facilitates proactive customer service performance under the
condition of power distance. The empirical analysis, conducted through regression analysis
using the PROCESS macro, is based on questionnaire data from 263 leaders and employees in
the hospitality industry. Findings reveal that spiritual leadership has a positive effect on
boosting employees’ psychological empowerment, subsequently nurturing their engagement
in proactive customer service performance. Moreover, it is found that within an environment
of low power distance, the favorable impact of spiritual leadership on proactive customer
service performance is amplified, as employees are more inclined to challenge authority and
norms and engage in proactively solving problems related to customer service. Key implications suggest scholars and managers ways to enhance proactive customer service
performance.
1 School of Economics and Management, Hubei University of Automotive Technology, 442002 Shiyan, Hubei, China. 2 International Business College,
Jiangxi Institute of Applied Science and Technology, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China. 3 College of International Cooperation and College of Business,
Xi’an International University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China. 4 Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science, & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.
✉email: Muhammad.ali.quaid@gmail.com
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2023)10:792 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
1
ARTICLE
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
L
Introduction
eadership is a cornerstone in enhancing the service performance of employees in the hospitality industry (Jiang et al.,
2020; Kao et al., 2015). Research has demonstrated that
value-based leadership approaches, which focus on symbolic
leader behavior, ideological and moral values, emotional feelings,
and intellectual stimulation, are particularly important within the
hospitality industry (Huertas-Valdivia et al., 2022; Tariq, Abrar
et al., 2023). Among these, spiritual leadership stands out as one
important value-based leadership approach (Avolio et al., 2009).
Spiritual leadership refers to the values, attitudes, and behaviors
of leaders that intrinsically inspire employees through elements
like vision, hope/faith, and altruistic love, in turn creating a sense
of meaningfulness, the ability to make a difference, and a feeling
of being understood and valued by the leader (Fry, 2003; Fry
et al., 2005). This leadership style is widely regarded as a positive
leadership approach because it is conducive to improving the
service performance of employees (Usman et al., 2021). Prior
research has observed favorable connections between spiritual
leadership and various employee behaviors, including entrepreneurial behavior (Usman et al., 2021), employee voice behavior
(X. Yang et al., 2019), organizational citizenship behavior (Pandia
et al., 2023), customer-oriented boundary-spanning behavior
(Bayighomog and Araslı, 2019), job performance (F. Yang et al.,
2019), and work engagement (Wu and Lee, 2020). However, the
specific influence of spiritual leadership on proactive customer
service performance among frontline service employees in the
hospitality industry remains unclear. proactive customer service
performance can serve as a competitive advantage by improving
customer satisfaction (Yan et al., 2023). Thus, it is crucial to
investigate how spiritual leadership influences proactive customer
service performance.
The purpose of this study is to examine how spiritual leadership affects proactive customer service performance in the hospitality industry and to uncover key mechanisms and boundary
conditions underlying spiritual leadership’s impact on proactive
customer service performance. To address the above research
gaps and accomplish the set objectives, this study seeks to address
the following research questions.
a. How does spiritual leadership contribute to the improvement of proactive customer service performance in the
hospitality industry?
b. What mediates the spiritual leadership influence on
proactive customer service performance?
c. What moderates the relationship between spiritual leadership and proactive customer service performance?
To answer these questions, we examine the mediating
mechanism by which spiritual leadership affects proactive customer service performance, which refers to an employee’s extra role
efforts to serve a customer through self-started behavior, longterm-oriented orientation, and persistent service behavior (Ali
and Khan, 2023). Building on social cognitive theory (Bandura,
1986), we identify psychological empowerment as a pathway
through which spiritual leadership influences proactive customer
service performance. psychological empowerment refers to the
cognitive state in which individuals perceive themselves as having
control over their work and the resources necessary to complete it,
as well as a sense of meaning and purpose in their work (Spreitzer,
1995). Previous research has shown that psychological empowerment can enhance customer service in hospitals (D’Innocenzo
et al., 2016). Another study shows that psychological empowerment is related to the proactive service performance of employees
(Dong et al., 2022). Therefore, our study suggests that by promoting psychological empowerment, spiritual leaders are likely to
foster more proactive customer service.
2
The social cognitive theory further suggests that cultural factors, such as power distance, can influence the behavior of individuals in response to leadership (Bandura, 1986; Vuong and
Hieu, 2023). Therefore, understanding the impact of spiritual
leadership on proactive customer service performance requires
considering the role of power distance. Power distance refers to
the degree to which individuals in a society accept and expect an
unequal distribution of power (Hofstede, 1980). When power
distance is high, employees may be more likely to conform to the
expectations of their spiritual leader and may be less likely to
express their proactive customer service due to fear of challenging
authority (Guo et al., 2022). However, some studies have found
that spiritual leadership can still have a positive impact on
proactive customer service in high power distance cultures. For
instance, Hu et al. (2018) found that when supervisors provide a
supportive environment for proactive customer service, it can
reduce uncertainty and promote proactive customer service even
in high power distance cultures. Similarly, Zhang and Bartol
(2010) found that in a high power distance culture, spiritual
leadership can still promote proactive customer service by
encouraging employees to develop their own unique ideas and
constructively express them. Yet, high power distance is considered a constraint for the proactive behavior of employees (Guo
et al., 2022). Therefore, when examining the relationship between
spiritual leadership and proactive customer service performance,
it is valuable to consider the moderating role of power distance.
While high power distance cultures may present challenges to
promoting proactive customer service performance, creating a
supportive and empowering environment can help reduce
uncertainty and promote proactive customer service performance, even in these contexts.
Based on social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), this study
makes two important contributions to the literature on spiritual
leadership and proactive customer service performance. Firstly, it
expands the existing leadership literature in the hospitality
industry by investigating the underlying mechanism by which
spiritual leadership impacts their followers’ proactive customer
service performance, with a focus on psychological empowerment. By identifying psychological empowerment as a facilitator
of proactive customer service performance, this study deepens
our comprehension of why spiritual leadership can promote
proactive customer service performance. Secondly, drawing on
social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), we elucidate the moderating role of power distance between spiritual leadership and
proactive customer service performance. In doing so, we answer
the calls to investigate cultural factors i.e. power distance on
employee’s response to leadership behavior (Ali et al., 2020;
Amundsen and Martinsen, 2014; Hu et al., 2018; Vuong and
Hieu, 2023). Thus, we enhance our knowledge of why and when
spiritual leadership influences the customer-related proactive
behavior of employees. In summary, the theoretical model presented in Fig. 1 contributes to the leadership literature in the
hospitality industry by investigating mechanisms and conditions
under which spiritual leadership influences proactive customer
service performance, illuminating the mediating role of psychological empowerment and moderating the role of power distance.
Theoretical framework and hypotheses
The framework of spiritual leadership and proactive customer
service performance based on social cognitive theory. Social
cognitive theory is a widely used theoretical framework in the
study of organizational behavior (Dennerlein and Kirkman, 2022;
Liang and Gu, 2016; Lin and Chang, 2018; Marescaux et al.,
2021). The theory posits that individuals shape their behaviors
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2023)10:792 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
ARTICLE
Power distance
Proacve customer
service
Performance
Spiritual leadership
Psychological
empowerment
Fig. 1 Hypothesized model. This diagram illustrates the relationships between four crucial factors: spiritual leadership, psychological empowerment, power
distance, and proactive customer service performance. The direction of the relationships among these factors is indicated by arrows.
through their experiences and are influenced by their environment (Bandura, 1986). In the context of leadership, social cognitive theory suggests that leaders and followers interact
dynamically, and leader behavior and socio-structural factors
impact follower attitudes and behaviors (Fry et al., 2011).
In our study, we apply social cognitive theory to understand
the mechanism by which spiritual leadership influences proactive
customer service performance. Specifically, we posit that spiritual
leadership enhances proactive customer service performance
through its impact on employees’ psychological empowerment,
which refers to individuals’ perceptions of their control over work
and the resources necessary to complete it, as well as their sense
of meaning and purpose in their work (Spreitzer, 1995).
psychological empowerment has been shown to positively affect
proactive customer service performance in prior research
(Rahmatika et al., 2022; Zhang and Begley, 2011). Research has
found that spiritual leadership enhances employees’ self-efficacy
(Usmanova et al., 2021), it can also influence psychological
empowerment because both self-efficacy and psychological
empowerment are related to belief in one’s capability to influence
outcomes. According to the basic tenant of social cognitive
theory, self-efficacy significantly shapes individual behaviors and
experiences. Self-efficacy denotes an employee’s conviction in
their abilities to complete tasks and achieve objectives (Bandura,
1997). Self-efficacy is likely to promote the psychological
empowerment of employees by bolstering belief in their
capabilities, competence, and mindfulness of work, hence
promoting employee determination to make impactful contributions to the organization. Furthermore, social cognitive theory
suggests that individuals learn by observing others, and thus,
employees may learn about proactive behaviors from observing
their spiritual leaders’ behavior of encouraging followers to take
initiative (Bandura, 1986).
According to social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), power
distance may affect individuals’ self-efficacy beliefs, which in turn
influence their behavior. Individuals in high power distance
cultures may have lower self-efficacy beliefs due to a lack of access
to resources and opportunities, limited control over their
environment, and a sense of dependence on those in power
(Hu et al., 2018). This may lead to lower motivation to engage in
proactive behaviors, as they may feel that their actions will not be
recognized or valued. Individuals in high power distance cultures
may also be less likely to engage in observational learning through
vicarious experiences, as they may perceive those in power as
having different capabilities and opportunities (Zhang and Yang,
2021). However, research suggests that cultural values can be
moderated by leadership behaviors (Jeon and Choi, 2020). For
instance, spiritual leadership can promote a positive climate for
proactive customer service by fostering employees’ psychological
empowerment, which can enhance their self-efficacy beliefs
(Chen and Hou, 2016). Therefore, spiritual leadership in high
power distance cultures can play a critical role in enhancing
employees’ proactive customer service by promoting a supportive
and empowering environment that can enhance their self-efficacy
beliefs and promote their observational learning experiences.
Overall, the social cognitive theory provides a valuable
framework for understanding the motivational processes that
connect contextual factors and proactive customer service
performance. By focusing on psychological empowerment and
the observation and modeling of behaviors, hospitality organizations can promote a proactive culture and enhance proactive
customer service performance.
Influence of spiritual leadership and proactive customer service
performance. Spiritual leadership is one of the important valuebased leadership approaches that has contributed to the
advancement of workplace spirituality research and practice
(Djaelani et al., 2021; Fry et al., 2005). Scholars have investigated
the role and contributions of spiritual leadership on employees in
a variety of organizational contexts, including banking and
finance (Afsar et al., 2016), education (Saeed et al., 2022), construction (Ofori, 2008), and hospitality (Bayighomog and Araslı,
2019). Scholars have found that spiritual leadership positively
influences employee’s well-being (Chen et al., 2013), work
engagement (Huang, 2022), self-efficacy (Chen and Li, 2013),
intrapreneurial behaviors (Usman et al., 2021), creativity (Jeon
and Choi, 2020), innovation (Liu et al., 2023), and performance
(F. Yang et al., 2019). The current study expands the literature by
investigating the influence of spiritual leadership on proactive
customer service performance.
According to (Ali and Khan, 2023) proactive engagement in
finding solutions for problems and queries of customers to meet
and exceed their service expectations by an individual or a team is
what is referred to as proactive customer service. Previous studies
have suggested that a variety of elements, such as an individual’s
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2023)10:792 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
3
ARTICLE
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
work experiences, personality traits, and organizational context,
can influence and lead to proactive customer service performance
(for a review see Yan et al., 2023). Leadership is regarded as a
critical factor in determining proactive customer service performance, and it is one of the personal and organizational factors
that can influence it (Wang, 2019). Specifically, numerous studies
have found a positive correlation between spiritual leadership and
proactive customer service performance in a range of organizational contexts and cultures (Jeon and Choi, 2021; Yang et al.,
2021). Bayighomog and Araslı (2019) propose that spiritual
leaders can positively impact employee’s service behavior by
encouraging intrinsic value toward accomplishing goals, highlighting the connection between the followers’ efforts and goal
attainment, and creating a strong sense of personal commitment
toward a shared vision, mission, and organizational goals among
both the leader and the followers (Wang et al., 2019).
By promoting innovative thinking, involving people in
decision-making processes, establishing loyalty, and recognizing
and valuing each person’s unique needs to further their own
personal growth and advancement, spiritual leaders can affect the
proactive customer service of their followers. (Afsar and Badir,
2017; Basiony and Atalla, 2021; Williams et al., 2017). By
inspiring their followers to seek novel approaches for tackling
obstacles and difficulties, and identifying with the unique needs of
their followers, spiritual leaders can effectively stimulate their
followers’ proactive customer service, fostering greater engagement in their work and causing elevated levels of organizational
commitment (Hunsaker, 2022). Prior research has provided
evidence to support the notion that employees who are
encouraged to participate in the decision-making process (Pawar,
2014), and whose leaders demonstrate high levels of compassion
for followers (Fry, 2003), support, and concern for their
development, tend to exhibit greater levels of innovative behavior
towards their job (Ali and Park, 2016; Gu et al., 2018).
Despite the conceptual and empirical associations between
spiritual leadership and proactive customer service performance,
scant attention has been given to examining the underlying
mechanisms by which spiritual leaders stimulate their followers’
proactive customer service (Lin & Lyau, 2011). Within this
current study, we explore the potential incorporation of
psychological empowerment as a mediating mechanism within
the connection linking spiritual leadership and proactive
customer service performance. Furthermore, we explored the
possibility of the functioning of the power distance orientation of
an organization or a culture at large, as a moderator in the linkage
between spiritual leadership and proactive customer service
performance, recognizing that a diversity of distinct processes
may underlie spiritual leadership.
Hypothesis 1: Spiritual leadership is positively associated with
proactive customer service performance.
The mediating role of psychological empowerment between
spiritual leadership and proactive customer service performance. As outlined by Spreitzer (1995), psychological empowerment is defined as a state where individuals experience a greater
internal drive to perform their tasks. This state is characterized by
four beliefs that reflect how individuals perceive their work roles:
competence, impact, meaningfulness, and self-determination.
Competence denotes a person’s belief in their capacity to execute a
task successfully. This belief is based on a sense of self-efficacy or
personal mastery, and it involves feeling capable and confident in
one’s skills and abilities (Bandura, 1986). In the context of
empowerment, “impact” refers to both, the extent to which an
individual believes they can affect organizational outcomes through
their job and the degree to which their work is meaningful and
4
helps them achieve the task’s objectives. “Meaning” refers to the
weight that a person accords a task based on their own criteria,
whereas “self-determination” denotes to a person’s sense of independence when making choices regarding their work.
Social cognitive theory similarly underscores the significance of
empowerment in creating commitment to an organization’s
objectives. Spiritual leaders can influence proactive customer
service performance by fostering a sense of psychological
empowerment in their followers. This includes creating a work
environment where employees feel competent, and have a sense
of autonomy, meaningfulness, and impact. Through this, spiritual
leaders can inspire and motivate their employees to be more
proactive and engaged in their work (Fry, 2003). Followers of
spiritual leaders are likely to have greater feelings of psychological
empowerment and to be more committed to the organization
(Jung and Sosik, 2002; Sarros et al., 2008). Through their
charisma and vision, spiritual leaders inspire their followers to
identify with the organization’s purpose and strive towards shared
goals, imbuing their work with greater meaning and a sense of
higher purpose. This creates an environment in which followers
feel empowered, autonomous, and confident in their abilities to
contribute to the organization (Wong et al., 2008). The research
work by (Fry et al., 2005; Mitroff and Denton, 1999) has shown
that leaders who exhibit high moral standards, values-based
vision, and a sense of calling inspire a sense of meaning and
purpose in their followers, leading to increased psychological
empowerment and motivation.
Spiritual leaders foster intellectual stimulation among their
followers by inciting them to scrutinize their convictions and
assumptions, and by encouraging them to engage in imaginative
and innovative approaches to solving problems. This method
enables followers to broaden their capacity, attain higher levels of
empowerment, and increase their motivation to perform work (F.
Yang et al., 2019). These leaders encourage innovation in their
followers by coaching and mentoring them to help them become
more responsible workers and grow as leaders. They also use
feedback, encouragement, and support to help their followers feel
more self-sufficient, autonomous, and deserving of respect.
(Usmanova et al., 2021). Spiritual leadership has been shown to
foster proactive customer service performance through individualized consideration, as leaders listen attentively to the needs of
followers for growth and development, act as mentors or coaches,
and encourage them to take on more responsibility and
challenges to reach their highest potential (Fry et al., 2005;
Zhang and Zhou, 2014). Through providing greater decision
latitude and autonomy in the workplace, spiritual leaders create a
work environment that empowers their followers, leading to
higher levels of proactive customer service and innovation (Rego
et al., 2012; Sessions et al., 2020).
We contend that employees who possess the feeling of
empowerment are more expected to possess greater self-efficacy
and hence, possess the ability to show significant impact over
their job and hospitality organizations in a further meaningful
manner, leading to increased proactive customer service (Fry
et al., 2011; Rego and Pina e Cunha, 2008). By feeling spiritually
empowered, employees may be more expected to be involved in
extra-role efforts, act autonomously, and exhibit heightened levels
of commitment to their organization, as it provides them with a
sense of fulfillment and purpose (Rego et al., 2019). Furthermore,
those who derive a deeper sense of purpose in their work are
more likely to have increased levels of energy to perform their
tasks and exhibit higher levels of organizational citizenship
behaviors (Kanungo, 1982; Shamir et al., 1993; Wrzesniewski
et al., 1997).
Drawing from the preceding arguments, we propose the
following hypothesis:
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2023)10:792 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
Hypothesis 2: Psychological empowerment mediates the relationship between spiritual leadership and proactive customer service
performance.
The moderating role of power distance between spiritual leadership and proactive customer service performance. Power
distance denotes the extent to which individuals, groups, or
societies acknowledge disparities such as asymmetries in power,
social standing, and affluence as inescapable, justified, or functional (Hofstede, 1980). Power distance is one key element of
cultural values explained by Hofstede (1980). Individuals with
high power distance tendencies exhibit deference towards
authority figures, while those with low power distance orientations show less differentiation based on rank or social status
(Begley et al., 2002; Wang, 2017). For instance, a high power
distance belief indicates that an employee associates great
authority and power with the leader. As such, employees with
high power distance beliefs tend to demonstrate uncritical supportive behavior towards the leader and try not to engage in
proactive behavior (Wang et al., 2023). On the other hand,
employees with low power distance beliefs tend to speak up and
engage in proactive behavior (Chiu et al., 2016). This study draws
upon the conceptualization of power distance by Hobfoll (2001)
to examine how employee beliefs about power distance influence
the relationship between spiritual leadership and proactive customer service performance.
In the absence of power distance constraints, the correlation
between spiritual leadership and proactive customer service
performance is positive, which includes various aspects such as
the enhancement of participation safety, proactivity of teams in
the pursuit of progress and novelty, and the initiation of collective
contemplation on different routes of action (Daniels and
Greguras, 2014). Notwithstanding, the favorable association
between spiritual leadership and proactive customer service
performance may exhibit variations contingent on power distance
disparities. In contexts characterized by low power distance, the
conferment of power upon employees could be markedly
augmented by the authority (Hu et al., 2018). In low power
distance contexts, team members tend to interact with each other
without concerns over hierarchical rank, professional identity, or
gender (Hofstede, 1980). Low power distance could potentially
promote an inclination among team members to express their
opinions (Hui et al., 2004), make informed decisions, and feel
secure sharing ideas with each other, despite the varying
hierarchical statuses of team members (Yang et al., 2017).
Therefore, within contexts of low power distance, the impact of
spiritual leadership on proactive customer service performance is
amplified.
In contrast, when power distance is high, the decision-making
process is more centralized, and individuals tend to strictly adhere
to the established organizational hierarchy rather than proactively
taking the initiative to act (Hofstede et al., 2005; Zhang and
Begley, 2011). Despite their inclination to unconditionally follow
leader instructions, followers with high power distance orientations may find it difficult to reconcile with leader requests to
reevaluate work assumptions or contemplate new ways of
performing their jobs. This conundrum arises from the followers’
expectation that leaders must furnish all the necessary guidance
and ideas for task completion, while at the same time requesting
such reevaluation or rethinking goes against this expectation (Hu
et al., 2018; Kirkman et al., 2009). In such contexts, the
correlation between spiritual leadership and proactive customer
service performance is less pronounced.
Additionally, employees who possess a lower preference for
power distance are more inclined to experience greater feelings of
ARTICLE
gratitude toward their spiritual leader (Lin et al., 2018). This
inclination stems from the fact that, in a low power distance
context, these employees perceive themselves as equals to their
leader in both status and capabilities (Hu et al., 2018).
Consequently, they tend to place more trust in their own abilities,
which emboldens them to proactively go beyond the conventional
methods of task execution. This proactive approach leads them to
seek out ways to enhance the customer experience through
proactive service behaviors.
Drawing from the preceding arguments, we propose the
following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 3: Power distance moderates the relationship
between spiritual leadership and proactive customer service
performance.
Methods
Study settings and data collection. To collect data for this study,
a sample population of 325 frontline employees and 45 managers
working hotel chain based in two major cities (Xian and Wuhan)
in China was selected. The rationale behind choosing this specific
hotel chain stems from several key factors. Firstly, the chain
comprises four-star hotels, which are consistently rated highly for
their services by customers on an online booking platform. This
establishes a foundation of excellence in customer service within
the hospitality organization. Furthermore, the selection was
influenced by the geographical locations of the hotels, as Xian and
Wuhan attract a diverse range of customers with varying local
and foreign backgrounds. This diversity leads to a wide spectrum
of service requirements and perceptions. Consequently, the hotel
chain provides an ideal context for investigating the impact of
spiritual leadership on proactive customer service performance.
Moreover, this hotel chain uses Western management practices to
improve the efficiency of hotel operations and service performance. Managers are in charge of promoting the development of
novel and useful ideas by their following—employees to further
organizational development and improve customer service.
Therefore, a collaborative environment exists in which frontline
employees work with each other and their supervisors to engage
in proactive behavior in solving problems faced by customers and
improving proactive customer service performance.
We first contacted the HR manager of the hotels and requested
the voluntary participation of their employees in the survey. We
provided them with a brief explanation of the study and assured
them of the privacy of their organization and employees. We used
a random sampling method in which HR managers helped us
randomly select employees from the employee number list. We
used a simple random sampling method because it provides an
unbiased sample to test the model (Siegel and Wagner, 2022). To
collect data, two types of questionnaires were distributed to the 45
direct managers of the sample employees (the direct managers of
the sample employees hold a crucial responsibility encompassing
the guidance of employees, effective supervision of employee
tasks, and the pivotal role of ensuring optimal performance across
frontline services) and randomly selected 325 frontline employees
via the company’s internal mail system. Each questionnaire
included a statement for the respondents, including a request for
voluntary participation and stating that their responses would be
kept confidential and would not be shared with anyone.
Subsequently, each of the randomly chosen employees was
provided with the opportunity to decide whether to participate or
not, without any obligation. This method allows us to mitigate
potential biases that might arise if participants were self-selected,
ensuring that our findings can be generalized. A unique
identification number was used for each respondent to match
the leader and employee responses. Leaders were asked to rate the
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2023)10:792 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
5
ARTICLE
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
proactive customer service performance via the manager questionnaires. Conversely, frontline employees were requested to fill
out the subordinate questionnaires, which included items related
to their manager’s spiritual leadership behaviors, their own
psychological empowerment, and power distance. To ensure that
the responses from the frontline employees and ratings from their
managers could be matched, a unique identification code was
assigned to each set of questionnaires.
In response to questionnaires distributed to managers and
frontline employees, 33 managers and 270 subordinates provided
their responses, yielding response rates of 73% and 83%,
respectively. After removing the unmatched and incomplete
questionnaires, a total of 263 matched manager-supervisor dyads
provided usable data for this study.
Among the responding managers, 33% were males, 73% were
aged above 36, and 90% had a master’s degree with an average
tenure of 10 years in the same organizational tenure. Among
employee respondents, the sample was comprised of 59% males,
70% aged between 21 and 40 years, 95% have a master’s degree
and most had 13–18 months with the same manager.
Measures. All survey items were taken from existing measures
validated in the literature. Because the context of the study was
Chinese employees, therefore, we used a translation and back
translation approach to all items in Chinese (Brislin, 1980). All
items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 for
strongly disagree to 7 for strongly agree.
Spiritual leadership. We used a 9-item scale adopted from Pawar
(2014) to measure the spiritual behavior of leadership rated by
employees (α = 0.97). A sample item of this measure is “My
supervisor expresses his/her respect for our members’ values.”
Psychological empowerment. Psychological empowerment was
measured using a four-dimensional scale consisting of 12 items
adopted from Spreitzer (1995) (α = 0.76). Four dimensions
include (1) meaning (A sample item of this dimension is “The
work I do is very important to me”), (2) competence (A sample
item of this dimension is “I am confident about my ability to do
my job”), (3) self-determination (A sample item of this dimension
is “I have significant autonomy in determining how I do my job”),
and (4) impact (A sample item of this dimension is “My impact
on what happens in my department is large”).
Power distance. We used 6 items measure of power distance
adopted from Begley et al. (2002) which was initially taken from
the study by Dorfman and Howell (1988) (α = 0.96). A sample
item of this measure is “It is frequently necessary for a manager to
use power and authority when dealing with subordinates”.
Proactive customer service performance. We measured proactive customer service performance using a 7-item scale adopted
from Rank et al. (2007). Managers of the frontline employees
were requested to rate the proactive customer service performance of their subordinates (α = 0.96). Leader ratings are considered a valid approach to measure the performance of
employees (Ali, Khan et al., 2022; Cao et al., 2021; Khan et al.,
2019; Nauman et al., 2022). A sample item of this measure is
“This employee actively creates partnerships with other service
representatives to better serve customers.”
Control variables. Literature suggests that the demographic
characteristics of the employees can influence their job-related
attitude and performance (Ali, Ali et al., 2022; Bao et al., 2020;
Cao and Ali, 2018; Katz-Navon et al., 2020; Khan and Ali, 2018;
6
Masood et al., 2021; Pitafi et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2022).
Accordingly, to generate robust results, we controlled
employees’ age, education, experience, and tenure in the
organization.
Analysis and results
Analysis approach. We adopted a two-step approach to analyzing
the model, in line with previous studies (Bahadur et al., 2019; Cao
et al., 2019; Islam et al., 2020; Raza et al., 2020). In the first step,
we assessed the reliability and validity of the data. In the second
step, we performed a regression analysis using the PROCESS
macro to test the hypothesized relationships of this study. This
two-step approach, which was proposed by(Hair et al., 2011), is
widely adopted by scholars in leadership and information systems
(Bahadur and Ali, 2021; Tariq, Almashayekhi, et al., 2023). We
chose the PROCESS macro, based on ordinary least square
regression, to estimate path coefficients over structural equation
modeling (SEM) due to its ability to overcome conceptual and
statistical limitations associated with traditional mediation and
moderation methods (Hayes et al., 2017). The PROCESS macro
employs bootstrapping, which has an edge over traditional
techniques as it adjusts for non-normality in the distribution of
mediated effects (Preacher et al., 2007). Therefore, recent research
supports the suitability of the PROCESS macro for models
involving mediation and moderation (Bahadur and Ali, 2021;
Tariq, Almashayekhi et al., 2023). However, it’s important to note
that choosing the PROCESS macro over SEM doesn’t inherently
provide a distinct advantage. For instance, Hayes (2013) found
similar statistical estimates using both PROCESS and an SEM
program.
Preliminary analysis. We performed confirmatory factor analysis
to test the validity of the measures. According to previous
research, a good fit to the data is indicated by the following
criteria: a χ2/df value below 2.5, SRMR value below 0.08,
RMSEA value below 0.06, AGFI value above 0.80, and CFI, IFI,
and NNFI values over 0.90 (Bentler and Bonett, 1980; Gefen
et al., 2000; Hu and Bentler, 1999; Kenny et al., 1998). The
results reveal a reasonable value of fit indices (χ2 = 721.03,
df = 413, SRMR = 0.04, AGFI = 0.82, CFI = 0.96, IFI = 0.96,
and NNFI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.05). Reported in Table 1, the
results further reveal the loadings of all items were above 0.70
thresholds (Chin, 1998). Furthermore, the values of composite
reliability, and Cronbach’s alpha were above the acceptable 0.70
(Nunally and Bernstein, 1994), and the average variance
extracted (AVE) was all above the acceptable value of 0.05 (Hu
and Bentler, 1999). Results also reveal that values of Cronbach’s
alpha for all variables were above 0.70. These results provide
evidence of the convergent validity of the measures. Furthermore, Table 1 displays that the square root of AVEs was all
greater than correlations among the related constructs. These
results suggest a satisfactory discriminant validity of measures
(Fornell and Larcker, 1981).
Table 1 presents the correlations, reliabilities, means, and
standard deviations of all variables of this study. As a piece of
initial evidence, correlations reveal that as hypothesized, spiritual
leadership was positively related to proactive customer service
performance.
Hypothesis testing. To test the model of this study, we followed a
three-step analytical procedure using PROCESS macro (Hayes,
2017). First, we tested the direct effect of the independent variable
on the outcome variable (Hypothesis 1). Second, we tested the
mediation hypothesis (Hypothesis 2). Third, we tested the moderation hypothesis (Hypothesis 3).
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2023)10:792 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
0.07
−0.03
−0.09
−0.23**
−0.42**
−0.11
−0.09
0.96
0.79
0.96
1.30
2.87
Square roots of AVEs in diagonal cells.
*p ≤ 0.05, **p ≤ 0.01.
0.01
0.26**
0.05
0.24**
0.11
−0.02
0.05
0.01
−0.06
0.01
0.67
1.20
3.99
3.61
0.92
0.96
0.80
0.87
0.92
0.96
0.01
−0.01
0.13*
0.89
0.09
0.80
0.08
0.01
0.05
0.17**
0.90
0.28**
0.84
0.25**
0.14*
0.84
0.34**
0.12
0.123*
−0.05
−0.212**
−0.03
−0.14*
−0.04
0.01
0.09
−0.05
−0.05
0.87
0.93
0.84
1.38
0.76
0.78
4.41
3.93
3.82
0.87
0.93
0.84
0.70
0.82
0.64
0.05
0.10
0.09
–
−0.16*
–
−0.03
−0.05
−0.04
0.02
−0.08
−0.03
–
0.97
–
0.71
0.78
0.86
2.28
4.16
–
0.96
–
−0.06
–
−0.02
−0.06
–
–
–
2.43
2.31
2.79
1. Education
2. Age
3. Organizational
tenure
4. Experience
5. Spiritual
leadership
6. Meaning
7. Competence
8. Selfdetermination
9. Impact
10. Proactive
customer service
performance
11. Power distance
–
–
–
−0.03
0.89
The rationale behind Hypotheses 1 and 2 suggests a direct
effect of spiritual leadership on proactive customer service
performance and an indirect effect of spiritual leadership on
proactive customer service performance via psychological
empowerment. We, therefore, used Model 4 of PROCESS macro
in SPSS to test these hypotheses.
Table 2 presents the results concerning Hypotheses 1 and 2. As
Hypothesis 1 predicted, spiritual leadership was positively
associated with proactive customer service performance
(B = 0.19, p < 0.01). Thus, Hypothesis 1 is supported. Furthermore, results reveal that spiritual leadership was positively related
to psychological empowerment (B = 0.31, p < 0.001). In addition,
psychological empowerment significantly influenced proactive
customer service performance (B = 0.20, p < 0.01), confirming
Hypothesis 2 (Baron and Kenny, 1986). Finally, the results of the
bootstrapping further supported the mediation effect of psychological empowerment because with a 20000 bootstrapping sample
upper limit and lower limit of 95% bootstrapped confidence
intervals did not include zero (0.02, 0.12). The above results
provided support for Hypotheses 1 and 2 by revealing that
spiritual leadership is positively associated with proactive
customer service performance (Hypothesis 1) and psychological
empowerment mediates the indirect relationship between spiritual leadership and proactive customer service performance
(Hypothesis 2).
Concerning moderating Hypothesis 3, we expected that power
distance would moderate the positive relationship between
spiritual leadership and proactive customer service performance.
Before testing the moderating effect, we mean-centered the
independent variable and moderating variable to generate robust
moderation results (Aiken and West, 1991). To test Hypothesis 3,
we tested Model 1 of PROCESS macro in SPSS. As shown in
Table 2, the interaction effect was significant (B = −0.11,
p < 0.05), providing support for Hypothesis 3. To further probe
moderating results, we followed Aiken and West (1991) and
plotted the interaction effect presented in Fig. 2. Simple slop test
results presented in Table 3 reveal that power distance
significantly moderated the relationship of spiritual leadership
with proactive customer service performance in a way that at a
low level of power distance, the relationship of spiritual
leadership with proactive customer service performance was
strongest (B = 0.43, p < 0.001) rather than at higher level power
distance (B = 0.21, p < 0.01). These results provide further
support for Hypothesis 3.
0.00
0.93
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Cronbach’s
alpha
–
–
–
AVE
CR
Standard
deviation
0.58
0.9
1.13
Mean
Variables
Table 1 Mean, standard deviation, reliability statistics, and correlation coefficient of variables.
ARTICLE
Discussion and implications
Our study aimed to investigate the connection between spiritual
leadership and proactive customer service performance, with a
particular focus on the impact of psychological empowerment
and power distance. Spiritual leadership emphasizes meaning and
values, which can foster a sense of purpose and fulfillment in
employees (Fry, 2003; Fry et al., 2005). This can lead to greater
job satisfaction, which consequently leads to higher levels of
proactive customer service. Furthermore, spiritual leaders often
encourage followers to question assumptions and to think critically about their work, which can also promote proactive customer service. The findings of this study offer valuable implications
for scholars and managers alike.
Theoretical implications. This study makes important contributions to the theory. Firstly, the findings of this study explain the
factors underlying proactive customer service performance when
there is spiritual leadership. In particular, spiritual leadership
prioritizes the significance of work-related tasks for their followers,
and as per our initial findings, such leaders may establish their
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2023)10:792 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
7
ARTICLE
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
Table 2 Results of hypotheses testing.
Outcome
Proactive customer service
performance
Psychological empowerment
Variables
B
B
SE
t
SE
Constant
−0.16
0.41
−0.40
−0.20
0.40
Education
0.01
0.10
0.06
0.15
0.10
Age
0.02
0.05
0.39
0.04
0.07
Organizational tenure
0.02
0.05
0.39
−0.07
0.05
Experience
0.04
0.08
0.50
−0.03
0.08
Spiritual leadership
0.19
0.06
2.92**
0.31
0.06
Psychological empowerment 0.20
0.06
3.13**
Power distance
Interaction effect
Indirect of spiritual leadership on proactive customer service performance via psychological
empowerment
Effect
SE
LL-CI
UL-CI
0.06
0.03
0.02
0.12
Proactive customer service
performance
t
B
SE
t
−0.50
1.49
0.55
−1.27
−0.38
5.22***
−0.37
0.08
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.32
0.42
0.11
0.07
0.05
0.08
0.07
−0.88
0.72
0.39
0.40
0.10
4.61***
0.06
−0.11
0.07
0.05
0.85
−2.10*
95% CI-LL = lower limit at 95% confidence interval; 95% CI-UL = upper limit at 95% confidence interval; bootstrapping sample = 20,000; Interaction = spiritual leadership × proactive distance.
*p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.001.
Fig. 2 Moderating effect. Interaction effect of spiritual leadership and power distance on employee proactive customer service performance.
Table 3 Conditional effect of spiritual leadership on proactive customer service performance at levels of power distance.
Independent variable
Moderator
Dependent variable
Effect
SE
t
LL-CI
UP-CI
Spiritual leadership
Spiritual leadership
Spiritual leadership
Power distance
Power distance
Power distance
Proactive customer service performance
Proactive customer service performance
Proactive customer service performance
0.43
0.32
0.21
0.10
0.07
0.08
4.46***
4.61***
2.78**
0.24
0.18
0.06
0.61
0.45
0.36
95% CI-LL = lower limit at 95% confidence interval; 95% CI-UL = upper limit at 95% confidence interval; bootstrapping sample = 20,000.
**p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.001.
followers’ capability and confidence by conferring them with psychological empowerment. This psychological empowerment leads
to the development of a sense of self-worth and responsibility
among followers, thereby enabling them to significantly influence
their work roles and, consequently, foster elevated levels of affiliation with and loyalty to their organization. Thus, this study contributes to the understanding of the role spiritual leadership plays in
promoting proactive customer service performance.
8
Secondly, although a large number of studies investigated the
role of spiritual leadership in generating positive employee
outcomes, previous research has not explored the mediating
mechanisms connecting spiritual leadership and proactive
customer service performance. This study provides insight into
the mechanism through which spiritual leadership can influence
proactive customer service performance. Indeed, spiritual leadership intrinsically motivates employees through vision, hope/faith,
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2023)10:792 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
and altruistic love, creating a sense of meaningfulness, and the
ability to make a difference (Fry et al., 2005). This leadership
approach can promote the support behavior of employees
towards delivering high-quality service to customers (Bayighomog and Araslı, 2019). Empirical findings of this study reveal that
spiritual leadership creates meaningfulness of employees, and
service behavior that is valued by the leader, thus creating
psychological empowerment which leads to enhanced proactive
customer service performance. By enabling followers and
facilitating their confidence in capabilities and competencies
and motivation to go the extra mile in service delivery, spiritual
leadership may provide opportunities for employees to make
significant contributions to delivering quality services, leading to
improved proactive customer service performance.
Finally, by demonstrating that power distance moderates the
association between spiritual leadership and proactive customer
service performance, our study responds to the call to investigate
cultural factors in explaining leadership influence on followers
(Ali et al., 2020; Amundsen and Martinsen, 2014; Hu et al., 2018;
Vuong and Hieu, 2023). Power distance can hinder the proactive
behavior of employees (Guo et al., 2022). Therefore, the findings
of this study suggest that in high power distance, employees may
not be able to deliver high service benefits to hospitality
organizations. While high power distance cultures may present
challenges to promoting proactive customer service performance,
creating a supportive and empowering environment can help
reduce uncertainty and promote proactive customer service
performance, even in these contexts. This underscores the need
for scholars to recognize and account for cultural factors when
investigating leadership and its outcomes. This suggests new
directions for research on spiritual leadership and proactive
customer service performance, including the need to examine the
interplay between cultural dimensions, leadership, and proactive
customer service performance in diverse contexts.
Practical implications. The study’s findings have several practical
implications for hospitality organizations. Firstly hospitality
organizations may benefit from developing and implementing
spiritual leadership practices that encourage employee empowerment. By fostering an environment where employees feel
empowered to make decisions and take ownership of their work,
hospitality organizations may see an increase in proactive customer service performance, as employees are more likely to feel
invested in the work they do and motivated to come up with
innovative solutions.
Secondly, to encourage proactive customer service, hospitality
organizations need to foster an environment that supports it.
Further, if an organization has a high power distance culture, where
authority and decision-making are concentrated in the hands of a
few individuals, spiritual leadership may not be as effective in
promoting proactive customer service performance. In such
situations, hospitality organizations may need to consider modifying
their culture to reduce power distance and create a more inclusive
work environment. By doing so, they may be able to increase the
effectiveness of spiritual leadership and foster more proactive service
behaviors in the workforce. Additionally, hospitality organizations
may need to provide training and resources to leaders to help them
adopt spiritual leadership practices and empower their employees to
achieve their full potential.
Limitations and future recommendations. A critical limitation
of the study is that the data was collected exclusively from Chinese employees. While China provides a suitable environment for
studying power distance, it is important to note that Chinese
culture has unique characteristics that differ from other cultures
ARTICLE
(Ali and Khan, 2023). As a result, the generalizability of our
findings may be limited. Therefore, we encourage future
researchers to replicate our study in Western cultures to provide a
more comprehensive understanding of spiritual leadership, psychological empowerment, power distance, and proactive customer service performance in different cultural contexts.
Furthermore, while we employed a sample size consistent with
previous empirical studies, it is important to acknowledge the
potential normality concerns that can arise from a relatively small
sample size. To address these potential concerns, we utilized a
bootstrapping approach to calculate indirect effects and establish
95% confidence intervals (Hayes, 2013). These results generated
significant findings. However, we invite future scholars to employ
larger sample sizes to yield more robust results.
To better understand the mediating effects of psychological
empowerment on the relationship between spiritual leadership and
proactive customer service performance, future studies should
incorporate experimental designs. Furthermore, research should
examine the impact of unmeasured variables that could formally or
informally impact the sense of empowerment, such as organizational structure, climate, and culture. By doing so, a more
comprehensive understanding of the complexities involved in the
relationship between spiritual leadership, psychological empowerment, and proactive customer service performance can be attained.
An additional recommendation for future research is to
consider alternative measures of spiritual leadership and
proactive customer service performance. Although the measures
used in the current study are widely accepted and validated, it is
possible that other measures may yield different results or provide
a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between
spiritual leadership and proactive customer service performance.
For example, using other measures of spiritual leadership, such as
the spiritual leadership Inventory, may capture various dimensions of spiritual leadership that could have a more robust
correlation with proactive customer service performance. Additionally, using alternative measures of proactive customer service
performance, such as those that concentrate on different forms of
proactive customer service or divergent thinking, may result in a
more extensive comprehension of the relationship between
spiritual leadership and proactive customer service performance.
By incorporating a variety of measures, researchers can enhance
their understanding of the intricate association between spiritual
leadership and proactive customer service performance and
identify the most efficient methods for encouraging proactive
customer service in the workplace.
While this study focused on the mediating role of psychological
empowerment and the moderating role of power distance, we
acknowledge that there could be other possible mediators and
moderators. For instance, psychological capital, core-self evaluation, or employee voice behavior (Ali et al., 2020; Booth et al.,
2020; Wu and Lee, 2020). Additionally, individual differences also
play a crucial role in the leader–follower relationship (Lee et al.,
2021; Song et al., 2018), such as mindfulness, and resilience,
which could also influence employee cognitive processes and
response to spiritual leadership. Furthermore, job-related factors,
such as job satisfaction and job enrichment, also enhance
employees’ risk-taking behavior and performance. An investigation of such potential mediators and moderators can further
expand our understanding of the mechanisms and conditions
that transfer spiritual leadership influence to proactive customer
service performance. Thus, we invite future scholars to consider
different variables to study the influence of spiritual leadership on
proactive customer service performance.
Finally, while it is indeed valuable to explore proactive
customer service performance and the factors influencing it, a
more valuable contribution would involve examining how
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2023)10:792 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
9
ARTICLE
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
employees’ proactive customer service behavior impacts customer
satisfaction and contributes to the success of service organizations. Therefore, we invite future scholars to delve into the
outcomes stemming from employee proactive customer service
performance.
Conclusion
In this paper, we used social cognitive theory to elucidate the
mechanisms and conditions through spiritual leadership that
influence employee service-related behavior. The empirical findings demonstrate that spiritual leadership influences psychological empowerment, thereby improving proactive customer service
performance. Furthermore, the findings suggest that low power
distance is conducive to spiritual leadership positively influencing
psychological empowerment and proactive customer service
performance. Although the literature on spiritual leadership is
growing, we hope that our research is a step toward to more
comprehensive understanding of its effects on employees and
customers in the hospitality industry.
Data availability
The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical
restrictions by the source. The datasets generated during and/or
analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Received: 18 March 2023; Accepted: 12 October 2023;
References
Afsar B, Badir Y (2017) Workplace spirituality, perceived organizational support
and innovative work behavior. J Workplace Learn 29(2):95–109. https://doi.
org/10.1108/JWL-11-2015-0086
Afsar B, Badir Y, Kiani US (2016) Linking spiritual leadership and employee proenvironmental behavior: the influence of workplace spirituality, intrinsic
motivation, and environmental passion. J Environ Psychol 45:79–88. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2015.11.011
Aiken LS, West SG (1991) Multiple regression: testing and interpreting interactions. Sage
Ali A, Ali SM, Xue X (2022) Motivational approach to team service performance:
role of participative leadership and team-inclusive climate. J Hosp Tour
Manag 52:75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2022.06.005
Ali A, Khan AN (2023) Task stressors, team reflexivity, and proactive customer service
performance. Serv Ind J 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2023.2197221
Ali A, Khan NA, Wang H, Wang N (2022) Investigating the influence of social
media on employee creativity: a perspective from social network ties. Creativity Res J 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2022.2102753
Ali A, Wang H, Johnson RE (2020) Empirical analysis of shared leadership promotion and team creativity: an adaptive leadership perspective. J Organ
Behav 41(5):405–423. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2437
Ali M, Park K (2016) The mediating role of an innovative culture in the relationship
between absorptive capacity and technical and non-technical innovation. J Bus
Res 69(5):1669–1675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.10.036
Amundsen S, Martinsen ØL (2014) Empowering leadership: construct clarification,
conceptualization, and validation of a new scale. Leadersh Q 25(3):487–511
Avolio BJ, Walumbwa FO, Weber TJ (2009) Leadership: current theories, research,
and future directions. Annu Rev Psychol 60(1):421–449. https://doi.org/10.
1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621
Bahadur W, Ali A (2021) Linking leader humility with service performance: the
role of service climate and customer mistreatment. Asian Bus Manag
22(2):621–642. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41291-020-00145-9
Bahadur W, Khan AN, Ali A, Usman M (2019) Investigating the effect of employee
empathy on service loyalty: the mediating role of trust in and satisfaction with
a service employee. J Relationsh Mark 19(3):229–252
Bandura A (1986) Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive
theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc
Bandura A (1997) Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. Macmillan
10
Bao D, Ali A, Wang H (2020) Exploring information avoidance intention of social
media users: a cognition–affect–conation perspective. Internet Res
30(5):1455–1478
Baron RM, Kenny DA (1986) The moderator–mediator variable distinction in
social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J Personal Soc Psychol 51(6):1173–1182
Basiony A, Atalla AD (2021) Relationship between spiritual leadership and creativity as perceived by staff nurses. Int J Healthc Sci 9(1):139–151
Bayighomog SW, Araslı H (2019) Workplace spirituality–customer engagement
nexus: the mediated role of spiritual leadership on customer-oriented
boundary-spanning behaviors. Serv Ind J 39(7-8):637–661
Begley TM, Lee C, Fang Y, Li J (2002) Power distance as a moderator of the
relationship between justice and employee outcomes in a sample of Chinese
employees. J Manag Psychol 17(8):692–711
Bentler PM, Bonett DG (1980) Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis
of covariance structures. Psychol Bull 88(3):588–606
Booth JE, Shantz A, Glomb TM, Duffy MK, Stillwell EE (2020) Bad bosses and selfverification: the moderating role of core self-evaluations with trust in
workplace management. Hum Resource Manag 59(2):135–152. https://doi.
org/10.1002/hrm.21982
Brislin RW (1980) Translation and content analysis of oral and written materials.
In: H.C. Triandis HC, Berry JW (eds) Handbook of crosscultural psychology:
vol 2. Methodology. Allyn & Bacon, Boston, pp. 389–444
Cao X, Ali A (2018) Enhancing team creative performance through social media
and transactive memory system. Int J Inf Manag 39:69–79. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.ijinfomgt.2017.11.009
Cao X, Ali A, Pitafi AH, Khan AN, Waqas M (2021) A socio-technical system
approach to knowledge creation and team performance: evidence from
China. Inf Technol People 34(7):1976–1996. https://doi.org/10.1108/itp-102019-0536
Cao X, Khan AN, Ali A, Khan NA (2019) Consequences of cyberbullying and
social overload while using SNSs: a study of users’ discontinuous usage
behavior in SNSs. Inf Syst Front 22(6):1343–1356. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10796-019-09936-8
Chen AS-Y, Hou Y-H (2016) The effects of ethical leadership, voice behavior and
climates for innovation on creativity: a moderated mediation examination.
Leadersh Q 27(1):1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.10.007
Chen C-Y, Chen C-HV, Li C-I (2013) The influence of leader’s spiritual values of
servant leadership on employee motivational autonomy and eudaemonic
well-being. J Relig Health 52(2):418–438
Chen C-Y, Li C-I (2013) Assessing the spiritual leadership effectiveness: the contribution of follower’s self-concept and preliminary tests for moderation of
culture and managerial position. Leadersh Q 24(1):240–255
Chin WW (1998) Issues and opinion on structural equation modeling. MIS Q
22(1):vii–xvi
Chiu CC, Owens BP, Tesluk PE (2016) Initiating and utilizing shared leadership in
teams: the role of leader humility, team proactive personality, and team
performance capability. J Appl Psychol 101(12):1705–1720. https://doi.org/
10.1037/apl0000159
D’Innocenzo L, Luciano MM, Mathieu JE, Maynard MT, Chen G (2016)
Empowered to perform: a multilevel investigation of the influence of
empowerment on performance in hospital units. Acad Manag J
59(4):1290–1307. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2013.1073
Daniels MA, Greguras GJ (2014) Exploring the nature of power distance: implications for micro-and macro-level theories, processes, and outcomes. J
Manag 40(5):1202–1229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314527131
Dennerlein T, Kirkman BL (2022) The hidden dark side of empowering leadership:
the moderating role of hindrance stressors in explaining when empowering
employees can promote moral disengagement and unethical proorganizational behavior. J Appl Psychol 107(12):2220–2242. https://doi.org/
10.1037/apl0001013
Djaelani AK, Sanusi A, Triatmanto B (2021) Spiritual leadership, job satisfaction,
and its effect on organizational commitment and organizational citizenship
behavior. Manag Sci Lett 11(3):3907–3914
Dong Y, Zhao X, Yuan Y, Dong H, Jiang J (2022) What’s wrong with different
empowerment? The effect of differentiated empowering leadership on
employee proactive service. J Hosp Tour Res 47(7):1187–1214
Dorfman PW, Howell JP (1988) Dimensions of national culture and effective
leadership patterns: Hofstede revisited. Adv Int Comp Manag 3(1):127–150
Fornell C, Larcker DF (1981) Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. J Mark Res 18(1):39–50
Fry LW (2003) Toward a theory of spiritual leadership. Leadersh Q 14(6):693–727
Fry LW, Hannah ST, Noel M, Walumbwa FO (2011) RETRACTED: impact of
spiritual leadership on unit performance. Leadersh Q 22(2):259–270. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.02.002
Fry LW, Vitucci S, Cedillo M (2005) Spiritual leadership and army transformation:
theory, measurement, and establishing a baseline. Leadersh Q 16(5):835–862
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2023)10:792 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
Gefen D, Straub D, Boudreau M-C (2000) Structural equation modeling and
regression: Guidelines for research practice. Commun Assoc Inf Syst
4(7):1–70
Gu J, Chen Z, Huang Q, Liu H, Huang S (2018) A multilevel analysis of the
relationship between shared leadership and creativity in inter-organizational
teams. J Creative Behav 52(2):109–126. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.135
Guo Y, Zhu Y, Zhang L (2022) Inclusive leadership, leader identification and
employee voice behavior: the moderating role of power distance. Current
Psychol 41(3):1301–1310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00647-x
Hair JF, Ringle CM, Sarstedt M (2011) PLS-SEM: indeed a silver bullet. J Mark
Theory Pract 19(2):139–152. https://doi.org/10.2753/mtp1069-6679190202
Hayes AF (2013) Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process
analysis: a regression-based approach. Guilford Publications
Hayes AF (2017) Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process
analysis: a regression-based approach. Guilford Publications
Hayes AF, Montoya AK, Rockwood NJ (2017) The analysis of mechanisms and
their contingencies: PROCESS versus structural equation modeling. Australas
Mark J 25(1):76–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ausmj.2017.02.001
Hobfoll SE (2001) The influence of culture, community, and the nested‐self in the
stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory. Appl Psychol
50(3):337–421
Hofstede G (1980) Culture’s consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Sage
Hofstede G, Hofstede GJ, Minkov M (2005) Cultures and organizations: Software
of the mind, vol 2. Mcgraw-Hill, New York
Hu J, Erdogan B, Jiang K, Bauer TN, Liu S (2018) Leader humility and team
creativity: the role of team information sharing, psychological safety, and
power distance. J Appl Psychol 103(3):313–323. https://doi.org/10.1037/
apl0000277
Hu LT, Bentler PM (1999) Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure
analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Equ Model
6(1):1–55
Huang Y (2022) Spiritual leadership and job engagement: the mediating role of
emotion regulation. Front Psychol 13:844991
Huertas-Valdivia I, González-Torres T, Nájera-Sánchez J-J (2022) Contemporary
leadership in hospitality: a review and research agenda. Int J Contemp Hosp
Manag 34(6):2399–2422
Hui MK, Au K, Fock H (2004) Empowerment effects across cultures. J Int Bus Stud
35(1):46–60. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400067
Hunsaker WD (2022) Spiritual leadership and employee innovation. Curr Psychol
41(8):5048–5057. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01011-9
Islam T, Li J, Ali A, Xiaobei L, Sheikh Z, Ullah Zafar A (2020) Mapping online App
hate: determinants and consequences. Telemat Inform 51:101401. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101401
Jeon KS, Choi BK (2020) A multidimensional analysis of spiritual leadership,
affective commitment and employees’ creativity in South Korea. Leadersh
Organ Dev J 41(8):1035–1052
Jeon KS, Choi BK (2021) Workplace spirituality, organizational commitment and
life satisfaction: the moderating role of religious affiliation. J Organ Change
Manag 34(5):1125–1143. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-01-2021-0012
Jiang J, Dong Y, Li B, Gu H, Yu L (2020) Do feelings matter? The effect of leader
affective presence on employee proactive customer service performance. Int J
Contemp Hosp Manag 32(7):2305–2323. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-062019-0538
Jung DI, Sosik JJ (2002) Transformational leadership in work groups: the role of
empowerment, cohesiveness, and collective-efficacy on perceived group
performance. Small Group Res 33(3):313–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/
10496402033003002
Kanungo RN (1982) Measurement of job and work involvement. J Appl Psychol
67(3):341–349. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.67.3.341
Kao P-J, Pai P, Lin T, Zhong J-Y (2015) How transformational leadership fuels
employees’ service innovation behavior. Serv Ind J 35(7-8):448–466. https://
doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2015.1015519
Katz-Navon T, Vashdi DR, Naveh E (2020) The toll of service climate on
employees: an emotional labor perspective. J Serv Theory Pract
30(2):105–121. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSTP-12-2018-0291
Kenny D, Kashy D, Bolger N (1998) Data analysis in social psychology. In: Gilbert
D, Fiske S, Lindzey G (eds) The handbook of social psychology, vol. 1.
McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA, pp. 233–265
Khan AN, Ali A (2018) Factors affecting retailer’s adoption of mobile payment
systems: a SEM-neural network modeling approach [journal article]. Wirel
Personal Commun 103(3):2529–2551. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11277-0185945-5
Khan AN, Ali A, Khan NA, Jehan N (2019) A study of relationship between
transformational leadership and task performance: the role of social media
and affective organisational commitment. Int J Bus Inf Syst 31(4):499–516
Kirkman BL, Chen G, Farh J-L, Chen ZX, Lowe KB (2009) Individual power
distance orientation and follower reactions to transformational leaders: a
ARTICLE
cross-level, cross-cultural examination. Acad Manag J 52(4):744–764. https://
doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.43669971
Lee YH, Richards KAR, Washburn N (2021) Mindfulness, resilience, emotional
exhaustion, and turnover intention in secondary physical education teaching.
Eur Rev Appl Psychol 71(6):100625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erap.2021.
100625
Liang B, Gu Q (2016) Shared leadership and creativity in knowledge-worker teams:
a multilevel motivational perspective. Acad Manag Proc 2016(1):13189.
https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2016.13189abstract
Lin CP, Lyau NM (2011) The effects of spiritual leadership on employee creativity.
J Bus Eth 98(2):353–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0584-8
Lin H-C, Chang C-M (2018) What motivates health information exchange in social
media? The roles of the social cognitive theory and perceived interactivity. Inf
Manag 55(6):771–780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2018.03.006
Lin W, Ma J, Zhang Q, Li JC, Jiang F (2018) How is benevolent leadership linked to
employee creativity? The mediating role of leader–member exchange and the
moderating role of power distance orientation. J Bus Eth 152(4):1099–1115.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3314-4
Liu Y, Wang Y, Zhang F, Liu S, Liu P et al. (2023) Influence of team spiritual
leadership on team green innovation performance from the perspective of
social information processing. Curr Psychol 42:25671–25682. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s12144-022-03672-0
Marescaux E, De Winne S, Rofcanin Y (2021) Co-worker reactions to i-deals
through the lens of social comparison: the role of fairness and emotions.
Hum Relat 74(3):329–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726719884103
Masood A, Feng Y, Rasheed ME, Ali A, Gong M (2021) Smartphone-based social
networking sites and intention to quit: self-regulatory perspective. Behav Inf
Technol 40(11):1055–1071. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2020.1740787
Mitroff II, Denton EA (1999) A study of spirituality in the workplace. Sloan Manag
Rev 40(4):83–92
Nauman S, Zheng CS-M, Ali A, Yaqub H (2022) Late-night smartphone usage and
job performance: roles of work withdrawal and emotional regulation. Acad
Manag
Proc
2022(1):11884.
https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2022.
11884abstract
Nunally J, Bernstein I (1994) Psychology theory. McGrew-Hill, New York
Ofori G (2008) Leadership for future construction industry: agenda for authentic
leadership. Int J Proj Manag 26(6):620–630
Pandia MM, Jufrizen J, Khair H, Tanjung H (2023) Organization citizenship
behavior: the role of spiritual leadership, self efficacy, locus of control and job
satisfaction. J Organ Manaj 19(1):168–187
Pawar BS (2014) Leadership spiritual behaviors toward subordinates: an empirical
examination of the effects of a leader’s individual spirituality and organizational spirituality. J Bus Eth 122(3):439–452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551013-1772-5
Pitafi AH, Kanwal S, Ali A, Khan AN, Waqas Ameen M (2018) Moderating roles of
IT competency and work cooperation on employee work performance in an
ESM environment. Technol Soc 55:199–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
techsoc.2018.08.002
Preacher KJ, Rucker DD, Hayes AF (2007) Addressing moderated mediation
hypotheses: theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivar Behav Res
42(1):185–227
Rahmatika A, Ma’arif S, Kholifah S (2022) The effect of spiritual leadership and
psychological empowerment on employee performance. Nidhomul Haq
7(3):421–435. https://doi.org/10.31538/ndh.v7i3.2678
Rank J, Carsten JM, Unger JM, Spector PE (2007) Proactive customer service
performance: relationships with individual, task, and leadership variables.
Hum Perform 20(4):363–390
Raza MY, Khan AN, Khan NA, Ali A, Bano S (2020) Dark side of social media and
academic performance of public sector schools students: role of parental
school support. J Public Aff 20(3):e2058
Rego A, Owens B, Yam KC, Bluhm D, Cunha MPE, Silard A, Liu W (2019) Leader
humility and team performance: exploring the mediating mechanisms of
team PsyCap and task allocation effectiveness. J Manag 45(3):1009–1033
Rego A, Pina e Cunha M (2008) Workplace spirituality and organizational commitment: an empirical study. J Organ Change Manag 21(1):53–75. https://
doi.org/10.1108/09534810810847039
Rego A, Sousa F, Marques C, Cunha MPE (2012) Authentic leadership promoting
employees’ psychological capital and creativity. J Bus Res 65(3):429–437.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.10.003
Saeed I, Khan J, Zada M, Ullah R, Vega-Muñoz A, Contreras-Barraza N (2022)
Towards examining the link between workplace spirituality and workforce
agility: Exploring higher educational institutions. Psychol Res Behav Manag
15:31–49
Sarros JC, Cooper BK, Santora JC (2008) Building a climate for innovation through
transformational leadership and organizational culture. J Leadersh Organ
Stud 15(2):145–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051808324100
Sessions H, Nahrgang JD, Newton DW, Chamberlin M (2020) I’m tired of listening: the effects of supervisor appraisals of group voice on supervisor
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2023)10:792 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
11
ARTICLE
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x
emotional exhaustion and performance. J Appl Psychol 105(6):619–636.
https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000455
Shamir B, House RJ, Arthur MB (1993) The motivational effects of charismatic
leadership: a self-concept based theory. Organ Sci 4(4):577–594
Siegel AF, Wagner MR (2022) Random sampling: planning ahead for data gathering. In: Siegel AF, Wagner MR (eds) Practical business statistics, 8th edn.
Academic Press, pp. 205–235
Song Y, Liu Y, Wang M, Lanaj K, Johnson RE, Shi J (2018) A social mindfulness
approach to understanding experienced customer mistreatment: a withinperson field experiment. Acad Manag J 61(3):994–1020
Spreitzer GM (1995) Psychological empowerment in the workplace: dimensions,
measurement, and validation. Acad Manag J 38(5):1442–1465
Tariq H, Abrar M, Ahmad B (2023) Humility breeds creativity: the moderated
mediation model of leader humility and subordinates’ creative service performance in hospitality. Int J Contemp Hosp Manag
Tariq H, Almashayekhi A, Ali A, Burhan M, Butt HP (2023) All stressors are not
bad: an affect-based model of role overload—the supervisor-level antecedent
of abusive supervision. Int J Confl Manag 34(3):545–569
Usman M, Ali M, Ogbonnaya C, Babalola MT (2021) Fueling the intrapreneurial
spirit: a closer look at how spiritual leadership motivates employee intrapreneurial behaviors. Tour Manag 83:104227
Usmanova K, Wang D, Sumarliah E, Khan SZ, Khan SU, Younas A (2021) Spiritual
leadership as a pathway toward innovative work behavior via knowledge
sharing self-efficacy: moderating role of innovation climate. VINE J Inf
Knowl Manag Syst https://doi.org/10.1108/VJIKMS-04-2021-0054
Vuong BN, Hieu VT (2023) The effect of empowering leadership on job performance among frontline employees: does power distance orientation
matter? J Organ Eff: People Perform https://doi.org/10.1108/JOEPP-112021-0333
Wang H (2017) What stops creative employees to implement ideas? Individual
culture value orientation perspective. J Organ Change Manag 30(6):872–887.
https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-10-2016-0199
Wang M, Guo T, Ni Y, Shang S, Tang Z (2019) The effect of spiritual leadership on
employee effectiveness: an intrinsic motivation perspective. Front Psychol
9:2627
Wang N, Xie W, Ali A, Brem A, Wang S (2022) How do individual characteristics
and social capital shape users’ continuance intentions of smart wearable
products? Technol Soc 68:101818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.
101818
Wang Q (2019) The servant leadership and how it stimulates employee service
performance in public sectors. Dissertation, National Institute of Development Administration
Wang X, Wen X, Liu Z, Jiang Y, Huai M (2023) Leader apology in the
employee–organization relationship: the roles of subordinate power distance
belief and leader competence. Tour Manag 96:104694. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.tourman.2022.104694
Williams WA, Brandon R-S, Hayek M, Haden SP, Atinc G (2017) Servant leadership and followership creativity: the influence of workplace spirituality
and political skill. Leadersh Organ Dev J 38(2):178–193. https://doi.org/10.
1108/LODJ-02-2015-0019
Wong M, Gardiner E, Lang W, Coulon L (2008) Generational differences in personality and motivation: do they exist and what are the implications for the
workplace? J Manag Psychol 23(8):878–890. https://doi.org/10.1108/
02683940810904376
Wrzesniewski A, McCauley C, Rozin P, Schwartz B (1997) Jobs, careers, and
callings: people’s relations to their work. J Res Personal 31(1):21–33. https://
doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1997.2162
Wu W-L, Lee Y-C (2020) How spiritual leadership boosts nurses’ work engagement: the mediating roles of calling and psychological capital. Int J Environ
Res Public Health 17(17):6364
Yan Z, Dato Mansor Z, Choo WC (2023) Antecedents of proactive customer
service performance in hospitality: a meta-analysis. J Hosp Mark Manag
32(4):505–529
Yang F, Liu J, Wang Z, Zhang Y (2019) Feeling energized: a multilevel model of
spiritual leadership, leader integrity, relational energy, and job performance. J
Bus Eth 158(4):983–997
Yang J, Chang M, Chen Z, Zhou L, Zhang J (2021) The chain mediation effect of
spiritual leadership on employees’ innovative behavior. Leadersh Organ Dev J
42(1):114–129. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-10-2019-0442
12
Yang J, Liu H, Gu J (2017) A multi-level study of servant leadership on creativity:
the roles of self-efficacy and power distance. Leadersh Organ Dev J
38(5):610–629
Yang X, Meng Y, Qiu Y, Feng Y (2019) Why am I willing to speak up? The impact
of spiritual leadership on employee voice behavior. Front Psychol 10:2718
Zhang X, Bartol KM (2010) Linking empowering leadership and employee creativity: the influence of psychological empowerment, intrinsic motivation, and
creative process engagement. Acad Manag J 53(1):107–128
Zhang X, Zhou J (2014) Empowering leadership, uncertainty avoidance, trust, and
employee creativity: Interaction effects and a mediating mechanism. Organ
Behav Hum Decision Process 124(2):150–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
obhdp.2014.02.002
Zhang Y, Begley TM (2011) Power distance and its moderating impact on
empowerment and team participation. Int J Hum Resource Manag
22(17):3601–3617. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2011.560877
Zhang Y, Yang F (2021) How and when spiritual leadership enhances employee
innovative behavior. Pers Rev 50(2):596–609. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-072019-0346
Author contributions
Regarding the contributions of all authors, DZ contributed to improving the article’s
writing, addressing the reviewer’s comments, and supporting the data analysis. WB
contributed to developing the theoretical model, data collection, and analysis. MA
provided significant suggestions for improving the article and writing the original draft.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical approval
We adhered to standard procedures and utilized validated measurement instruments.
The study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. Furthermore, we obtained approval from the Ethics Committee of the College of
International Cooperation and Business, Xi’an International University.
Informed consent
On the first page of the questionnaire, we included information regarding the consent
procedures and provided participants with details regarding the study’s objectives, and
assured them of the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses. Then we asked for
their voluntary participation in the survey. Participants responded to the survey measures voluntarily and without any obligation.
Additional information
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Muhammad Ali.
Reprints and permission information is available at http://www.nature.com/reprints
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative
Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party
material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless
indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the
article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory
regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from
the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/.
© The Author(s) 2023
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2023)10:792 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02273-x