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COVERAGE:
Chapter 17: Physical and Cognitive
Development in Late Adulthood
Chapter 18: Psychosocial
Development in Late Adulthood
Chapter 19: Dealing with Death
and Bereavement
Physical and Cognitive Development in Late
Adulthood
OLD AGE TODAY
Old age – a status symbol.
Ageism - Prejudice or discrimination against a
person (most commonly an older person) based on
age.
 THE GRAYING OF THE POPULATION
- Due to high birthrates and high immigration
rates.
Baby boomers – the surge of people born
following the World War II.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF AGING
- Problems are due to lifestyle factors or
disease.
Primary aging
– gradual, inevitable process of bodily
deterioration throughout the life span.
– a nature process governed by biology.
Secondary aging
– aging processes that result from disease
and bodily abuse and disuse and are often
preventable.
Nurture – the environmental insults
– result of nurture. that accrue over the course of a lifetime.
Three groups of older adults:
Young old – age 65 to 74
– active, vital, and vigorous.
Old old – age 75 to 84
Oldest old – age 85 and above
– frail, infirm, and have difficulty
managing activities of daily
living.
Activities of daily living (ADLs) - essential
activities that support survival, such as eating,
dressing, bathing, and getting around the
house.
Functional age – how well a person functions in
a physical and social environment in
comparison with others of the same
chronological age.
Gerontology – study of the aged and the
process of aging.
Geriatrics - Branch of medicine concerned with
processes of aging.
Gerontologists – professionals who studies
aging.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
LONGEVITY AND AGING
Life expectancy – age to which a person in a
particular cohort is statistically likely to live, given
their current age and health status, on the basis of
average longevity of a population.
Longevity – length of an individual’s life.
Human life span – the longest period that members
of a species can live.
Jeanne Clement (122 y/o) – longest
documented life span.
 CORRELATES OF LIFE EXPECTANCY
Increase in Life expectancy – influence of
antibiotics,
vaccination
programs,
and
improved sanitary practices.
Affected by deaths – from chronic diseases
(heart disease and cancer) and pandemic.
Gender Differences
- Women live longer and have lower
mortality rates at all ages than men.
- Gender gap is wildest in high-income
industrialized nations with improvements
in prenatal and obstetric care.
WOMEN
- greater physiological resilience
- greater tendency to take care of
themselves and to seek medical care
- high level of social support
- rise in women’s socioeconomic status.
MEN
- more likely to smoke, drink, and be
exposed to dangerous toxins.
Regional Differences in Mortality Risk
- The gap in life expectancies between
developed and developing countries is
vast.
Racial and Ethnic Differences in
Mortality Risk
- Ethnic and racial discrimination plays a
role.
- Cultural lifestyle factors or migration
effects. (healthier individuals are more
likely to attempt the arduous migration
process)
- Structural inequality, limited access to
health care, unsafe communities, and
occupational factors.
- Income and geography also affect life
expectancy.
 THEORIES OF AGING
Senescence - the decline in body functioning
associated with aging.
Most theories about biological aging fall into
one of two categories.
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Genetic-Programming Theories
- Theories that explain biological aging as
resulting from a genetically determined
developmental timetable.
Programmed senescence theory
- Aging is the result of sequential
switching on and off of certain genes.
Senescence is the time when the
resulting
age-associated
deficits
become evident.
Hayflick limit - genetically controlled limit
on the number of times cells can divide in
members of a species.
Endocrine theory
- Biological
clocks
act
through
hormones to control the pace of aging.
- Loss of muscle strength, accumulation
of fat, and atrophy of organs are
related to declines in hormonal
activity.
Immunological theory
- A programmed decline in immune
system functions leads to increased
vulnerability to infectious disease and
thus to aging and death.
Evolutionary theory
- Aging is an evolved trait; genes that
promote reproduction are selected at
higher rates than genes that extend
life.
Variable-Rate Theories / Error Theories
- Theories that explain biological aging as
a result of processes that involve damage
to biological systems and that vary.
Wear-and-tear theory
- Cells and tissues have vital parts that
wear out.
- The body ages as a result of
accumulated damage to the system.
Free-radical theory
Mitochondrial
- Accumulated damage from oxygen
radicals causes cells and eventually
organs to stop functioning.
- Aging results from the formation of
free radicals.
Free radicals – Unstable, highly reactive
atoms or molecules that can cause
internal bodily damage.
Rate-of-living theory
- The greater an organism’s rate of
metabolism, the shorter its life span.
- There’s balance between metabolism,
or energy use, and life span.
Autoimmune theory
-
Immune system becomes confused
and attacks its own body cells.
 EXTENDING TO HUMAN LIFE SPAN
Survival curve - A curve on a graph showing the
percentage of people or animals alive at
various ages.
Centenarians - possess longevity assuring
genes to counteract age-related molecular
damage, loss in function, and cognitive decline.
Lifestyle factors – key influencers of longevity
and successful aging.
Exercise – associated with the preservation of
cognitive health.
Morbidity - The condition of being in a state of
disease.
Calorie restriction – is associated with positive
changes in markers related to disease risk and
aging.
Intermittent fasting - where food is eaten only
during some hours of the day.
PHYSICAL CHANGES
Visible changes
- Older skin tends to become paler and less
elastic, and, as fat and muscle shrink, the
skin may wrinkle. Varicose veins may
appear on the legs.
- The hair on the head thins and turns gray
and then white, and body hair becomes
sparser.
- Older adults become shorter as the disks
between their spinal vertebrae atrophy.
Less visible changes
- the brain; and sensory, motor, and sexual
functioning.
 ORGANIC AND SYSTEMIC CHANGES
Lungs - become less effective
Immune system – functioning declines
Arrhythmia – irregular heartbeat
Chronic
stress
–
chronic
low-grade
inflammation
Higher risk of malnutrition - Problems with
swallowing food, gastric reflux, indigestion,
irritable bowel syndrome, constipation, and
reduced absorption of nutrients become more
common with age as well.
Reserve capacity - backup capacity that helps
body systems function to their utmost limits.
 THE AGING BRAIN
- As people become older, there are declines
in the brain’s ability to process information
rapidly, in executive functioning, and in
episodic memory.
- In normal, healthy people, changes in the
aging brain are generally subtle and make
little difference in functioning.
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The brain’s plasticity can “reorganize
neural circuitry to respond to the challenge
of neurobiological aging”.
- In late adulthood, the brain gradually
diminishes in volume and weight,
particularly in the frontal and temporal
regions.
Hippocampus – the seat of memory, portion of
the brain involved in learning and memory.
 SENSORY AND PSYCHOMOTOR
FUNCTIONING
- Visual and hearing problems may deprive
them of social relationships and
independence, and motor impairments
may limit everyday activities.
Vision
- Older eyes are more sensitive to glare
and may have trouble locating and
reading signs.
Cataracts
- Cloudy or opaque areas in the lens of
the eye, which cause blurred vision.
Age-related macular degeneration
- Condition in which the center of the
retina gradually loses its ability to
discern fine details.
Macula - a small spot in the center of
the retina that helps us keep objects
directly in our line of sight in sharp
focus.
Glaucoma
- Irreversible damage to the optic
nerve caused by increased pressure
in the eye.
Hearing
- Result in significant psychological
consequences.
-
Strength and Balance
- The loss of strength is greater for lower
than for upper limbs.
- These declines are the result of
peripheral changes in the muscular
control and feedback mechanisms for
motor control.
Falls – the most common cause of
fractures.
Functional fitness – the ability to perform
the physical activities of daily living.
Sleep
- Older people tend to sleep less and
dream less than before.
- Hours of deep sleep are more restricted
and awaken easily due to physical
problems.
-
Older adults may wake several times
during the night.
Social isolation – as association that has
been particularly troublesome given the
lockdowns and distancing.
Sexual Functioning
- The most important factor in maintaining
sexual functioning is consistent sexual
activity over the years.
PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH
 HEALTH STATUS
- Poor health is not an inevitable
consequence of aging.
- Poverty is related to poor health and to
limited access to and use of health care.
COVID-19 Risk and Age
Excess death rate - a comparison of
expected deaths to actual deaths regardless
of the cause of death.
 CHRONIC
CONDITIONS
AND
DISABILITIES
- People with chronic health conditions are
likely to have a lower quality of life and are
at risk of disability and death.
Common Chronic Conditions
- Heart disease, cancer, chronic lower
respiratory disease, stroke, Alzheimer’s
disease, diabetes—6 leading cause of
death for 65 years and over
- Cardiovascular
diseases,
cancers,
respiratory diseases, digestive diseases,
liver disease, diabetes, kidney disease,
tuberculosis—leading causes of death at
50 to 69
- Dementia—fourth leading cause of death
at 70 and over
- Hypertension, diabetes, arthritis
- Could be prevented through healthy
lifestyles
Disabilities and Functional Limitations
- The most common disability involves
mobility issues, most commonly with
walking or climbing stairs, followed by
hearing issues, cognitive problems, and
difficulties with vision and self-care.
- Women are more likely to report
disabilities than are men.
Periodontal Disease
- Periodontal disease is a chronic
inflammation of the gums caused by the
bacteria in plaque.
- It can result in tender or bleeding gums
and eventual tooth loss.
 LIFESTYLE INFLUENCES IN HEALTH
AND LONGEVITY
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Physical Activity
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