Chapter 2: Anthropology Explanation- an answer to a Why question. In science, there are 2 kinds of explanations that researchers try to achieve: 1. Associations 2. Theories The statement that water solidifies (becomes ice) at 32 degrees is a statement of a relationship or association between 2 variables (things that vary): water & temperature. A theory explains why an association exists In physical science, it’s called laws when almost ALL scientists accept them In social sciences, associations are usually stated probabilistically, meaning 2 or more variables tend to be related in a predictable way, which means that there are usually some exceptions. Statistical Association- a relationship (or correlation) between 2 or more variables is unlikely due to chance. Theories- explanations of laws & statistical associations. Key Differences Between Theory & Association Aspect Theory Focus Explains "why" or "how" something happens. Complexity Comprehensive and multidimensional. Causation Suggests mechanisms of causation. Example Explains societal behaviors. Association Identifies "what" is related to what. Simple connection or correlation. Does not establish causation. Shows relationships between behaviors. In essence, theories provide the underlying framework to understand associations and their implications. Why Theories cannot be Proved Theoretical Construct- something that cannot be observed or verified directly. Because all theories contain such constructs, theories CANNOT be proved ENTIRELY! Theories can lead to new understanding or knowledge. They can suggest new relationships or imply new predictions that might be supported or confirmed by new research. Falsification- showing that a theory seems to be wring by finding that implications or predictions derivable from it are not consistent with objectively collected data. Hypotheses- predictions, which may be derived from theories, about how variables are related. A Brief History of Anthropological Theory Theoretical Orientations- a general attitude about how phenomena are to be explained. Early Evolution: Two 19th Century anthropologists whose writings provided evidence for evolution theory (largely rejected today) Edward B. Tylor (1832-1917) Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) Both agreed that culture evolved from the simple to the complex & all societies pass through 3 basic stages of development: 1. Savagery 2. Barbarism 3. Civilization Race Theory: Rejected Today Theory with belief that physical traits, such as skin color, skull shape, or facial features, determined intellectual capacity, behavior, and moral worth. Races were ranked on a perceived scale of civilization, with Europeans often placed at the top and nonEuropean populations deemed "primitive" or "savage." This approach dominated much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology and was deeply rooted in the idea that humans could be divided into hierarchically ranked "races," often used to justify colonialism, slavery, and systemic inequality. Boasian Anthropology Beginning of 20th Century Brought an end of evolutionism’s reign in American anthropology Frank Boas pointed out that the 19th century anthropologists lacked sufficient data to formulate many useful generalizations. He strongly opposed race theory also Make significant contributions to the study of human variation that demonstrated how supposedly “racial” characteristics varied depending on where a person grew up. Stressed the idea that cultural traits had to be studied in the context of the environment they appeared 2 major approaches to anthropology emerged from this movement: 1. Ecological 2. Interpretive Ecological Approaches Ecological approaches in anthropology focus on how biology & cultural adaptations help humans survive in their environments. These ideas have inspired a lot of research but are also very controversial. Many cultural anthropologists disagree with these approaches because they don’t think biology or survival- based adaptations are very important for understanding culture. Instead, they believe culture is shaped more by ideas, beliefs, & social factors than by biology or environmental pressures. Cultural Ecology- the analysis of the relationship between a culture & its environment. o Julian Steward (1902-1972) was the 1st to advocate this study Cultural ecologists believe that cultures adapt to their environments through a process similar to natural selection. This means that individuals or groups who adopt behaviors that help them survive & reproduce are more likely to pass those behaviors on to future generations. Both the physical environment (like climate or geography) & the social environment (like interactions with others) influence how culture develops. The way people act & adapt can determine their success in surviving, reproducing, & keeping their cultural practices alive over time Evolutionary or Behavioral Ecologists- focus on how certain traits or behaviors help people survive & reproduce in specific environments. o Are different from cultural ecologist b/c they pay closer attention to individuals. Cultural Ecologists- anthropologists who look at how groups or cultures adapt. Adaptive- having traits or behaviors that help people pass on their genes to future generations. These traits or behaviors can be inherited (genes) or learned (through culture). Dual-inheritance Theory- emphasizes that both genetics & culture play important roles in evolution. While genes are passed down biologically, cultural knowledge & practices are learned & shared. Both of these systems interact & work together to shape how traits are passed to future generations. Interpretive Approaches Since the 1960s, some cultural anthropologists have taken an interpretive approach to studying cultures, influenced by ideas from literary criticism. Clifford Geertz- a key figure in this movement, compared culture to a story or text that can be analyzed for its meaning. According to him, ethnographers (people who study cultures) focus on parts of a culture that interest them & interpret their meaning. Then, they share their interpretations with people from their own culture, acting like translators between cultures. For interpretive anthropologists, the main goal is to understand what it feels like to live in a particular culture, rather than explaining why cultures are different. They argue that understanding culture is not something you can do scientifically—it’s more like analyzing a story for its deeper meaning. However, scientific anthropologists disagree. They believe cultural phenomena can be studied objectively by using scientific methods to reduce bias & gather evidence. While interpretive approaches can provide valuable insights into how people experience their cultures, these interpretations are often based on the ethnographer’s perspective & may lack solid evidence. Scientific anthropologists argue that interpretive researchers may underestimate how much progress has been made in objectively studying human behavior & culture. Types of Research in Anthropology Types of Research in Anthropolgy can be classified according to 2 criteria: 1. Spatial scope of the study (ex. The analysis of a single society, analysis of societies in a region, or analysis of a worldwide sample of societies) 2. Temporal scope of the study (historical vs. non-historical) Scope Single Case Region Worldwide Sample Non-historical Ethnography/fieldwork Archaeological site excavation Single species study/fieldwork Language study/fieldwork Region Controlled comparison Regional comparison of archaeological or other sites Cross-species comparison Language family comparison Ethnography & Ethnology Video: Ethnography- study of 1 culture Cross-cultural research Cross-archaeological research Cross-species comparison Cross-linguistics compassion Historical Ethnohistory Culture history Evolutionary history of a species Language history Region Controlled comparison Regional comparison of archeological or other sites Cross-species comparison Language family comparison Cross-historical research Cross-archeological research Cross-species comparison Comparative historical linguistics Ethnology- studies multiple cultures Using Ethnography & Ethnology, they study cognitive processes (how we think), the behaviors (way we act), & material criterion (things we make, the reasons why we make these things & how they’re used). They use the scientific method (random sampling, stratified sampling, judgment sampling). 3 Types of Interviews Used: Formal Interview, Informal Interview, Institchu (Insight) Interview (combination of formal & informal interviews at specific locations, where the information came about) Ethnography Participant-Observation- living among ppl being studied-observing, questioning, & (when possible) taking part in the important events of the group. Writing or otherwise recording notes on observations, questions asked & answered, & things to check out later are parts of participant-observation. Fieldwork- first hand experience with people being studied (but may also involve other methods such as conducting a census or survey). Ethnography- a description & analysis of a single society. After doing fieldwork for a year+ usually, an anthropologist may prepare an ethnography. Informants- people willing to work with you to help you interpret what you observe & tell you about aspects of the culture that you may not have a chance to see or many not be entitled to see. Methods for choosing knowledgeable informants: Cultural Consensus Model- relies on the principle that those things that most informants agree on are probably cultural Studying the Distant Past Goals 1. The description or reconstruction of what happened in the past (determine how ppl. Lived in a particular place at a particular time & when & how their lifestyles changed) 2. Testing specific explanations about human evolution & behavior (primary goal now) Culture History- a history of the cultures that lived in a given area over time. Until the 1950s, buildings such cultures was a primary goal of archeological research. Acheologists & Paleoanthropologists rely on 4 kinds of evidenc to learn about the past: 1. 2. 3. 4. Artifacts Ecofacts Fossils Features Artifact- any object made by human Lithics- tools made from stone – MOST COMMON ARTIFACT Ecofacts- are natural objects that humans have used or affected. Ex. Bones from animals that people have eaten, pollen, remains of insects & animal pests that associate with humans such as cockroaches & mice Fossils- may be impressions of an insect or leaf on a muddy surface that now is stone. Features- are kinds of artifacts, but archeologists distinguish them from other artifacts b/c they cannot be easily removed from an archeological site. Examples o Hearths (where humans built a fire on ground) o MOST COMMON: Pits- holes dug by humans that are later filled with garbage or eroded soil o Living floors- places where humans lived & worked o Midden- a large or very deep area of debris; often the remains of garbage dumps or areas repeatedly used over long periods of time such as caves. o Buildings Finding the Evidence of the Past Sites- known or suspected locations of past human activity that contain a record of that activity Sites can be small or huge Sites are created when the remnants of human activity are covered or buried by some natural process. o The most dramatic process is volcanic activity. o Less dramatic processes are the natural processes of dirt accumulation & erosion Stratified- an archeological deposit that contains successive layers or strata A type of sit that is most useful b/c the burial process worked quickly enough that each use of the site is clearly separated from the previous one When archeologists & paleontologist want to find sites they typically employ 2 methods: 1. Pedestrian Survey- walking around & looking for sites 2. Remote Sensing- techniques that allows them to find archaeological deposits from a remote location, usually the current surface of the ground beneath which the archaeological deposits are buried. o Most remote sensing techniques are borrowed from geologist. Excavation- the careful removal of archaeological deposits; the recovery of artifacts, fossils, & features from the soil in which those deposits have been buried. 2 Goals: o To find every strap of evidence about the past o To record the horizontal & vertical location of that evidence with precision Putting it all in Context Context- is how & why the artifacts & other materials are related Lesson 2: Archaeology In Concept and Practice Archeology: Study of the Cultural Past Though methods & processes are largely the same, Archaeology (Archeology) is Cultural vs. Paleoanthropology which is Biological •There are 2 correct spellings for archaeology. The classical spelling still used primarily by academics is “archaeology”, while most government publications use the alternative spelling, “archeology.” This alternative spelling appeared in the 1930s, which during the Great Depression in America, the US Government Printing Office removed what they felt were unnecessary letters from words to save printing costs. (True story!) •Archaeologist Brian Fagan observed that, “The archaeologist has one primary & overriding priority: to preserve & conserve the material remnants of the past for future generations.” Unlike trees, archaeological resources are finite; once disturbed or excavated, these priceless keys to unlocking the past are gone forever. •The “archaeological record” is constructed from archaeological data & comes in infinite forms. o Examples include a simple house, an entire city, the golden burial mask of Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun, the tomb of Maya King Pakulof Palenque, to a scatter of broken bones & stone tools. •There are 5 lines of evidence that archaeologists & paleoanthropologists use to reconstruct the past. Lines of Evidence to Reconstruct the Past Artifacts: Any object showing physical or contextual evidence of being made or modified by humans Artifacts are usually objects that are lost or thrown away Artifacts must be 50 years old to be considered significant for study. 50 years often old enough to change how an object is used or manufactured. Most common artifacts are: o Lithics: Used in 99% of human prehistory & history since 3.3 million years ago. Most common use has likely been as spear points for hunting, tools for butchering & hide processing, & grinding stones. o Ceramics: Objects made of baked clay, most often container forms for storage & cooking. Ceramics have been made by humans since approximately 10,000 BCE. Because ceramics are easy to make, often end up broken in large quantities in the archaeological record. o Based on study of modern groups who live at a stone-tool level of technology, wood & bone tools were also commonly used. Though easier to make than stone tools, due to their biological structure, bone & wood tools tend not to survive well in the archaeological record. o Ecofacts: Any natural object used or affected by humans o Ex: include bones from an animal that was consumed; pollen, phytoliths, seeds, or pits from plants brought back to house to use; stones used to outline a campfire, & other animals found on site, such as bones of rats or scavengers that may not have been part of diet. Though this definition may sound similar to an artifact, consider this example. Caveman Carl kills an animal, roasts it for dinner, and throws the bones at the edge of camp. Those bones are ecofacts. If instead, Caveman Carl takes some of the smaller bones & carves them into a tool or jewelry (such as the bone bracelets on the right), then that bone object is considered an artifact. Not all archaeologists use this concept, rather just consider everything as an artifact. Many archaeologists (including your professor) like this concept, as it provides a way to measure what prehistoric & historic humans used from nature versus had to spend energy to make or modify an object to serve their need. Fossils: hardened remains or impressions of something once organic Fossils are mainly evidence for Paleoanthropology, instead of Archaeology. How does fossilization occur? There must be hard parts (ex. Bone) and quick burial to prevent weathering, bacterial action, & scavengers to affect the remains Environments favoring preservation: marine or fresh-water sediment, bogs, tundra, volcanic ash, wind-blown sediment, & cave deposit Fossils are produced in a different ways: original preservation, petrifaction (ex. Permineralization, or the filling of pores by mineral matter dissolved in ground water –most common process in fossilized bones recovered), mold (imprint from disappeared object), cast, impressions (such as footprints), & coprolites. Problems with fossil record: o The fossil record is not complete. For example, it is speculated that 6000 different primates have existed, while only a few hundred have been identified by fossil evidence. o Not all parts of an individual may survive to fossilize. Due to their enamel coating, teeth are the most common remains that fossilize. Thick bones, such as skulls, pelvises, & long bones (like a femur) have a better chance to survive to fossilize over smaller bones, such as fingers. Features: artifacts & artifact associations that cannot be removed intact. o Often appear as discolorations of soil that were areas disturbed by past cultural activities. Context: the relationship between and among artifacts & other materials that allows reconstruction of past human behaviors. Primary (undisturbed) Secondary (disturbed) Finding the Evidence Site: Known or suspected locations of human activity that contain a material record of that activity. Formed by initial activity that leaves remains (artifacts, ecofacts, &/or features) Sites are commonly classified by the activities that took occurred there. o Examples include burial sites, habitation sites, kill sites, quarry sites, resource extraction sites, ceremonial or religious sites The past does not come to us unchanged! After formation, sites are affected by cultural &/or natural (physical, biological, and/or chemical) transformational processes Not all non-cultural processes are harmful. In some cases, the archaeological record comes forward in exceptional conditions. Under normal circumstances, only the most durable artifacts survive (ex. Stone, pottery), but in exceptional circumstances, many kinds of organic artifacts may be preserved, including things such as leather containers, baskets, wooden arrowheads, & furniture. Such circumstances can include waterlogged environments, dry conditions, extreme cold, & volcanic ash. The fundamental point regarding transformational processes is that they must be identified, documented, & understood before behavioral or environmental inferences can be made about any & every archaeological site Taphonomy: Study of the formation, disturbance,& destruction of archaeological sites How are Sites Found? Pedestrian Survey (Boots & Shovel) Phase I: Location: Can We Learn More By Digging More? Phase II: Assessment: Can We Learn More by Digging More? Phase III: Excavation Remote Sensing Examples: metal detector, magnetometer, ground penetrating radar (GPR) Search for Anomalies Using GIS to form predictive models Can also be use in Site Location &/vs. Assessment What Can We Learn from Evidence? Field work is only 10-15% of the archaeological process; the remaining time is cleaning & analyzing the artifacts, bringing together all of the lines of evidence (interpretation), & reporting on the site (what was found, what was learned, & what it means in terms of prehistory or history). What Can We Learn? Example: Artifacts Form: Basic Shape Measurement (Metric Analysis): When Form Isn’t Enough How an Artifact was Made: Speaks to the Technological Ability & Capability of a Past Culture Experimental Archaeology: Attempt to Replicate an artifact or site using only what was originally available (ex. Replicate stone tools only using other rocks & miscellaneous tools, like a bone or antler) How an Artifact was Used: The Most Difficult Step o Form Doesn’t Always Follow Function (ex. pencil) o Consider Contextual Uses of Artifacts o Technomic –Basic Use for Artifact (ex. A candle provides light) Sociotechnic–Use in Social Rituals or Setting (ex. Candles on a birthday cake, or to set the mood for a romantic dinner) Ideotechnic–Use in a Religious or Ideologic Ritual or Setting (ex. A unity candle in a wedding, a prayer candle, or induction in the National Honor Society) Examples of Specialized Analyses Use Wear Analysis: Study microware scars on stone tools, then experiment to see what made them Relative Dating o o Blood Residue Analysis: Testing projectile points for residue of blood to study what species killed or butchered; most commonly done with Paleo-Indian tools Chemical Tests: Chemical draws and analyses can provide functional information Ethnoarchaeology, or “Living Archaeology”: Study of Living Traditional Societies to draw behavioral inferences to usually prehistoric archaeological sites Establishes chronological relationships between sites & cultures. It does not give you a calendar year, rather determines the age of a specimen or site relative to another specimen or site as older or more recent Examples: Stratigraphy and the Law of Superposition: “Under normal conditions, the deeper it is, the older it is” & F-U-N Trio (for fossils): Over time, F & U ↑ & N ↓ Absolute Dating (or Objects of Known Age) o Dates in specific calendar years o Examples: Dated Coin, Historic Records, Patent Records, Historic Catalogs, Dendrochronology (tree ring dating), Calendar (such as Mayan) Chronometric Dating o Based on the decay of radioactive isotopes, if the rate of decay in known, can measure within a margin of error (sigma range, ±) the estimated age of a site or specimen o Examples: Radiocarbon / Carbon-14 (14C) vs. Accelerator Mass Spectometry (AMS) Can only be used to date organic materials, such as charcoal, burnt bone, shell, hair, skin, & wood –only formerly living things that contained carbon Half Life of Radioactive Carbon is 5730 years Both are destructive process; charcoal mostly used to date features/site Carbon 14: 10 grams sample. Counts remaining radioactive carbon, Dates up to 50,000 years ±Large Sigma Range (Ex. 5000 years before present ±500 years) –2023 Price is $310 per sample AMS: 1 gram sample. Weighs remaining radioactive carbon. Dates up to 80,000 years ±Much Smaller Sigma Range (Ex. 5000 years before present ±50 years) –2023 Price is $600 per sample Used primarily for prehistoric materials –rarely if ever for historic materials Potassium Argon (40K) The age of volcanic rocks and ash can be determined by measuring the proportions of argon (in the form of argon-40) & radioactive potassium within them. Half Life of Radioactive potassium is 1,330,000 years Also a destructive process; Date volcanic rocks found in association with fossils. Dates between 5000 years to up to 3 billion years ±Sigma Range 2023 Price is $1000 per sample This method of dating has been very effective for dating fossils in East Africa, where volcanic events occurred frequently since the Miocene Epoch (about 24 million years ago) Archaeological “Footprints”: Archaeology’s Impact on Modern Societies Unorthodox approaches to archaeology have helped produce new knowledge of lasting value. These approaches –often the reasons & results –of archaeology include: Evaluating myths, sagas, & legends Adding or complimenting historical evidence Enhancing cultural tourism & heritage awareness Collaborating with native or local communities Pursuing an activist agenda Reviving ancient technologies Managing cultural resources Participating in judicial & diplomatic Processes Doing fieldwork in a forensic context Expanding the Social Sciences Contributing to the Physical Sciences & Engineering Bolstering biological sciences Furnishing tools for environmental science Revealing our prehistoric past A Simple Code of Archaeological Ethics for All Is there a future for the past? Yes, but only if we help, not only by influencing other people’s attitudes towards archaeology but also by living this simple code of ethics that applies to all of us, professional archaeologists or not: Treat all archaeological sites & artifacts as finite resources. Never dig an archaeological site. Never collect artifacts for yourself or buy & sell them for personal gain. Adhere to all federal, state, local, & tribal laws that affect the archaeological record. Report all accidental archaeological discoveries. Avoid disturbing any archaeological site, & respect the sanctity of all burial sites.
