Unit 1: Optimizing Health
Body Image:
Definition: Body image refers to the mental images, attitudes, and feelings we form about our own
bodies. This includes aspects such as weight, shape, height, and muscularity. People can either be
satisfied or dissatisfied with their bodies.
Statistics:
- 55% of 8-10-year-old girls and 35% of boys are dissatisfied with their bodies.
- By age 17, nearly 80% of American girls are unhappy with their bodies.
- Body dissatisfaction -stable across the lifespan, less important during adulthood.
Media and Body Image
1. Media Portrayals of the Body
- Historical Ideals: Different societies have had varying ideals of beauty throughout history.
- 17th-19th centuries: Artists like Rubens, Renoir, and Raphael depicted women as plump and curvy.
- 1950s: Marilyn Monroe’s size 14 physique was considered ideal.
- 1960s: Twiggy’s ultra-thin appearance became the ideal.
- Today: A beautiful body can be waif, curvy, or athletic. For many women, the ideal is a combination
of being curvaceous and thin (small waist and hips, medium-sized bust).
Men’s Magazines: Promote six-pack abs, perfect pectorals, bulging biceps, and low body fat as the
ideal male body.
2. Effects of Media on Female Body Image
- Influence: Media plays a significant role in influencing how we feel about our bodies due to
Society’s emphasis on physical appearance.
Impact on Girls:
Consumption of beauty and fashion magazines, TV shows, and movies increases the desire
to be thin.
Television exposure in prepubescent girls predicts a future desire to be thin.
Greater exposure to mainstream TV programming and fashion magazines is associated with
poorer body image during adolescence and young adulthood.
Women of colour experience greater body satisfaction when watching TV shows with
primarily minority casts, which tend to present a wider range of female body types.
Effects of Media on Male Body Image
Idealized Body: Men are also influenced by media portrayals,
with the idealized male body being muscular (V-shaped with a large torso and smaller hips) rather
than thin (Tylka, 2011).
For example, images of muscular male models make adolescent boys perceive their own bodies
more negatively (Farquhar & Wasylkaw, 2007).
However, body dissatisfaction in men is lower than that it is in women, possibly due to the societal
double standard where women are more likely to be judged by their beauty than men (Green &
Pritchard, 2003; Tiggemann, 2004).
The Obesity Stigma
Negative Portrayals: Overweight individuals are often depicted in the media as selfish, lazy,
stupid, ugly, sloppy, and unlikable (Puhl & Latner, 2007). Characters like Dudley Dursley from
the Harry Potter series exemplify this stereotype.
Impact on Body Image: The obesity stigma, which includes negative attitudes, stereotypes,
and discriminatory behaviour directed at overweight individuals, has a powerful and
negative influence on body image. Teasing by parents, peers, and teachers can exacerbate
feelings of body dissatisfaction (Abramovitz, 2002).
Our Ideal Body
Influence of Ideal Body Image: Satisfaction with our bodies is greatly influenced by us
image of the ideal body—the body we would like to have. The closer we are to this ideal, the
less pressure we feel to change.
Conversely, those who are significantly different from the ideal may feel more pressure to
change or hide disliked parts of their bodies, we tend to view our bodies more negatively the
further they are from the ideal (Kelly, Bulik, & Mazzeo, 2011).
Health and the Mind Body Relationship:
1. The Immune System:
Complex Defence: The immune system includes the brain and blood cells.
Psychological Impact: Stress and mental health affect immune response.
Indirect Illness Connection: Psychological factors weaken immunity, not directly causing
illness.
Lifestyle Choices: Stress can lead to unhealthy habits like poor diet and substance abuse.
Lowered Resistance: Stress diminishes the body’s ability to fight off infections.
Physical Ailments: Vulnerability increases to various ailments during stress.
Research Insight: Findings from Contrada & Baum (2011) highlight these connections.
2. Personality:
Mental traits and emotions can enhance stress and illness resistance.
Key Personality Traits: -Openness: Open-mindedness to novelty.
- Conscientiousness: Being careful and hardworking.
- Agreeableness: Good-natured behaviour.
- Extroversion: Friendliness and sociability. - Emotional Stability: Maintaining emotional
balance.
Self- Efficacy:
- Belief in one’s ability to execute and succeed.
-Enhances psychological well-being, physical health, and achievements.
- Key strategies: Set attainable goals, seek positive social support, and model successful
behaviours.
Lifestyle Choices:
Lifestyle changes are crucial for health improvement.
Key hazards include:
1. Obesity
- Overweight individuals face risks like high blood pressure, diabetes, and heart disease.
- Causes: Overeating, insufficient exercise, and external eating cues.
Solutions:
- Reduce high-fat food intake.
- Increase exercise (e.g., muscle-strengthening activities twice a week).
- Small changes like watching less TV support weight loss.
2. Smoking:
- Responsible for 1 in 5 U.S. deaths; linked to heart disease, cancer, and emphysema.
- Nicotine is physically addictive, with withdrawal symptoms like insomnia and fatigue.
Strategies to quit:
- Monitor triggers and develop alternative behaviours.
- Focus on fitness and positive health outcomes.
- Exercise supports smoking cessation.
3. Alcohol Consumption:
- Causes 85,000 annual deaths in the U.S. and increases long-term risks like liver cirrhosis.
- College binge drinking rates: ~50% of students engage in it, with ~20% binge drinking frequently.
Effects:
-Impaired decision-making, coordination, and higher accident risks.
4. Illicit Drug Use:
- Leads to ~17,000 annual deaths and costs ~$200 billion due to health care and crime.
Risks include physical and mental health issues:
- Marijuana: Memory issues, respiratory problems. –
Inhalants: Organ damage.
- Cocaine: Seizures, heart rhythm disturbances.
- Early use correlates with aggression, poor academic performance, and lifelong drug dependence.
Focus on Wellness: The Gateway Drug Hypothesis
1. Substance Abuse
Alcohol and drug use often lead to substance abuse, causing negative social and medical
consequences.
Over 23 million Americans are substance abusers. Relapse rates in treatment programs are
high (40-60%).
2. Environmental Issues
25% of Americans live in areas with substandard air quality, contributing to physical and
mental health problems.
Proximity to polluting industries increases anxiety and depression.
Media heavily depicts unhealthy substance use (cigarettes, alcohol, drugs) with minimal
portrayal of negative consequences:
95% of films show substance use; 50% of G-/PG-rated and 80% of PG-13 films include
smoking/drinking.
Viewing such content is linked to smoking and early teen drinking. Online platforms often
serve as guides for drug users despite warnings. Advocacy suggests media should discourage
substance use and emphasize its dangers.
Coping with Illness
1. Noticing and Interpreting Symptoms:
People vary in recognizing and interpreting symptoms.
Coping strategies include:
1. Avoidance: Minimizing symptoms.
2. Confrontation: Actively addressing stressors and symptoms.
3. Downward Comparison: Comparing one’s condition to others who are worse off.
2. Seeking Help
Factors influencing decisions to seek help:
1. Symptoms being extreme or persistent.
2. Psychological causes or embarrassment about symptoms deter help-seeking.
3. Cost, inconvenience, and lack of insurance also hinder doctor visits.
3. Adhering to Treatment
Adherence depends on:
1. Satisfaction with the physician and involvement in treatment planning.
2. Clear communication using everyday language.
3. Beliefs about medication, including fears of dependence and side effects.
4. Patients’ reluctance to take medication stems from fear and a preference for minimal
medication use.
PROMOTING WELLNESS:
Health is no longer defined merely as the absence of illness. Wellness is now seen as a proactive and
positive approach to maintaining physical, mental, and emotional health. To be healthy is to actively
strive for a state of well-being, where one feels energetic, alert, and happy to be alive even into old
age. This ideal cannot be achieved through external sources alone but requires personal effort,
regular medical care, and a healthy lifestyle. To be healthy is to have the full use of one’s body and
mind and, despite an occasional bout of illness.
TAKING CHARGE OF YOUR OWN HEALTH:
-Health ownership requires a shift from passive to active participation in medical care. Instead of
blindly following medical advice, patients should:
-Collaborate with healthcare professionals.
-Stay informed about their medical conditions.
-Actively decide on treatment plans.
-This balanced approach reduces anxiety, improves adherence to treatments, and fosters a sense of
control.
Individuals should become active participants in their health care in a collaborative way, by
cooperating with doctors but not surrendering their own rights. And doctors need to realize that
patients who are informed of their medical problems and given an active role in deciding their
course of treatment are more likely to monitor their progress and adhere to the prescribed
treatment.
FITNESS: A Personal Responsibility for Health
To maintain optimum health, consider these steps:
-Knowing how the body and mind interact Manage stress effectively.
-Develop healthy eating and exercise habits.
-Monitor your health and get regular medical checkups.
-Keep personal medical records.
-Be aware of family health history
-Being aware of health hazards in your lifestyle, workplace, and environment
-Each individual should have self-care resources to guide their health journey.
-Being an active participant in your own health care
EATING SENSIBLY
1. Calorie Control
An integral part of a health-producing routine is practicing good health habits such as sensible
patterns of eating and drinking, keeping physically fit, getting adequate rest, and visiting a physician
regularly. Because more people “kill themselves” with a knife and fork than by any other means, one
of the best ways to promote good health is to eat sensibly. Eating sensibly involves eating a
reasonable amount of healthy food.
Calories- a measurement of energy produced by food when oxidized, or “burned,” in the body. The
number of calories needed each day depends on such factors as age, sex, size, and rate of
metabolism.
2. Healthy Food Choices:
A balanced diet comprises proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and fibre. The “food
plate”, issued by the United States serves as a practical guide to ensure proper nutrition. Nutritional
needs vary in every individual because of factors such as their size, age, sex, and level of physical
activity.
3. Getting Enough Sleep:
Sleep deprivation leads to errors, impaired memory, slower reactions, and reduced alertness. Severe
sleep deprivation can cause accidents and health issues. On the positive side, catching up on sleep
restores energy and mental clarity. Re-establishing a natural sleep cycle is essential for overall wellbeing.
Sleep:
Our sleep/wake cycles typically follow a biochemical clock designed to help us conserve energy. Reestablishing our natural sleep cycle is more important than trying to make up all the hours of lost
sleep. Although we can accommodate ourselves to a variety of changes such as shift work, jet lag,
and all-night study sessions, these adjustments take a toll on our bodies as well as our sense of wellbeing. Remember, the average person sleeps about seven hours each night, but the need for sleep
varies from one person to another.
You’re probably getting enough sleep if you get these signs, you’re Getting Enough Sleep:
Waking up spontaneously.
Feeling well-rested.
Avoiding daytime drowsiness.
Physical Fitness:
-Physical fitness is the overall ability of the human body to function efficiently and effectively,
contributing to increased life expectancy and overall health.
- Physical fitness encompasses the ability to function efficiently and effectively, incorporating both
health related and skill-related components.
- The concept of physical fitness is broader than just weightlifting or jogging; it includes various
aspects essential for overall health and well-being.
Positive Effects of Fitness:
Regular physical activity positively impacts various bodily systems (muscular, skeletal,
cardiovascular, respiratory, and endocrine).
- Benefits include reduced risks of premature mortality, coronary heart disease, hypertension, colon
cancer, and diabetes.
- Exercise also reduces symptoms of depression and anxiety, improves mood, and enhances daily
functioning.
Current Participation Rates:
Despite the known benefits of exercise, a significant portion of the adult population (37%) does not
engage in regular physical activity. Many who start exercise programs do not maintain their routine
over time.
Choosing an Exercise Program:
- Identify Personal Needs: Consult fitness professionals to evaluate your specific fitness
requirements.
- Select Enjoyable Activities: Choose exercises that align with your interests and preferences to
enhance adherence.
- Vary Activities: Incorporate diverse exercises to develop different fitness components and keep the
routine engaging.
- Exercise Regularly: Establish a consistent schedule for physical activity, integrating it into your daily
life.
Safety Considerations:
While physical activity is generally beneficial, it can pose risks if done excessively or without proper
preparation. Sedentary individuals, especially those with health conditions, should approach
increased physical activity cautiously to avoid serious health issues.
Evaluating and Modifying Your Routine:
- It is essential to periodically assess and adjust your exercise program to align with changing needs
and interests.
- Factors influencing these changes include shifts in work schedules, family responsibilities, age, and
stress levels.
- Listening to your body is crucial; being in tune with how you feel can guide necessary modifications
to your fitness routine.
- Overall well-being encompasses various aspects beyond physical fitness, such as nutrition, work-life
balance, awareness of health risks, and mental morale.
Importance of Social Support:
- Social connections with friends and family can significantly enhance health and well-being.
- Individuals with strong social networks tend to be healthier and recover better from illnesses.
- For example, supportive relationships can aid rehabilitation for those facing severe health
challenges.
- Conversely, social isolation increases the risk of health issues, making engagement with others
vital.
- It’s important to note that not everyone finds socializing beneficial; true advantage from a support
network requires a willingness to accept help from others.
Conclusion:
Sleep and physical fitness are integral to maintaining overall health. Adequate sleep supports
cognitive function and safety, while physical fitness enhances daily functioning and well-being.
Prioritizing both aspects is crucial for a healthy lifestyle. Regular physical activity should be an
integral part of daily life, balancing enjoyment with safety to maximize benefits and maintaining a
flexible and responsive fitness routine, combined with strong social support, plays a crucial role in
overall health and wellness. Regular evaluation of personal fitness needs and fostering healthy
relationships can significantly enhance quality of life.
UNIT 2: TAKING CHARGE
EXPLAINING PERCEIVED CONTROLS:
LEARNED OPTIMISM:
ETHICAL DECISIONS:
REACTANCE & POST-DECISION REGRET:
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE:
HINDSIGHT BIAS:
MAKING BETTER DECISIONS:
1. Importance of Judgment: Sound judgment is crucial as it shapes the decision-making
process. Simplifying complex situations can lead to poor outcomes, so a scientific approach
of asking critical questions is vital.
2. Balance Sheet Method: Creating a balance sheet encourages comprehensive evaluation. This
structured analysis fosters clarity and reduces the likelihood of regret by promoting a deeper
understanding of each option’s consequences.
3. Contingency Awareness: Considering potential downsides prepares individuals for
unexpected challenges. This proactive approach enhances resilience and adaptability in
decision-making.
4. Value Clarification: Understanding personal values can resolve internal conflicts, enabling
clearer decision-making. This self-awareness helps prioritize what truly matters in one’s
choices.
5. Objective Setting: Translating values into specific objectives offers direction. Clear goals can
streamline decision-making processes, making it easier to weigh options against desired
outcomes.
6. Regret Minimization: A structured approach to decisions can lead to a greater sense of
satisfaction and fewer regrets. Individuals are likely to feel more committed to their choices
when they understand the reasoning behind them.
7. Daily Decision Efficiency: Those with clear goals tend to make more effective daily decisions,
balancing responsibilities and desires. A strong sense of purpose aids in navigating complex
situations that arise regularly.
8. Perfectionism vs. Reality: Striving for an ideal solution can lead to paralysis in decisionmaking. Recognizing that perfection is unattainable allows for more pragmatic choices.
9.
Decision-Making Limitations: Many decisions are influenced by unpredictable
circumstances, reminding us that flexibility and adaptability are crucial in life.
10.
Shared Imperfection: Understanding that everyone makes suboptimal decisions can alleviate
the pressure to be perfect, fostering connection and understanding in our shared experiences.
DECISIONS AND PERSONAL GROWTH:
Decisions are especially crucial with regard to personal growth. All too often, people become stuck in
self-defeating behaviors because they’ve never made a decision to change their ways.
MAKING NEW DECISIONS:
1. Examine Decisions: Reflect on everyday choices affecting behavior.
2. Desire vs. Decision: A wish to change must lead to a concrete decision.
3. Procrastination Pitfall: Recognize habitual procrastination as a barrier.
4. Fear of Change: Anxiety can prevent individuals from making beneficial decisions.
5. Therapist’s Role: Therapists should guide clients to discover their own choices.
6. Learning from Consequences: Understand past decisions to choose better alternatives.
7. Empowering Perspective: View problems through the lens of decision-making.
SOME PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS.
•
DECISION BY DEFAULT
The failure to make a positive decision often is itself a decision with fateful consequences.
•
SELF-DEFEATING BEHAVIOR
Overcoming negative, self-defeating behaviour usually involves making a positive decision at a basic
level of motivation.
•
REVERSING EARLIER DECISIONS
It is wise to make a decision that counters or reverses an earlier commitment that has led to
undesirable consequences.
Unit 3: Love and Commitment
Triangular Theory of Love by Sternberg
1. Love can be found in various ways:
Chance meetings (e.g., classrooms, cafes, bars).
Platonic relationships evolving into romantic ones.
Interventions by friends or family (e.g., blind dates, arranged marriages).
2. The Internet is increasingly used to find love:
Around 20% of Americans meet their partners online (Rosenfeld & Thomas, 2010).
Online Dating
1 Global Usage:
Online dating is a booming $1 billion industry annually.
Nearly 2 billion people are online and potential for connecting is vast.
2 Growth Statistics:
Match.com has grown 154% since 2000, with over 100 million members.
Guidelines for Safe Online Dating
Evaluate different sites before joining.
Control access to your personal information.
Avoid sharing sensitive details (e.g., full name, address).
Use anonymous screen names.
Be cautious about posting photos or personal details.
Be wary of strangers and ensure safe, public meetings.
Effectiveness of Online Dating
1. Pros:
Offers 24/7 communication (e.g., email, chat).
Uses algorithms to match partners based on compatibility.
2. Cons:
Algorithms focus on current similarities but ignore future changes and dynamics.
Success rates are similar to traditional methods of meeting partners.
Self-Disclosure in Relationships
1. Definition:
Sharing personal or intimate information with a partner.
2. Benefits:
Builds trust and relationship esteem.
Encourages reciprocal openness.
3. Risks:
Over-disclosure early on can lead to rejection or insecurity.
Honesty is essential but should be gradual and appropriate.
4. Key Insight:
Balancing honesty and discretion are crucial for relationship success.
Cohabitation
1. Trends:
Rates have doubled among 30-40-year-olds since 1995.
Close to 8 million couples cohabit in the U.S. (Census.gov, 2012).
2. Challenges:
Cohabiting couples face higher divorce rates (“cohabitation effect”).
Other factors (e.g., reasons for cohabiting) influence marital success.
MARRIAGE
Marriage is the state of being married, typically the legal union of two people. However, the
institution of marriage is being challenged by alternatives such as cohabitation and single-person
households. In fact, marriage in the United States is at a 50-year low, with only about 51 percent of
adults currently married. Still, marriage hasn’t completely fallen out of favor.
Most people in the U.S. still want to marry, and around 72 percent have been married at least once
(Cohen, 2011). Marriage provides various benefits, such as legitimizing the couple, offering the
security of a long-term relationship, providing emotional intimacy and shared partnership, access to
sex, and support in childrearing.
LOVE AND MARRIAGE
Many people marry or commit to significant others for a mix of positive and negative reasons, many
of which are unclear even to themselves. The tradition of marriage, along with its social, legal, and
especially economic benefits, plays a bigger role than most people realize (Smock, Manning, &
Porter, 2005).
When asked, however, most Americans typically say they marry because they are in love. Since
marriage is no longer essential for economic stability, fulfilling sexual desire, or raising children, love
has become the primary reason for both marrying and staying married. Even upper-class couples and
royalty, who traditionally married for social reasons, now prefer marriages based on love.
MARITAL MYTHS
Most American couples believe in voluntary marriage, meaning they think two people will stay
married only as long as they are in love. If the love fades, they typically agree to separate. When
people marry or commit based on romantic love, which focuses on emotional and physical intimacy,
it’s not surprising that many relationships and marriages fail; if love fades, the marriage often ends.
However, the longer a couple stays together, particularly in a fulfilling and committed relationship,
the more they tend to value companionate love, which places more importance on personal intimacy
and commitment than on physical attraction.
DIVERSITY, LOVE, AND MARRIAGE
For the most part, people tend to marry or commit to partners with similar age, education, ethnic or
social background, race, and religion. This tendency is shaped by how we are socialized and the
opportunities available for meeting people, with physical proximity increasing the likelihood of
attraction. However, as society becomes more mobile and diverse, people are increasingly marrying
or committing to those who cross these familiar boundaries, with shared values becoming more
important than similar demographics.
Although love is a universal experience, its role in choosing a partner varies across cultures.
Generally, people from individualistic cultures place more emphasis on love as the basis for marriage,
while those from collectivistic societies may prioritize other factors.
ADJUSTING TO INTIMATE RELATIONSHIP
A major difference between today’s couples and those of the past is the lack of clearly defined roles
for each partner.
Attitude Adjustment
Sharing Responsibilities
Communication and Conflict
Attitude Adjustment:
With the passage of time there is attitude alignment, wherein their attitudes become more similar
and, thus, less likely to cause arguments.
Sharing Responsibilities:
Partners are sharing responsibilities to a greater degree today than in the past. As a result, the
respective role expectations between partners, especially married couples, are becoming more
flexible and functional. More women, for example, are sharing the provider role by working outside
the home; and men are expected to provide greater emotional support in the relationship, including
help with child rearing. Decision making has also become more democratic, especially among dualincome couples.
Several studies demonstrate that women still do more housework than men even when the women
work outside of the home, when husbands increase their share of the housework, marital quality
improves for women but not for men gay partners tended to assign household labor more fairly,
resolve conflicts more constructively, and experience a more equal level of satisfaction with the
relationship
Communication and Conflict:
On-going changes in responsibilities make communication and conflict management even more
important in committed relationships. Moreover, with the birth of a child comes a decline in
passionate love and an increase in marital dissatisfaction. Other issues that create conflict are inlaws, romantic or sexual affairs, drug use, problematic drinking, money spending, and jealousy. In
contrast, failures in communication tend to occur at a deeper level involving the sharing of feelings,
expectations, intentions, and personal needs. It’s in these areas that partners have trouble getting
through to each other. Anger is not always the most destructive emotion in marriage, since both
happy and unhappy couples fight.
FACTORS THAT PLACE A MARRIAGE IN JEOPARDY
The biggest problems occur when the woman brings up an issue “harshly” and critically, and the man
responds with great negativity. Because women initiate discussions about relationship issues about
80 percent of the time, this type of dynamic can quickly, and negatively, affect the relationship.
Criticism, Contempt, Defensiveness, Stonewalling stating complaints in terms of a defect in the
partner’s personality making yourself seem superior to your partner self-protection, often in the
form of presenting oneself as an innocent victim emotional withdrawal from the situation
The presence of these “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse” (as Gottman calls them), if left
unrepaired, signal that the dissolution of the relationship is ahead
Focus on Relationships:
Partner Abuse
Battering is a pattern of behavior used to gain power and control over another person through fear
and intimidation, often involving threats or actual violence. It occurs when one person believes they
are entitled to control another. Despite better education and more laws, it’s estimated that one in
four women in the U.S. will experience domestic violence in their lifetime. While men can also be
victims of domestic violence, women make up 85 percent of all victims (National Coalition Against
Domestic Violence [NCADV], 2012). Intimate partner violence accounts for about 20 percent of all
nonfatal violent crimes experienced by women (Rennison, 2003). Over half of all women and onethird of all men murdered are killed by their significant others (Kessler, Molnar, Feurer, &
Applebaum, 2001).
Across cultures, the most common form of abuse involves a man abusing a woman, which results in
the most severe consequences, including serious physical injury and death (Kim, Park, & Emery,
2009).
FOUCS ON THE RELATIONSHIPS: PATNER ABUSE
Battering is a pattern of behavior used to establish power and control over another person
through fear and intimidation, often involving violence or threats.
It occurs when one person believes they are entitled to control another.
One in four U.S. women is estimated to experience domestic violence in their lifetime.
While men can be victims, women comprise 85% of all domestic violence victims (NCADV,
2012).
Intimate partner violence accounts for about 20% of all nonfatal violent crimes experienced
by women (Rennison, 2003).
Over half of all women and one-third of all men murdered are killed by their significant others
(Kessler et al., 2001).
Most common abusive situation: a man abuses a woman, which results in the most severe
consequences, such as serious physical injury and death (Kim et al., 2009).
Cultural prevalence: Intimate partner violence is common across cultures, with women
predominantly being the victims.
WHY DO MAN BECOME BATTERES?
Theories explaining battering include family dysfunction, poor communication skills,
provocation by women, stress, chemical dependency, lack of spirituality, and economic
hardship.
While these factors may be associated with battering, they are not the true causes of violence.
Removing these associated factors will not eliminate men’s violence against women.
The true cause of battering is the use of violence to gain and maintain control over the partner.
Batterers often do not face adverse consequences for their behavior, allowing the violence to
continue.
Risk factors for violence include:
o Unemployment
o Drug use
o Witnessing violence as a child
o Low income
o Low education levels (especially for male abusers)
Most abusers are not antisocial but often lack good communication skills and have a high
need for control.
THE PROFILE OF A BATTERER
Theories explaining partner violence:
o Family dysfunction
o Inadequate communication skills
o Provocation by women
o Stress
o Chemical dependency
o Lack of spirituality
o Economic hardship
These factors are associated with battering but do not cause men's violence against women.
True cause of battering: Violence is an effective way for the abuser to gain and maintain
control over the partner.
Batterers often face no adverse consequences, allowing the violence to continue.
Risk factors for violence include:
o Unemployment
o Drug use
o Witnessing violence as a child
o Low income
o Low education levels (especially for male abusers)
Most abusers are not antisocial but lack good communication skills and have a high need for
control.
Batterers often minimize or deny their actions and may blame the victim.
Cycle of violence:
1. Escalation/Tension building: Victims recognize signs and try to avoid conflict.
2. Violence: Explosive, often unpredictable.
3. Reconciliation: Abuser apologizes, offers love, and promises to never batter again. (O’Leary
& Woodin, 2009)
FACTORS THAT LEAD TO A SUCCESSFUL MARRIAGES
Difficulties in leaving abusive relationships:
o Victims often face financial dependence on the abuser (Fleury-Steiner et al., 2006).
o Besides physical injuries, victims suffer from loss of self-esteem, depression, and
stalking if they attempt to leave.
o Many victims find escaping the abuser to be nearly impossible.
Historical context:
o Violence against women was once not treated as a serious crime.
o Today, assault, battering, and domestic violence are generally considered crimes.
Legal responses:
o Some states have passed laws mandating the arrest of batterers.
o Police may have limited training and may see domestic disputes as unappealing or
dangerous (Moritsugu et al., 2010).
o There is increasing evidence that domestic violence is now being taken more
seriously by the justice system, with higher police notifications, arrests, and judicial
involvement (Cho & Wilke, 2005).
TIPS TO IMPROVE RELATIONSIPS
Seek help early on. Don’t wait until the problem has gotten so bad that it may be impossible
to repair.
• Don’t say every critical thing that comes to mind, especially on touchy subjects.
• Bring up problematic topics gently and without blame; avoid starting discussion with
critical and/or contemptuous remarks.
• Be willing to accept influence from your significant other. Typically, men need to
improve in this skill more so than women.
• Don’t accept hurtful behavior from your partner, expect better of them.
• Learn how to exit an argument without hurting the other person.
• Engender a rich climate of positivity; avoid focusing on the negative.
EMOTION-FOCUSED THERAPY (EFT)
A cognitive therapy that provides a technique for changing basic thought and emotional patterns.
The
goal of EFT is to help partners feel securely connected by fostering feelings of safety, accessibility,
and responsiveness. Couples can better process and send clear messages to each other, see each
other’s perspective, and do collaborative problem solving (Johnson & Patz, 2003). The success
rate
for this form of therapy is high, somewhere around 70 to 75 percent.
SEXUALITY
Increased sexual knowledge and experience: Partners today bring more sexual knowledge to
their marriages than in previous decades.
Higher standards: Couples are more likely to judge their sex lives by higher standards than
past generations.
Frequency of sexual intercourse: Couples in their 20s and 30s engage in sexual intercourse 23 times a week, more frequently than couples in the past (Smith, 2003; Parker-Hope, 2009).
Variety and openness: Modern couples are open to a wider range of sexual practices,
positions, and engage in sex for a longer duration.
Decline in sexual frequency over time: As couples live together longer, the frequency of
sexual intercourse tends to decrease (Brewis & Meyer, 2005).
o Reasons for decline: Lack of time, physical energy, and becoming accustomed to
each other.
O Aging and the decline in physical Vigor also play a role, especially among middle and
late adulthood couples.
o Couples with children report a lack of privacy.
Focus on quality over quantity: As marriages progress, couples pay more attention to the
quality of sex rather than the frequency.
Sexual monogamy: Most couples aspire to sexual monogamy, regardless of whether they
follow it.
INFIDELITY
www.affairrecovery.com A site dedicated to helping people recover from extramarital affairs.
You can find both free and fee-based content.
DIVORCE
The legal dissolution of marriage— among Americans has more than doubled in the past 40 years,
with approximately 4 out of every 10 marriages now ending in divorce. Each year over 1 million
couples get divorced, most of them within the first seven years of marriage (Gottman, 2012). Twenty
percent of first marriages end within five years and 33 percent of first marriages end within 10 years
(Maher, 2003). These data mean that by age 18, 40 percent of U.S. children will have experienced
parental divorce (Greene, Anderson, Doyle, & Riedel Bach, 2006).
REASONS DIVORCE RATES ARE INCREASING
The lack of preparation for marriage
The increasing financial independence of women
The fading of religious values
The ability to find new emotional and/or sexual partners through the Internet.
Remarriage:
● Remarriage Overview: Most divorced people remarry despite the painful experience of
divorce.
● Timeline: One-fourth of divorced individuals remarry within one year of divorce.
● 20% of all marriages involve at least one partner in their second marriage.
● Common Trends: Divorced individuals often marry Another divorced person. Someone of
similar age or shared experiences.
● 4. Facilitating Factors: Participation in support groups like: Parents Without Partners.
Increased chances of meeting and marrying someone with similar experiences.
● 5. Resource: Website for Remarriage
● Offers advice on:
a. Blended families.
b. Second weddings.
c. Prenuptial agreements.
d. Financial planning.
DIVORCE AFTER REMARRIAGE
● 1. Start: Remarriage
● Initial Statistics: 65% of remarriages end in divorce. Reason: Higher divorce rate compared to
first marriages (43%).
2. Influence of Repeaters (Divorcees remarrying multiple times)
1. Impact: Increases overall divorce rate for remarriages.
2. Statistical Adjustment: Removing repeaters gives a more accurate view.
3. Factors Contributing to Successful Remarriages
1. Experience from First Marriage: Learning from mistakes.
2. Better Relationship Skills: Understanding the importance of give-and-take.
3. Age & Maturity: Older and more mature individuals tend to have successful second
marriages.
4. Commitment: More emphasis on commitment and working harder to make the marriage last.
4. Revised Outlook for Remarriages
1. Post-Adjustment: 60% of second marriages last when repeaters are excluded.
Blended Families:
Start: Blended Families:
1. Definition: Families with children from a previous marriage of one or both spouses.
2. Challenges in Blended Families
3. Demanding Dynamics: New marriage with children can be taxing, as there’s little child-free
time to build mutual understanding.
4. Marital Unhappiness: Perception of stepchildren causing family problems increases
unhappiness and thoughts of divorce.
● Age of Children:
1. Young Children: Easier to develop rapport and trust.
2. Adolescents: More difficult for everyone involved.
3. Stepparent Issues
1. Parental Authority: If the stepparent assumes authority too quickly, children may become
resentful.
2. Children’s Resistance: Parents must allow for children’s initial suspicion and resistance.
3. Undefined Role: The role of stepparent is not well defined.
4. Influence of Biological Parent
● Ongoing Interaction: Child’s relationship with the biological parent adds complexity to the
family dynamics.
5. Successful Blended Families
● Key to Success: When both parents cooperate and work well together on parental issues,
stepparent families can function as well as intact families or even better in some cases.
SUMMARY
1. Finding Love: Online Dating
● Advantages: Millions of potential mates to choose from.
● Drawbacks: Online matchmaking services are not effective for establishing long-term
relationships.
2. Self-Disclosure in Relationships
● Benefits: Helps establish a relationship, promotes reciprocal sharing.
● Drawbacks: Excessive self-disclosure at the start can scare people away.
3. Sexual Changes in Relationships Over Time
● Importance: Satisfying sex life is linked to relationship satisfaction.
● Tendency: Relationships may become less satisfying over time.
Solution: Partners who remain open and continue growing together report increased happiness.
4. Challenges in Blended Families
● Demands: Special demands on both adults and children.
● Challenges:
1. Little child-free time to build mutual understanding.
2. Difficulties in developing rapport and trust with children.
3. Children may become resentful of stepparent authority.
4. Stepparent role is poorly defined.
Unit 4: Seeking Self hood
Self-Consistency
Definition
Tendency to perceive experiences consistently with self-concept.
Experiences in Harmony
i. Perceived accurately
ii. Fully admitted to conscious awareness
iii. Example: Getting an “A” on a test – Reinforces self-concept of
intelligence
Experiences Not in Harmony
ii. Sometimes inaccurately interpreted
iii. Distorted or kept from awareness
iv. Example: Failing a test – Trivialized by saying “I don’t need this
class for my major”.
Processes
i. Self-Immunization – Trivializing threatening information
ii. Mnemonics Neglect Poor recall of negative feedback
Forgetting inconsistent experiences with core self-concept
Self-Esteem
Definition
i. Personal evaluation of oneself
ii. Associated feelings of worth
Types of Self-Esteem
i. Physical Attractiveness
ii. Physical Abilities
iii. Cognitive Abilities
iv. Social Relationship
Influences on Self-Esteem
i. Childhood Experiences – Supportive Parenting
Affectionate environment
ii. Own Standards of Self worth
iii. Media Images
iv. Parenting Styles Impact
Exploration 4.1 Self Growth
Self- Esteem Influences
1. Overview
I. Influenced by success and failure
ii. Low correlation between self-view and actual performance
2. Historical Beliefs
i. Backlog of success enhances self-esteem
ii. Praise based on intelligence improves self-esteem
iii. Repeated failure undermines self-esteem
3. Performance Perception
i. Impact of achievement varies
ii. Importance of relative performance to peers
Ex: Scoring 95 on a test relative to others
Effects of High and Low Self- Esteem
1. High Self-Esteem
i. Positive Feelings
ii. Better academic performance
iii. Resilience in face of failure
iv. Exit bad relationships
v. Enhanced job performance
vi. Greater happiness
2. Low Self-Esteem
i. Negative Feelings
ii. Poor academic performance
iii. Difficulty facing failure
iv. Tendency to stay in bad relationship
iv. Lower job performance
vi. Greater unhappiness
3. Negative Aspects of High Self-Esteem
1. Potential link to antisocial behaviors
ii. Cheating
2. Annoying or interrupting others
Minority Stress and Self- Esteem
1. Definition of Minority Stress
i. Psychological and Social stress
ii. Associated with minority status
2. Self –Esteem in Minorities
i. General outcomes: No disadvantage
3. Self- Protective Mechanism
i. Importance in maintaining self esteem
4. Short Term Effects
i. Protection of self- esteem
ii. Mechanism can be effective
5. Long-term Considerations
i. Potential consequences of repeated self – protective
thinking.
Exploration 4.2: Racial Identity
Striving for Self-Esteem:
1. Negative Consequences of Pursuit
o Mistakes & Failures
o Anxiety & Stress
o Hinders Learning (from Feedback)
o Reduces Autonomy (Pressure, Tension)
o Impacts Relationships (Self-Focus)
2. Effects on Health
o Physical Health Distress
o Mental Health Distress
Solutions to Self-Esteem Pursuit:
1. Other-Directed Goals
o Focus on Helping Others
o Reduced Self-Focus
o Fulfillment from Giving, Not Validation
2. Self-Determined Life
o Create Personal Values/Standards
o Reduce Defensiveness
o Authentic, Integrated Self
Exploration 4.3: Self-Esteem
Self-Enhancement vs. Self-Verification
1. Self-Enhancement
Goal: Seek Positive Feedback
Focus: Affirm Positive Qualities
Behavior:
o Elicit Positive Feedback
o Seek Affirmation of Positive Attributes
o Memory Bias: View Self as Improving Over Time
2. Self-Verification
Goal: Confirm Self-Perceptions
Focus: Maintain Consistent Self-Image (Positive or Negative)
Behavior:
o Seek Feedback that Confirms Self-Image
o Stability and Consistency in Self-View
o Vital for Social Interaction (How Others Treat Us)
Sex Differences
Women:
More Self-Reflection
Greater Self-Clarity (Clear, Stable Self-Concept)
Men:
Less Self-Reflection
Lower Self-Clarity
Self-Concept and Personal Growth
1. Self-Concept Over Time
Developmental Changes:
o High Self-Esteem in Childhood
o Low Self-Esteem in Adolescence (Especially Girls)
o Gradual Rise in Adulthood
o Decline in Old Age
2. Change in Self-Concept
Influences:
o Life Experiences: Job Changes, Marriage, Parenting
o New People/Situations: Social Roles, Responsibilities
Stable Core Self:
o Self-Perceptions Change with Experience
o Core Self Remains Stable
Accepting Criticism:
View Criticism as a Learning Opportunity
1. Evaluate objectively
2. Consider as new information
Evaluate the Source
1. Qualifications
2. Credibility
Assess Importance
1. Relevance to goals
2. Priority
Look for Patterns
1. Multiple sources
2. Consistent feedback
Separate Emotion from Feedback
How do you feel when you are criticized?
1. Distinguish message from messenger’s emotions
2. Focus on content
Use Feedback Constructively
1. Focus on improvement
2. Avoid defensiveness
Benefits:
1. Personal Growth
2. Improved Relationships
3. Increased Self-Awareness
Greater Self-Direction
1.The Journey
- Listening to Others
- Receiving criticism
- Growing from feedback
- Listening to Yourself
- Tuning into desires
- Discovering goals
2.The Central Search
- Underlying Questions
- Who am I, really?
- How can I get in touch with my real self?
- How can I become myself?
3. Key Insights
Self-Self-Discovery is Key
- Understanding true self
- Personal growth
- Fulfillment
- Carl Rogers’ Insight (1961)
- Beneath surface problems
- Deeper search for self-awareness
- Identity
Stages in Self – Direction:
Stage 1: Self-Revision
1. Moving away from external criticism_
2. Challenging distorted self-perceptions_
3. Characterized by self-disparagement and complaints_
Stage 2: Growth and Self-Direction
1. Increased self-direction and self-acceptance_
2. Embracing the process of becoming_
3. Greater openness to experiences_
4. Increased awareness and comfort with complex feelings_
Key Takeaways
1. Self-awareness and acceptance are key to growth_
2.Embracing complexity and ambiguity is essential_
3. The journey of self-discovery is ongoing and dynamic_
Activity 4-3
1. Reflect on your openness to experience_
2. Explore your comfort with complex feelings_
3. Engage in self-reflection and journaling_
Here is a mind map based on the provided text:
Personal Growth:
Acceptance
Increased self-acceptance
Greater acceptance of others
Reduced self-alienation
Self-Alienation
Projection
Dislike and contempt
Towards those with projected qualities
Growth Process
Letting goes of familiar self-images
Embracing new perspectives
Becoming more self-directed
Navigating Uncertainty
No one-size-fits-all guide
Different values and goals
Understanding general growth pattern
Rogers’ Wisdom (1961)
Good life as a process
Not a state of being
Direction, not destination