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The Bachelor's Thesis in Teacher Education
Article in European Journal of Teacher Education · October 2004
DOI: 10.1080/0261976042000290813
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European Journal of Teacher Education
Vol. 27, No. 3, October 2004
The Bachelor’s thesis in teacher
education
Wil Meeus*, Linda Van Looy and Arno Libotton
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
The theory-oriented approach to the final thesis in higher education is still dominant at the Master
as well as Bachelor level. We believe, however, that at the Bachelor level a practice-oriented
approach would be more appropriate. Our research as presented below explores the possibilities
of a practice-oriented approach to the Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education. Semi-structured
interviews form the basis for a grounded theory regarding the various current final thesis models
and the conditions in which these have to be realized. The conclusion is that the portfolio as final
thesis proves to be a satisfactory practice-oriented alternative to the highly criticized traditional
final thesis.
L’approche privilégiée pour la réalisation du mémoire de fin d’études dans les formations
supérieures du Master et du Bachelor est encore toujours une approche théorique. Pourtant nous
croyons que pour le niveau Bachelor, une méthode orientée vers la pratique serait plus appropriée.
Notre étude explore les possibilités d’une méthode orientée vers la pratique pour les mémoires de
fin d’étude des Bachelors dans la formation initiale des professeurs. Des interviews semi-structurées constituent la base pour l’élaboration d’une théorie sur les différents modèles des mémoires
de fin d’étude et les conditions dans lesquelles ils doivent se réaliser. La conclusion est que le
portfolio comme mémoire de fin d’étude s’avère une alternative orientée sur la pratique satisfaisante pour le mémoire final traditionnel beaucoup critiqué.
El método del ‘enfoque téorico’ de la tesina en la enseñanza superior del Master y del Bachelor
todavı́a es el más utilizado. Sin embargo, pensamos que en el nivel del Bachelor, un método
enfocado hacia la práctica serı́a más apropiado. Nuestro estudio explora las posibilidades de un
método enfocado hacia la práctica en los Bachelors de formación inicial de profesores. Entrevistas
semi-estructuradas constituyen la base de una teorı́a sobre los diferentes modelos de tesinas las
condiciones en las que deben realizarse. La conclución es que el portfolio es una alternativa
práctica satisfactoria por la tesina tradicional muy criticada.
Noch immer herrscht für Abschlussarbeiten im Rahmen der höheren Bildung auf dem Master und
Bachelor Niveau der Theorie-orientierte Ansatz vor. Wir haben jedoch Grund zu der Annahme,
dass für den Bachelor ein Praxis-orientierter Ansatz passender wäre. Unsere Forschung untersucht die Möglichkeiten eines Praxis-orientierten Ansatzes für die Bachelor-Thesis in der
Lehrerausbildung. Leitfadeninterviews bilden die Grundlage für eine begründete Theorie in
Bezug auf die verschiedenen Modelle einer Abschlussarbeit und unter welchen Bedingungen diese
*Corresponding author. Department of Teacher Education, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan
2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium. Email: wil.meeus@vub.ac.be
ISSN 0261-9768 (print); ISSN 1469-5928 (online)/04/030299-23
© 2004 Association for Teacher Education in Europe
DOI: 10.1080/0261976042000290813
300
W. Meeus et al.
realisiert werden müssen. Das Fazit ist, dass Portfolios als Abschlussarbeit bewiesenermaßen eine
durchaus zufriedenstellende Praxis-orientierte Alternative für die viel kritisierte traditionelle
Abschlussarbeit darstellen.
Introduction
The Bologna Declaration (European Ministers of Education, 1999) is a policy
formulation signed by 29 European countries committing them to creating a
European Higher Education Area. Although the Bologna process is still in a
transitional phase, with the signatory countries implementing at an uneven pace, we
will take the Bologna structure for higher education as a starting point. The basic
assumption is that European higher education will in the near future consist of a
two-cycle degree system, i.e. undergraduate studies leading to a Bachelor’s degree
and graduate studies resulting in a Master’s degree. Most Bachelor’s and Master’s
degree programmes in Europe end in some sort of final thesis (Gunneng &
Ahlstrand, 2002, p. 6), and it seems reasonable to assume that this custom will
remain in place for the time being. A shift in the nature and content of this final
thesis is, however, to be expected. For the sake of our research into the final thesis
at the Bachelor level it is important to distinguish it from the Master’s thesis.
The essential objective of the Master’s thesis is to contribute to theory building
within a specific field of study through scientific research (Thomas & Brubaker,
2000a,b) and thus it is predominantly theoretical in nature. The idea that a qualified
Master has to be capable of conducting scientific research on a modest scale is
hardly a matter of debate. Nevertheless, there is another approach, be it a non-dominant one, which has a variety of applications. The Master’s thesis in this approach
aims to prepare students for the ‘real world’ (Duke & Beck, 1999). The rationale of
this approach is that there is little use in equipping students with a stock of scientific
skills which only a fraction of them will put to use in later life. This alternative
approach to the Master’s thesis is geared to the practical field for which the Master’s
programme prepares the students. A voice in favour is that of Garman (2001), who
pleads for more cut-to-size and practice-oriented research at the Master level.
Very little critical literature on the Bachelor’s thesis is available. Manuals with
instructions on how to prepare a final thesis, on the other hand, are numerous. In
these manuals the term ‘final thesis’ features alongside terms such as final test,
thesis, paper, dissertation, work project, graduation project. All of these refer to the
final thesis at the Bachelor level but vary intrinsically depending on the nature of the
training programme. However, one general tendency becomes apparent: the Bachelor’s thesis is in most cases a derivative of the Master’s thesis. Moreover, manuals on
Master’s theses mention in their introductions that they are also suitable for
Bachelor degree students (Mirande & Wardenaar, 1997; van den Heuvel, 2002).
Manuals specifically designed for the Bachelor’s thesis appear on closer inspection
to be merely simplified versions of the Master’s variant (Meysman, 1994; Padmos,
2001). It thus follows that the theory-oriented approach also dominates at the
Bachelor level.
This phenomenon is hardly surprising, especially for the following two reasons.
The Master’s thesis first of all has a strong socio-psychological authority. Secondly,
The Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education
301
the teaching staff for the Bachelor’s programmes are mainly Masters and their
personal thesis writing experience consists almost exclusively of doing scientific
research. Transmitting a familiar approach in one’s teaching, either in an altered
form or not, is obviously more self-evident than putting an entirely new and
unknown approach into practice.
Nevertheless, there is something peculiar about this phenomenon as well. On the
one hand, the Bachelor’s thesis is claimed to be a bridge between education and the
job market (Padmos, 2001, p. 9). Yet, the finality of these training programmes and
the finality of the final thesis are miles apart. Notwithstanding that all training
programmes in higher education are based on scientific research (Naert, 2000), the
Bachelor’s programmes, contrary to the Master’s, are not aimed at supplying an
academic education, in the sense that they are not meant to turn out scientists. It is
after all a fact that Bachelors after graduating will hardly, if ever, use the knowledge
of and skills in scientific research acquired while preparing their Bachelor’s thesis.
It is fair to say that the above arguments are solid enough to fundamentally
question the theory-oriented approach to the Bachelor’s thesis. This view is shared
by Gunneng & Ahlstrand (2002, p. 11), who see a need for a more practice- and
profession-oriented approach to the Bachelor’s thesis in Europe. Our basic
proposition is that the practice-oriented approach to the Bachelor’s thesis can be a
bridge between the Bachelor’s degree programme and the job market. This does not
mean that we are set against the theory-oriented approach as such. Rather, we place
the practice-oriented approach beside it and argue that, as a starting point for the
final thesis at the Bachelor level it can yield added value. Theory and practice
orientation, in our view, are two extremes on a continuum.
Fundamental and applied scientific research are the cornerstones of the theoryoriented approach. The questions at hand are what the practice-oriented approach
implies and what its concrete applications for the various Bachelor’s programmes
are, more specifically for Bachelor’s teacher education programmes. In order to
obtain a clearer view of the matter, we conducted explorative research in 2001 into
current thesis practice in two Flemish degree programmes of this type.
Research method
Exploration through grounded theory
The final thesis in higher education is an under-researched area (Acker et al., 1994;
Coorough & Nelson, 1997; McAlpine & Weiss, 2000). This is especially the case for
the final thesis at the Bachelor level. As far as we know, specific research with regard
to teacher education does not exist, which is why we have chosen to do explorative
research. It is our intention to map training practice with regard to the final thesis
in teacher education. Our focus is the final thesis in completion of the 3 year
programmes leading to a Bachelor’s degree in early years (3–6 years) and primary
education (6–12 years).
Our choice of research setting was the senior year of the Initial Teacher Education
programme for early years and primary education in the Department of Teacher
Education of a Flemish college of higher education. The present investigation
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W. Meeus et al.
should be seen as exemplary. The choice of college was determined by the degree to
which we believed this institution would yield answers to our research questions. We
were specifically looking for concrete interpretations of the practice-oriented approach to the final thesis in teacher education at the Bachelor level. Concrete
experiments in this sphere have been an ongoing concern with researchers for several
years, in part under the impulse of the European project ALERT [1].
Our exploration is based on the inductive method as inspired by ‘grounded
theory’ (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The conceptual frame has yielded a number of
sensitizing concepts, i.e. concepts which have a signalling and guiding function for
the researcher (Blumer, 1969). In the course of our enquiries we have augmented
and adjusted that number by alternating in a cyclical-interpretative manner between
the collection and analysis of data. We have, in other words, systematically used the
conclusions from the earlier phases of analysis for the subsequent phases of data
collection, so as to ultimately result in our grounded theory.
Research questions
The following research questions were set.
1. Which approaches, models and formulae for the final thesis exist within the
setting?
2. Which are the known characteristics and pros and cons of the various final thesis
models and formulae?
3. Which conditions influence the realization of the final thesis within the setting?
4. Which discrepancies rise to the fore when comparing the actual situation with
what is desired by the people involved?
Research group and instruments
In order to obtain answers to our research questions in an efficient and effective
manner, we opted for group interviews. Group interviews have added value because
the interactions between the researcher and the research group, and especially
between the respondents themselves, both benefit the quantity as well as the quality
of the data (Morgan, 1988). Interactions between members of the same respondent
category are in our view most likely to yield in-depth information. The three
respondent categories were: students, supervisors and heads of department. For the
sake of the conversation/technical manageability of the interviews, each group was
composed of three respondents, with the exception of the category ‘heads of
department’, which consisted of only two members. The respondents in all groups
were randomly selected.
The research technique applied for gathering information from the research group
was the in-depth interview. During preliminary work on the semi-structured interviews we drew up a list of questions based on a literature study and on the
researcher’s expertise. In view of this cyclical-interpretative method, the transcriptions and analyses of the data were made immediately after each interview, as the
The Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education
303
results of the analyses were needed to prepare a new question list for the subsequent
interview. This method was consequently upheld in the course of all seven group
interviews. After analysis of the seventh interview it was considered unlikely that
further interviews would yield more new information in the form of sensitizing
concepts corresponding to our research goals.
We audio recorded the data and used ATLAS/ti software for data processing and
analysis. In order to guarantee confidentiality of the information, letters were
substituted for names of persons and places. We organized member checks: comments of the research group on both the research data and interpretations have led
to adjustments in the report.
Research results
Our grounded theory consists of a series of connected sensitizing concepts which are
listed below. By way of illustration we will include in the text a limited number of
the near to 1000 interview quotations. We will also confront the results from the
interviews with propositions from recent literature. For the sake of readability, our
remarks will be formulated immediately following on the research results, which in
turn will be briefly and schematically summarized in our conclusions. For a full
overview of the results and conclusions we refer to Meeus (2001b).
Appreciation of the thesis as part of the curriculum
The value of the final thesis as part of the curriculum is not doubted by students.
I handed in my work and was proud about it. Something which I do find important.
Some other assignments had to be handed in on short-term. My final thesis, however,
will bear inspection. I’ve put in a great effort, and it has helped me in many ways.
(Student in primary teacher education)
Students are usually proud of their final thesis, which they consider to be a project
in completion of their study. As far as the supervisors and heads of department are
concerned, the value which is attributed to the final thesis depends on the objectives
one hopes to attain through it. They do, however, find that these objectives in
themselves are not made sufficiently clear.
Practical value after completion
The usefulness of the final thesis in terms of practical value after completion is
different for thesis students than for the teaching staff, the field of education or
junior students who still have to start their final thesis. For one thing, thesis students
can use their final thesis when applying for a job, as well as in their future teaching
practice. We have no clear view on the extent to which this actually happens; getting
to the bottom of this would require further research. Other students, the teaching
staff and the field of education in general can benefit from the final theses to improve
teaching practice. The high frequency of final thesis consultation in the multimedia
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W. Meeus et al.
library proves that this is common practice. Additional research could give a clearer
picture of the extent to which this actually happens in the various target groups.
Students indicated that they made frequent use of other students’ final theses and
added that the teaching staff was often unaware of which final theses were available.
The heads of department stated that teaching staff in the field of education are
hardly reached.
General characteristics of the Bachelor’s thesis
Irrespective of the different possible thesis models, the final thesis is characterized by
a coherent series of eight characteristics, which each in themselves can also be
typical of certain other segments of education. It is precisely this coherence which
typifies the final thesis. The characteristics are:
1. the large amount of study time required of students;
2. the magnitude of the amount of work;
3. the staggering of activities over an entire academic year;
4. the open nature of the assignment;
5. the degree of deepening of the content;
6. the importance of information channels and sources;
7. the possibility of doing both subject-related and cross-subject work;
8. a supervisor as personal tutor for the student.
What is there to learn for students?
Three categories of learning elements are characteristic of the learning process
during final thesis composition in general, i.e. information skills, meta-cognitive
skills and attitudes. A remarkable feature in this context is the central position of
independent learning, which confirms the value of regulation strategies as an
important issue in higher education (Vermunt, 1997). One of the heads of department indicated that there is an enormous gap in this respect between higher and
secondary education.
Yes, and their previous school history, the way they were educated in secondary school
or how they were taught to manage and be resourceful. However, we are confronted
with the students’ lack of self-regulation on every level, their lack of reflective powers,
a lack of responsibility for themselves. They thus resort to choosing the easiest way out,
a strategy which has already been conditioned during their pre-school history. (Head of
department)
The interviews also confirm the importance of the final thesis as the final phase in
the growth process towards self-regulation within the initial training programmes
(Van Looy & Elias, 2001). Self-regulation thus ought to be stimulated right from the
beginning of the study, which is also the line of reasoning of the heads of department. The entire study has to be aimed at improving self-regulation, with the final
thesis as the ultimate tailpiece.
The Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education
305
The meaning of independent learning
Independent learning means leaving as many choices as possible up to the student.
The various respondents argued in favour of offering the student, if they so wished,
in consultation with the training staff, freedom of choice regarding:
• the subject, field of action or basic competence forming the basis of the thesis;
• which goal, which problem or line of questioning will be at the forefront;
• the personal supervisor;
• the number of meetings with the supervisor;
• when the meetings with the supervisor take place.
The current conventions on the final thesis in the two teacher education programmes correspond in large measure to the above mentioned freedom of choice,
however, in the early years teacher education programme the student is not free to
choose his/her personal supervisor. This is for a practical reason, namely the limited
number of staff members available for supervision.
Two additional comments are called for here. First of all, independent learning
does not equal absolute freedom. It is, for instance, not the student’s province to
decide on his minimal study time and on his scoring. These responsibilities belong
to the supervisor, which means that the student’s work frame is still in a way
restricted. Secondly, independent learning does not imply that the student is left to
fend for himself. Offering the possibility of self-regulation consists not only of
allowing the student to take matters into his own hands, but also supporting him to
increase his self-regulation capabilities (Van Looy et al., 2000). The need for support
varies from student to student. It is essential that the student is informed of the
expectations and the role of the supervisor right from the beginning.
Four thesis models
We were able to identify four thesis models in use in teacher education:
1. the literature study combined with practical processing;
2. the portfolio;
3. action research;
4. the didactic box.
Notwithstanding that the main characteristics of the thesis models were clear to the
various respondents, many variants appear to exist in practice. Flexibility with
regard to the use of these different models is experienced as positive, but also tends
to cause confusion.
… so I have a standard portfolio. The difference is that it is based on the basic
competences, and that reflection is an important part of it: reflecting, adjusting,
reflecting, adjusting. So, what is the difference with action research? Because the
student under my supervision for portfolio, was really rather doing action research.
From where I’m standing now, I cannot see the difference anymore. (Supervisor in
primary teacher education)
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W. Meeus et al.
Characteristics of the four thesis models
The characteristics of the literature study with practical processing are:
• a subject as point of departure;
• a theoretical exploration of the subject;
• a practical application of the theory to teaching practice.
The literature study is probably the most well-known amongst the thesis models.
The student decides on a subject to study, e.g. child abuse or initial reading, and
collects related literature. After composing an original text on the subject, the
student tries to make use of his study in his teaching practice, e.g. developing and
implementing a child abuse prevention programme or an initial reading methodology in the classroom.
The characteristics of the portfolio are:
• a basic competence as point of departure;
• a cycle of action and reflection;
• the use of divers media and materials.
The portfolio exists in a lot of different forms. One is the portfolio as a final thesis.
The portfolio thesis can be interpreted as an extensive curriculum vitae in which the
student demonstrates his teaching and learning competencies by delivering evidence
of his teaching activities and by reflecting on his performance. The use of multimedia is preferable to increase the persuasiveness of the evidence. For example, for his
final thesis a student concentrates on the competence of dealing with children with
learning disabilities. During his practice he gathers evidence of his competence, e.g.
lesson plans, a videotape of an interesting intervention, a summary of the pupils
learning progress, etc. Furthermore, he uses the materials to explicitly reflect on his
competence.
The characteristics of action research are:
• an authentic problematic situation as point of departure;
• a cycle of action and reflection;
• systematic research.
Action research is a form of systematic research that tries to deal with a specific
problem in a specific situation, e.g. the behavioural problems of a certain pupil in a
certain classroom. Most likely the teacher himself is the researcher who tries to find
an answer to a problem he meets. Alternative interventions are tried out in a more
or less scientific way and conclusions are formulated for future intervention.
The characteristics of the didactic box are that it:
• uses the development of material as point of departure;
• is centred on a particular theme;
• is designed for pupils of a specific age group.
The didactic box is a box of materials useful for the education of certain age groups.
The Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education
307
The materials are collected and constructed to help teachers to enrich there lessons
with the necessary instructional materials on specific themes, e.g. the box of feelings.
Two approaches
The various thesis models can be situated on the continuum, mentioned in the
introduction, of theory orientation to practice orientation. A whole number of
possible variants can be placed on this continuum. We leave out the two poles, as
an exclusively theory-oriented or practice-oriented thesis does not exist in our view.
The literature study with practical processing is the only one of the four thesis
models that can be situated within the theory-oriented approach. The remaining
three models were developed in answer to fierce criticism against the theory
orientation of the final thesis for early years and primary teacher education. The
latter are thus examples of the practice-oriented approach. The literature study with
practical processing is the most commonly used model and has been applied ever
since the introduction of the final thesis. This is why we call it the traditional final
thesis. The other three models will be referred to as the innovative final theses.
The literature study is based on the principles of the scientific academic thesis and
was supplemented with a compulsory practical segment so as to comply with the
practice-oriented nature of teacher education. Notwithstanding this addition, there
is still some measure of discontent among students and supervisors with this model.
In our view, the primacy of theory orientation is the reason why the traditional final
thesis is unfit for early years and primary teacher education.
Those traditional final theses, I don’t really see the use in them. As I said before, that’s
how I feel about it, we are copying the universities. Every self-respecting education
involves a final thesis, so we have to do this as well. But when I consider the results,
especially at this point in time: autism, mongolism, it’s a joke. (Supervisor in primary
teacher education)
That’s why I believe we should do away with the traditional final thesis. We should
move towards something more personal, and away from the theoretical emphasis. … That theoretical segment is ridiculous, that is like a booklet from the library.
(Student in primary teacher education)
Action research consists in a practice-oriented final thesis that starts from a problematic situation. It involves tackling a specific problem that is closely bound up with a
specific situation. Substantial action research will easily take up more than a month
of the student’s time. The possibilities of applying action research as final thesis are
rather limited to specific situations, for instance, when a student is already active in
teaching practice, is involved in a longer practice period, or when a suitable action
field outside teaching practice is found.
The didactic box is a practice-oriented final thesis which consists of developing
didactic material. It is seen as valuable for teaching practice. The criticism against
this particular model is that developing material as such does not suffice to make up
a final thesis. The distance between the conditions attached to this model and the
others is too great. And there is also insufficient background information about the
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W. Meeus et al.
value of this material to teaching practice and submitting the material to a practical
test is not compulsory.
A portfolio starts from a basic competence that requires extra practice. It relates
to the practical sphere in general, but not to a specific practical situation. A portfolio
can cover several periods of practical training in various training situations, which is
an advantage as opposed to action research. What is more, explicit reflections and
a detailed justification make up an intrinsic part of the portfolio, all of which answers
the criticism against the didactic box. We believe that the portfolio stands a fair
chance of making it as a satisfactory alternative to the traditional final thesis.
The surplus value of the portfolio and action research is that they both start from within
the student’s practical setting. The former starts from a competence which the student
himself selects, describes in a competency report and finally monitors throughout the
course year. The latter consists in selecting a problem as point of departure, a point of
interest, an ambiguity, and also actually dealing with it. (Head of department)
In addition, action research and the didactic box can be covered by the portfolio if
the basic competences are taken as point of departure. Action research can consist
in working up the basic competencies of the teacher as researcher. Making a didactic
box can, as far as we are concerned, be seen as a specific interpretation of the
creation of an adequate learning environment or of a stimulating and workable class
environment. However, an additional condition that should come with the didactic
box is that the student has to reflect on his learning process and justify the nature
of the materials he develops.
The role of theory in the two approaches
We will presently outline a number of considerations regarding the role of theory in
the two approaches. The first step in the literature study is constructing a theoretical
framework. The student has to attempt to construct an exhaustive overview of the
themes which relate to his subject. The portfolio also requires a theoretical frame,
but in contrast to that of the literature study, the theoretical basis of the portfolio is
not defined in terms of exhaustiveness, but rather in terms of adequacy (Meeus,
2001a). The question as to whether students have done sufficient background
reading is replaced by whether they managed to find adequate solutions for their
own teaching practice. Apart from that, the portfolio also relies on other sources of
information than literature, such as fellow students, mentors and external specialists,
audiovisual and instructional material. The principle of compulsory reading is
abandoned for the portfolio in favour of the principle of optional reading as a
resource.
If students are not forced to go into matters of content, they will usually not make
much of an effort to do so. There is no surplus value in that. The only thing they have
to do in that case is make the box with a particular theme in mind, and develop all sorts
of materials. This is exactly what they like to do, because it is something they are good
at. However, they are in need of constant stimulation when it comes to including what
lies beneath. Also towards the children. I’ve seen students standing tongue-tied in front
of five-year-olds. That is unacceptable, isn’t it, that a five-year-old outsmarts his
The Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education
309
teacher. And what is more, the teacher doesn’t know where to look for the answer. No
one is expected to know all the answers, for instance to questions about dinosaurs.
Situations like these may arise, but in that case, one could say something like: I’ll go
to the library to look for a book on that subject. (Supervisor in early years teacher
education)
It goes without saying that all the above have repercussions on the extent to which
and the manner in which the acquired insights are made explicit in the final thesis.
A final thesis without an explicit theory does not necessarily imply that the student
was lacking in background information or failed to look at the content. We feel it is
difficult to propose a concrete standard, as this is a matter that should be looked at
separately for each individual final thesis. The choice for or against an explicit theory
in a final thesis should in our mind not be a matter of principle, but should depend
on the objectives in view, the intended practical value, the desired presentational
value or the student’s learning process. One could say that, in a certain way, the
theoretical aspect in the literature study is replaced by reflection in the portfolio.
Whether or not the theoretical matters are made explicit in the portfolio is of
secondary importance.
The frequent occurrence of plagiarism is yet another indication that the theoryoriented approach is not suitable for the Bachelor’s thesis. By deliberate plagiarism
we mean that the student is fully aware of his infringement of copyright.
I had a student under my supervision who finished her final thesis in one week’s time,
without really discussing her work with other people, without doing any serious
research. She copied the information from the Internet. (Supervisor in primary teacher
education)
On the other hand, supervisors have also frequently registered unintentional plagiarism. In this case, the student, who is seeking to expand his theoretical framework,
is unaware of violating the rules of copyright.
Our students do not always see the need for this. Their attitude is more practical. They
lack the academic or scientific confidence of naming their sources out of intellectual
honesty. They find information and simply use it. Just as they would cut, paste and
copy from magazines. It is of no importance to them who actually came up with the
ideas. They are simply there, ready for use. Students copy and multiply what they find.
And this also goes for their final thesis. That is their view. There is nothing malicious
about this, because generally speaking, those students are honest people. But intellectual honesty as an academic concept has no meaning to them, and they don’t see where
the problem is. (Head of department)
We believe that plagiarism, whether it is deliberate or not, is symptomatic of a
structural problem in the final thesis set-up. The traditional final thesis is an
unsuitable model for the student population in early years and primary teacher
education and is not geared to the finality of these programmes. Plagiarism, as it
occurs in the traditional final thesis, would not be possible in the portfolio as this is
by definition a personal production in which the learning process is documented and
made explicit. This aspect argues in favour of establishing the portfolio as the
standard model.
In closing, one last consideration on the practical value of the two approaches.
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Given that the portfolio is first and foremost meant as a learning instrument for the
student to develop various competencies and that it is not directed towards amassing
knowledge as such, its useful value for others is reduced. This does not mean that
portfolios are by definition useless for other people in the field. However, it does
imply that they are not meant in the first place as a resource material for others.
A model for each learning style?
There are so many kinds of students. Some students say: I like having a final goal in
the back of my head. The work of these students is very targeted and they will most
likely choose to prepare a traditional final thesis. But there are also students who say:
whatever the result, it will surely work out and be worth looking at, but I still don’t have
a clue what the end product will be. Here we have a different type of personality. This
sort of student makes his way through the woods and gets there. These are two types
of persons. The former need certainty and safety. The others can do without the safety
and certainty. (Supervisor in primary teacher education)
At this stage, the supervisor’s remark on the connection between the various thesis
models and the various types of students can neither be confirmed nor denied.
Within the context of teacher education, it would be better to speak in terms of the
students’ various learning styles, the learning psychological perspective, rather than
in terms of types of students, the personality psychological perspective. Through
further research we hope to determine whether there is a connection between the
students’ learning styles and the characteristics of the final thesis models.
Three final thesis formulae
We define a final thesis formula as a modality according to which the various thesis
models can be realized. Such a formula can be seen as an option to take or to leave,
regardless of the thesis model that is chosen. We discerned three final thesis
formulae in the teacher education programmes:
1. the field-directed formula;
2. the digital formula;
3. the cooperative formula.
Combining the formulae with the models, we obtain a matrix (see Table 1).
Table 1. Relation between models and formulae
Field-directed
Yes
Literature study
Portfolio
Action research
Didactic box
No
Digital
Yes
No
Cooperative
Yes
No
The Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education
311
The field-directed formula
If a school says: do this or that for me. … It would be preferable if questions from
schools were to be answered through the final thesis, that would be it. I believe that
students would be very motivated to work on their final thesis if they felt that the
questions and problems come from within the practical field. Whereas now, students
are at a loss as to what options to pick, and have only their own vague interests to go
on. (Supervisor in early years teacher education)
Certain questions originating from the field of education can easily be answered in
a traditional final thesis, for instance, a teacher wishing to talk about a particular
subject in class and needing more background information and suggestions for
teaching instructions. Answering a question originating from the field of education
in the portfolio is more difficult as this is primarily a learning instrument for the
student. And yet, using the field-directed formula for the portfolio can be particularly valuable for the student and the field of education. In this case, both the
student’s learning process as well as use of the thesis in the field of education are
matters of attention. We see no problem in the coexistence of these two concerns,
provided that the parties involved agree on respecting each other’s interests.
The digital formula
Both the traditional final thesis as well as the portfolio can be recorded on CDROM. Especially in view of the importance of multimedia for the portfolio, digitalization is an interesting option. The number of students choosing to prepare a digital
final thesis depends in part on the importance that is attached to ICT in teacher
education. Generally speaking, we think that the computer should have a central
position in early years and primary teacher education, as the computer has gradually
become an integral part of class practice in early years and primary schools. In
today’s society pupils grow up surrounded by modern technology. It follows that
teachers in early years and primary schools cannot allow themselves to be unworldly
and not keep up with the times; the same goes for teacher education. Besides, the
computer is a very useful tool for teachers, especially for preparing lessons, and also
for the school in general when it comes to internal and external communication, for
instance, through a web site. However, the debate is much wider than this (Elen,
2000). We will presently restrict our investigation to the proposition that all students
in teacher education for early years and primary education should enjoy a minimum
degree of ICT competence when graduating.
According to the supervisors, students in general are not capable of producing a
digital final thesis. This view more or less holds true with reference to the present
situation. However, we are absolutely convinced that students in early years teacher
education as well as in primary teacher education can manage to digitalize their work
if a number of conditions are fulfilled. It is probably not advisable to set the digital
thesis as the standard format for all students, but we do argue that teacher education
programmes should supply better support to those who wish to prepare a digital final
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W. Meeus et al.
thesis. Means to this end could be special training, providing the necessary computer infrastructure and helpdesk support.
And yet, a number of students whose basic ICT skills were very limited did
manage, even under the present conditions, to produce a digital final thesis.
According to their report, their success was due to the enormous effort they made.
Clearly, setting aside part of the available study time for the acquisition of ICT skills
seems commendable.
Because I had X as a competence, but at the same time I also had another non-compulsory objective in mind, but whatever it would take, I wanted to make that digital
portfolio. Putting all that work in a cardboard box would have hurt my pride. I really
didn’t want people to say, ‘jeez, what’s all this?’, when looking at my work. What really
mattered was having done the work. Bit by bit, you start to want more. (Student in
primary teacher education)
The cooperative formula
Students working in a team to produce a final thesis has both advantages and
disadvantages. The advantages that were recorded are that:
• the students can support one another;
• the students can realize projects which they could not manage by themselves;
• the students’ social skills could benefit from cooperation;
• there is a better chance for more profound content examination.
The recorded disadvantages are that:
• teamwork takes up more time;
• practical arrangements are not always without trouble;
• the students’ individual wishes may suffer under a compromise;
• perhaps not all students will put in an equal amount of effort;
• teamwork can go wrong.
No one was really enthusiastic about the formula of the cooperative final thesis. Yet,
the consensus was that there should nevertheless be room for that type of thesis. One
of the supervisors added the condition that the division of tasks among the students
should not amount to one student dealing with content matters while the other took
care of the design.
Situating the final thesis within the curriculum
The traditional final thesis model is fairly unpopular. A number of students and
supervisors would rather see it disappear from the curriculum altogether. There is,
however, unanimity, albeit on certain conditions, about the value of the final thesis
as part of the course of study. Provided that the objectives and content requirements
of the final thesis are reconsidered, both the students and the supervisors agree that
the credit can be raised from 6 to 10 (in a total of 60 for one academic year).
The final thesis, that’s 6 credits. Should be much more, I would say. That’s only one
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more than educational science. That’s out of proportion. (Student in primary teacher
education)
In our opinion, the portfolio fulfils those conditions. The heads of department
suggest that the final thesis should be linked to a limited number of contact hours
within the curriculum devoted to general support. The supervisors have raised
doubts regarding the lack of general support for this segment of the students’
education. The students in primary teacher education have gone even further in
calling for an entire reorganization of the senior year, so as to put an end to the
fragmentation and to drastically cut down the number of assignments.
The supervisor
The interviews clearly show that the supervisor is caught up in a field of tension
between the demand for a clearer task description, on the one hand, and the need
for autonomy in selecting his personal supervisory style, on the other. The solution
probably lies somewhere in between. Clearer guidelines should outline what is
absolutely necessary and what is bad practice. Yet, the supervisor has to maintain
the freedom to interpret his supervisory task as he sees fit. The current guidelines are
sketched in the final thesis manual but need updating.
Guidelines for scoring
There are no standard criteria for the scoring of final theses. In view of the large
diversity of thesis models, this seems only right. However, it would be useful to
design checklists for each basic model, which would function merely as a guide.
Relevant criteria can be picked from the list, depending on the nature of the final
thesis.
We would like to add, with regard to the portfolio, that whether or not the student
makes progress as far as the aimed-for competence is concerned should not be taken
into account in the scoring. If it were, the student would try to cover up their
mistakes and present a success story in the hope of improving their chances of
getting a high mark. In that case, we are no longer speaking of reflection or of a
learning process. Scoring of the portfolio should be directed towards the student’s
learning capabilities and the final thesis itself. What we are dealing with is thus a
learning portfolio (Meeus & Van Looy, 2002), and students certainly have to be
made aware of this.
Scoring self-regulation
We give special attention to the scoring of self-regulation because improving selfregulation is the central objective of the final thesis. Just as for any other criterion,
both an absolute as well as a relative standard can be used for scoring self-regulation.
Applying the absolute standard consists of assessing the student’s degree of selfregulation after he has handed in his thesis. A sufficient degree of self-regulation is
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obviously expected after graduation. Applying the relative standard means that the
supervisor assesses the student’s progress in self-regulation. In this case, the student’s position on the continuum from external to internal regulation at the
beginning of his thesis activities is compared to his position when having completed
his final thesis. Each student has his own initial and end positions.
Self-regulation can, for instance, be operationalized as the frequency with which
the student seeks contact with his supervisor in proportion to his need for supervision.
That differs depending on the student. Some ask for a lot of support, show you each
ten lines they’ve written before going on. Others manage to do some serious writing
before submitting their work for correction. It all depends on what kind of student you
have in front of you. (Supervisor in primary teacher education)
It is thus expected that a student who needs a lot of support in order to make a
decent final thesis will regularly make contact with his supervisor, whereas a student
who doesn’t really need help on his final thesis is expected to visit his supervisor
much less. An equal frequency of making contact can be judged as positive for one
student and as negative for another. A student who already had a high degree of
self-regulation at the onset of his thesis activities should not be penalized for not
making contact regularly. Conversely, a student who initially lacked self-regulation
should not be punished for needing a lot of support, especially not if this results in
his making progress.
They are free to choose what they do. Yet, there has to be some sort of intrinsic
motivation to say: this is a challenge to me because I’m interested in this. That’s often
missing in students. There is still the impression that the work is imposed on them. It
is a necessary evil, especially to those who have no plan, who lack self-regulation …,
who have trouble finding a subject, who are the last ones to hand in their end product,
and who hardly make contact with their supervisor. This is a typical profile of the sort
of student who has trouble with thesis work. (Head of department)
When a student hardly makes any contact at all, there is a problem. The supervisor
can score the end product and possibly derive from it the measure of self-regulation,
but he will get hardly any idea of the development of the student’s learning process.
The portfolio supplies more information in this respect than the traditional final
thesis, since it consists of documented action and explicit reflection. Yet, it remains
in the supervisor’s hands to weigh the constituent aspects in order to come to a
conclusion.
The marking
Supervisors in one and the same teacher education programme apply different rules
for marking. Some use sub-marks, others award one global mark. In order to rule
out the consequences of these various marking methods for scoring in general, we
believe it necessary that colleagues should come to some sort of consensus. We, for
our part, have a preference for the global mark. Depending on the nature of the final
The Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education
315
thesis, however, certain constituent aspects can carry more weight. Awarding one
global mark surely offers the largest possible flexibility.
The objectivity of scoring
In the current system the supervisor is the only tutor and judge. With a view to
enhancing the objectivity of scoring of the different types of final theses, various
alternatives were mentioned in the interviews.
• A student proposed an evaluation talk with the supervisor. This would give the
student an extra opportunity to defend his work. We doubt, however, whether
such an evaluation talk would yield new information at this stage of events. It is
thus unlikely that this proposition would add to the objectivity of scoring.
• A supervisor reminded us of a former practice in a teachers’ college he used to
know, namely the reference person who goes over all final theses so as to ensure
a balance in scoring by the other supervisors. Yet, the supervisor admitted that in
the present large-scale situation this is not a practicable proposition.
• A respondent referred to other education programmes that work with juries
composed of outsiders. This proposition sounds complicated to set up, expensive
and would thus hardly be profitable.
• Finally, it was suggested that more than one internal assessor could be appointed.
One could, for instance, set up a system where two or more assessors express a
judgement on the final thesis, if so desired in combination with a viva. The viva
would allow the student to give extra information, but also implies more work and
consequently more stress. What is more, students in general are not in favour of
this sort of formal event. Involving several internal assessors would also require an
additional investment from the institutions.
The desirability of an objective system of scoring forms a sharp contrast with the
available means. None of the above systems can be implemented without causing
some sort of disadvantage. It thus seems advisable to make a small and realistic
adjustment, for instance, appointing a second assessor in addition to the supervisor.
Presentation of the final thesis
A presentation differs in many ways from a viva. The main objective of a viva is to
allow several assessors to form an opinion on the quality of the final thesis. A
presentation, on the other hand, aims at informing a larger public about the
students’ final theses. Such a presentation can be of use, but should not be
considered in the scoring.
The respondents indicate that a thesis presentation could be interesting for:
• other senior year students, so as to give them an idea of what their colleagues have
come up with;
• junior year students, so as to give them inspiration for their own final theses;
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• training staff, so as give them the opportunity to find new material for their
courses;
• teachers in the field of education, so as to allow them to enrich their class practice.
The organization of a presentation involves all kinds of things. Attention has to be
paid to:
• selection of the final theses which are suitable for presentation (e.g. based on the
quality of the work and the willingness of the student);
• form of organization (e.g. on a conference or thesis market);
• form of the presentation (e.g. interactive workshops);
• duration of the presentation (e.g. fixed or free);
• division of classrooms;
• choosing a time which is convenient for all target groups.
The importance of a final thesis coordinator
In order to battle the current organizational problems concerning that part of the
programme which relates to the final thesis, one of the supervisors proposed
combining the coordination tasks, for instance by appointing a final thesis coordinator with responsability for this job. His job responsibilities could include:
• functioning as a contact for matters regarding the final thesis, among other things,
collecting the final thesis proposals, taking care of students who want to switch
supervisors, calculating the supervision percentages, mediation;
• updating, circulating and elucidating the final thesis manual;
• organizing information sessions, feedback sessions and supplementary training for
students and supervisors;
Wouldn’t it be better if they would allot an hour’s time for the final thesis? As a matter
of fact, they should give them even more time for that. But they don’t. They reserve
time for the in-service training and afterwards for the discussion of the activities. But
the final thesis? Or an evaluation at half term, a meeting with everyone involved, just
to talk about how things are progressing. (Student in early years teacher education)
• organizing meetings and consultations among supervisors;
• organizing a final thesis presentation.
Manual for the realization of a final thesis
A number of supervisors remarked that the existing final thesis manual supported
dominance of the traditional final thesis. Portfolio and action research are only
mentioned in passing in the appendix. Consistent with our plea in favour of the
portfolio, we would like to see this changed in the final thesis manuals.
The text and layout instructions were also criticized for several reasons, especially
by the students. Some prescriptions are deemed unclear, some too detailed and not
always in compliance with the standards. Furthermore, they are thought to be too
restrictive and to curtail the students’ creativity. None of the respondents, however,
The Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education
317
contested the importance of correct acknowledgement of sources as a gesture of
respect towards the author.
Archiving the final theses
One specific item deserves mentioning. The current system of storage of final theses
in the multimedia library is unsuitable for the portfolio because:
• a number of portfolios are so personal that they would be of no use whatsoever to
others;
• in a number of cases, the privacy of students, pupils or a third party has to be
respected;
• non-digital portfolios especially, with all their accompanying material, could result
in a lack of storage room;
• the documentation material is often difficult to copy and has to be returned to the
student.
So the boxes are not stocked, students take them back home. Else we would have to
make the whole thing in duplicate … . (Student in early years teacher education)
Conclusions
Within the scope of our grounded theory we devote attention to appreciation of the
final thesis, its possible practical value after completion, the acquisition of independent learning skills as a central objective, the supervision, scoring and presentation
of final theses, the place of the final thesis in the curriculum and the coordination
involved, the final thesis manual and storage of the submitted final theses. Each of
these are sensitizing concepts with a high degree of relevance to the final thesis in
Figure 1. diagrammatic network: the Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education
318
W. Meeus et al.
teacher education at the Bachelor level. A diagrammatic network (see Figure 1)
shows the main relations.
The success of the whole idea of a Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education depends
on the objective one tries to attain through it. Independent learning came to the fore
as the primary objective of the final thesis. In addition to this, there are a whole
series of secondary objectives which can differ greatly depending on the model at
hand and its related learning value. For instance, in a literature study more attention
will be given to the exhaustiveness with regard to current insights into a particular
theme, while the portfolio gives priority to adequate translation of such insights to
the practical field.
The aimed for objective further determines the appreciation which the final thesis
can enjoy. The multitude of objectives and models complicates any discussion of the
value of the final thesis. A consensus on the matter of independent learning as the
primary objective would thus be a good thing. Furthermore, it is a matter of
choosing which models will be included in the course of education and which not.
Appreciation of the final thesis is translated into the place it is given within the
curriculum, i.e. the assigned credit, study time and supervision hours, importance of
the coordination job, etc. The difficulty here is that it works both ways. The
interviews have shown that the current modest credit has a negative influence on the
degree of earnestness with which the final thesis is approached as part of the training
programme, notwithstanding that students greatly appreciate this part of their
education. A consensus regarding the importance of self-regulation as the primary
goal of the final thesis could resolve this situation and could lead to improved
positioning of the final thesis within the curriculum and to a better overall framework.
Realization of the final thesis is in the hands of the student. The fact that the
quality of the final thesis is thus first and foremost determined by a series of
student-related factors is beyond contestation. We have nevertheless identified four
factors by which training programmes can exert a strong influence over the final
theses: the manual, supervision, scoring and coordination. The interconnection
between each of these factors is also relevant. For instance, the supervision has to be
geared to the scoring criteria, which in turn have to be made explicit in the manual,
and so on.
The question of the usefulness of the completed final theses is not primary. Of
more interest is whether the students can use what they have learned in their later
(professional) lives. Yet, the final theses can still be of great use to the educators and
to future students, as well as to the field of education. The multimedia library has
a central function in this respect. The various final thesis models make different
demands as far as storage and exposure are concerned; aspects of privacy for the
portfolio, rights of ownership with regard to unique material, etc. All these problems
can be overcome if the rules are set out beforehand through consultation. Presenting
high grade final theses, for instance, during a presentation conference can aid the
promotion of these works.
In our explorative research into the Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education we have
The Bachelor’s thesis in teacher education
319
Figure 2. diagrammatic network: final thesis models and formulae
identified several approaches and formulae. These findings are represented in the
diagrammatic network in Figure 2.
We distinguish between two approaches: theory-oriented and practice-oriented.
As was indicated earlier, these approaches should not be seen as clearly distinct
categories but should rather be situated on a continuum. A literature study with
practical processing is the most commonly used model in teacher education. Three
innovative models, the portfolio, action research and the didactic box, are offered as
alternatives. Under certain circumstances action research and the didactic box can
be seen as applications of the portfolio. We also distinguish field-directed, digital
and cooperative formulae, which are all optional regardless of which final thesis
model is chosen. Each of these formulae has its pros and cons and its specific
characteristics depending on the final thesis model to which it is applied.
As has already been indicated, the traditional final thesis was subject to fierce
criticism. This was made apparent both in the interviews and the didactic literature
on the subject. The theory-oriented approach to the Bachelor’s thesis in teacher
education collides with the finality of these education programmes, which, consequently, promotes disinterest, discontent and cheating. The portfolio presents itself
as a practice-oriented and valuable alternative. And what is more, it offers a clear
framework in line with the finality of the education, as well as sufficient room and
flexibility for a diversity of applications. A practice-oriented approach with the
portfolio as a model for the final thesis thus seems the most appropriate option.
Explorative research has shown that the portfolio leads to a greater appreciation
by both students and supervisors, by virtue of it being well-geared to the finality of
the education. However, the question of which learning effect is produced by the
portfolio is unresolved. There is not necessarily a direct connection between appreciation and learning effect. Is self-regulation really promoted by the portfolio more
so than by a literature study with practical processing? Do some students gain more
in learning effect than others through the innovative approach? To what extent does
the student’s learning style intervene in better attaining an objective? We hope to
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find an answer to these questions within the scope of the quasi-experimental
follow-up study we have planned.
Notes on contributors
Wil Meeus is an assistant and researcher in the Department of Teacher Education
(IDLO) at Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB). He teaches instructional theory
and is preparing a Ph.D. on the use of portfolios in teacher education.
Linda Van Looy is a senior university lecturer in the Department of Teacher
Education at Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Her main role is the training of
communicative, social, reflective and research skills. She promotes the Ph.D.
on the use of portfolios in teacher education.
Arno Libotton is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Psychology and Educational
Sciences at Vrije Universiteit Brussel. He teaches courses in educational
sciences, methodology and educational research at the bachelors and masters
levels. He promotes Ph.D. work on the implementation of ICT-based learning
platforms.
Note
1.
Active and European Teaching and Learning in Teacher Education: a European Curriculum Development Project within Socrates, 1998–2001 (www.pa-linz.ac.at/international/
alert/).
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