Chapter 1
Introduction to Cognitive Psychology
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chapter Outline
1. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: STUDYING THE MIND
a. What Is the Mind?
b. Studying the Mind: Early Work in Cognitive Psychology
i. Donders’s Pioneering Experiment: How Long Does It Take to Make a Decision?
ii. Wundt’s Psychology Laboratory: Structuralism and Analytic Introspection
iii. Ebbinghaus’s Memory Experiment: What Is the Time Course of Forgetting?
iv. William James’s Principles of Psychology
2. ABANDONING THE STUDY OF THE MIND
a. Watson Founds Behaviorism
b. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
c. Setting the Stage for the Reemergence of the Mind in Psychology
3. THE REBIRTH OF THE STUDY OF THE MIND
a. Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts
b. Introduction of the Digital Computer
i. Flow Diagrams for Computers
ii. Flow Diagrams for the Mind
c. Conferences on Artificial Intelligence and Information Theory
d. The Cognitive "Revolution" Took a While
4. THE EVOLUTION OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
a. What Neisser Wrote
b. Studying Higher Mental Processes
c. Studying the Physiology of Cognition
i. New Perspectives on Behavior
5. SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: LEARNING FROM THIS BOOK
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
What is the capital of Ontario?
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Complexity of Cognition (1 of 2)
•
Cognition involves
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Perception
Paying attention
Remembering
Distinguishing items in a category
Visualizing
Understanding and production of language
Problem solving
Reasoning and decision making
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Cognition is not only complex, but also invisible.
A lot of times, we are not even aware of inner
workings of the mind.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Caption: The display in (a) looks like (b) a gray rectangle in front of a
light rectangle; but it could be (c) a gray rectangle and a six-sided figure
that are lined up appropriately or (d) a gray rectangle and a strangelooking figure that are lined up appropriately.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Caption: The display in (a) looks like (b) a gray rectangle in front of a
light rectangle; but it could be (c) a gray rectangle and a six-sided figure
that are lined up appropriately or (d) a gray rectangle and a strangelooking figure that are lined up appropriately.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Caption: The display in (a) looks like (b) a gray rectangle in front of a
light rectangle; but it could be (c) a gray rectangle and a six-sided figure
that are lined up appropriately or (d) a gray rectangle and a strangelooking figure that are lined up appropriately.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Complexity of Cognition (2 of 2)
•
Cognitive Psychology
– The branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind
– Cognition refers to the mental processes, such as perception, attention,
and memory, that are what the mind creates
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Some Questions to Consider
•
•
•
•
How is cognitive psychology relevant to everyday experience?
Are there practical applications of cognitive psychology?
How is it possible to study the inner workings of the mind when we can’t really
see the mind directly?
What was the cognitive revolution?
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Thinking About the Mind
•
The mind …
–
–
–
–
–
is involved in forming and recalling memories
solves problems, considers possibilities, makes decisions
helps us to survive and function normally
is a symbol of creativity and intelligence
creates representations of the world so we can act in it
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Early Work in Cognitive Psychology
•
•
Donders (1868) measured how long it takes a person to make a decision
Reaction time (RT) experiment
– Measures interval between stimulus presentation and person’s response
to stimulus
– Simple RT task: participant pushes a button quickly after a light appears
– Choice RT task: participant pushes one button if light is on right side,
another if light is on left side
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Reaction Times
Use Simon effect coglab to demonstrate simple and
choice RT.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Donders’s Study of Reaction Time (1 of 3)
Figure 1.1 A modern version of Donders’s (1868) reaction time experiment: (a) the simple
reaction time task and (b) the choice reaction time task. In the simple reaction time task,
the participant pushes the J key when the light goes on. In the choice reaction time task,
the participant pushes the J key if the left light goes on and the K key if the right light goes
on. The purpose of Donders’s experiment was to determine how much time it took to
decide which key to press in the choice reaction time task.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Donders’s Study of Reaction Time (2 of 3)
Figure 1.2 Sequence of events between presentation of the stimulus and the
behavioral response in Donders’s experiments: (a) simple reaction time task and (b)
choice reaction time task. The dashed line indicates that Donders measured reaction
time—the time between presentation of the light and the participant’s response.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Donders’s Study of Reaction Time (3 of 3)
•
Choice RT − Simple RT = time to make a decision
– Choice RT = 1/10th sec longer than Simple RT (usually 200-300ms)
– 1/10th second to make decision
– Mental responses cannot be measured directly but can be inferred from
the participant’s behavior
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Ebbinghaus: Memory and Forgetting (1 of 2)
•
•
Ebbinghaus (1885/1913) read list of nonsense syllables aloud to
determine number of repetitions necessary to repeat list without errors
After taking a break, he relearned the list
– Short-break intervals = fewer repetitions necessary to relearn list
– Learned many different lists at many different retention intervals
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Ebbinghaus (1885)
• Read list of nonsense syllables aloud many times to
determine number of repetitions necessary to repeat
list without errors
• CAK
• DAX
• LUH
• ……
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
• List 1
（10 repetition）19 Minutes (4 Repetition)
• List 2
• （10 repetition）30 days (8 Repetition)
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Ebbinghaus: Memory and Forgetting (2 of 2)
•
•
Savings = (Original time to learn list) − (Time
to relearn list after delay)
Savings curve shows savings as a function of
retention interval
Figure 1.3 Calculating the savings score in Ebbinghaus’s
experiment. In this example, it took 1,000 seconds to
learn the list of nonsense syllables for the first time. This
is indicated by the lines at 0. The time needed to relearn
the list at delays of (a) 19 minutes, (b) 1 day, and (c) 6
days are indicated by the line to the right of the 0 line.
The red arrows indicate the savings score for each delay.
Notice that savings decrease for longer delays. This
decrease in savings provides a measure of forgetting.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Ebbinghaus, Memory and Forgetting
Figure 1.4 Ebbinghaus's savings curve.
Ebbinghaus considered the percent savings
to be a measure of the amount remembered,
so he plotted this versus the time between
initial learning and testing. The decrease in
savings (remembering) with increasing
delays indicates that forgetting occurs rapidly
over the first 2 days and then occurs more
slowly after that. (Based on data from
Ebbinghaus, 1885/1913.)
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Wundt: Structuralism and Sensations
•
•
Wundt (1879) established first scientific psychology lab at University of
Leipzig, Germany
Developed approach called structuralism:
– overall experience is determined by combining basic elements of
experience called sensations
•
Used method of analytic introspection:
– participants trained to describe experiences and thought processes in
response to stimuli
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
William James’s Principles of Psychology
•
•
•
James was an early American psychologist who taught the first
psychology course at Harvard University
Observations based on the functions of his own mind, not experiments
Considered many topics in cognition, including thinking, consciousness,
attention, memory, perception, imagination, and reasoning.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Watson and Behaviorism
•
John Watson noted two problems with analytic introspection method:
– Extremely variable results per person
– Results difficult to verify due to focus on invisible inner mental processes
•
Proposed a new approach called behaviorism
– Eliminate the mind as a topic of study
– Instead, study directly observable behavior
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Watson’s “Little Albert” Experiment
•
Watson and Rayner (1920)
– 9-month-old Albert became frightened by a rat after a loud noise was
paired with every presentation of the rat
– Examined how pairing one stimulus with another affected behavior
– Demonstrated that behavior can be analyzed without any reference to the
mind
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Classical Conditioning
•
•
•
•
“Little Albert” experiment used classical conditioning methods
Pair a neutral event with an event that naturally produces some outcome
After many pairings, the “neutral” event now also produces the outcome
Watson’s experiment was inspired by Pavlov’s research with dogs
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Pavlov’s Discovery: Classical Conditioning
Figure 1.5 In Pavlov’s famous experiment, he paired ringing a bell with
presentation of food. Initially, presentation of the food caused the dog to
salivate, but after a number of pairings of bell and food, the bell alone caused
salivation. This principle of learning by pairing, which came to be called
classical conditioning, was the basis of Watson’s “Little Albert” experiment.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Rise of Behaviorism
Watson and Rayner (1920) – “Little Albert”
experiment
• Behavior can be analyzed without any reference to
the mind
• Examined how pairing one stimulus with another
affected behavior
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Skinner: Conditioning and Behaviorism
•
•
B. F. Skinner interested in determining the relationship between stimuli
and response
Operant conditioning
– Shape behavior by rewards or punishments
– Rewarded behavior more likely to be repeated
– Punished behavior that less likely to be repeated
•
Behaviorism approach was dominant from the 1940s through the 1960s
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Rise of Behaviorism
Figure 1.6 Time line showing early experiments studying the mind in the
1800s and the rise of behaviorism in the 1900s.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Not All Psychologists Abandon the Mind
•
Tolman (1938) trained rats to find food in a four-armed maze
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Tolman’s Maze and Cognitive Mapping
Figure 1.7 Maze used by Tolman. (a) The rat initially explores the maze. (b) The rat
learns to turn right to obtain food at B when it starts at A. (c) When placed at C, the
rat turns left to reach the food at B. In this experiment, precautions are taken to
prevent the rat from knowing where the food is based on cues such as smell.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Not All Psychologists Abandon the Mind
•
•
•
Tolman (1938) trained rats to find food in a four-armed maze
When a rat was placed in a different arm of the maze, it went to the
specific arm where it previously found food
Tolman believed the rat had created a cognitive map, a representation of
the maze in its mind
– The map helped the rat navigate to a specific arm despite starting the
maze from a different spot
– Rejected the behaviorist perspective for the rat’s actions
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Decline of Behaviorism (1 of 2)
•
•
A controversy over language acquisition
Skinner (1957) – Verbal Behavior
– Argued children learn language through operant conditioning


Children imitate speech they hear
Correct speech is rewarded
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Decline of Behaviorism (2 of 2)
•
Chomsky (1959)
– Argued that children do not only learn language through imitation and
reinforcement
•
•
Children say things they have never heard and cannot be imitating
Children say things that are incorrect and have not been rewarded for
– Language must be determined by inborn biological program
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Studying the Mind Again
•
To understand complex cognitive behaviors:
– Measure observable behavior
– Make inferences about underlying cognitive activity
– Consider what this behavior says about how the mind works
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Rebirth of the Study of the Mind
The decade of the 1950s is generally recognized as the beginning of the cognitive
revolution—a shift in psychology from the behaviorist’s focus on stimulus–
response relationships to an approach whose main thrust was to understand the
operation of the mind.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts
Kuhn defined a scientific revolution as a shift from one paradigm to another,
where a paradigm is a system of ideas that dominate science at a particular time
(Dyson, 2012). A scientific revolution, therefore, involves a paradigm shift.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Cognitive Revolution: Information Processing
•
•
Shift from behaviorist’s stimulus–response relationships to an approach
that attempts to explain behavior in terms of the mind
Information-processing approach
– Way to study the mind based on insights associated with the digital
computer
– States that operation of the mind occurs in stages
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Cognitive Revolution
Early computers (1950s)
• Processed information in stages
• How much information can the mind
absorb?
• Attend to just some of the incoming
information?
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Attention and Flow Diagrams
•
Cherry (1953) built on James’s idea of attention
– Present message A in left ear and message B in right ear
– Subjects could understand details of message A despite also hearing
message B
•
Broadbent (1958) developed flow diagram to show what occurs as a
person directs attention to one stimulus
– Unattended information does not pass through the filter
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Cognitive Revolution
Cherry (1953)
“Dichotic” listening
• Present message A in left ear
• Present message B in right ear
• To ensure attention, shadow one message
Participants were able to focus only on the
message they were shadowing
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Attended message would be overshadowing the
unattended message
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Cognitive Revolution
Broadbent (1958)
• Flow diagram representing what happens as a
person directs attention to one stimulus
• Unattended information does not pass through the
filter
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Cognitive Revolution
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Cognitive Revolution
Figure 1.9 Time line showing events associated with the decline of the
influence of behaviorism (above the line) and events that led to the
development of the informationprocessing approach to cognitive psychology
(below the line).
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Artificial Intelligence and Information Theory
•
Artificial Intelligence
– “making a machine behave in ways that would be called intelligent if a
human were so behaving.” (McCarthy et al., 1955)
– Newell and Simon created the logic theorist program that could create
proofs of mathematical theorems involving logic principles
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Evolution of Cognitive Psychology
Since the cognitive revolution in 1950s and 1960s, the field of cognitive psychology
continued to evolve in the decades that followed.
1. From perception to higher level cognition
2. More study of the physiology of mental processes
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Memory: A Higher Mental Process (1 of 3)
•
Arkinson and Shiffrin (1968) developed a three-stage model of memory:
– sensory memory (less than 1 second)
– short term memory (a few seconds, limited capacity)
– long-term memory (long duration, high capacity)
•
•
Information we remember is brought from long-term memory into shortterm memory
Tulving (1972, 1985) divided long-term memory into three components
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Memory: A Higher Mental Process (2 of 3)
Figure 1.10 Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) model of memory. See text for
details.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Memory: A Higher Mental Process (3 of 3)
•
Long-term memory
– Episodic

Life events
– Semantic

Facts
– Procedural

Physical actions
Figure 1.11 Endel Tulving (1972) divided longterm memory into three
components.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Physiology of Cognition
•
•
•
Neuropsychology studies behavior of people with brain damage
Electrophysiology studies electrical responses of the nervous system
including brain neurons
Brain imaging
– positron emission tomography (PET)
– functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
– both technologies show which brain areas are active during specific
episodes of cognition
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Coglab: Simple Detection
https://coglab.cengage.com/labs/simple_detection.shtml
Background
How quickly can you respond to something? If you are expecting to see a green
light, but don't know exactly when it will be turned on, how much time elapses
between the light turning green and your response? This is sometimes
called simple detection because the only decision you are making is whether the
stimulus has appeared.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Coglab: Simple Detection
Reaction time for detecting the stimulus and responding is generally the dependent
variable with responses ranging between 200 and 300 milliseconds (ms).
How about choice RT?
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.