Botswana Open University
Junior Secondary Certificate
Agriculture Revision Booklet
Book 2
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UNIT 6
FRUIT TREE PRODUCTION
OVERVIEW
In this unit you are going to learn about fruit tree production in Botswana, their importance and factors
influencing the choice of fruit trees to grow. There are many types of fruit trees in Botswana. Some of the
trees which, grow naturally are known as indigenous trees; while others are imported into the country and
these are known are exotic trees. Moreover, you will learn about how these are propagated (grown) and
managed in special places called orchards. The propagation of fruit trees can be from the seed (called
sexual propagation) or from the vegetative part (called asexual propagation). The fruit tree seedlings can
be grown and raised in a nursery and later transplanted into their permanent space of growth where they
will grow until they are mature.
Learning Objectives: Sub –Topic 1
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
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Acquire knowledge and skills on fruit tree production
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Develop the skills of propagating fruit trees
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Know the fruit trees found in Botswana and their importance
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Know requirements of the orchard
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Know the factors influencing the choice of fruit tree to grow
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Know materials for nursery construction
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Know types of soil media and fertilizer used when propagating fruit trees
1.0 INDIGENOUS FRUIT TREES
These are fruit trees that are native to Botswana, naturally growing in this country. Examples are: Marula
(morula), Monkey orange (mogorogorwane), Wild medlar (mmilo), Bush Raisin (moretlwa), Baobab
(mowana), Snot Apple (morojwa), Large sour plum (moretologa), Sweet Thorn (Mooka), Jackal berry
(Mokotshong), Red milk woo (Mmopudu) and Jelly melon (mokopane).
1.1 Exotic Fruit Trees
These are fruit trees that originate from other countries and have been imported into Botswana. Examples
are: Oranges, Guavas, Peaches, Mangoes, Paw paws, Pomegranates (garenate), Grapes, Apples, Bananas,
Pear, Lemons, Pineapples, Avocado, Apricots, Bananas, Strawberries, Mulberries and Naartjies
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1.2 Importance of Fruit Trees and Fruits
(a) The nutritional value of fruits
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Contain nutrients needed for the body such as carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals
Provide roughage for the digestion
Add a variety of colours, textures and tastes to our food
Contain a lot of water when fresh and very little fat
Stimulate one’s appetite
(b) The economic value of fruits
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Source of income for a farmer
Source of foreign exchange
Source of raw materials for food industries
Source of employment for those working in orchards, nurseries and fruit processing industries
Trees provide pollen and nectar for honey bees
Trees protect soil from erosion
1.3. Requirements for the Establishment of an Orchard
An orchard: It is an area of land where fruit trees are grown.
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Permanent supply of good quality water
Topography
Fertile soil
Availability of dependable, experienced labour force (workers)
Existence of high demand for fruits
Availability of support services such as horticultural experts
Enough money
Suitable climatic conditions
Existence of wind breakers to protect an orchard against strong winds
Fencing to protect an orchard from animals and trespassers
1.4 Factors Influencing Choice of a Fruit Tree to Grow
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Type of soil and climatic conditions
Demand for the fruits
Resistance to pests and diseases
Farmers knowledge and experience
Market for fruits
Farmer’s taste and preference
Gestation period and expected productive life of a fruit tree
Availability of quality planting material
1.5 A Tree Nursery
It is a place where young trees (tree seedlings) are raised from seeds or vegetative parts before being
transplanted to their permanent sites.
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(a) Materials needed for nursery construction
Treated gum poles, net shade, cement, sand and gravel, pegs, bricks (for concrete ridges), and gravel.
(b) Equipment needed for Nursery construction
Pliers, hammers, wheelbarrow, nails. Shovel, pegs, and measuring tape.
(c) Significance of net shading in a nursery
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Protects young plants from high temperatures and high light intensity
Minimizes evapotranspiration, so reduces water stress
Protects seedlings from direct beating by raindrops
Encourages cool conditions at ground level which favours growth of emerging seedlings
Protects seedlings from bird damage
1.6 Preparing the Soil or Media and Fertilisers use in a Nursery for Propagating Trees
1. Soil (loam and sandy soil) needs to be sterilised to kill micro-organisms, soil borne diseases and
nematodes. The soil can be sterilised through the following methods:
a) Use of chemicals/fumigation; use methyl bromide and chloropicrin
b) Heat method; put soil in a drum and make fire underneath the drum in order to heat the soil
2. Mix the soil with kraal manure in ration 1:1 and remove clods, stones and objects that might
prevent seedlings to emerge
3. Separate the soil into small plastic bags, trays or seed beds
4. Have seeds ready, if needed, treat seeds to improve germination
Types of Fertilizers in a Nursery
Compound fertilizers such as 2:3:2 (22) are usually used
NB; premixes can also be bought from the nursery shops and supermarkets
1.7 Characteristics of a Suitable Soil Mixture
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Supply enough plant nutrients
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Free from soil-borne pests and weed seeds
Well aerated, have a good water holding capacity and allows excess water to drain away
Low salinity level (amount of salt in the soil)
Capable of being pasteurized by steam or chemicals
Learning Objectives: Sub –Topic 2
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
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Discuss methods of production of fruit trees
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Know management of seedlings in a nursery
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Know steps in transplanting
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Know and understand factors influencing size, hole depth of hole and spacing of seedlings.
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Know the management practices in an orchard
2.0 Management of Seedlings in a Nursery
These include: watering, weeding, controlling, pests and diseases, thinning, cultivation; shading, fertilizer
application and hardening of seedlings
2.1 Methods of propagating Fruit trees
Propagation means production of fruit trees. There are two methods of propagating tree plants: sexual
propagation and asexual propagation
(a) Sexual Propagation
Production of fruit trees from seeds. Examples of exotic fruit tree propagated by seeds are granadilla, pawpaw, peach and guava. Most indigenous trees are propagated by seeds. Fruit trees produced sexually are
never the same as the parent plant from which the seed was obtained. There are usually differences in size,
colour of fruit, shape, quality and seasons of maturity. The propagation of trees by seeds is therefore not
usually desirable.
i. Advantages of sexual propagation
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An inexpensive method of propagation
Does not require a great deal of skill to raise plants from seeds
ii. Disadvantages of sexual production
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Slow process because many seeds require a period of dormancy (sleeping period of a seed) before
they germinate
New plants that are produced may not resemble the parent plants from which the seeds were
obtained
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Sexual produced plants are often not resistant to certain pests and diseases especially during the
seedling stage of the plant
b) Asexual Propagation
This is the Production of trees using the vegetative parts of a plant such as the root, stem or leaves.
Unlike sexual propagation, asexual propagation results in plants with the same characteristics as the
parent for an example, if the parent plant from which the vegetative parts (stem, leave or roots) which
was taken is resistant to diseases then the daughter plant is likely to inherit these characteristics. If the
parent plant bears many fruits, so will the daughter plant.
i. Advantages of asexual production
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This is the only way of propagation plants that do not produce seeds e.g. pineapple and
banana.
Easier and quicker than sexual propagation
Asexual produced plants are more resistant to diseases, especially during the early period of
establishment
This method allows the nature of growth of the plant to be changed e.g. A tall plant may be
dwarfed and a thorned plant may be made thornless
Asexual propagation fruits often produce seeds earlier e.g. it takes a 9-12yrs to get fruits from
orange raised from seeds and only 2-3 years from asexually propagated oranges.
ii. Disadvantages of asexual propagation
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Some plants are difficult to produce asexually
It may be expensive because of the cost of the materials required to propagate plants in this way
It requires knowledge and experience to select the vegetative parts used
Diseases may spread to the daughter plant if the material used is already infected
Great skill is required to carry-out techniques such as a bud grafting and air layering
Differences between Sexual and Asexual propagation
Sexual Propagation
Plants are produced from seed
Produced plants are not easily the same as the
parent plant from where the seed was obtained.
Seeds produced are of fertilization of male and
female sex cell.
Easier and cheaper to carryout sexual propagation
Asexual Propagation
Plants are produced from vegetative parts
Plants produced are similar to the parent plant.
No sex cells are involved in producing new plants
Skills and knowledge is required to carry-out
therefore, difficult and expensive
Seeds can be stored for a long time and soil Vegetative parts cannot stay long period after
remain in good condition for planting
being cut from the parent
2.2 Types/method of Asexual Propagation
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Use of Cuttings
Use of suckers
Layering
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• Budding
• Grafting
a) Use of cuttings
This is the production of a new plant by using a piece of stem, branch, whole leaf or
piece of root. Stem cutting are commonly used e.g. mulberries and grape stem cutting
of between 15-25cm are usually used. Also, figs and some plum cultivars are
propagated using this method.
Cutting Procedure/ description of how cutting is done
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Choose the tree where cuttings are to be taken
Place the knife/or secateurs to cut (the stem, branch, whole leaf or piece of root) from the chosen
plant.
Remove the leaves from the cutting to reduce water loss by transpiration, leaving few buds which
will develop into stems later
Dip the cutting in containers with root formation to stimulate root development
Then it is planted in containers with soil or in seed beds and then watered regularly.
b) Use of suckers
Suckers are underground shoots (bananas) top shoots (pineapple) which develop from buds of the parent
plant. When these suckers are carefully separated from the parent and planted,
they develop into new plants identical to the parent.
c). Layering
It is when part of a plant is made to develop its own roots while still attached to the parent plant. Layering
can be done in guavas, pomegranate and apples. There are many types of layering methods; simple and air
layering will be shown below.
Simple layering Procedure/ Description how simple layering is done
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Choose the branch to be simple layered to the ground (usually a longer and fresh branch with some
buds are chosen).
Place a knife and remove the bark where the branch will touch the ground level.
Smear a rooting hormone where the bark was removed to stimulate root development
Bend the branch and burry it into the soil while still attached to the mother plant. Support it with
pegs. Water it until the rots develop.
After root development, carefully place the knife and cut the branch. Plant it as an individual plant.
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simple layering
Air layering Procedure/ Description how air layering is done
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Choose the branch to be air layered.
Place a knife and remove the bark making a wound where the branch will air layered.
Smear a rooting hormone where the bark was removed to stimulate root development
Take moist soil in plastic and wrap the wounded area while the branch is still attached to the mother
plant. Moist soil will act as watering.
After root development, carefully place the knife and cut the branch. Plant it as an individual plant.
air layering
d). Grafting
This is a form of asexual propagation, which involves joining two separate wood structures. These
separate structures are joined together in such a way that they unite and continue to grow as one plant. A
stem can be joined to a stem and also to a root. The upper part of the union is known as the scion and the
lower part of the union is known as the root stock. Grafting is used to grow plants that are related e.g.
peach to peach, orange to lemon, apple to apple.
Grafting is usually done during the dormant period (late winter or early spring) when the sap is rising in the
tree and the buds are actively starting to grow. Grafting improves, growth rate’ productivity and resistant to
diseases.
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Grafting Procedure/ Description how grafting is done
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Choose a healthy rootstock and a scion of the same species, age and size.
Cut of the leaves from the chosen to reduce transpiration
Place the knife and make a slant cut both at the top of the rootstock and at the bottom of the scion, so
that they can be joined together easily.
With a grafting tape join and bind the scion and the rootstock together firmly.
After about six weeks, leaves will start to appear on the scion and the two will firm grow together as
one plant.
Grafting diagram
e) Budding
This is also referred to as bud grafting. It involves joining a bud with root stock. Buds are taken from
parent plant which show high growth rate, resistance to disease and high fruit yield. The rootstock chosen
should also have disease resistance and high growth rate. The method can be used on peaches plums and
grapes.
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Budding Procedure/ Description how budding is done
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Choose a healthy branch with some buds
Place the knife and remove a bud from the scion
Choose a healthy rootstock and make a T-shaped cut in the rootstock.
Insert the bud in the T-shaped cut
Wrap the tape around the scion and the rootstock. The bud will grow into a new shoot with leaves
after about a month.
2.3 Factors Influencing the Size and Depth of a Planting Hole for a Fruit Tree Seedling
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Type of root system: wide root system will need wide planting hole
Soil Type: heavy soil will need a hallow planting hole while light soil will need deep.
The size of the fruit tree seedling: large fruit trees will need deeper, wide planting hole
Soil Fertility: poor soil will need deeper and wide planting hole
Topography of land: planting hole on steep land should be deeper and wider.
Expected productive life of a tree: a wider and deeper hole is needed for a tree with a longer
lifespan.
2.4 Factors Determining Spacing of Fruit Trees
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Soil Fertility: a low soil fertility will result in widely spaced trees
Size of a fruit tree (growth habit): tress that have a wide canopy will need wide spacing
Type of root system: a wide root system needs a bigger space than a narrow rooted plant
Water availability: availability of enough moisture in the soil will need narrow spacing.
Use of machinery: if machines will be used then the spacing should be bigger
2.5 Preparation of Plant Holes for Fruit Tree Seedlings
Holes for seedlings should be prepared well in advance (before transplanting).
Steps involve:
• mark the positions at recommended spacing
• Dig out square holes of approximately 60-100cm (1m) deep. Keep holes straight up to the
bottom
• separate top soil from sub soil as you did the hole
• Mix up top soil with organic manure at a ratio of 1:1 and also add super-phosphate.
• Break up the bottom surface of the hole and make it loose
2.6 Transplanting Fruit Tree Seedlings
It involves:
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Lifting and moving seedlings, from an orchard area, trees from a nursery (polythene) and
chibuku containers
Before being taken from the nursery, trees should be hardened off by exposing them to full
sunshine and gradually reducing the amount of water given to them. This prepares them for
full, harsh conditions in the orchard.
Hardening off can be done about a week before transplanting
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Back filling the hole - The top soil, organic matter and fertilizer mixture is filled into the hole
first so that the root collar will be level with the ground surface.
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add some water to the soil in the hole to help remove air pockets
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a) Precautions when transplanting
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Protect the seedling from heat
Lift the seedling with much soil around the root.
Transplant when it is cool e.g. early in the morning or late afternoon
Press the soil around the seedling to remove air pockets
Water the seedling immediately after transplanting
Provide shade to avoid too much heat causing wilting
b) Planting the seedling from a plastic bag
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Cut away plastics so that the soil is left around the roots
Any broken roots must be clipped away with sharp clippers.
Place the seedling in the centre of a hole and add the soil around the seedling up to the root
collar or ground level. Firm soil around root collar to remove air pockets.
c) Construction of the basin around the plant
Use the sub-soil to construct a dish shaped basin round the plant to hold irrigation water. Water the
seedlings heavily and repeat it every 2-3 days or for a week.
2.7 Management Practices of Trees in an Orchard
These include: Irrigation, weeding, cultivation, control of pests and diseases, fertilizer application,
provision of support and pruning.
Reasons for pruning
• remove dead, diseased and otherwise damaged branches
• facilitates easy air circulations and light penetration
• form and maintain a desirable shape
• ensure productive use of plant nutrients
• facilitate movement within an orchard
• prevent overbearing of fruits
• control pests and diseases
• facilitate harvesting of fruit
• increase quality and yields of fruits
• induce fruiting in certain fruit tree
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2.8 Harvesting and Processing of Fruits
Methods of harvesting fruits include hand picking and machines. Most fruits are harvested by hand rather
than by machines. After harvesting the fruits go through processing which involves the following:
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Moving to warehouse, cleaning, sorting, grading, packaging, storing and marketing.
Fruit may also be canned, turned into juice or made into Jam.
2.9 Marketing Fruits
In commercial fruit production enterprise, fruits are harvested in large scale for sale. They can be sold
fresh or processed into various products.
Factors to consider when marketing fruits
They include the availability of a market, the form in which fruits will be sold, variety, quality, grading,
pricing, cleanliness, packaging of fruits, storage facilities, and transportation.
Revision Questions to Unit 6
Section A
Answer all questions in this section. Questions 1-10 are multiple-choice
questions.
Circle the correct answer.
1. When preparing planting holes for fruit tree seedlings, topsoil is separated from subsoil because:
A. Topsoil is to be used to construct basins round seedlings to conserve water
B. Subsoil is to be mixed with manure and used to refill the hole
C. Topsoil is to be mixed with manure and used to refill the hole
D. Subsoil contains a lot of nutrients which are needed for healthy development of fruit tree
2. Which of the following is a reason of regular cultivation of fruit tree seedlings in a nursery
A. To conserve moisture
B. To improve soil aeration and water infiltration
C. To add fertilizers to the soil
D. To harden-off seedlings before transplanting
3. Which of the following is the nutritional importance of fruits?
A. Supply the body with minerals
B. Increase the wealth of a farmer
C. Provide farmers with income
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D. Increase the value of the land
Use the diagram of vegetative propagation to answer question 4
4.Which type of vegetative propagation is being shown by the diagram?
A. Budding
B. Cutting
C. Grafting
D. Layering
5. Which of the following is a propagating medium used in fruit tree nursery?
A. Top-soil
B. Clay
C. Wood ash
D. Lime
6. Which of the following ratio of sand and manure is used to prepare a propagation medium for fruit tree
seed.
A.2:3
B.1:3
C.1:1
D.2:1
7. Most fruit trees growers in Botswana prefer oranges over avocadoes. Which of the following best
explains this behavior of fruit tree growers?
A. Avocadoes require more water than oranges.
B. There is a greater demand for oranges than avocadoes.
C. Soil and climatic conditions are more suited to the growing of oranges.
D. Labour requirement is lower for oranges than for avocadoes.
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8. Which of the following factors is considered when marketing fruits?
A. Soil fertility
B. Quality of fruits
C. Growth habit of the fruit tree
D. Space between the fruit tree
9. Which of the following is a reason for pruning trees in an orchard regularly?
A. Maintain desirable shape
B. Allow overbearing
C. Reduce the quality of fruits
D. Encourage the development of deep root
10. Which of the following factors affect the dimensions of a planting hole for a fruit tree seedling?
A. Method of planting
B. Marketing channels
C. Quality of fruits
D. Type of root system
Section B
Short answer questions
Answer all the questions on the space provided
1. State three indigenous and two exotic trees found in Botswana?
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____________________________________________________________________________[5 marks]
2. List two economic values of fruit trees?
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3.Explain two requirements for the establishment of an orchard?
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________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________[4 marks]
4. State two methods of harvesting fruits?
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5. Explain two factors influencing choice of a fruit tree to grow?
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Use the diagram of the management practice to answer question 6
6. State three significance of the management practice shown
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_____________________________________________________________________________[3 marks]
7. With the aid of the well-labelled diagram describe grafting
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[2marks]
Description____________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________[3 marks]
Unit 7
Forestry
Unit Overview:
Learner in this unit we are going to learn about the importance of the different types of trees and tree
products and veld products found in Botswana. We will also learn where to obtain tree seeds and seedlings
in Botswana as well as understanding the factors affecting germination of seeds and treatment of seeds.
Moreover, we will acquire knowledge on the use and management of woodlots, conservation methods of
forests and agroforestry.
Learning Objectives: Sub –Topic 1
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
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Identify indigenous and exotic trees found in Botswana
Identify tree products found in Botswana
State the importance of trees and tree products
Describe veld products
State the uses of the veld products identified
Describe the sources of tree seeds and tree seedlings in Botswana
Describe the seed collection process
State the factors inhibiting germination of tree seeds
Describe different seed treatment methods
Demonstrate methods used to treat tree seeds before planting
Calculate the germination of seeds
1.0 INDIGENOUS AND EXOTIC TREES FOUND IN BOTSWANA
(a) Indigenous trees
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These are trees that are native to Botswana, they originate and grow naturally in Botswana.
(b) Exotic trees
These are trees that originated from outside Botswana.
The table below shows some examples of indigenous and exotic trees found in Botswana
Indigenous trees
Exotic trees
Brandy bush (Moretlwa)
California pepper tree (Pepere)
Umbrella thorn(Mosu)
Silver oak
Baobab tree( mowana)
Blue gum tree (Bloukomo)
Red bush willow tree(mohudiri) Pine tree
Sherphered tree (Motlopi)
Jacaranda tree
Marula tree(morula)
Syringa
1.1 Importance of Trees and Tree Products
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Roots of trees hold the soil particles together and prevents soil erosion
Trees acts as windbreakers and provide shelter for animals and people.
Their shade helps to control the rate of evaporation from the soil.
Trees make the landscape more attractive and add value to land.
Trees also provide timber which is used for constructing roofs.
Some trees provide us with fruits, roots, gum and leave which are used as food.
Trees are also used as medicines.
Leaves of trees fall down decompose and add organic matter to the soil.
Trees also provide us with fire wood which is a source of fuel.
1.2 The Table Below Shows Tree Products and their Use
Tree Products
Timber and poles
Tannin and dyes
Fibre and fronds
Nectar and pollen
Fuel wood and charcoal
Use (s)
Furniture, fencing and poles for electricity
Dyeing and tannin industries
Hand craft making
Food for bees
Fuel for cooking and warming houses
1.3 Veld Products
Veld products are non-timber forest products, which are from trees and plants that grow in the veld (bush).
The table below shows some veld products found in Botswana and their uses.
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Veld Product
Uses
Honey
Food
Thatching grass Roofing
Mushroom
Food
Devil’s claws
Curing illnesses
Phane worms
Food
Hoodia
Quench thirst
Gemsbok beans Food
1.4 Sources of Tree Seeds and Tree Teedlings
Tree seeds and tree seedlings are needed to produce trees and they can be obtained from the following
places in Botswana
• Forestry Association of Botswana (FAB).
• Private Commercial nurseries such as Sanitas in Gaborone
• Brigades nurseries, for example Serowe farmers brigade
• Schools nurseries
• Non- governmental Organisation such as Thusano Lefatshe and Veld products research
• Existing woodlot and from trees in the veld
• Individual farmers who have nurseries in their yards
1.5 Seed Collection Process
Seeds collected should be of good quality, thus viable, healthy and mature. The seeds need to be collected,
sorted and stored.
(a) (i) The following factors should be considered when collecting seeds
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Plan ahead of time when collecting seeds as forest trees produce seeds once in a year thus more
seeds should be collected and stored to be used in the seasons when the seeds are not available.
Always collect seeds of trees closer to the planting site.
Collect seeds from different types of trees to vary the quality.
Always collect seeds from the top branches because they are of good quality
(ii) Seeds that are collected from the ground are usually:
• Not mature and may not germinate
• They may be affected by pests and diseases while they are on the ground.
• They may have been crushed or damaged by animals while they are on the ground.
• Hot temperatures and moisture may also damage seeds while they are on the ground.
• Fallen before they mature.
• Fallen long time back
• Tend to rot due to moisture in the soil.
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(c) Methods of seed collection
There are four different ways of collecting tree seeds.
(i)
Hand Picking
Ripe seeds are collected by hands from the trees which are not tall. Pick seeds from the top of the trees, the
best seeds are usually found there.
(ii)
Cutting of Seeds Bearing Branches;
Branches that bear cluster of ripe seeds can be cut using pruning shears, clippers, knife or secateurs. A
cloth or a sheet of polythene is put underneath the tree to collect falling seeds during the cutting process.
(iii)
Shaking the tree
The tree is gently shaken so that seeds become loose and fall off the tree. A net should be placed under the
tree before shaking so that seeds fall on it.
1.6 Germination of Tree Seeds
Factors that inhibit germination of tree seeds
The following are factors that inhibit germination of tree seeds.
(i)
Lack of moisture
Seeds do not germinate where moisture is low or insufficient for germination. Water dissolve nutrients
within the seed so that the embryo can make use of them.
(ii)
Extreme temperature
Too hot or too cold temperature can kill a seed and make it not to germinate. Some tree seeds germinate
well under warm conditions while others need cold conditions, so if the temperature is not suitable the
seeds they will not germinate.
(iii) Hard seed coat
Some seeds have a hard seed coat that does not allow seedlings to emerge and also does not allow for water
and air to enter the seed germination/activating the embryo. For example, marula seeds are covered with a
hard coat, which prevent water and oxygen to reach the embryo.
(iii)
Seed dormancy
Tree seeds sometimes get into a stage where they will not germinate regardless of all the necessary
conditions there. This is the stage at which seeds are at a resting period. The dormancy period need to be
broken before the seed can germinate.
(vi) Pests and diseases
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Pest may eat seeds or destroy them before they germinate. Young embryos can be affected by diseases
which can kill them before they emerge.
(vii) Depth of sowing seeds
The rule of thumb states that the seeds should be planted 3-5 times its diameter. Therefore it is very
important to know how big or small is the seed to determine the depth of planting. Seeds that are planted
too deep do not emerge.
(viii) Immature seeds
If seeds are not fully mature when sown they are not going to germinate. In some trees, seeds may fall
before they are ripe and mature. That means the embryo is not viable and cannot germinate.
1.7 Methods of Treating Seeds
In order to improve germination percentage of tree seeds, there are different methods of treating seeds that
one needs to carry out
The following methods are used to treat seeds to improve its germination percentage.
(i)
Filing the seed coat / scarification
This is usually can be done by filing the seed coat using a metal file. The outer part of the seed is the one
filed but avoiding damage to an embryo. Another way in which, this can be done is by breaking, the seed
coat. For example, the seed coat of marula can be broken down using a stone but caution should also be
taken to avoid breaking the embryo inside a seed.
(ii)
Soaking
Soak seeds in water for 12-24 hours before sowing so as to make their coat soft and also to provide
moisture for activating/embryo enzymes in the embryo for germination.
(iii)
Boiling
This is can done by dipping seeds in boiling water for a short time and then cool and sow them
(iv)
Breaking seed dormancy
The dormancy of the seed should be broken before sowing them. It can be broken by hormone application
(v)
Acid scarification
Concentrated acid can be used to soften the seed coat whereby seeds are put in sulphuric acid at room
temperature for the recommended period of time. The seeds are then rinsed in fresh water for 24 hours.
(d) Calculating the germination percentage
The percentage of seed germination is calculated as follows:
(i) count the amount of seeds to be sown
20
(ii) sow seeds in lines and each line should have the same number of seeds
(iii) observe the amount of seedling that emerged
(iv) find the difference between the amount of seeds sown and seedlings that emerged
(v) Calculate the percentage of seedlings emerged. Say for example, you sow 200seeds and out of 200
seeds sown, only 180 seedlings emerged. In this case the percentage will be:
180 germinated out of 200 seeds sow
Percentage of germination
= number of seedlings emerged x 100
Number of seeds sown
=180 x 100
200
=180
2
=90%
Learning Objectives: Sub –Topic 2
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
• Define woodlot •
•
•
•
•
•
•
Explain why it is necessary to correctly manage existing woodlots in Botswana
Describe the effective management and utilization of woodlots
Define forestry conservation
Explain the importance of forestry conservation
Describe ways by which forests can be conserved
Explain agro- forestry
Discuss different types of agro-forestry
2.0 WHAT IS A WOODLOT?
A woodlot is a piece of land set aside for growing forest trees.
2.1 Why is it Necessary to Correctly Manage Existing Woodlots in Botswana?
It is necessary to correctly manage existing woodlots because:
•
•
Woodlots are source of food especially fruits such as wild raisins, snot apple and wild meldlar.
They provide timber for fencing posts and building.
•
They increase the value of the land which can be used for recreation.
21
•
They protect the soil from erosion by acting as wind breakers and holding the soil particles with
their long roots.
•
They provide shade, habitat, shelter and protect wild animals from harm and unfavorable weather
conditions.
•
Woodlots are established to solve the problem of desertification around our villages.
•
Woodlots create employment
2.2 Effective Management and Utilisation of Woodlots
Once tree seedlings have been planted, they have to be looked after so that they establish within the time
expected. These can be done by:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Control pests and disease (fungal diseases) by removing and burning desired trees and the use of
biological control method
Protect woodlots from fire by removing weeds, use of fire breakers and by practicing controlled
burning.
Protect woodlots with young trees from animal damage by fencing them
Harvest only large, older or damaged trees, leave young ones to grow
Practice thinning of weak trees so that the healthy, best trees are left growing
Allow livestock to graze in woodlands but only under large trees to reduce growth of vegetation
Woodlots should be replanted, even after harvesting is done
2.3 Forestry Conservation
Forestry conservation is the wise use of forest and all its the natural resources so that they are not destroyed
and reduced in numbers.
The importance of forestry conservation
There is need to conserve the existing forest resources for the following reasons:
•
Forest act as wind breakers toprevent soil erosion
•
Addition of organic matter in the soil: Their leaves fall to the ground and add organic matter to
the soil.
•
Forests provide shelter and food for wild life and people. Animals use trees as shelter during
unfavourable conditions as well as provision of food such as twigs and fruits.
•
To prevent the spread of the desert or desert like conditions
•
To conserve soil and water: that is preventing evaporation thus increasing water penetration in the
soil.
Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen into the atmosphere.
•
•
To prevent loss of important natural resources: as they attract tourists who in turn bring foreign
exchange and improve the lives of people in rural areas.
22
•
•
For production of raw materials such as gum, raisins, dyes and tanning for industrial use
Medicinal purpose Trees also are a source of medicinal herbs which help people to improve their
health status.
•
Forest is source of employment and income: Game hunters get employment from the forest.
Money earned will be used to sustain their families.
2.4 Ways of Conserving the Forest
The following are some ways of conserving the Forest:
•
Increase public awareness of the need and value of forest conservation. Batswana should be taught
about the value of trees to human beings and animals, their role in the environment and how they can
help to conserve them.
•
Promote active community involvement in the development of conservation strategies such as
establishment of forest reserves.
• Use of other energy sources
People should be encouraged to use other alternative energy resources such as electricity, coal and solar
energy instead of cutting trees for firewood.
•
Protect forests from fire by construction of fire breakers.
•
Limit and exclude browsing animals.
•
Cutting of trees for timber should be regulated by law to prevent unnecessary cutting down of trees.
•
Afforestation that is replace trees that have been cut.
2.5 What is Agro-Forestry?
This is an agricultural practice where land is made more productive by combining the growing of crops and
forest plants with keeping animals in the same land at the same time.
2.6 What are Agro- Forestry Types
Agro-forestry practices-refers to the different ways Agro-Forestry is usually done. The types are SilvoPastoral, Silvo-Arable, Agro–Silvo-Pastoral.
(a) Silvo-Pastoral
This is where trees, pastures and animals are raised together. It can also be defined as the type where
animals are kept in an area where forest plants have been grown.
(b) Silvo – arable
This is where by crops and trees are grown in the same place. It can also be defined as a type where trees
and crops are raised together.
23
(c) Agro–silvo-pastoral
It involves the combination of three components which are trees, crops and animals.
Revision Questions to Unit 7
Section A
Answer all questions in this section. Questions 1-7 are multiple choice
questions.
Circle the correct answer.
1. Which of the following factors inhibit germination of tree seeds?
A. Hard seed coat
B. Ripened seeds
C. Size of the seed
D. Viable seeds
2. Which of the following statement defines forestry?
A. It is the growing and management of trees.
B. It is the growing and management of vegetables.
C. It is the growing and management of veld crops
D. It is the growing and management of wild fruits.
3. Which statement is true about an exotic tree?
A. A tree that do not shed their leaves in winter
B. A tree that originates from outside the country
C. A tree that originates within the country
D. A tree that sheds their leaves in winter
4. Which location in a tree are high quality seeds collected?
5. What is a woodlot?
24
A. It is a land set aside for growing trees.
B. It is a land set aside to grow fruit trees.
C. It is a place where wood is processed.
D. It is a place where wood is sold.
6. A farmer planted 500 seeds and 350 seedlings emerged.
What would be the germination percentage?
A. 50%
B. 60%
C. 70%
D. 80%
7. Which term refers to the careful use of natural resources in a veld in order to prevent their
depletion?
A. Agro-forestry
B. Agronomy
C. Forestry conservation
D. Woodlot utilization
Section B
Short answer questions
Answer all the questions on the space provided
1. State three reasons for correct management of existing woodlots.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
[3 marks]
2. State three importance of trees and tree products.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
[3 marks]
3. Differentiate between indigenous and exotic trees.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________[2marks]
4. Explain the importance of forestry conservation.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________[2marks]
5. State the agro-forestry types that involve the following:
(a) management of trees and crops
________________________________________________________________________________
[1 mark]
(b) management of trees and animals.
25
________________________________________________________________________________
[1 mark]
6. Complete the table below by filling in the examples of veld products and their uses
Examples of veld products
Uses
[4marks]
7. Complete the table below on tree products and their uses:
Tree products
Fuel wood
Uses
[4 marks]
Use the information to answer question 8
The students planted 20 tree seeds of an indigenous tree. After 10 days they observed that
10% of the seeds had germinated.
8. a) State three factors that may have led to the germination percentage observed by the students.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
[3 marks]
b) Suggest one measure the students could take to improve the germination percentage.
________________________________________________________________________________
[1mark]
9. State why is it not advisable to collect tree seeds which have been lying on the ground for some
time?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
[3 marks]
UNIT 8
FARM MANAGEMENT
LESSON OVERVIEW:
26
Learner in this unit you are going to learn about the principles of demand and supply. Also appreciate the
basic organization, functions and roles of management in a business venture. Learner you will be able to
acquire skills on the marketing of agricultural products, budgeting and keeping records. Lastly you will be
able to develop skills on preparing a simple business plan of an Agricultural enterprise.
Learning Objectives: Sub –Topic 1
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Explain the importance of farm management
Discuss the importance of farm management
Explain demand
Describe the determinants of demand
Explain supply
Describe the determinants of supply
Describe price determination
Discuss the different legal forms of a business organization
Outline the effective organizational structure in a farm
State the general functional and roles of management in an agribusiness venture
Describe qualities of a good manager
state factors considered before starting an agricultural production enterprise
discuss problems experienced by commercial farmers in Botswana
suggest solutions to the problems identified
1.0 FARM MANGEMENT
Farm management is the process of making informed decision and choosing the strategies that will make
the farm business productive. That is making decision on how land, labour and capital can be best used to
make a profit.
1.2 Importance of Farm Management
The importance of farm management is to make decisions on what to produce, how to produce, how much
to produce, whom to produce for and what combination of the resources to use. It is important to combine
factors of production such as land, labour and capital to maximise profit.
As a result of good farm management, a farmer can:
• Generate employment which in turn benefits members of the community
• Help in proper planning and problem solving
• Use farm resources and manage them effectively
• Produce surplus which can be exported to the other countries to earn foreign exchange
1.3 Demand
Demand is defined as the quantity (amount) of a good (commodity) that consumers are willing and able to
buy at various prices at a given time and place. The law of demand controls the relationship between price
and quantity demanded. It states that, as the price of product increases, quantity demanded decreases;
conversely as the price of a product decreases, quantity demanded increases
The diagram below shows the relationship between price and quantity demanded.
27
Determinants of demand
Factors influencing or changing the demand of a product are referred to as determinants of demand. They
include the following:
• Price of a product; there is an inverse relationship between price of a product and its demand. That
is a fall in price of the product will result in an increase in quantity demanded and vice versa. This
is because many consumers will be willing to buy since the price is reduced.
• Consumers income level; there is always direct or positive relationship between the consumers
income and quantity demanded of a commodity. It means the lower the income of a consumer, the
lower the demand of a products and the higher the income of a consumer, the higher the demand of
the products. The high income means the consumers have the buying power.
• Consumers taste and preference; the taste and preference of consumers is influenced by factors
such as fashion, education, profession, religion and social status. For example if there is a change in
fashion, consumers would prefer new and advanced products over older fashioned products and
there the quantity demanded of new fashioned products will increase.
• Population size; as the population grows, there is an increase in demand of goods and services. The
more people are there, the more needs and wants are required to be satisfied.
• Advertising; consumers tends to buy more of a product that is well advertised. This can be on
radio, social media, televisions and newspapers. Highly advertised products seem to be bought
more than less advertised ones.
• Change in the price of substitute goods; conversely the demand of a good is decreased when the
price of another good is decreased. If goods A and B are substitutes, an increase in price of A will
results in decrease in quantity demanded of B. for example if the price of coke is reduced the
consumers will turn to buy more coke and the quantity demanded for pepsi will decrease.
28
•
Change in price of complementary goods; an increase in the price of a products will decrease the
demand of its complement and vise versa. For example, an increase in price of cars will decrease
demand of petrol.
1.4 Supply
Supply is defined as quantity of a commodity which the producer is willing to produce and able to sell at
various prices at given time and place. The law of supply shows a positive relationship between price and
quantity supplied. It states that a higher price leads to higher quantity supplied and a lower price reduce the
quantity supplied. This is illustrated by a supply curve which slopes up from left to right
Determinants of supply
•
•
•
•
•
•
Price of the products: unlike demand curve there is a direct relationship between price of a
products and its supply. If the price of s product increases, then the supply of a product increase and
vice versa.
Cost of production: supply of a product will decrease with the increase in the cost of production
and vice versa. A seller would supply less quantity of a product in the market, when the cost of
production exceeds the market price of the product.
Natural conditions: Climatic conditions such as rainfall and drought affect suppl of commodities
directly. The supply of agricultural products will increase when there is more rainfall however will
decrease during drought.
Technology: A better and advanced technology increases the production of a product, which results
in the increase in the supply of the product. For example, the production of fertilizers and good
quality seeds increases the production of crops. This further increase the supply of food grains in
the market.
Government’s Policies: Government policies such as taxes has a greater impact on the supply of a
product. For example, increase in tax on excise duties would decrease the supply of a product. On
the other hand, if the tax rate is low, then the supply of a product would increase.
Technology level of production: if more efficient method of production is discovered, such a s use
of machines like tractors and implements it will generally increase production of product which in
turn increases supply.
1.5 Price Determination
29
The price of a product is determined by the law of supply and demand. Consumers have a desire to
acquire a product, and producers manufacture a supply to meet this demand. The equilibrium market
price of a good is the price at which quantity supplied equals quantity demanded. Graphically, the
supply and demand curves intersect at the equilibrium price.
Remember that consumers aim at maximizing satisfaction, whereas producers aim maximizing profits.
A point where both consumers and the producers maximise their satisfaction and profits respectively at
the same time is known as equilibrium point.
1.6 FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT
a) Legal forms of a business organization
There are four legal forms in a business organization, namely sole proprietorship ( trader), partnership,
company and cooperative.
Sole proprietorship (trader) A sole trader business structure is a person trading as the individual legally
responsible for all aspects of the business. This includes any debts and losses, which can't be shared with
others. The business is usually smaller in size and easy to start. Examples of businesses are tuck shop,
restaurant and hairdresser services.
Partnership A type of business organization in which two or more individuals contribute money, skills,
and other resources and share profit and loss in accordance with terms of partnership agreement. Capital of
the business is raised by the contribution of each partner.
Limited company This is a company whose liabilities to the amount of money put up by the shareholders.
It is a legal entity with a legal existence and can be private or public. Capital is raised be selling shares of
the business.
Cooperative: This is a group of people who agree to work together helping each other in the running of the
business and sharing ideas. It is a registered association of 10 or more people with common economic
needs. Limited interest is paid to the members on their share capital.
b) Effective organisational structure in a farm
Oganisational structure is a system used to define a hierarchy within an organization. It identifies each
job, its function and where it reports to within the organization. It shows clear communication from one
level to another
Example organizational structure of a sole trader
30
FARM
MANAGER/OWN
ER
WORKER
WORKER
WORKER
Organisational structure of a company
CEO
DIRECTOR
FINANCE
MANAGER
PRODUCTI
ON
MANAGER
WORKE
R
WORKE
R
MARKETIN
G
MANAGER
WORKE
R
1.7 Functions and Roles of Management in an Agribusiness.
31
By functions of management we mean duties or responsibilities that the management team doing a
business. Some of these roles or functions are the following:
• Planning
• Organizing
• Coordinating
• Supervising
• Directing
• Reporting
• Evaluation
1.8 Qualities of a good manager
This refers to the characteristics that a manager possesses. They include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Knowledgeable and intelligent : to be able to understand difficult ideas and deal with different
issues.
Honesty: A good manager should be transparent as possible. He should be always telling the truth
both the employers and the workers.
Self confidence: A manager should be very confident in decision making. One should have a good
knowledge of the organization. He or She should believe in him or herself and perform to one’s
abilities.
Motivate: A farm manger must be self -motivated and be able to motivate other staff, having a
desire to succeed.
Communication skills: A good manger talks clearly and gives effective instructions, where and
when possible even communicate in the language most casual workers understand.
Healthy and fit: A healthy and physically fit manager carries out most the business operations
without regular getting sick off.
1.9 Factors to be Considered before Starting Agricultural Production Enterprise
There are many factors that one needs to consider when starting any business. They include the
following
•
•
•
•
•
Land: Where to construct the farm structures, to grow the crops or raise livestock
Capital: How much fund will be needed to start the business and the costs of running the
business.
Availability of market: The scope of the product absorption must be considered before
going for production. There should be a ready market for the produce which can be done
through market research.
Location: It is directly related to the distance from the market place, transport, facilities,
conditions of roads and topography of the land.
Knowledge and experience: A farmer should have skills and experience depending on the
type of enterprise is being chosen.
1.10 Problems Faced by Commercial Farmers in Botswana
32
The problems of production, marketing and solutions
Problems
• Poor soil fertility: Most soils in
Botswana are of poor quality leading
to poor production.
• Unreliable rainfall and periodic
drought: The amount of rainfall in
Botswana is very low but also
unreliable. The country has
experienced periodic draught which
causes heavy loss to crop and
livestock
• Pests and diseases: outbreak of pests
and diseases is a serious problem in
livestock and horticultural crops in
Botswana.
•
•
•
Lack of skills: Most farmers do not
have skills to look after their crops
and livestock. There is lack of skilled
manpower among local people.
Perishability of agricultural produce:
Most of agricultural produce easily get
spoiled and therefore should be sold
soon after harvesting which results in
over flooding the market hence prices
reduce
Poor and high transport costs: Framers
usually have a problem in transporting
their produce because of poor roads,
long distances to markets.
solutions
Government is assisting farmers through
ISPAAD programme with free seeds and
fertilizers.
Drilling of boreholes, harvesting of rainwater
and construction of dams can reduce the
problem.
Government should vaccinate against
outbreak of economic diseases. Use of
Agriculture demonstrators by farmers should
be intensified to control pests and diseases in
crops.
More farmers should be given in service to
train them on modern method of farming.
Farmers can process their products. For
example, fresh milk can be sterilized, fruits
preserved by canning.
Government should help on tarring of roads
in the country to help farmers to transport
their produce quickly and efficiently.
Learning Objectives: Sub –Topic 2
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
explain marketing and the marketing concept
discuss reasons for marketing
describe the marketing mix
describe the methods of marketing agricultural products
describe the utilization of ICT to promote trade in the agriculture sector
demonstrate the marketing of agricultural products
discuss reasons for keeping records
prepare different types of production and financial records on the school agricultural projects using relevant software
packages.
Discuss reasons for budgeting
Prepare a budget for any chosen farm enterprise
2.0 MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS
33
2.1 Marketing and Marketing Concept
Marketing It refers to all activities involving the flow of goods and services from the point of initial
production until they reach the final consumer. It is a two-way process that includes selling and buying. It
involves storage, packaging, advertising, transportation, processing and grading.
Marketing concept It is a strategy that firms adopt to satisfy the customer needs and wants. Marketing
involves the creation of utilities that are supposed to satisfy consumers wants. The created utility can be in
three forms being; place utility, form utility and possession utility.
2.2 Reasons for Marketing
The reasons for marketing products are:
• To satisfy customers needs and have a great desire for the product through the way it looks
and is packaged.
• To get revenue through sale of the product at the right time and place by using proper
marketing intelligence.
• To predict further consumers requirements by seeing what is on demand
• To maintain or improve the image of products or business through advertising. It makes
people be aware of the product.
2.3 Marketing Mix
It is defined as a set of marketing actions that the firm uses to promote its brand or product in the market.
Thus the marketing decision mix refers to four broad levels of marketing decision, namely product, price,
promotion and place (4 Ps). All the activities of marketing mix should be considered to make a business a
success.
• Product - A product is the final or end result of production. A product should satisfy consumer
wants and needs, should be of right quality and of reasonable price.
• Price - It refers to the price at which the product is sold with in the market. I t depends on costs of
production.
• Place- The product has to be available where and when customers want to buy.
• Promotion- It means how the product is promoted or made known to the user. This can include
advertising, word of mouth, lay byes, free samples and road side display.
34
2.4 Methods of Marketing Agricultural Products
Marketing of agricultural products often varies according to the type of agricultural produce. Marketing
involves both fresh produce and semi perishable produce. The following are methods used to market
agricultural products:
• Farm gate sale: buyers buy produce directly from the farm and then consumers or resale to the
wholesalers or supermarkets
• Roadside sales
• Supply to restaurant and hotels
• Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board ( BAMB)
• Cooperative society: Supermarkets and chain stores such as choppies, spar and pick and pay
• Media this includes print media like advertisements in newspapers, radios and television
•
•
Auction sales
Internet marketing
2.5 Utilisation of ICT to Promote Trade in the Agricultural Sector
Information Communication Technology (ICT) is a combination of information, communication and
technology. ICT has narrowed down the distance between places and time. In the field of agriculture and
its trade ICT can be used in the following areas:
• To check the area and production of agricultural products of any country in the world.
• To check for suppliers and order raw materials through internet
• To compare price of any products anywhere in the world.
• To advertise any agricultural products
• To make bank transfers for selling and buying of products.
• To communicate with other agricultural business organization for trading purpose.
2.6. Farm Records and Budgeting
a) A Farm record: refers to systematic entries or statements of various farm activities and transactions in
suitable books. It should be detailed and record everything taking place in the farm accurately and stored in
a safe place.
i) Reasons for keeping records
Records provide information about how a business is performing. Therefore, the reasons for keeping
records are as follows:
• Enable farmers to find out whether they are operating at loss or profit.
• Provide a farmer with important information for future planning and making decisions.
• Help a farmer to obtain loans from lending agencies such as banks.
35
•
•
Help a farmer to calculate the tax
Allow a farmer to compare the farms performance with other farms.
ii) Types of farm records
There are basically three type of farm records. These are as follows:
• Inventory
• Production
• Financial
Inventory record: It is taking a record of everything that the business owns (assets) and its value such as
building, feeds, land and livestock.
Production record: It shows the quantities of the inputs used and output obtained but not their values.
This can either be livestock or crop production records.
Example of crop production record (vegetables)
Year: 2010
Month: November
Date
Carrots (kg)
01/ 11/10
6
03/10/10
8
12/10/10
5
15/10/10
7
20/10/10
2
TOTALS
28
Peas (kg)
4
10
8
9
3
34
Potatoes( kg)
5
9
7
4
12
37
Onion (kg)
2
7
11
9
10
39
Financial records: It normally shows all the transactions of income and expenses in a farm business. The
receipts and payments transactions are recorded in a cash book. The profit and loss account summarises
the income or revenue and expenses or costs of the farm for the given year.
Example of profit and loss account of broiler production.
The difference between cost and returns shows that the business has made profit or loss. If the difference is
positive (that is when income is greater than costs) it shows that the business is making profit the while the
negative difference (when costs are higher than income) shows loss.
Income/ Revenue
Item
P
Amount
t
100 broilers @
P50.00
5000
30 kg Chicken
manure @ P25 per 750
kg
Total income
5750
00
00
00
Costs/ Expenditure
Item
100 day old chicks @
P5.00 each
10 bags of broiler
starter mash @ P85.00
each
10 bags broiler finisher
mash@ P80.00 each
One 500g stress pack
@ P50.00
Total costs
36
Amount
P
t
500
00
850
00
800
00
50
2200
00
00
Profit/ loss: P5750.00 – P2200.00 = P3550.00
Therefore the business has made profit of P3550.00
b) Budgeting
A budget is and expected estimate of income and expenditure in a farm business.
Reasons for budgeting
•
•
•
•
•
I helps in forecasting future income, expenditure and profits
It helps a farmer to plan on how to use the scarce resources
It helps a farmer to choose the best enterprise basing on the estimated profit
It helps in obtaining loans from money lending organisations such as banks.
It provides an estimate of how much money would be required to start a new enterprise.
Example of a budget estimate for goat production
Item
Expected income
Item
Expected costs
100 goats @ P500
per goat
Goat manure @
P900.00
P50000.00
100 goats @ P300 per
goat
120 bags of feeds @
P50 per bag
drugs
P30000.00
P900.00
Total
income=P50900.00
P6000.00
P250.00
Total costs=
P36250.00
Profit/ loss = expected total income – expected total costs
= P50900.00 – P36250.00 = P13750.00 (Profit)
Learning Objectives: Sub –Topic 3
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Identify institutions, or organizations or agencies assisting agricultural enterprises
Describe the application procedures and conditions required by different enterprises
Explain the reasons for conducting a market research
Differentiate between business idea and business opportunity
State the reasons for preparing a business plan
Explain elements of a business plan
Prepare and present a business plan on the enterprise chosen.
3.0 INSTITUTIONS, ORGANISATIONS OR AGENCIES ASSISTING AGRICULTURAL
ENTERPRISES
37
There are a number of organisations providing assistance to agricultural enterprises in Botswana.These
funding organisations are mainly the government and commercial banks.
The following are Government organisations:
• CEDA (Citizen Enterprenual Development Agency)
• YFF (Young Farmers Fund)
• NAMPAADD (National Master Plan for the Arable and Dairy Development)
• ISPAAD (Integrated Support Programme for Arable Agriculture Development)
• LIMID (Livestock Management and Infrastructure Development)
Commercial banks include National Development Bank, Barclays, First National Bank and so forth
a) Government Funding procedures
To apply for a government loan or grant one has to:
• Be a citizen of Botswana with 18 years and above
• Have a viable business proposal
• Have a detailed business plan
• Be legally registered with Registrar of Companies
• Have a place where the business will be operating
• Fill the application form
Commercial funding Procedures
To apply for financial assistance, one has to:
• Have an account with the bank
• Be able to pay back the loan with interest
• Fill and submit application form
• Submit the business plan
• Offer security
b) How application forms are completed
38
It is recommended to the fund seekers to visit any of the funding agencies such as CEDA, which also
operates other schemes like YFF and request for the applications forms. Th application forms differ from
one agency to the other.
3. 1 Market Research
Market research is the action or activity of gathering information about consumers needs and preferences.
It finds out exactly what a customer needs and wants.
a) Reasons for conducting a market research
• To identify new and potential customers
• To understand existing customers
• To set realistic targets for your business
• To develop new effective strategies
• To solve the business challenges
• To prepare for business expansion
• To identify new business opportunities
• To identify competitors
b) How market research is carried out
An effective market research process on the enterprise to be done involves the following chronological
steps:
Step 1. Defining the problem and research objectives
Step 2. Conducting a situation analysis and an informal investigation
Step 3. Developing the research plan that is sampling plan and contact methods
Step 4. Collecting data, using either desk or field research methods
Step 5. Analyzing data into useful information
The above steps can be done using the interview or the questionnaire method.
3.2 Business Idea and Business Opportunity
Business idea is referred to an idea or thought of a business venture that one intends to do and thinks will
work while business opportunity is simply a factor that makes or motivates someone to start a business in a
particular area.
3.3 Identification of Business Agricultural Opportunities in Botswana
There are a number of opportunities existing in agricultural business in Botswana, some of these are :
• Fruit production
• Milk production and its processing into products such as ice-cream, yoghurt and madila ( sour milk)
• Wool production through rearing of good quality sheep breeds as sheep are draught resistant
animals
• Leather processing after slaughtering mainly beef animals
• Oil production from growing of draught resistant crops such as mustard as well as sunflower
39
3.4 Business Plan
A business plan is a written document that should present your basic business ideas and all related
operating, marketing, financial and managerial considerations for smooth running of a business enterprise
to be.
a) Reasons for preparing a business plan
The following are the reasons for preparing business plan :
• It is a referral document to anyone who may require it as stakeholders and lending agencies
• It helps in determining whether the business idea is viable or not.
• It helps in attracting potential investors
• It provides a direction to the manager in expanding the business.
b) Elements of a business plan
The elements of a business plan may vary from one plan to another, but the following are very common:
• Executive summary: It is an overview of the total business plan
• Company description
• Product and service plan
• Marketing plan
• Management plan
• Operating plan
• Financial plan
• Legal plan
Preparing and presentation of a business plan
Example of a business plan for broiler production enterprise
A Business Details
1. Name of business : Sekai’s poultry farm
2. Address : Box 20114, Mochudi
3. Location : Oodi
4. Date business begins trading : 20 January 2019
5. Main business activities: Broilers production
B. Business objectives
1. Produce quality and healthy broilers
2. To make reasonable profit
3. To expand business to have 2500 birds in the next two years
C The product and its market
1. Description of the product: Broilers production
2. The market can be described as:
§ Target group: take aways , schools and restaurants
§ Size of the group: 100
§ Location of the target group: Gaborone , Botswana
40
§
§
Customer needs: fresh chickens , twice a week
Main competitors of my product: a number of poultry producers in Botswana especially
around Gaborone
D Pricing
Cost items include :
§ Rent :P1500 per month
§ Cost of 1000 chicks @ P3.50 each P3500
§ Raw materials ( feeds, medicines, etc) : P2000
§ Wages and salaries : P1500
§ Equipment and stationery : P1000
§ Transport : P600
§ Telephone, water and electricity : P800
§ Others : P1400
§ Total costs :P10800
E Finance
1. Starting costs will include cost on the following:
§ Rent, wages, and salaries P5000
§ Transport : P30000
§ Heating and lighting : P2000
§ Equipment and stationery : P3000
§ Others : P2000
F total finance required : P42000
§ Sources of required finance
§ Own savings : P22000
§ Bank loans : P20000
§ Expected profit :
§ Total revenue (900 broilers @ P55) : P49500
§ Total expenditure : P10800 per month
§ Profit : P38700 per month
Revision Questions to Unit 8
Section A Answer all questions in this section. Questions 1-­‐10 are multiple choice questions. Circle the correct answer.
41
1. Which of the following statements describes financial records?
A. The amount of maize cobs offered for sale
B. The amount of money received from sales
C. The quantity of inputs bought
D. The quantity of maize bags sold
2. Which of the following are all components of a marketing mix?
A. People, place, price, promotion
B. Preference, price, product, promotion
C. Product, preference, people, place
D. Product, price, promotion, place
The table below shows the number of onion bags demanded by customers and the
corresponding prices. Use it to answer question 3
Numbers of bags
demanded
10
40
60
80
100
Price per 10kg bag
P50
P40
P30
P20
P10
3. Which of the following statements is true about the information in the table?
A. As the price decreases the quantity demanded increases
B. As the price increases the quantity demanded increases
C. The quantity demanded doubles when the price decreases
D. The quantity demanded is not influenced by price change
The diagram below shows some equipment used in an Agriculture business. Use it to answer
question 4.
4. What is the benefit of using the equipment?
A. It prevents cybercrime
B. It shows marketing channels
42
C. It increases employment opportunities
D. It helps to make orders fast
5. Which graph shows the supply curve for a given commodity?
The graph below shows demand curve for oranges. Use it to answer question 6.
6. What conclusion can be made about the demand for oranges?
A. Demand change is proportional to price change
B. Demand did not change when the price changed
C. Demand increased as price decreased
43
D. Demand increased as price increased
7. When the supply of an item decreases, the price is likely to
A. Increase
B. Decrease
C. Remain low
D. Remain high
8. Which of the following statements defines a sole proprietorship?
A. A business owned by shareholders
B. A business owned by one person
C. A business where ideas are shared
D. A business with limited liability
9. What is meant by a loss in a profit and loss account?
A. When an employee has died
B. When an employee has resigned.
C. When more money has been received than spent
D. When more money has been spent than received
10. Which form of business organization is owned and operated by an individual?
A. Company
B. Cooperative
C. Partnership
D. Sole proprietorship
Section B Short answer questions Answer all the questions on the space provided Use the information below to answer question 1
JUST PIG is a new farming business that specializes in the production of pigs.
The business is situated in a community which considers the eating of pig a taboo.
1. (a) State the factor that is likely to lower the demand for pigs for the JUST PIG business.
__________________________________________________________________ [1mark]
(b) Explain how conducting market research could benefit the JUST PIG business.
__________________________________________________________________ [1 mark]
(c) Suggest how the JUST PIG business could use ICT to promote sale of pigs.
__________________________________________________________________ [1mark]
44
2. Explain the relationship between price and quantity demanded
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________[2 marks]
3. The diagram is a structure showing lines of authority in a business. Use it to answer the
question 4.
(a) Name the structure.
___________________________________________________________________________ [1 mark]
(b) Suggest a form of business for the structure shown.
___________________________________________________________________________ [1 mark]
(c) Give three qualities of the Production Manager
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________[3 marks]
4. Describe the two elements of marketing mix.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________ ______[4 marks]
5. Use the information to prepare the profit and loss account for broiler production
A farmer bought 1000 day old chicks at P2.00 each, 20 bags of chick starter mash @ P100.00 per
bag, 40 growers mash @ P75.00 per bag and spent P200.00 on vaccines. The labour cost was
45
P1200.00 for two. At 8 weeks 995 chickens were sold @ P50.00 per chicken and 40 bags of manure
@ P20.00 per bag.
[5 marks]
(a). Determine whether the business made profit or loss.
[2 marks]
Use the information below to answer the question 6
A farmer wants to start a dairy production business but does not have machinery to start it.
6.(a) Name one agency that could assist the farmer to acquire the machinery.
_______________________________________________________________________ [1 mark]
(b) State three conditions necessary to get assistance from the agency.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________ [3 marks]
6. Differentiate between a business idea and business opportunity
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________[2 marks]
8.State three elements of a business plan
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________[3 marks]
UNIT 10 CHICKEN PRODUCTION
UNIT OVERVIEW
46
Learners, in this unit you are going to learn about systems of raising chickens, reproductive system of a
hen, management of chickens including parasites and diseases, and marketing of chickens.
Learning Objectives: Sub –Topic 1
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Distinguish between the different systems of raising chickens
Discuss advantages and disadvantages of each
Describe the different breeds of broilers and layers
Describe the characteristics of a good layer and a good broiler
Describe the reproductive system of a hen
State the functions of the reproductive parts
Describe different parts of an egg
Sate the functions of the different parts of an egg
1. 0 SYSTEMS OF CHICKEN OF RAISING CHICKENS
a) Free range system
In this system chickens are allowed to roam freely searching for food and water.
Advantages of free range system
•
•
•
•
The system is cheap since very little money is spent on food, medical supplies and housing.
It is not labour intensive because there is no cleaning of housing structures, feeding or provision of
drinking water.
Bad habits such as cannibalism, egg eating, or feather pecking are not common because the birds are
not confined in a small space.
The chickens pick up grit which helps their digestion.
Disadvantages
•
•
•
•
•
Chickens and the eggs may be stolen or eaten by predators
Difficult to keep production records for individual chickens
There is poor production because they spend too much energy searching for food
Breeding is very difficult to control due to unrestricted movement of the chickens.
Diseases and parasites control is very difficult because healthy chickens mix freely with sick ones
b) Semi intensive system
Semi-intensive systems are commonly used by small scale producers. This can be used to rear both
broilers and layers. Chickens can forage on natural vegetation and insects to supplement the feed
supplied. It is desirable to provide at least two runs for alternating use to avoid buildup of disease and
parasites. A small, simple house, which allows 0.3 to 0.4m² per bird, and which has a thatched roof a
littered earth floor and slatted or chicken wire walls on at least three side will provide protection from
inclement weather, from predators at night and offer shade in the daytime. The shelter should be large
enough to enter to collect eggs and be equipped with net boxes, feeders, drinkers and perches. For
47
convenience the house should be situated so that access to each of the runs can be provided with small
outlet doors.
A fold unit is a house and run combined, having part of it covered with chicken wire and the
remainder with solid walls. The unit should allow 0.5m² per bird and must be moved each day over
an area of grassland. A unit 6 by 1.5m will take 16 to 18 birds and can normally be handled by one
man
Fold unit system
The chickens are kept in portable or movable structures. This system is not often used in
Botswana. It is not suitable for commercial chicken production.
Advantages of fold system
•
•
•
•
•
Chickens are protected from predators
It is easy to control diseases under this system
It is relatively cheap method
Proper breeding control is possible
It is easy to collect eggs than in free range system
Disadvantages of fold system
•
•
•
The system involves more labour than in free range system because the units or folds have to be
moved from place to place daily.
The system is more expensive than in free range system.
Chicken will require more additional feed than in the free-range system to achieve good
production.
c) Intensive System
i)
Deep litter system
48
In this system, chickens are kept permanently in a chicken house and are not allowed to go outside. This
system is most common for broilers but is also suitable for layers. In the chicken house there is a floor
made of concrete and covered with litter (grass, wood shaving or saw dust). Birds are provided with
feeds and water.
Advantages of deep litter
•
•
•
•
•
Chickens are protected from predators
Chickens are protected from unfavorable weather conditions
Supervision and control of chickens is fairly easy
It is easy to control diseases by maintaining high level of hygiene.
Birds gain weight fast because they do not waste energy looking for food
Disadvantages of deep litter system
•
•
•
•
•
ii)
Litter is not always ready available
It is expensive as chickens are to be provided with housing and feeds
There is great chance of cannibalism, egg eating and feather pecking.
If the chicken house is not kept clean they are high chances of disease outbreak
It is not easy to keep accurate production records
Battery cage system
49
Battery cage system, laying hens are kept in small cages inside the building. They have very little room to
move about. Each cage can hold up to 5 layers depending on the breed. Cages can be mounted (one on top
of the other). However, the cages are raised in way that droppings will not fall on the other chickens below.
Cages have a slanting tray for egg collection
Advantages of battery cage system
•
•
•
•
•
•
Record keep is very easy under this system
It is easy to cull unproductive layers
Layers use all their energy in laying eggs
Cannibalism, feather pecking and egg eating are not common
Eggs produced in this system are clean and easy to collect
Sick hens are easily identified
Disadvantages of battery cage system
•
•
•
•
It is expensive to purchase feeds, cages and build a house
Cage fatigue and leg paralysis are common
Eggs collected cannot be used for producing chicks because hens do not mate with the cock
Risk of outbreak of diseases is very high
1.1 Breeds of Chickens
a) Breeds of layers
Layers are chickens mainly reared for producing eggs.
Characteristics of a good layer
•
•
•
•
•
•
Early maturity (rapid growth) and lay many eggs of high quality.
Have little or no broodiness tendencies and long productive life
Have large abdominal cavity, smooth, wrinkles face, soft-textured skin and a bright comb
High resistant to diseases and parasites
Light bodies with little flesh on them and good converters of food to eggs
Low mortality rates among the growing chickens and laying stock.
50
Table. breeds of layers
Breed
White Leghorn
Picture
Isa brown
Characteristics
• is a mediterranean breed
• it is white in colour.
• they are light birds, weighing less than 3kg.
• they lay white-shelled eggs.
• it never goes broody
• it is easily affected by changes in weather.
• Is a hybrid breed
• It is brown in colour.
• It lays brown-shelled eggs
Black
Australorp:
•
•
•
•
It is a British breed.
It is black in colour
It is a heavy breed
It lays brown-shelled eggs.
Light Sussex
•
•
•
It is a British breed
It is white with black feathers on tail and wings
It lays brown-shelled eggs.
Rhode Island
Red
•
•
•
•
It is an American breed
It is red in colour.
It is a heavy breed that weighs 3kg or more.
It lays brown eggs.
Hyline
•
•
•
It is a hybrid breed.
It is red-brown in colour
It lays brown eggs.
b) Breeds of broilers
Broilers are chickens mainly reared for meat.
Characteristics of broilers
• Rapid growth rate, reach slaughter/market weight within 6 to 8 weeks
• Have large body size and good carcass quality
• Have big head and broad necks
• Efficient converters of food to meat. Food Conversion Ratio (FCR) of 2:1
• Have low mortality rate
• Chicks should have with plenty of feathers at hatching and good tail feathers at 10 days old.
i) Pure breeds of broilers
1. Black Australop
2. Rhode Island Red: Is a dual purpose breed
3. Plymouth rock
4. Cornish Game
51
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Light Sussex
Tswana chicken
New Hampshire
Orpington
Jersey Black Giant
ii) Hybrid breed of broilers
1. Ross
2. Babcock
3. Indian River
4. Hubbard
5. Hybro
6. Cobb 500
7. ISA Vedette
1.2 The Reproductive System of a Hen
Reproduction in chickens is a process that involves the following:
• mating between a cork and hen,
• laying of fertilized eggs
• incubating the fertilized eggs for 21 days
• hatching of a chick
Diagram of the reproductive system of a hen
Functions
of
parts of a hen
the
reproductive
1. Ovary: Produces eggs or ova and release them into the infundibulum. The process whereby the egg
yolk (ovum) is released from the ovary is called Ovulation.
52
2. Infundibulum: Receives ovum that has been released from ovary. The infundibulum also stores
sperms and serves as a site for fertilization. The chalazae are added to hold the yolk.
3. Magnum: Albumen is added to the ovum at this point.
4. Isthmus: Water, mineral salts and vitamins are added to the developing egg. The egg membrane is
also added in the Isthmus. The egg shape is determined here.
5. Uterus: The Shell is added around the developing egg, and shell pigments, some water and mineral
salts are added.
6. Vagina: Curticles are added to the eggshell and stores egg temporarily before being laid.
7. Cloaca: Site for sperms deposition and removes eggs.
8. Vent: Exit through which egg passes to the outside.
1.3 The Structure of an Egg
Functions of the parts of an egg
Part of an egg
Egg Shell
Description
• It is the outer cover of the egg.
• It is made mainly of calcium and
phosphorus.
• It is porous
Shell
• There are two shell membranes
(inner and outer) between shell
Membrane
and albumen.
• They separate at the broader end
of the egg and an air space forms
between them.
• They are also porous
Albumen (Egg • This is jelly like substance that
white)
consists mostly of water, protein,
carbohydrates and minerals.
• In a raw egg, the albumen is clear
fluid, but when cooked, it becomes
white and solid.
Chalaza
It is a twisted chord that holds yolk
53
Function
• It protects the inner parts of the
egg.
• allows exchange of gases for the
development of an embryo.
• The membranes prevent microorganisms from entering the egg.
• promote gaseous exchange.
•
•
•
Provides nutrients used by the
chick
it also protects the developing
chick while in the egg
It holds the yolk in position / stops
it from falling to one side
Yolk
•
Germinal
Disc
•
It is the yellow part of the egg. It
•
contains the nucleus of the egg cell
(germinal disc) It contains protein •
and fats.
It is the nucleus of the egg cell,
•
It provides nutrients used by the
developing embryo.
It also provides food for the chick
after it hatches.
when fertilised, it develops into the
embryo then chick
Learning Objectives: Sub -Topic 2
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
State the factors to be considered when deciding the type of chickens to raise
Prepare and use financial and production record sheets for the chicken production enterprise
Describe qualities of a good chicken house
Describe materials used in the construction of a chicken house
Identify the sources of live chickens
Preparation done before the arrival of new chickens
Describe different types of feeds provided to broilers and layers
Determine the appropriate amounts of feed given to broilers and layers
Explain the importance of keeping chicken house clean
Explain reasons for providing clean water at all times when managing chicken enterprise
2.0 Factors to Consider When Deciding the Type of Chickens to Raise
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Demand for the chicken product
Farmer’s taste and preferences
Purpose for which the chickens are to be kept
Level of experience, knowledge and skill of a farmer
Amount of capital
Climatic conditions
Availability of inputs and costs
Magnitude of risks and uncertainty associated with chicken production
Adequate water supply
2.1 Records Keeping in Chicken Production
The following are examples of records:
a) Production Records: Records details of production of a chicken enterprise. They show inputs used and
outputs obtained from the enterprise. For example:
• Egg production record: For each laying house, a record should be kept of the number of eggs laid
each day and the number of layers.
• Live weight gain records: Live weight gain of broilers is monitored by weighing a random sample of
10 chickens every week to determine an average gain in weight per chicken per week.
• Inventory Records: Show lists of all assets on a farm together with their value.
• Vaccination Records: Show time for vaccination and vaccine used.
54
•
•
Feed Consumption Records: Show the amount of feed eaten.
Mortality Records: they are death records.
An Example of Production Record (egg production)
Date
No.
layers
of No. of eggs laid
12/03/2011 100
13/03/2011 100
14/03/2011 100
AM
65
50
70
PM
35
60
30
Total
100
100
100
No of broken eggs
AM
10
-
PM
6
2
-
Total
16
2
-
Total No. of Fresh
Eggs
84
98
100
b) Financial Records: Are those which record details of all transactions involving money (cash). For
example:
• Cash book
• Income Account
• Asset and liabilities Account
• Profit and loss Account
• Expenditure Account
• Debtors and Creditors Account
An example of a financial record for a chicken enterprise (profit and loss account)
Returns (Income)
Date
Item
20/03/07 Sale of eggs
04/04/07 Sale of 30
chickens
Costs (Expenditure)
Amount Date
Item
(P)
6000
12/02/07 Purchasing layer mash
culled 750
12/02/07 Purchasing vaccine
14/02/07
Total
6750
Purchasing 200 layers
Profit
Total
Amount
500
200
5000
1050
6750
2.2 Qualities of a Good Chicken House
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The building should run from east to west to provide shade and should be built on a level foundation
It should protect the birds from harsh weather conditions such as excessive heat, cold, wind and rain
It must have adequate ventilation to facilitate movement of air both in and out of the house
It should have a concrete floor for easy cleaning
The walls should be smooth without cracks because parasites will hide there.
It should keep predators and thieves out
There should be enough floor space for each bird, that is, 0.05m2 or 50cm2. This is to avoid heat stress,
skin irritations, germ creation and cannibalism caused by overcrowding.
Materials used in construction of a chicken house
The type of material that a farmer uses to build to chicken house depends on its cost and whether it is
locally. Material that the farmer uses for the chicken house must be strong and be able to last long time.
55
Materials
Bricks
Description
Rectangular building blocks usually made of a mixture of cement, sand
and water. They are allowed to dry slowly making them tough and
durable. It is used for building the wall to a desired height.
Gum poles
Treating wooden posts with creosote will protect them from termite
attacks. Creosote is thick dark liquid mixture prepared from coal tar. The
farmer can use these posts to support rafters and wire mesh.
Concrete
Floor is made of concrete is easy to clean. Concrete is a mixture of
coarse sand, small stones, cement and water.
Mortar
Pit Sand, Sand and cement are used to make mortar which is used to
bond bricks or blocks when building walls.
Galvanized
These sheets are placed on top of the rafters to protect the birds from rain
corrugated iron and direct heat. Iron sheets which have been coated with zinc to prevent
sheets
to prevent rusting.
Wire Netting or It improves ventilation and also keeps the predators away.
Chicken mesh
Screws and nails They are used to fasten roofs to the purlins and rafters. They are also
used to fasten wire netting and plain wire to the gum poles.
Hinges
Use to attach doors to door frames
Purlins
Roofing sheets are nailed or are screwed onto the purlins
Rafters
A set of parallel sloping beams that form the framework of a roof.
Pegs
These are metal of wooden pins pushed or driven into the ground to mark
desired positions
String
Use for planning the layout of walls
2.3 Sources of Live Chickens
Most of the chickens found in Botswana are imported from South African and Zimbabwe through agencies
which mainly supply day-old chicks and point of lay pullets. The main suppliers include:
• Feed Centre
• Jim’s Farm Supplies
• Notwane
• Mmadikoko
• Tswana Pride
• Poultry Dimensions
2.4 Preparations done before the arrival of the chickens
a) Layers
Layers are usually bought at the point of lay (18 weeks)
•
•
•
•
•
Clean and disinfect the clean house
The feeding troughs and water system should be tested to ensure that they are working properly
especially for battery cage system.
Litter should be provided under the battery cages to absorb water as it spills and droppings
Laying boxes need to be set up in the deep litter system
Drinking and feeding troughs should be placed in the clean house for deep litter
56
•
•
A stock of feed, vaccines, drugs and egg trays should be bought so that they can be ready when
needed
Prepare record books in order to note down important information
b) Broilers
Broilers are bought as day old chicks.
The following preparations should be done before receiving broilers:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Clean and disinfect the chicken house, as well as the feeders and drinkers before the arrival of
the chicks.
Chicken house and equipment must be inspected and any repairs made before the arrival of the
chicks
Construct a brooding unit- provider a brooder at a constant temperature of 35oC during the first
week then slowly reduces it by 3oC each week until it reaches 26oC.
Cover the floor with litter that will absorb water spilled on the floor and chicks’ droppings
Buy proper feeds before the chicks arrive. There should be enough starter mash and finisher
mash
Buy drugs and vaccine. As soon as the chicks arrive there should be vaccinated against
Newcastle
2.5 Different Types of Feeds for Chickens
There is a need to feed broilers and layers different types of feeds at different ages. These feeds contain
different amounts of carbohydrates, protein, fats, minerals and vitamins. Feeds are available in the form of
mash (fine powder), pellets (small cylindrical pieces) and crumbs or granules.
a) Feeds for Broilers
i) Broiler Starter Mash
This is fed to chicks from day old up to four weeks. It is finely ground so that it is easy for the chicks to eat
it. It contains a lot of protein, minerals and vitamins for the development of bones and flesh. It also
contains coccidiostats to prevent chicks from getting coccidiosis.
The nutrient composition of broiler starter mash is as follows:
Element
Protein
Fibre
Calcium
Phosphorus
Fats
% Composition
23.2%
5%
0,9%
0,7%
5%
ii) Broiler Finisher Mash or Pellets
These are fed to broilers when they are five weeks until they reach the age of slaughter. The finisher mash
is coarse and has plenty of protein and carbohydrates, which the chicks need for fast growth and
development.
The nutrient composition of broiler starter mash is as follows
57
Element
Protein
Fibre
Calcium
Phosphorus
Fats
% Composition
18,3%
5%
1,2%
0,6%
6%
Amount of feed given to broilers
Broilers are fed ad lib. This means that broilers feeds should be made available all the time so that the
chickens can eat whenever they want. Chickens do not eat in the dark so light should be provided at night
to ensure that they continue feeding at night. Broilers have feed conversion ratio of 2:1
b) Feeds for Layers
Feed
i. Chick
Mash
Age of birds
Starter One day old to four weeks old
ii. Grower’s Mash
or Pellets
iii. Layer’s Mash
or Pellets
Description of feed
• It is finely ground so that it is easy for
the chicks to eat it.
• It contains a lot of protein, minerals
and vitamins for the development of
bones and flesh.
• It also contains coccidiostats to
prevent chicks from getting
coccidiosis.
five weeks old until point-of• It has less protein than starter or
lay
layers mash,
• it has more carbohydrates to provide
energy to the growing pullets.
From point-of-lay (18 weeks It contains a lot of proteins for egg
old) onwards
production
It is rich in minerals to build strong bones
and eggshells.
Amount of feed given to layers
Layers should have food at all times. In other words, the farmer should feed them ad libitum.
2.6 Importance of Keeping the Chicken House Clean
The chicken house must be kept clean at all times. This is done for the following reasons:
•
•
•
•
It removes microbes that feed on manure. It prevents the buildup of disease-causing organisms in
the poultry house. Chickens can die in large numbers if diseases are not prevented, because
chickens are kept very close together.
It reduces dirt on eggs-if the house is not clean, eggs will become dirty.
Cleaning prevents any bad smell on the chicken carcasses. Chickens that are reared in dirty litter
have a bad smell that will drive away the customers.
It prevents air pollution in the environment.
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•
Part of the cleaning processes is to dispose of litter, which becomes filled with manure.
Cleaning the chicken house
Cleaning the chicken house mainly involves the removal of dirty litter and scrubbing and disinfecting the
floors and walls.
Steps in cleaning the chicken house
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Remove the litter by shoveling it into a wheelbarrow and carrying it out of the house.
Sweep the floor using a hard broom.
Wash and scrub the floor and walls with water and a detergent.
Disinfect the floor and walls using Jeyes fluid or any other appropriate disinfectant.
Allow the floor to dry for a few days.
Spread clean dry litter on the floor.
If there are external parasites, it may be necessary to fumigate or spray the building and equipment
with a pesticide.
2.7 Reasons for Providing Clean Water When Managing a Chicken Enterprise
A chicken enterprise requires clean, fresh water at all times. Chickens can be provided with clean water in
drinking fountains or in automatic water troughs. The amount of water that chickens drink per day depends
on their age, breed, rate of production, the temperature of the chicken house, the type of feed that they eat
and how much carbohydrates they eat.
Chickens need to be provided with clean water for the following reasons:
•
•
•
•
So that they can eat dry feeds.
The chickens cool their body temperature by drinking water.
Chickens grow well and produce high quality eggs when supplied with clean water.
Many diseases and production problems result when chickens drink water infected with disease
causing organisms or chemicals, for example the virus that causes new castle disease.
Learning Objectives: Sub –Topic 3
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Describe artificial and natural brooding chicks
Describe the construction of a brooding unit
Describe methods of heating a brooding unit
Care given to young birds or chicks in a brooding unit
Describe the artificial and natural incubation of eggs
Describe culling, debeaking and vaccination schedule of chickens
Demonstrate culling, debeaking and vaccination of chickens
State the criteria used when culling chickens
3.0 TYPE OF CARE GIVEN TO CHICKS
a) Brooding is looking after chicks for the first four weeks of their lives or until they can survive on their
own. This can be done either artificially or naturally.
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i) Natural brooding
This is when the hen raises the young chicks. The hen provides warmth, food, water and protection
from predators. When it is cold the chicks huddle under her wings. By sheltering the chicks, the hen
provides them with warmth so that they do not die of cold. The wings keep the chicks protected
from enemies.
(ii) Artificial brooding
This is when a farmer looks after chicks away from their mothers in a brooding unit. A brooding
unit is a small place where young chicks are raised during the first four weeks of their lives. A
brooder (brooding unit) is used to provide optimum environmental conditions for the growth of the
chicks. The conditions are warmth, floor space, food, ventilation, water and protection against
predators.
Construction of a brooding unit
Materials needed
• Sheets of flexible hardboard or cardboard about 50cm wide
• Soft plain wire
• Blocks or bricks
Steps in constructing a brooding unit
•
Arrange the hardboard sheets in a circle around a heat source (brooder), to form a guard. The circle
must be about 1.2m from the edge of the brooder. The height of the brooding unit must be about
50cm. If it is too short the unit will lose heat too quickly
•
Tie the sheets with wire and support them with blocks or bricks to make them stable. The circular
shape of the unit helps to reduce the chances of death by suffocation (chicks crowd in corners and
climb on top of each other when frightened , excited or cold, and this may result in suffocation and
death).You will also need litter for the floor of the box , a feeder, a water fountain and a lamp.
b) Incubation
•
•
•
Incubation means providing eggs with suitable conditions to promote the development of embryos into
chicks.
It lasts for 21 days after hatching occurs.
There are two types of incubation - natural and artificial incubation.
i) Natural incubation
•
•
This is when a hen (broody) is allowed to sit on their eggs until the eggs hatch.
The broody hen keeps the eggs warm and humid with her body, and turns the eggs so that the yolk does
not stick to one side.
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ii) Artificial incubation
•
•
•
•
•
•
This is done using special machines called incubators.
Incubators provide the same conditions for the eggs as a broody hen does.
They keep the eggs at a temperature of about 36.6-370C.
Incubators have trays to hold the eggs and can hold 50 to 100 000 depending on the demand of eggs.
The incubator has a thermometer to regulate temperature and vents to allow air circulation.
A water tray is available that contain water to increases humidity and reduce moisture loss by the eggs.
(incubator)
3.1 Methods of Heating a Brooding Unit
a) The Mbawula system
This is the most common method of brooding chicks in rural areas. A bucket with holes made on
the sides is used to provide warmth. Outside the chicken house a fire is made in the bucket. The
bucket is then taken into the house when the smoke has escaped to provide warmth for the chicks.
To prevent the chicks from burning themselves, wire mesh is put around the bucket. An oil drum
can be cut in half and hung above the bucket to keep the heat in the unit for longer.
Advantages
•
•
It is cheap.
It is easy to set up
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Disadvantages
•
•
Fuel must be added to the fire to keep it burning
If the chicken house is not properly ventilated, they would be danger of carbon monoxide fumes
released by the fire which might kill chicks.
b) The tunnel system
A pipe is fitted to the wall of the house that contains the brooding unit. The pipe goes from one side
of the house to the other, and is connected to a chimney at one end. A fire is made at the opening of
the tunnel and the heat is spread through the tunnel and makes the house warm. The smoke leaves
the house through the chimney, so there is no danger of carbon monoxide poisoning.
Advantages
•
•
There is no danger of carbon monoxide poisoning from carbon dioxide fumes.
It is cheap because it makes use of local materials.
Disadvantages
•
•
Big tunnels can lose a lot of heat.
Tunnels need to be replaced frequently because the fire damages them.
c) The drum system
A drum is fitted in to the wall of the house containing the brooding unit. The drum may need
support to make sure it does not fall down. A fire is lit inside the drum and as the drum becomes hot
it heats the inside of the house.
Advantages
•
•
•
There is no danger of carbon monoxide poisoning inside the house
It is very easy to use
It is cheap because it uses local material
Disadvantages
•
•
The drum needs to be replaced regularly because the fire damages it
The drum is not in the center of the house or breeding unit, so the chicks will crowd together
near the walls underneath the drum.
d) The gas brooder system
A gas brooder has a heater that uses gas from cylinders. The heating filament glows once it has
been lit and gradually heats up the whole brooding unit. The temperature of the heater can be
changed to make it hotter or colder.
Advantages
•
It does not produce any carbon monoxide
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The temperature of the brooding unit can be controlled
It is easy to light the heater.
It can be switched off if it is not needed.
•
•
•
Disadvantages
•
•
•
Gas is very expensive
It may not be very easy to get gas in rural areas
If any gas leaks, it can cause an uncontrolled fire
3.2 Reasons for Warming the Brooding Unit
•
•
•
It provides the right atmosphere for the chicks to grow and thrive.
Young chicks are not fully feathered and need supplementary heat as they are unable to
regulate their body temperature.
Chicks that are exposed to cold temperatures do not grow up healthy.
3.3 Care Given to Chicks in a Brooding Unit
Management of chicks in the brooder includes the following: feeding, temperature control, watering, floor
space, ventilation and disease control.
a) Feeding
For the first two days spread chick starter mash on newspaper or chick trays. This is done to encourage
chicks to start feeding. Food can later be placed in oval hole feeders and should be evenly distributed in the
brooder area.
b) watering
Clean water should be provided to all chicks at all times. Water should be provided in chick drinkers. The
drinkers should be cleaned thoroughly before fresh water is added. The water should be changed daily.
c) Ventilation
Proper ventilation should be provided but at the same time chicks should be protected against cold air.
Humidity should be maintained at 65% for optimum chick development.
d) Good ventilation prevents the following:
•
•
The occurrence of respiratory diseases.
Prevents buildup of ammonia and fumes from brooder lamps to harmful levels.
e) Floor space
Litter should be used on the floor. (check notes on deep litter system)
f) disease and parasite control
Chicks should be vaccinated against new castle, gumboro and fowl typhoid. The veterinary department can
be contacted for further information.
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g) Predators
Chicks should be protected from snakes, cats and mice by rendering the chicken house predator proof.
h) Temperature control
•
•
Correct temperature is essential for good feathering, normal growth and to avoid chilling.
The temperature should be maintained at 350C in the first week and then gradually so that by the fourth
week it is about 260C.
i) Chick behaviour should be observed:
•
•
•
If chicks huddle together under the heating unit, then it is too cold
If chicks are away from the heating unit, then it is too warm.
If the temperature is right, chicks are evenly spread in the brooder area and they move freely.
3.4 Culling
Culling is a process of removing unproductive birds from the flock.
Culling can be done in two ways - mass and selective culling
i)
ii)
Mass culling is when the entire flock is removed and replaced.
Selective culling is when undesirable birds are removed from a flock.
a) Reasons for culling
•
•
•
•
High level of production is maintained.
Extra cost of feeding unproductive birds from the flock.
More space is provided for the remaining birds.
The spread of diseases is greatly minimized.
b) Criteria used when culling chickens
•
•
•
•
•
Low production: Poor layers and non-layers must be culled.
Ill health: Sick birds are must be removed from the flock to avoid spreading of the disease
Vices or bad habits: birds that do egg eating, cannibalism or broodiness must be culled.
Poor growth
Weakness and deformity
3.5 Debeaking
•
It is the removal of part of the beak of chickens.
Age of debeaking
•
It is normally done at the age of about 10 days and this gives good results.
64
Advantages of debeaking
•
•
•
•
•
De-beaked hens are calmer and more restful.
Results in an increased efficiency of feed consumption
More uniform in growth
Egg eating is minimized
Feather pecking and cannibalism are prevented
Debeaking tools
•
•
•
•
Clippers
knives
pliers
hot plates (plates use electricity)
Debeaking technique
Delete/erase figure 11
•
•
•
•
Both upper and lower beaks of a chick are put through 4.5mm hole at the same time and cut with a red
hot plate.
Hold the chick’s neck such that its tongue is drawn back so that it cannot be damaged.
The lower beak is slightly drawn back so that it can be slightly longer than the upper beak after
debeaking.
About 1/3 to ½ of the beak is removed.
3.6 Vaccination
Vaccination is when mild or dead pathogens which normally produce a disease are introduced into the
body of host animal to make it immune to the disease.
Reasons for vaccination
•
•
To prevent economic loss due to diseases.
To control and prevent diseases.
Vaccination schedule for common poultry diseases in Botswana
AGE
Day old
Day old
Day old
1 week
DISEASE
Mareks disease
Coccidiosis
Newcastle disease
First infectious bronchitis
65
VACCINE
Marek’s vaccine
Coccidiostats in feeds
La sota
H120 or mild strain
2 weeks
3 weeks
4 weeks
6 weeks
9 weeks
12 weeks
16 weeks
18-21 weeks
New castle disease
Gumboro
Gumboro
Gumboro
Newcastle disease
Second infectious bronchitis
Third infectious bronchitis
Newcastle disease
Hitchner or Lasota
Mild strain
Mild strain
Mild strain
Komarov or Lasota
H120 or mild strain
H120 or mild strain
Komarov or Lasota
Learning Objectives: Sub –Topic 4
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Distinguish between internal and external parasites
Identify common chicken parasites (internal and external)
Identify mites
Identify the harm caused by mites to chickens
Demonstrate control measures against mites
Identify diseases of chickens
Describe the cause(s) of Newcastle and Coccidiosis
Identify the symptoms of Newcastle and Coccidiosis
Demonstrate the treatment, control and preventative measures against Newcastle and Coccidiosis
Describe the slaughtering and processing of chickens
State the purpose for candling eggs
Demonstrate the candling of eggs
Describe the grading process of eggs
Demonstrate proper packaging of eggs
4.0 Chicken parasites
Internal parasites
External parasites
• They live inside the body of a host • They live outside the body of a host
(chicken).
• Examples are tapeworms, roundworms, • Common chicken parasites include lice,
caecal worms and thread worms.
mites, tampans and ticks.
Chicken mites
Harm caused by mites
Sucking of blood causes anaemia, slow growth, loss of feathers, low egg production, young chicks may die
due to weakness, cause itchy irritations to birds.
Control of mites
•
•
•
Treat with malathion, servin or carbaryl
Paraffin can be used by spraying it on the chicken or chicken house
Rub old engine oil into nest boxes or perches
66
4.1 Diseases of Chickens
• Newcastle disease
• Coccidiosis
• Pullorum
• Crazy chick disease
• Infectious coryza
• Fowl pox
• Bird flu
• Marek’s disease
Common diseases of chickens
Disease
New castle
Cause
Virus
Coccidiosis Protozoa
Symptoms
Watery, greenish
diarrhea
Difficulty in
breathing
Coughing and
sneezing
Has difficulty
walking
Paralysis of legs
and wings, such
that the bird
moves in circles
Discharge from
the nostrils and
beak
Blood stained
diarrhea
Feathers are
ruffled
Wings hang
down
Birds drink a lot
of water
Loss of appetite
Prevention and control
Give birds clean
water, using clean
drinkers
Vaccinate chickens
Keep away wild birds
because they can
spread the disease
During an outbreak,
practice quarantine
measures. For
example, restrict
movement of animal
and animal products.
Poultry workers and
equipment should not
move from one
poultry house to
another because they
may spread the
disease.
Slaughter and burn
chickens if there is an
outbreak of the
disease.
Give chicks feeds
containing
coccidiostats.
Provide birds with
clean water and clean
feeds.
Keep litter dry
Keep the chicken
house and equipment
clean.
During an outbreak,
separate the healthy
chickens from the sick
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Treatment
No treatment
Sulphadimidine
0.2% in water
Sulphaquinoxaline
in
water
and
amprol
and
embazin in feed
Sulphamezathine
in drinking water
ones.
4.2 Marketing chicken products
Slaughtering and processing of chickens
Step 1:Slaughtering
• Allow the birds fast for 12-24 hours. This improves the quality of the meat.
• Hold the chicken by the legs with the wing tips secured in the same hand.
• Use the other hand to break the neck of the bird.
• Cut off the head of the chicken.
Step 2: Bleeding
• Hold the chicken upside down and let the blood drain out of the neck
Step 3: Scalding
• Dip the chicken into a container of hot water (60-64◦C) for 3-5 seconds to loosen the feathers
Step 4: Plucking
• Pluck (remove) the feathers from the chicken using either your hands or a mechanical chicken plucker.
• If you use a plucker you may still have to finish the plucking by hand to remove the fine feathers.
• Remove the skin covering the legs.
Step 5: Evisceration
• Evisceration is the removal of these organs through an opened vent.
• Make a clean cut around the vent to carefully remove the intestines, gizzard and the heart.
• Then make another cut in the skin just below the neck to remove the crop.
Step 6: Cleaning the carcass
• Clean the carcass with cold water to cool it down to prevent micro- organisms to multiply
Step 7: Packaging and weighing the carcass
• The carcass will be packed in a clean plastic bag, weighed, and then priced.
Step 8: Packaging the viscera and other parts
• The intestines are emptied, cleaned, and packaged.
• Gizzard, liver, heart, head, neck and legs are also packaged separately.
Step 9: Refrigeration or Freezing
• Keep meat in a refrigerator or freezer until it is dispatched to consumers to prevent rotting
4.3 Egg Candling
•
It means passing a strong beam of light through an egg in a dark room in order to check the internal
quality of an egg.
The purpose of candling eggs
It is done for the following reasons:
68
•
•
•
•
•
•
To see if the egg has inclusions (blood spot inside)
To see whether the egg has been fertilised or not.
To check cracks in the egg shells
To check the condition of the yolk and egg white
To check presence and absence of hair (worms)cracks
Sorting and grading of eggs
Process of candling eggs
4.4 Grading Eggs
Eggs are graded by their by their size and quality.
Egg grades
GRADE
1
2
3
4
SIZE RANGE (GRAMS)
65 and more
55 to 65
45 to 55
Less than 45
The eggs also have to be inspected externally and internally to check for abnormalities.
a) External inspection
The outside of the egg is observed for the following qualities:
• Cleanliness: The egg must be clean and should not have any stains.
• Sound shell: The egg shell should not have cracks.
• Shape: The ideal shape of an egg is oval with one end larger than the other.
• Colour: The colour of the egg should be consistent with the breed and feed type used.
b) Internal inspection
The characteristics of an egg of good quality are the following:
• It should not have any meat or blood spots.
• It should not have a developing embryo.
• It should have round and centred yolk.
• It should have a small air space.
4.5 Packaging eggs
• After cleaning and grading, the eggs are put in egg boxes and trays.
• The right way to pack eggs into cartons is with the large end at the top.
• The egg boxes and trays are packed in big boxes and transported to the market
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4.6 Factors that Influence the Price of Chicken Products are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Forces of demand and supply
Production costs
Competition among producers
Transport and marketing costs
Technique used in the production of the products
Size of products
Revision Questions to Unit 10
Section A
Answer all questions in this section. Questions 1-15 are multiple choice
questions.
Circle the correct answer.
1. Which of the following phrases is not true about free range?
A. Chickens are free to roam around
B. Chickens lay egg anywhere
C. It is cheap to start
D. Record keeping is easy
2. Which of the following breed is suitable for both meat and egg production?
A. Black Australorp
B. Hyline
C. Isa brown
D. White leghorn
3. Which part of the hen’s reproductive system produces hormones?
A. Infundibulum
70
B. Isthmus
C. Ovary
D. Uterus
4. Which statement is an advantage of a free range system of raising chickens?
A. It is cheap
B. It is labour intensive
C. It is a highly productive system
D. It allows attendant to control pests easily
Use the information to answer question 5.
A chicken has disease characterised by the following symptoms:
Mucus discharge from nostrils, gasping for breath and looked dull.
5. Which disease is the chicken likely to be suffering from?
A. Coccidiosis
B. Gumboro
C. Mareks
D. New castle
Use the diagram to answer question 6 and 7
6. What is the name of the part labelled P?
A. Cloaca
B. Infundibulum
C. Uterus
D. Vagina
7. What is the function of the part labelled M?
71
A. It adds albumen to the egg
B. It is site for fertilization
C. It receives the semen from cock
D. It secretes egg shell
The diagram shows the structure of an egg. Use it to answer question 8.
Label the last line with X
Label first line with W
8. What is the part labelled X called?
A. Chalaza
B. Albumen
C. Yolk
D. Air space
9.What is the function of the part label W?
A. Protects the chick.
B. Help in the exchange of air.
C. Provide nutrients to the chick.
D. Holds the egg yolk in place.
10. Which of the following is a characteristic of a good layer?
A. Broad muscle
B. Moist vent
C. Small comb
D. Thick skin
11.Which of the following methods of raising chicken results in chicken fatigue and leg paralysis
A. Deep litter
72
B. Fold unit
C. Free range
D. Battery cage
The diagram below shows a management practice in chicken production.
Use it to answer question 12.
12.Which of the following management practices is shown
A. Brooding
B. Hatching
C. Hunting
D. Incubating
The diagram below shows a practice in a poultry farm before packaging eggs for sale. Use it to
answer questions 13 and 14.
13.What
is the name of the activity?
A. Brooding
B. Candling
C. Grading
D. Incubation
14.What is the importance of this activity?
A. To check for blood and meat spots inside an egg
B. To check the size of the chick inside the egg
C. To check the colour of the shell
D. To check the size of an egg
The diagram below shows packaging of eggs in an egg container. Use to answer question 15
73
15. What is the benefit of packaging eggs as shown
A. To break the egg shell
B. To give the best egg size
C. To protect the eggs from breaking
D. To avoid egg spoilage
Section B
Short answer questions
Answer all the questions on the space provided
The diagram below shows chickens in a poultry house. Use it to answer questions 1 and 2.
1. a) Name the type of system of raising chicken illustrated above.
___________________________________________________________________________
[1mark]
b). Why should the floor of the structure above made of concrete?
___________________________________________________________________________
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[1mark]
2. State two characteristics of a good broiler.
_______________________________________________________________________________
[2 marks]
3. Define the following terms
(a) Incubation
___________________________________________________________________________
[1 mark]
(b) Brooding
______________________________________________________________________________
[1 mark]
The diagram below shows on the equipment used in chicken farming. Use it to answer questions 4 (a)
and (b)
4. (a) Name the equipment shown
______________________________________________________________________________
[1mark]
(b) Explain how the equipment shown can benefit a chicken farmer
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
[2 marks]
75
The diagram below shows
production. Use it to
an equipment used in chicks
answer questions 5 (a), (b) and (c)
5. (a) State the period expected for the eggs to be in the equipment before they hatch?
______________________________________________________________________________
[1 mark]
(b) Describe two necessary conditions the equipment must provide for the eggs to hatch.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
[2 marks]
(c) Describe how a hen provide the same conditions as the equipment shown above
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
[3 marks]
The diagram below shows chickens kept under management practices labeled P and Q. Use them to
answer question 6.
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6.
(a) Name the management practices labeled P and Q
P_____________________________________________________________________
Q_____________________________________________________________________
[2 marks]
(b) At what age can chickens be kept under management practice Q?
______________________________________________________________________________
[1marks]
(c) State two advantages that management practice P has over management practice Q
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
[2 marks]
7. State any two criteria used when culling chickens
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
[2 marks]
The diagrams below shows the behaviour of chicks in a brooding unit labelled A and B. Use to
answer question 8
A
B
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8. Explain the behaviour of chicks in the brooding unit labelled A and B
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
[2 marks]
The diagram below shows a structure of a poultry house, use it to answer the question 9
9. (a)Under which system of chicken production is the above structure used
________________________________________________________________________
[1 mark]
b) State three benefits of the structure
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
[3marks]
The diagram below shows a management practice done in chicken production. Use it to answer
question 10
10(a) Name the
management practice shown
______________________________________________________________________________
[1mark]
b) Give two benefits of the management practice
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
78
[2 marks]
The diagram below shows a method of a heating system. Use it to answer question 11.
a) Identify the method shown
________________________________________________________________________
[1 mark]
b) Describe the method shown
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
[3marks]
Answers to Revision Questions – Unit 6
6
Section A
Multiple choices
1.C
2,B
3.A
4B.
5.A
6,C
SECTION B:
1. Exotic and indigenous fruit frees found in Botswana?
Indigenous trees
-Marula (morula)
-Monkey orange (mogorogorwane)
-Wild medlar (mmilo)
-Bush Raisin (moretlwa)
-baobab (mowana)
79
7.B
8.B
9.A
10.D
-Snot Apple (morojwa)
-Large sour plum (moretologa)
Exotic trees
-Oranges
-Peaches
-Paw paws
-Grapes
-Bananas
-Lemons
-Avocado
-guavas
-mangoes
-pomegranates (garenate)
-apples
-pear
-pineapples
-apricots
2. Economic values of fruit trees
• They earn income for a farmer
•
They provide foreign exchange when exported
•
Source of raw materials for food industries
•
Sources of foreign exchange as they help reduce imports of fruits and fruit products
•
Provide employment for those working in orchards, nurseries and fruit processing industries
3. Explanations of requirements for the establishment of an orchard
--Permanent supply of good quality water-for irrigation; fruit trees require adequate water to grow
properly.
-Topography- the land should be level or have gentle slope, land with deep, rich and well drained soils
-Availability of dependable experienced labour force (workers)-some methods for propagating trees
require special skills and experience in order to be successful.
-Existence of high demand for fruits-first establishes if there will be a good and sustainable market for
the fruits/produce. Conduct a market survey to establish if there will be sufficient long term demand for the
produce.
-Enough money- There should be enough money to buy fruit tree seedling, tools and equipment, fertilizers
and insecticides and to pay for water and labour etc.
-Suitable climatic conditions-The orchard should be placed in an area which will be suitable for the fruit
trees to be grown.
4. Methods of harvesting fruits
Hand picking
Machines
5. Factors influencing choice of a fruit tree to grow
-Type of soil- different fruit trees can grow in a wide range of soils.
80
-Climatic conditions -differences in temperature, light duration and intensity, humidity and altitude have a
major influence on choosing the type of fruit to grow. Many deciduous fruit trees rest during cold period,
grapes require short cold followed by apricot, peaches, pears and finally apples. Some fruit trees are frost
sensitive and will be damaged by cold winter.
-Farmers knowledge and experience- grow type of fruit trees that you have experience on managing
them
-Market for fruits- Choose fruit trees that has the greatest demand
-Resistance to pests, disease and drought – choose trees that have resistance to pests and disease
-Farmers preference and taste- The farmer will also have to decide which type of fruit tree to grow
especially for family consumption.
-Fruitfulness of a tree (fruit bearing capacity of a tree)- how many fruits can a fruit tree bear
-Production life of a tree- how long the fruit tree will live and will still be producing fruits
6.Significance of the management practice
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Protects young plants from high temperatures and high light intensity
Minimizes evapotranspiration, so reduces water stress
Protects seedlings from direct beating by raindrops
Encourages cool conditions at ground level which favours growth of emerging seedlings
Protects seedlings from bird damage
7. Grafting
Description
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Choose a healthy rootstock and a scion of the same species, age and size.
Cut of the leaves from the chosen to reduce transpiration
Place the knife and make a slant cut both at the top of the rootstock and at the bottom of the scion, so
that they can be joined together easily.
With a grafting tape join and bind the scion and the rootstock together firmly.
After about six weeks, leaves will start to appear on the scion and the two will firm grow together as
one plant.
Answers to Revision Questions – Unit 7
Section A
Multiple choices
1.A
2.A
3.B
4.A
5.A
6.C
7.C
Section B
Short answer questions
1. Reasons for correct management of woodlots:
• source of food eg wild raisins;
• provide timber for fencing posts and building;
• increase the value of the land which can be used for recreation;
• Some trees in woodlots provide pollen and nectar for bees;
• protect the soil from erosion
• provide shade, habitat, shelter and protect wild animals from harm and unfavourable
weather conditions;
• solve the problem of desertification around our villages;
• act as windbreakers .
2. Importance of trees and tree products
• Roots of trees hold the soil particles together and prevents soil erosion;
• Trees acts as windbreakers;
• provide shelter for animals and people;
• helps to control the rate of evaporation from the soil;
• Trees make the landscape more attractive and add value to land;
• Trees also provide timber which is used for constructing roofs;
• Some trees provide us with fruits, roots, gum and leave which are used as food;
• Trees are also used as medicines.
3. Difference between indigenous and exotic trees
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Indigenous trees are native to Botswana while exotic trees originate from outside
Botswana;
Indigenous trees originate and grow naturally in Botswana while exotic trees have been
brought in Botswana from other countries/they are foreign trees;
4. Importance of forestry conservation.
• Forest act as wind breakers to prevent soil erosion;
• Their leaves fall to the ground and add organic matter to the soil;
• Forests provide shelter and food for wild life and people;
• To prevent the spread of the desert or desert like conditions;
• To conserve soil and water;
• Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen into the atmosphere;
• To prevent loss of important natural resources;
• they attract tourists who in turn bring foreign exchange and improve the lives of people in
rural areas;
• source of raw materials such as gum, raisins, dyes and tannis for industrial use;
• Trees also are a source of medicinal herbs which help people to improve their health status;
• Forest is source of employment and income;
5. a) Silvo – arable
b)Silvo-pastoral
6. Veld products and their uses
Veld product
Honey
Thatching grass
Uses
Food
Roofing
Mushroom
Food
Devil’s claws
Phane worms
Hoodia
Gemsbok beans
Curing illnesses
Food
Quench thirst
Food
7. Tree products and their uses
Tree products
Uses
Timber and poles
Furniture, fencing and poles for electricity
Tannin and dyes
Dyeing and tannin industries
Fibre and fronds
Hand craft making
Nectar and pollen
Food for bees
Fuel wood and charcoal Fuel for cooking and warming houses
8
Factors affecting germination percentage:
a) Lack of moisture;
• pests and disease;
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depth of sowing;
extreme temperature;
stage of maturity;
under develop embryo;
b) Breaking seed dormancy; soaking seeds in cold water; acid scarification; treating seeds with ethanol;
hot water treatment;
9. Seeds that have been lying on the ground for some time;
• are usually not mature and may not germinate;
• They may be affected by pests and diseases while they are on the ground;
• They may have been crushed or damaged by animals while they are on the ground;
• Hot temperatures and moisture may have damaged seeds while they were on the ground;
• they might have fallen before they mature;
• they might have fallen long time back and have rotten due to moisture in the soil;
Answers to Revision Questions – Unit 8
Multiple choice questions
1.B
2.D
3. A
4. D
5. A
6. C
7. A
8.B
9.C
10. D
Structured questions
1.factor that is likely to lower the demand for pigs for the JUST PIG business
(a) believes /religion
(b) to check the feasibility of the business/ check number of customers willing to buy the product
(c) to advertise the product
2. Relationship between price and quantity demanded
When the price is high quantity demanded is low, vise versa
3 (a) Name the structure-Organizational structure
(b) Form of business- company
(c) Qualities of the Production Manager
knowledgeable, motivate, communicate, team builder, creative and innovative and committed.
4. Elements of marketing mix.
i Product: the product must meet the needs or demands of a customer. Then product can either be
tangible good or intangible service.
ii Price: it is the actual amount that a product is sold with. The price set by the supplier should be
within the means of the target market or else it will affect the quantity demanded.
iii. Place: the product should be accessible to the customers. That is, it should be easy for the
customers to get the product when they need it .
iv. Promotion: promoting the product is all about selling your idea to the customer; showing your
customer how the product will be of benefit to them and that it will be good value for their money.
This should come out clearly when you are promoting the product.
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5 (a)
RECIEPTS
ITEMS
995
CHICKENS @
P50.00 each
40 bags manure
@P20.00 per
bag
TOTAL
COSTS
P49,750.00
P800.00
P50570.00
EXPENDITURE
ITEMS
1000day old
chicks@P2.00 each
20 bags of chick
starter mash @
P100.00 per bag
40 growers mash @
P75.00 per bag
Vaccines P200.00
labour cost
P1200.00 for two.
TOTAL
COSTS
P2000.00
P2000.00
P3000.00
P200
P1200.00
P8400.00
(b) profit /loss = P50570 - P8400
=P42170 profit
6 (a) Agency that could assist the farmer to acquire the machinery.
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CEDA (Citizen Enterprenual Development Agency)
YFF (Young Farmers Fund)
NAMPAADD (National Master Plan for the Arable and Dairy Development)
ISPAAD (Integrated Support Programme for Arable Agriculture Development)
LIMID (Livestock Management and Infrastructure Development
(b) Government Funding procedures
To apply for a government loan or grant one has to :
• Be a citizen of Botswana with 18 years and above
• Have a viable business proposal
• Have a detailed business plan
• Be legally registered with Registrar of Companies
• Have a place where the business will be operating
• Fill the application form
Commercial funding Procedures
To apply for financial assistance, one has to:
• Have an account with the bank
• Be able to pay back the loan with interest
• Fill and submit application form
• Submit the business plan
• Offer security
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7. Business Idea and Business Opportunity
Business idea is referred to an idea or thought of a business venture that one intends to do and thinks will
work while business opportunity is simply a factor that makes or motivates someone to start a business in a
particular area.
8.Elements of a business plan
The elements of a business plan may vary from one plan to another, but the following are very common:
• Executive summary: It is an overview of the total business plan
• Company description
• Product and service plan
• Marketing plan
• Management plan
• Operating plan
• Financial plan
• Legal plan
Answers to Revision Questions – Unit 10
Section A
Multiple choices
1.D
2.A
3.C
4.A
5.D
6.B
7.D
8.B
9.C
10.B
11.A 12.A 13.B
14A
15.C
Section B
Short answer questions
1.a) Type of system : intensive
b) for easy cleaning
2.Characteristics of a good broiler
• Rapid growth rate, reach slaughter/market weight within 6 to 8 weeks
• Have large body size and good carcass quality
• Have big head and broad necks
• Efficient converters of food to meat. Food Conversion Ratio (FCR) of 2:1
• Have low mortality rate
• Chicks should have with plenty of feathers at hatching and good tail feathers at 10 days old.
3.Incubation: Incubation means providing eggs with suitable conditions to promote the development of
embryos into chicks.
Brooding: is looking after chicks for the first four weeks of their lives or until they can survive on their
own. This can be done either artificially or naturally.
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4.a) Name of equipment: egg scale
b) Benefits of the equipment:
• to weigh eggs for grading
• for pricing of eggs for sale
5.a) for 21 days
b) conditions necessary for eggs to hatch:
• provision of correct humidity
• required temperature of 36.6-370C.
• turning of eggs
• air circulation
c) Incubation by a hen : This is when a hen (broody) is allowed to sit on their eggs until the eggs hatch.
A broody hen keeps the eggs warm and humid with her body, and turns the eggs so that the yolk does
not stick to one side.
6. a) P: natural brooding
Q: artificial brooding
b) 1 day old
c) Advantages of P over Q
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it is cheap
it does not need skills
no labour required
7.Criteria used for culling chickens:
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Low production: Poor layers and non-layers must be culled.
Ill health: Sick birds are must be removed from the flock to avoid spreading of the disease
Vices or bad habits: birds that do egg eating, cannibalism or broodiness must be culled.
Poor growth
Weakness and deformity
8.Heating method A : the chicks are hurdling towards the heating element showing that the temperature is
low while Heating method B: the chicks are far away from the heating element showing that the
temperature is high.
9.a) deep litter system
b)Benefits of the structure
• to protect chicks from harsh conditions
• to protect from predators
• for easy management practice
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10.a) Management practice: debeaking
b) Benefits of the management practice
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De-beaked hens are calmer and more restful.
Results in an increased efficiency of feed consumption
More uniform in growth
Egg eating is minimized
Feather pecking and cannibalism are prevented
11.a) Name of the method: mbawula system
b) A bucket with holes made on the sides is used to provide warmth. Outside the chicken house a fire is
made in the bucket. The bucket is then taken into the house when the smoke has escaped to provide warmth
for the chicks. To prevent the chicks from burning themselves, wire mesh is put around the bucket. An oil
drum can be cut in half and hung above the bucket to keep the heat in the unit for longer.
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