English Academic Literacy for
Economic and Management Sciences
NQF level: 5
Credits: 32
Unit for Language Development (CTL)
Compiled by
Michael Rowley
Edited by
Amoré Potgieter and Lorette Rauch
2024
Bloemfontein, South, and QwaQwa
Campus
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Unit for Academic Literacy
Centre for Teaching and Learning
English Academic Literacy for the Sciences
EALE 1508
Bloemfontein, South and QwaQwa Campus
2024
Credits: 32
Mr M Rowley
CTL Room 373
051- 401 7416
[Revised 2023]
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University of the Free State
Bloemfontein
South Africa
P.O. Box 339
9300
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Table of contents
Table 1: Icon Library ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
AIMS AND OUTCOMES FOR THIS MODULE………………………………………………………………………………………. 5
Study material ......................................................................................................................................... 9
Course requirements .............................................................................................................................. 9
Assessments .......................................................................................................................................... 10

M-reader quizzes………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….10
M-reader Information Package ……………………………………………………………………………………………….11

iCAN books and quizzes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 14

Assessment breakdown ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 16
Credits and notional learning hours...................................................................................................... 17
Updating module information and resources....................................................................................... 18
The rules of the programme ................................................................................................................. 18

Plagiarism …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19
Contact details ...................................................................................................................................... 20
Orientation - Week 1............................................................................................................................. 27
Analytic scoring rubric........................................................................................................................... 35
Lesson 1 – Academic reading and writing (Week 2 - First Session) ...................................................... 39
Lesson 2 – Process Reading (Week 2 – Second Session)...................................................................... 51
Lesson 3 – Reading as a process: focus on while-and post-reading (Week 3 – First session) .............. 62
Lesson 4 – Unpacking questions (2nd Session – Week 3 and 1st Session – Week 4) ........................... 74
Lesson 5 – Note taking and synthesising (Week 4 and 5) .................................................................... 89
Lesson 6 – Textual cohesion (Week 6) ................................................................................................ 114
Lesson 7 – Referencing (Week 7) ......................................................................................................... 134
Lesson 8 – The academic paragraph (Week 8)................................................................................... 158
Lesson 9 – Writing a paragraph (Week 9) .......................................................................................... 166
Lesson 10 – The process of paraphrasing (Week 10).......................................................................... 176
Lesson 11 – Reading to build vocabulary (Week 11) .......................................................................... 185
Lesson 12 – Understanding the reading process: focus on pre-reading ............................................ 198
Lesson 13 – Accessing your facilitators feedback (Week 13)............................................................. 206
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EALE 1508: Curriculum: Lesson plan outline for second semester ..................................................... 214
Assessment outline ............................................................................................................................. 215
Lesson 14 – Different methods for paraphrasing (Week 2) ................................................................ 216
Lesson 15 – Brainstorming and Introductory paragraphs (Week 3) ................................................... 227
Lesson 16 – Thesis or purpose statement (Week 4) ........................................................................... 243
Lesson 17 – Writing a body paragraph (Week 5 and 6) ...................................................................... 255
Lesson 18 – Concluding paragraphs (Week 7) .................................................................................... 268
Lesson 19 – Putting it toghether (Week 8) ........................................................................................ 279
Lesson 20 – Hedging (Week 9) ........................................................................................................... 289
Lesson 21 – Argumentation (Week 10) .............................................................................................. 301
Lesson 22 – Making contributions to a seminar ................................................................................. 313
Lesson 23 – Accessing your facilitator’s feedback (Week 12)............................................................. 323

Appendix A: Student generated academic wordlist ………………………………………………………….. 334
Appendix B: Articles ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 1: Icon Library
Icon
Description
Icon
Description
Welcome message
Module objective
Programme and learning
outcomes
Course requirements
Credits and notional hours
relevant to the module
Resources and study material
Assessment
The rules of the programme
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The use of Blackboard
Contact details
Analytic scoring rubric
Paragraph and essay writing
examples
My skills map
Extra resources
AIMS AND OUTCOMES FOR THIS MODULE
 PROGRAMME: AIMS
This course aims to teach you the required critical reading, writing and oral skills that you
will need to become successful in your academic career.

MODULE DESCRIPTION
Would you like to achieve success during your university studies by learning valuable and
effective strategies that will assist you with improving your academic reading and writing
skills?
This innovative course aims to develop your critical thinking, reading, writing, and language
abilities through a series of tasks and activities. Even though this course helps you to
develop a multitude of skills that you will need throughout your academic career, the focus
is on academic reading and writing. Of all the skills needed for academic success at
university level, reading may be the most important. A strong reading ability will be a great
asset to you throughout your university studies. Throughout the course, reading and writing
are closely connected. You will practice your writing by means of writing paragraphs and
then learn how to write expository essays based on the readings in your study guide.
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The paragraphs/essays are important because the skills you will acquire in the writing of
these paragraphs/essays will help you with academic writing in general.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

•
You will be given the opportunity to extend your vocabulary;
•
This course provides you with strategies to organize and comprehend texts;
•
You will be taught how to identify and recognise the functions of discourse markers in texts;
•
This module provides you the opportunity to formulate interpretations based on a given text;
•
One of the main outcomes is for you to accurately complete comprehension-based and
problem-solving tasks in the mode of written presentation;
This module equips you with the tools to write expository paragraphs and essays based on
•
passages read;
After this module, you will be able to summarize and paraphrase the main ideas of a written
•
text; and
You will learn the skills of taking notes and learn how to prepare for written tests
•
Please note:
• EALE 1508 will commence on 12 February 2024.

SIGNING UP FOR A BLACKBOARD GROUP (BLOEMFONTEIN CAMPUS ONLY) 
Students registered on Bloemfontein campus should, before the commencement of class, enrol in an
EALE 1508 group on Blackboard. There are different groups in different timeslots to select. Pick the
class group that best suits your timetable. Remember that you need to attend EALE 1508 twice a week,
so make sure that neither one of the sessions clashes with your other subjects.
Important:
•
You can only choose one class group, once you have submitted your choice you cannot
remove your name from the list.
•
You cannot move from group to group, the class/group which you choose will be the
group in which you will attend class for the rest of the semester/year. Therefore,
check your timetable meticulously.
•
Only Mrs Annamarie Otto, in Room 362 of the Centre for Teaching and Learning
(located on the third level of the library), can change the group that you selected. If
you have a valid reason for changing classes, you need to consult and provide her with
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proof as to why you need to change classes.
•
Once a class group is full, the choice will disappear from the system.
•
If you cannot attend any of the available groups, please see Mrs Annamarie Otto. You
need to supply her with valid documentation as to why you cannot attend any of the
classes.
•
During registration, the Blackboard Buddies will be available to help you register for
a class group.
If you prefer to do it on your own, you should do the following:
1. Open the UFS website
2. Click on the students’ tab
3. Then click on the eLearn (Blackboard) option
4. Type in your UFS username and password. Then click submit
5. Under the heading: My Courses, click on EALE 1508
6. The EALE 1508 homepage will open
7. Click on the contact session sign-up link
8. Then click on the sign-up sheet button
9. Choose a contact session that suits your timetable (e.g. group B)
10. Once you have chosen a group, click on the sign-up button for that session
11. You will then be signed up for a contact session, please click the OK button to exit
•
NB: Remember the name of the group that you chose.
STUDENTS ON SOUTH CAMPUS
On South campus, students will be put into their groups automatically. Please contact Mr. Vuyani Mkololo
if you are unsure to which group you belong. His email address is MkololoVA@ufs.ac.za
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STUDENTS ON QWAQWA CAMPUS
Students will sign up and select their groups via Blackboard. A link will be provided on Blackboard to show
students how they can sign up.
 GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES
You will be required to submit various assignments that will test your reading and writing skills, which
will be taught in class during the year.
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STUDY MATERIAL
The EALE 1508 course is designed and relevant for students who are studying Economic and
Management Sciences. This course makes use of a study guide as its only course material.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
To pass this course, you need to attend two double periods every week. You must attend the same
class with the same facilitator. You must remain with the same facilitator per semester and do all the
assignments in the same class, if not arranged otherwise.
Since this is a year course, continuous assessment is used to calculate your final mark. Remember that
the writing you complete during the year (paragraphs and essays), forms an integral part of your final
year mark. It is imperative that you complete all class assignments, as well as homework that your
facilitator assigns to you. For a detailed breakdown of the mark allocation, please turn to page 16 and
17.
No late submissions of assignments will be accepted without prior arrangement with your facilitator.
You will need to provide valid documentation for any missed assessments. For example, medical and
death certificates, or a letter from your coach if the reason is related to a sports event. In addition,
attendance is crucial for achieving success in this module – if you do not attend class for two
consecutive weeks, you will be removed from the class group.
Throughout the year, you will write two summative tests. One test will be written at the last part of
the first semester (30-mark paragraph) and another test at the end of the second semester (30-mark
essay). You will not be required to study for your test, but it is very difficult to pass if you do not attend
your classes and complete your lessons. The dates for the test will be provided at a later stage by your
facilitator. Please note that no examination will be written for this course.
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ASSESSMENTS
 M-READER QUIZZES
The M-reader assessment component will be completed online. Before you can complete your Mreader quizzes, you will be required to write a reading-level test. This information will be used to
create your profile on the M-reader programme. Your facilitator will inform you when your profile has
been created, thus allowing you to start with the assessment. Please do not try to create your own
profile on the programme. Once your profile is created your login details will be as follows:
Username:
ufs-your student number
Example:
ufs-2014176802
Please remember to add ufs- before your student number.
Password:
mypass
You can change your password once you log into the system.
After you have been registered on the M-reader site you can start attempting the online quizzes. You
can access the page by either clicking the link on Blackboard or typing the web address in your
browser: www.mreader.org
Before you start reading a book, ask yourself two questions:
1. Is the level of the book too high or low for me?
2. Is there an available quiz for your book on the M-reader site?
You are required to complete a minimum of 2 reading reactions per semester. If you complete more
than 2 a semester, your 2 best marks will be considered. Please note that you cannot carry any marks
across from the first semester to the second semester. Remember that it is your responsibility to
complete these quizzes outside of class time. Thus, you need to set aside time for yourself to complete
a quiz. The system will not be reopened at the end of the semester for students to catch up on their
quizzes.
You are required to read two graded readers for the semester and complete a quiz on each book. As
previously mentioned, the marks of the reading reactions form part of your semester mark, and
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ultimately your final year mark. If you do not complete the set amount of reading reactions before the
end of each semester, you will be penalised at the end of the semester when the marks are calculated.
Further instructions on how to use the M-Reader programme will be discussed in class and available
on the EALE 1508 Blackboard site.
If you struggle with the M-reader system, forget your password, or need help, please ask your
facilitator to assist you. If your facilitator cannot help you, then you can contact Mr Christie Le Grange
at legrangejc@ufs.ac.za
M-reader Information Package
Question 1: How do I access M-reader?
Step 1: Use any browser e.g. Chrome or Firefox, then use the Google search engine.
Step 2: Search for M-reader in the search bar.
Step 3: Select Mreader.org (usually the first option).
Step 4: This will open a new window to the M-reader site.
Step 5: Enter your login id and password
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(Please note: This is NOT the same Novell password used to access Blackboard).

Provide your login username: ufs-your student number: e.g. ufs-2014172801

Enter the password id: mypass
Question 2: How do I change my password on M-reader?
Step 1: Click on your name at the top right of the page to change your password in the box (see arrow).
Step 2: Type in your new password and press ‘Enter’. Your new password will be saved to the system.
(Please remember your new password)
Question 3: How do I take a quiz on M-reader?
Step 1: Go to ‘View available quizzes’ or type the name of the book in the green block at the bottom
of the page.
Step 2: Pick the graded reader book you have read and start the quiz.
Please note:

You only have 15 minutes to complete a quiz.

You can take a new quiz every 2-4 days. (You only need to do a quiz once a week).

You need to score 60% to pass a quiz.

If you do not pass the quiz, it will tell you “not passed”, the book will not display, and your
word count will not change.

Your facilitator can allow you to retake a quiz if you can give him/her a valid reason.

Please remember to complete the post-quiz after you have completed your M-reader test,
otherwise, you will not be able to take another quiz.

You will only see passed/not passed. If you want to know your percentage, you should ask
your facilitator.

Your facilitator can check for cheating and change your passed mark to not passed (you will
receive 0 for cheating)
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Step 3: Before reading a book, check whether the quiz is available online. Although we try and ensure
that all the quizzes are available, it remains your responsibility to make sure there is a quiz available.
•
If it is not available, take the book back and take out a new book.
•
Report to your facilitator that there was not a quiz on the book.
•
Give your facilitator the following details: Title, Author, Publisher
Remember: It is your responsibility to complete 2 quizzes per semester. Your facilitator will not
check up on you.
Trouble Shooting / FAQ
1. How do I log on to M-reader?
o
Username: ufs-student number
o
Password: mypass
2. All the books have a red border – What do I do now?
a. First reason: Your waiting time between quizzes has not finished.
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b. Second reason: You have not completed the post-quiz of your last book. Please see the orange block
on the profile – click on the link in the block and complete the quiz.
c. Third reason: Book is either too high or too low for the student’s current level.
3. Why can’t I do more than 1 book per day?
There is a waiting time between quizzes that varies between 2 to 4 days, depending on the time
of the semester. Students should space their quizzes during the whole semester.
4. How many books should I read during a semester? You should read at least 2 books during each
semester.
5. What if I read more than 2 books? If a student reads more than 2 books during a semester, the 2
best marks will contribute to their final mark.
6. Why did my reading level suddenly go up? The system automatically bumps your level by 1 after
a certain number of successful quizzes. If you cannot cope with the new level, you can ask your
facilitator to return you to your previous level.
7. Is M-reader important for my final mark? Yes, it is. It accounts for approximately 10% of your
final mark.
 ICAN BOOKS AND QUIZZES
•
Log onto the EALE Blackboard site.
•
Access iCAN stories on the iCAN stories link, which is located on the course content pane on the
left-hand side of the screen.
•
You can then download the story in Word format to your computer/phone.
•
After you have finished reading the story, you can do the test on the iCAN quizzes link, which is
located on the left-hand course content pane.
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•
You get 15 minutes to do 10 questions. Note that questions are randomised with each login, and
once you are done or the time is up, the test is submitted. You cannot retake a test or start over
once the timer has started. It is the same as MReader.
•
There are four stories on each reading level – you only need to choose the two you want to read.
•
Reading levels are assigned according to the scores you received on your proficiency tests (as with
MReader). The iCAN stories are on the same level as those you read on MReader. You may not
read a level lower than your assigned proficiency level, doing so will result in penalisation.
Please remember that you are required to do two MReader and two iCAN quizzes for each semester.
The process of academic writing
In this module, you will be required to use the process approach to academic writing. This
approach follows writing as a process of creating, organizing, writing, and polishing (editing and
proof reading). Thus, the course focuses on the steps and stages of writing that an individual writer
might work through. See the illustration below:
Brown, E. (2016) Writing-as-a-recursive-process. Available from: https://ericdrown.uneportfolio.org/2016/10/03/writing-as-a-recursive-process-1/
The process approach to academic writing is used to teach students to engage with the writing
process in a meaningful way. As a writer, one can never produce a perfect piece of writing the
very first time. Thus, engaging with the piece more than once (in the drafting process) ensures
that ideas are clearly expressed and aligned with the given task. In addition, the process helps
undergraduate students to improve their academic writing skills in both discipline-specific and
study skills contexts.
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It is vital that you actively engage in each stage of writing; failure to do so will result in poor academic
performance (See module rubric on page 35 about the penalties for not correcting your work,
according to your facilitator’s feedback, for the final draft).
 ASSESSMENT BREAKDOWN
This course makes use of continuous assessment. Therefore, it is very important that you hand in all
your assignments given by your facilitator. The mark allocation for both semesters is as follows:
Semester 1
Assessment type
Mark allocation
MReader quizzes
4 x 5 = 20 marks
iCAN quizzes
4 x 5 = 20 marks
Grammar quizzes
40 Marks
Paragraph: Draft 1
30 marks
Paragraph: Draft 2
35 marks
Blackboard activities
30 marks
Class assessment
20 marks
Academic engagement marks
20 marks
Paragraph Test
30 marks
Total: 245 marks
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Semester 2
Assessment type
Mark allocation
MReader quizzes
4 x 5 = 20 marks
iCAN quizzes
4 x 5 = 20 marks
Grammar quizzes
40 Marks
Essay: Draft 1
30 marks
Essay: Draft 2
35 marks
Blackboard activities
30 marks
Class assessment
20 marks
Academic engagement marks
20 marks
Essay Test
30 marks
Total: 245 marks
Your final year mark will be calculated by adding the total mark for each semester together. You need
an average of 50% to pass this course. Remember that you do not write exams for this subject.
CREDITS AND NOTIONAL LEARNING HOURS
Notional hours refer to the amount of time that a student needs to spend on a module to increase the
likelihood of passing the course. This includes any activity linked to EALE 1508, such as readings,
contact hours, preparing for and writing M-reader quizzes, paragraphs and essays, self-study, and test
writing. Since EALE 1508 is a year course, this means that students need to spend at least 320 hours
of time throughout the year on this course.
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Notional hours for 32 credits
= 320 notional hours
Allocated as follows:
Intensive reading
(3 hours per week x 28 weeks)
84 hours
Vocabulary study
(1 ½ hours per week x 28 weeks)
42 hours
Extensive reading
(2 hours per week x 28 weeks)
56 hours
Preparing and writing assignments
32 hours
Writing summaries and paragraphs
(2 hours per week x 14 weeks)
28 hours
Writing essays
(1 ½ hours per week)
50 hours
Weekly M-reader quizzes
(1 hour per week x 27 weeks)
27 hours
UPDATING MODULE INFORMATION AND RESOURCES
The module schedule and learning unit content, either orally or in writing, can be updated or modified
at any time by the lecturer. It is the responsibility of students enrolled in this module to stay up to
date with the schedule and curriculum. An announcement of this type can be given in face-to-face
class sessions or communicated on Blackboard. It is recommended that students check Blackboard
daily to keep up to date with the latest developments in this module. Any work discussed during
contact sessions can be used for assessment purposes.
THE RULES OF THE PROGRAMME
If you miss any assessment you need to send the necessary documentation (medical certificate, or a
copy of the death certificate) that proves this to your facilitator within 7 days. Please send any
documentation to Mrs Annamarie Otto (Bloemfontein campus) or Mrs Linda Sparks (South campus)
in the Unit for Language Development in the Centre for Teaching and Learning (CTL).
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Your semester marks and results will be placed on Blackboard. You will also be able to obtain your
marks from your facilitator.
 PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism and Academic Writing Misconduct
What is plagiarism?
Plagiarism is the use of words, ideas, opinions, images, discoveries, artwork, inventions, music
recordings, or computer-generated work (from any printed, digital, or internet-based source, whether
published or not) of another person, even if the content is openly licensed, and presenting it as one’s
own work without acknowledging the source. Plagiarism may be the result of intentional, inattentive,
or unintentional behaviour. Plagiarism cannot be confirmed by mere similarity between words in the
source text and the borrowed text, as in the case of terminology, commonly used phrases and known
facts.
NB: it is unacceptable to take someone else’s words, ideas, opinions, or images without
acknowledging where the information comes from. This includes internet sources and even other
student work!
Why is plagiarism taken seriously?
The Policy contributes to instilling the values of academic integrity, high standards, and ethics in all
academic activities. Academic writing misconduct and plagiarism are serious concerns and are subject
to strict disciplinary measures. In other words, plagiarism is considered to be ‘academic theft’ and is
not acceptable.
Why referencing is important?
Referencing academic work is a commitment to academic integrity, academic honesty, and excellence
in teaching and learning, and the submission/presentation of credible research findings and outputs.
Students show their respect for knowledge creation by contributing to it and guarding it, as well as
not exploiting it through plagiarism. Students of the UFS need to be committed to producing academic
work that adheres to scholarly standards in the accurate citation of sources, appropriate collection
and use of data, and transparent acknowledgement of the contribution of others to their ideas,
discoveries, interpretations, and conclusions. This means we reference so that we can acknowledge
that information is not our own.
In this course, you will learn how to reference, summarise and paraphrase so that you can avoid
plagiarising someone else’s work.
What is academic writing misconduct?
Any action or attempted action that may result in an unfair academic advantage for oneself or an
unfair academic advantage or disadvantage for any other member(s) of the academic community.
Academic misconduct includes:
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•
•
•
•
•
unacknowledged distribution of other’s work;
altering academic documents or transcripts;
falsification or fabrication of data;
misrepresentation of data to gain access to materials before publication;
and helping anyone to gain an unfair academic advantage.
Use of Turnitin
Turnitin is the similarity detection software that is freely available at the University of the Free State.
In other words, Turnitin is a tool that the university uses to check how similar your work is to someone
else’s. The use of this similarity detection software does not take away the role of the lecturer or
facilitator in checking for and identifying any suspected cases of plagiarism. The maximum
recommended similarity percentage from the Turnitin report is 30%.
Referencing method
The reference method used in the English Academic Literacy for Economics and management sciences
course is Harvard.
Assignments (paragraphs, essays etc.) are submitted through Turnitin on the Blackboard page for this
module. The plagiarism policy of the University applies to all work submitted to your facilitator.
CONTACT DETAILS
For all queries related to the running of the EALE programme, EALE content and material, or queries
about your facilitator please contact the course coordinators:
For all queries related to how the classes are run on campus, Blackboard queries, or any other
EALE 1508 Coordinator Bloemfontein Campus/South Campus
Coordinator:
Mr Michael Rowley
Office number:
Centre for Teaching and Learning, room 373a
Email address:
rowleymj@ufs.ac.za
Phone number:
051 401 7416
Consultation hours:
Mondays 09:00 – 11:00, Tuesdays 08:00 – 10:00, Thursdays 14:00 – 16:00,
or by appointment
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Administrative issues regarding EALE 1508 please contact the administrative officers:
Administrative Officer for Bloemfontein Campus
Officer:
Mrs Annamarie Otto
Office number:
Centre for Teaching and Learning, room 362
Email address:
OttoA@ufs.ac.za
Consultation hours:
Mondays to Thursdays 09:00 – 11:30 and 14:30 – 15:30, Fridays 09:00 –
11:30
Coordinator for South Campus
Officer:
Mrs Linda Sparks
Office number:
Centre for Teaching and Learning, room 365
Email address:
sparksla@ufs.ac.za
Phone number:
051 401 9312
Consultation hours:
Mondays from 9:00 – 11:00, Tuesdays and Thursdays from 14:00 – 16:00;
or by appointment
ULD Coordinator for QwaQwa
Coordinator:
Ms Linique Martin
Office number:
TK Mopeli Library Building, Office B00006
Email address:
martinlzn@ufs.ac.za
Phone number:
058 718 5140
Consultation hours:
Mondays to Fridays 08h00 – 16h00
For queries regarding class work and mark allocation, you need to contact your facilitator. Ask your
facilitator for the following details:
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My EALE 1508 Facilitator
Facilitator:
Email address:
The programme director oversees all of the academic literacy programmes on campus. Before you
contact her, first contact either the EALE 1508 coordinator or Administrative Officer, they will first try
to assist you. If they cannot assist you, they will direct your query to the Director.
ULD Director
Director:
Mrs Michelle Joubert
Office number:
Centre for Teaching and Learning, room 360
Email address:
JoubertMA@ufs.ac.za
Phone number:
051 401 2273
Consultation hours:
Per appointment only
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LESSON PLAN OUTLINE: first semester
Week
Lesson theme
Week 1
Course orientation
Week 2
Lesson 1
(1st Session) –
Academic reading
and writing
Aims
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lesson 2
(2nd Session) –
Process Reading
•
•
•
Week 3/4
Lesson 3
(1st Session) –
Reading as a
process: Focus on
While- and Postreading
Welcome
Blackboard groups
Programme and learning outcomes of
the course
Assessment breakdown
MReader
Rules of the programme
Reflect on the academic writing you
did at school and think ahead about
the writing you will be doing at
university.
Understand the differences between
school reading and writing
requirements and university reading
and writing requirements
Notice the difference between
academic reading and writing and
reading and writing for other
purposes
Understand the requirements and
expectations of this course
Apply the three stages of reading to
an academic text
Practise reading stages in order to
apply to academic texts
Analyse a text to practise critical
thinking skills
• Take part in the process of reading by
analysing an academic text: focus on
while- and post-reading
• Activate background knowledge about
a topic
• Gain comprehension from reading a
text as a result of following the reading
process
Lesson 4
•
Understand how to write for a certain
audience
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(2nd Session –
Week 3 and 1st
Session – Week4)
•
•
Unpacking
questions
Week 4/5
•
Lesson 5
(2nd Session –
Week 4 and 1st
and 2nd Session –
Week 5)
Note-taking and
synthesizing.
•
•
•
•
•
Week 6
Lesson 6 –
Textual cohesion
•
•
•
•
•
Week 7
Lesson 7 –
Referencing
•
•
•
Access meaning in a question or task
through the identification of
keywords
Brainstorm to gain ideas and then
identify the most important ideas for
answering a specific question
Answer a question in the form of a
reflective paragraph
Use a grid to take notes from
academic texts
Analyse the usefulness of your own
notes
Extract key information from academic
texts
Use a synthesis matrix to begin
synthesising key information from the
texts
Write a synthesised paragraph that
directly responds to an assessment
question
Understand how transitional devices
create cohesion
Recognise transitional devices in a
text
Recognise different strategies to
achieve text cohesion
Understand the main function of each
of these text cohesion strategies
Practice and apply the specific text
cohesion strategies
Understand the concept of
referencing
How to avoid plagiarism
Use verbs for citation correctly Use
the Harvard referencing method to
reference
25
Week 8
Lesson 8 –
The academic
paragraph
•
•
•
•
Week 9
Lesson 9 –
Writing a paragraph
•
•
•
•
Week 10
Lesson 10 –
The process of
paraphrasing
Week 11
•
•
•
Lesson 12 –
Understanding the
Reading Process:
Focus on prereading
Week 13
•
Lesson 11 –
Reading to build
vocabulary
Week 12
•
•
•
•
Lesson 13 –
Accessing your
facilitator’s
feedback
•
•
•
•
Recognise the structure of an
academic body paragraph
Identify the three main parts of an
academic paragraph
Understand the purpose of each of
these main parts of an academic
paragraph
Practice knowledge gained regarding
paragraph structure
Recall the structure of an academic
body paragraph and its three main
parts
Unpack a paragraph prompt
Write a well-structured paragraph for
a first draft (30 marks)
Achieve coherence and cohesion
within a paragraph
Learn how to paraphrase complex
sentences
Practise paraphrasing in academic
writing
The use of an academic vocabulary in
reading
Strategies to build vocabulary
Formulating meaning beyond the
surface level
Unpack the process of reading for a
better understanding
Take part in the process of reading by
analysing authentic academic text
Gain comprehension from reading a
text as a result of following the
reading process
Follow facilitator feedback from a first
draft of a paragraph
Engage in activities to improve writing
(organisation and content)
Type out a second draft, and self-edit
this draft using a checklist
Hand in a final draft on Turnitin (35
marks)
26
Week 14
Test week and
revision
27
ORIENTATION - WEEK 1 (WORKSHEET COMPLETED IN SECOND
SESSION)
Aims for this week:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The purpose of an academic literacy and language course
Success in academic literacy
Rules of the classroom
Pledge
Ice breakers
Your facilitator will go through a PowerPoint Presentation/Study guide. Take notes by highlighting
key words and phrases and writing down other important information.
1. The purpose of an academic literacy and language course
Take a moment to think about the following, then speak to the person next to you about it. We will
then discuss this as a class:
1. What skills do I need at university to achieve the best of my potential?
2. What are academic literacy skills?
3. How do I get these skills?
28
4. How should I act in a classroom in order to achieve these skills?
5. Why should I have good language/grammar skills?
6. Even if I achieved 85% in matric for English, can I still learn something in a language/academic
literacy classroom?
7. Who is responsible for my success?
29
2. Success in academic literacy
Take a moment to think about the following, then speak to the person next to you about it. We will
then discuss this as a class:
1. Why is attendance so important?
2. What reasons may I have to miss class?
3. Why is communication with my facilitator so important?
4. This course is developmental and works in a step-by-step way. This means that it might take
time to improve your marks. How can I help this process?
5. Who do I talk to if I run into difficulty?
30
6. How long should I wait before handing in online work like quizzes and assignments?
7. If I have a test in another subject, is it a good idea to miss academic literacy classes?
8. Academic literacy classes are student-centred. What does this mean?
Your facilitator will now go through the rubric used for marking, editing symbols and other key
aspects of the academic literacy classroom.
3. Rules of the classroom
a. With the person next to you, discuss three elements of a great class. Think about what you would
like to do well in this class. Write these down in the space below.
31
You may use these points to help you:
1. What would be the best learning environment?
2. What sorts of behaviours distract me and keep me from learning?
3. How should students act when interacting in the classroom?
4. How should students treat their facilitator?
5. How should students participate individually and in groups?
6. How should my attitude be?
32
b. Now discuss the importance of respect with your facilitator and class.
In a great classroom, these elements are usually present:
•
Respect by listening to others when others speak and letting them speak without interruption.
•
Always respecting everyone’s opinions.
•
Respect for everyone by being on time, in person and with regards to work.
•
Respect for other people’s work, by not resorting to copying, stealing another student’s work,
and plagiarizing.
1. Are these acceptable concepts? Would you like to add anything?
2. What are the penalties for these elements being disrespected?
2. Now, discuss this with your facilitator. Choose the most important rules for your class together
with your teacher.
Rule
Penalty
33
4. A moment of reflection
In the space below reflect on how you can make sure that you do well in this class. What do you need
to do to achieve success in this subject and how are you going to achieve this?
34
4. Student pledge
I agree to as far as possible to 100% attendance so that I can do well in this class; listen to
my facilitator and follow instructions; have clear communication in a respectful way to both
my facilitator and fellow students; punctuality and any other rules we agreed upon as a
class. Also, I agree to try to use my own words, rather than plagiarizing. I understand that
in order to do well in this class, I need to be present, participate, communicate and be
respectful.
Signed:
Name:
5. Ice breakers
1. Liar Liar
a. In the space below, write down six adjectives (describing words) about yourself. One of these words
needs to be a lie.
b. Now report back to the class. The rest of the class has to guess which one of these adjectives is a
lie.
35
ANALYTIC SCORING RUBRIC
Organisation (5)
Content (10)
Vocabulary (5)
Usage (5)
Mechanics (5)
5
Written work has clear and
appropriate
beginning/
introduction, development and
conclusion.
Paragraphing
and
transitions are exceptionally clear
and appropriate: fluent expressions,
ideas clearly stated/supported,
points logically developed, very
good
transitions/cohesion/coherence
10
Clear and appropriate coverage
of content and any other theory;
assertions are clearly supported
by
evidence:
effective
development of thesis, relevant
to assigned topic, exceptional
elaboration that only focuses on
central ideas
5
Effective word/idiom choice and
use; uses appropriate register;
exceptional sentence variety, and
voice to affect reader.
5
Written work has clear and
appropriate sentence structure:
standard use of inflections,
subject-verb agreement, word
order, modifiers; with no run-on
sentences or sentence fragments.
5
Written work has clear and
appropriate
spelling,
punctuation, and capitalisation.
4.5
Written work has clear and
appropriate
beginning/
introduction, development and
conclusion.
Paragraphing
and
transitions are mostly clear and
appropriate:
mostly
fluent
expressions,
ideas
stated/
supported, points well developed,
transitions/
cohesion/
good
coherence
9
Clear and appropriate coverage
of content and any other theory;
assertions are clearly supported
by
evidence:
substantial
development of thesis, relevant
to
assigned
topic,
good
elaboration that focuses on
central ideas
4.5
Effective word/idiom choice and
use; uses appropriate register;
good sentence variety, and voice
to affect reader.
4.5
Written work has clear and
appropriate sentence structure:
standard use of inflections,
subject-verb agreement, word
order, modifiers; with minimal
run-on sentences or sentence
fragments.
4.5
Written work has minimal errors
in capitalisation, punctuation, and
spelling.
4
Written work has a suitable
beginning/
introduction,
development
and
conclusion.
Paragraphing and transitions are
mostly clear and appropriate:
mostly fluent expressions, ideas
stated/supported,
points
well
developed, suitable transitions/
cohesion/ coherence
8
Suitable coverage of content and
any other theory, and assertions
are sufficiently supported by
evidence:
appropriate
development of thesis, relevant
to assigned topic, but general;
suitable elaboration
4
Suitable word/idiom choice and
use; uses appropriate register;
suitable sentence variety, and
voice to affect reader.
4
Written work has suitable
sentence
structure:
mostly
standard use of inflections,
subject-verb agreement, word
order, modifiers; with minimal
run-on sentences or sentence
fragments.
4
Written work has suitable
capitalisation, punctuation, and
spelling.
3.5
Written
work
has
suitable
beginning/
introduction,
development
and
conclusion.
Paragraphing and transitions are
sufficient: mostly fluent expression,
loosely organised but main ideas
stand out, limited support, limited
7
Suitable coverage of content and
any other theory, and assertions
are sufficiently supported by
evidence: limited development of
thesis, relevant to assigned topic,
but
general;
sufficient
elaboration
with
some
digressions.
3.5
Suitable word/idiom choice and
use, with occasional errors that
do not obscure meaning; may not
maintain appropriate register;
sufficient sentence variety, and
voice to affect reader.
3.5
Written work contains some
errors in sentence structure:
mostly
standard
use
of
inflections,
subject-verb
agreement, word order, and
modifiers; with some run-on
sentences or sentence fragments.
3.5
Written work has mostly
standard
capitalisation,
punctuation, and spelling.
36
logic, good transition/ cohesion/
coherence
3
Written work has adequate
beginning/
introduction,
development and conclusion.
Paragraphing and transitions are
also
adequate:
somewhat
uneven, loosely organised but
main ideas stand out, limited
support, limited logic, sufficient
transition/ cohesion/ coherence
6
Adequate coverage of content
and any other theory, and
assertions are weakly supported
by evidence: somewhat uneven
development of thesis, limited
development of topic, sketchy
elaboration
with
some
digressions.
3
Adequate word/idiom choice and
use, with occasional errors that
do not obscure meaning; may not
maintain appropriate register;
limited sentence variety, and
voice to affect reader.
3
Written work contains some
errors in sentence structure:
adequate use of inflections,
subject-verb agreement, word
order, and modifiers; with some
run-on sentences or sentence
fragments.
3
Written work has some major
errors
in
capitalisation,
punctuation, and spelling.
2.5
Written
work
has
weak
beginning/
introduction,
development and conclusion.
Paragraphing and transitions are
also deficient: non-fluent, ideas
confused or disconnected, lacks
logical
sequencing
and
development, few transitions/
little or no cohesion/ coherence.
5
Insufficient coverage of content
and any other theory, and
assertions are weakly supported
by evidence: slight development
of thesis, limited development of
topic, sketchy elaboration with
many digressions.
2.5
Limited word/idiom choice and
use, with frequent errors that
obscure or confuse meaning; use
of deficient register; little
sentence
variety,
slight
emergence of voice
2.5
Written work has several major
errors in usage and sentence
structure: many errors with
inflections,
subject-verb
agreement, word meaning, word
order, and modifiers; many runons, fragments, and/or word
omissions.
2.5
Written work has several major
errors
in
capitalisation,
punctuation, and spelling.
2
Written
work
has
weak
beginning/
introduction,
development and conclusion.
Paragraphing and transitions are
inappropriate: non-fluent, ideas
confused or disconnected, lacks
logical
sequencing
and
development,
insufficient
transitions/ little or no cohesion/
coherence.
4
Limited coverage of content and
any other theory, and assertions
are weakly supported by
evidence: deficient development
of thesis, limited development of
topic, insufficient elaboration
with several digressions.
2
Limited word/idiom choice and
use, with frequent errors that
obscure or confuse meaning; use
of
inappropriate
register;
insufficient sentence variety,
slight emergence of voice
2
Written work has several major
errors in usage and sentence
structure: with major errors with
inflections,
subject-verb
agreement, word meaning, word
order, and modifiers; frequent
run-ons, fragments, and/or word
omissions.
2
Written work has several major
errors
in
capitalisation,
punctuation, and spelling that
detract from meaning.
1.5
Organisational structure and
paragraphing have persistent
errors: vaguely communicates
3
Limited coverage of appropriate
content and any other theory;
assertions are vaguely supported:
evidence is inappropriate; limited
1.5
Persistent errors in word/idiom
choice and use, with numerous
errors that obscure or confuse
meaning; numerous errors in
1.5
Written work has persistent
errors in word usage and
sentence structure: numerous
errors in inflections, subject-verb
agreement, word meaning, word
1.5
Written work has persistent
errors
regarding
spelling,
punctuation, and capitalisation
37
numerous
elaboration,
digressions
order, and modifiers; numerous
run-ons, fragments, and/or word
omissions
register, voice does not affect the
reader.
1
Organisational structure and
paragraphing have serious and
persistent errors:
does not
communicate
2
Does not cover appropriate
content and any other theory;
assertions are not supported:
evidence is irrelevant; limited
elaboration,
numerous
digressions
1
Serious and persistent errors in
word/idiom choice and use, with
numerous errors that obscure or
confuse meaning; no detectable
register, voice does not affect the
reader.
1
Written work has serious and
persistent errors in word usage
and
sentence
structure:
numerous errors in inflections,
subject-verb agreement, word
meaning, word order, and
modifiers; numerous run-ons,
fragments,
and/or
word
omissions; shifts from one tense
to another; double negatives,
etc.
1
Written work has serious and
persistent
errors
regarding
spelling,
punctuation,
and
capitalisation
0.5
Inappropriate
organisational
structure and paragraphing have
serious and persistent errors: it
does not communicate, no
organisation
1
Does not cover appropriate
content and any other theory;
assertions are not supported: no
evidence;
no
elaboration,
numerous digressions
0.5
Serious and persistent errors in
word/idiom choice and use, with
numerous errors that obscure or
confuse meaning; no detectable
register, no emergence of voice
0.5
Written work has serious and
persistent errors in word usage
and
sentence
structure:
numerous errors in inflections,
subject-verb agreement, word
meaning, word order, and
modifiers;
no
discernible
sentence structure; does not
communicate
0.5
Written work has serious and
persistent
errors
regarding
spelling,
punctuation,
and
capitalisation misspells even
simple words.
0
Missing or too little to assess
0
Missing or too little to assess
0
Missing or too little to assess
0
Missing or too little to assess
0
Missing or too little to assess
Changes from draft one to final draft (additional 5 marks)
0
Paragraph/Essay draft two is +1
Less than 25%
awarded a total mark of 0
of the changes
(zero) if no changes have
have
been
effected from draft 1.
effected
Paragraph/Essay draft two is marked out of 35
+2
More than 25%, but
less than 50%, of the
changes have been
effected.
+3
More than 50%, but
less than 75%, of
the changes have
been effected.
+4
More than 75%, but
less than 90 %, of the
changes have been
effected.
+5
More than 90% of the
changes have been effected.
38
Referencing rubric
Category
Reference list
In-text
referencing
(citation)
(Author, date:
page number)
No marks are
subtracted
-1
-2
The reference list is
correct and accurate.
The reference list is
No reference list is
present with some
provided
omissions or problems.
In-text referencing is
correct and accurate.
In-text referencing is
No in-text referencing is
present with some
done
omissions or problems.
How to use this rubric
•
•
•
If no attempt at referencing, in-text referencing or paraphrasing has been made then the
student should receive “-4”.
If all the criteria in the “-2” column are valid and it is definitely not the student’s own
ideas/work, then it is plagiarism and the draft should receive zero. (This needs to be more
than 30% on Turnitin and should be investigated by the facilitator).
If some of the three variables above are present (reference list, citation or paraphrasing)
and one of them is either incorrect or missing, but the other one or two are present, then
marks will be subtracted accordingly.
Examples to illustrate:
•
•
•
•
In-text referencing and paraphrasing is present and done correctly, but there is no
reference list: subtract 2 marks
In-text referencing and paraphrasing is present and there are some omissions or
problems with both, but there is no reference list: subtract 4 marks
Paraphrasing is present and done correctly, but there is no in-text referencing. Reference
list is present and has been done correctly: subtract 2 marks
There is blatant copied text (no paraphrasing or citation), but there is a reference list with
some omissions or problems: subtract 5 marks
39
LESSON 1 – ACADEMIC READING AND WRITING (WEEK 2 - FIRST
SESSION)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
•
Reflect on the academic writing you did at school and think ahead about the writing
you will be doing at university.
Understand the differences between school reading and writing requirements and
university reading and writing requirements
Notice the difference between academic reading and writing and reading and writing
for other purposes
Understand the requirements and expectations of this course
Watch the video about academic writing by following the link below. The purpose of the video is
to introduce you to the nature of the type of writing you will be asked to do at university. You do
not have to make notes of all the information in the video, but if something stands out, and you
would like to remember it, you can make a note in the space below or jot down notes in your
notebook:
Introduction academic writing: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyTLosz6aHA
Video notes:
40
Task 1
Write down answers to the following questions.
•
What is an academic text?
•
Can you think of examples of academic texts?
•
Can you think of examples of non-academic texts?
•
Why do you think it is important to be able to read an academic text?
•
Why do you think it is important to be able to write in an academic way?
•
What do you think the difference is between an academic text and a non-academic text?
Brainstorm this in the table below:
Academic texts
Non-academic texts
41
Take some time to think about the writing you had to do at school. Was it for assignments, tests
or mainly for notes for yourself? Was it mainly for language subjects or did you have to do some
writing in other subjects too? List the types of writing had to do, below.
Do you anticipate having trouble reading or writing academically at university level? Why?
Task 2
Watch the short video on academic assignments. To help you take notes of this useful
information, we have included some questions below. Fill in the answers (as notes to yourself)
as you watch the video. We suggest that you follow the steps below:
1. Read through the questions before watching the video.
2. Watch the video for the first time without taking any notes. Keep the questions you read
in step 1 in mind.
42
Academic assignments video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xDqT8EhUAqM
3. Read through the questions again and think about (reflect) the information you just
received thought the video. Can you already fill in some of the questions based on the
information in the video?
4. Now, watch the video again and actively make notes while watching. This could mean
stopping or rewinding the video several times to make sure you write down the
appropriate information for relevant questions.
5. Read through the answers (notes) you wrote down for each question and evaluate them.
Do they still make sense to you? Would you still understand what you wrote down in a
week or two? If not, add some information to clarify your notes.
What is an academic assignment?
Why are you asked to do assignments at university?
What are some of the structural elements that can be included in an assignment?
43
Task 3
Now that we understand the differences and similarities between high school and university, let
us explore the differences in the kind of texts we will be reading at university in more depth.
Consider the following texts and complete the table that follows.
44
 DIFFERENT TEXTS:
Test 1: Authentic Student Paragraph
Writing prompt: In a well-structured paragraph, discuss which business area is the most important.
Topic sentence
The most important area of a business is market research.
Transitional device
Firstly research is essential so that you are aware whether
Supporting ideas 1
certain products satisfy the needs of your customers or not. For
Transitional device
example, most of your customers might not like the value of
Elaborate on idea 1
your goods so by researching, you will be aware of such issues.
Transitional device
Secondly, research plays a huge role in the functioning of any
Supporting ideas 2
business as it ensures that your company gains information
Transitional device
about the its competitors and spending traits of its customers.
Elaborate on idea 2
Concluding
sentence
(reflects topic sentence)
For instance, if you know the price the competition sells their
bottle of cool drink, you will make sure that you lower your
prices to attract more people to you business. In conclusion, for
a business to flourish and be successful, effective market
research is of utmost importance.
45
Text 2: Authentic Student Essay
Title
The importance of marketing in a changing environment.
Background information
Marketing is the process of supplying customers with the right
Thesis statement
product at the right price and place to ensure that the business makes
a profit. Therefore, it is the most important function that plays a
Roadmap/ direction = my significant role in a success of a business. Marketing is beneficial in
2 arguments (underlined)
connecting customers with needed goods and services provided by
the business and to ensure that the business makes a profit by
improving their financial performance.
Topic
sentence
argument
=
1st Business and customers are always evolving and it is very important
provided
in for the business to always stay connected to their customers. This is
intro
an integral part of the marketing function. As stated by Moorman and
Rust (1999:195) "marketing is best viewed as the function that
First
argument
is manages connections between the organisation and the customer”.
discussed / Evidence is Without marketing there will be no link between the organisation and
the customer. Thus, the marketing function will ensure that there is a
presented
connection between the business and its customers.
Concluding sentence
The main aim of any business is to make a profit and to improve the
Topic sentence = 2nd financial performance of the business. According to Moorman & Rust
argument
provided
intro
in (1999:195) "The extent to which the marketing function manages
these connections, contribute to financial performance.” The
financial performance of a business is dependent on how all the
Second
argument
is aspects of marketing are linked together. Therefore, without
discussed / Evidence is marketing the available product or service, there will be no customer
presented
or sales or profit. As a result, marketing has become a function that is
involved in the all aspect of the business from the start to the end.
Concluding sentence
In conclusion, marketing is involved in all aspects such as product,
Transitional device
price, place and promotion. Finally, with technology, people and
46
Restated thesis
environments always changing, it is very important for businesses
Summary of reasons
also to evolve and provide customers with needed products at the
right price to improve the financial
performance of the business.
Text 3: Emailing
47
Text 4: Newspaper article
Text 5: Online journal
48
Now, complete the following table:
Question
Is there a specific focus in the
writing?
How does the writer indicate
where
information/evidence/examples
are from?
How does the writer make sure
ideas are easy to follow? Think
about language and about
organisation.
How ‘formal’ is the use of
vocabulary? Give specific
examples.
Who is the audience?
What other differences do you
notice?
Text 1
Text 2
Text 3
Text 4
Text 5
49
Task 4
Read through the following table. Ask a fellow student or your facilitator if anything is unclear
to you.
Academic Writing vs Non-Academic Writing
Definition
Academic writing is a formal and
impersonal style of writing that is
intended for a scholarly or
academic audience
Non-academic writing is an
informal and often subjective style
of writing that aims the mass
public
Audience
Academia/lecturers
Mass public
Purpose
Inform/persuade the readers with
solid evidence
Inform, entertain or persuade
readers
Style
Formal and impersonal
Personal, impressionistic,
emotional, or subjective
Structure
Standard structure
No rigid structure
Language
Formal language
Informal and casual language may
contain colloquialisms, slang and
clichés
Citations and
reference
Contain citations and references
Often do not contain citations and
references
Examples
Academic essays and case studies,
research papers, dissertations,
scholarly articles
Newspaper and magazine articles,
memoirs, letters, digital media etc.
* Adapted from www.differencebetween.com
•
What do you think are the major differences between academic and non-academic writing?
50
Next time
The next lesson will deal with process reading.
51
LESSON 2 – PROCESS READING (WEEK 2 – SECOND SESSION)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
Apply the three stages of reading to an academic text
Practise reading stages to apply to academic texts
Analyse a text to practise critical thinking skills
Watch the video about the reading process by clicking the link below or watching it directly on
Blackboard. You do not have to make notes of all the information in the video, but if something
stands out, and you would like to remember it, you can make a note in the space below or jot
down notes in your notebook:
Introduction academic writing: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_fPdgJOwbes
Video notes:
Reading at university can feel daunting. Huge volumes of difficult words and sentences can easily
put you off even opening a textbook. This lesson will help you to conquer difficult textbooks, texts
and other forms of complicated writing. Hopefully, this will also allow you to enjoy reading, which
will then make life a lot easier as a student.
52
What is a text?
A text can be regarded as anything that conveys a set of meanings to the person who examines
it. In essence, it is something that has layers of meaning which one can conclude from. This is
not limited to written materials such as books, magazines, and newspapers, but also includes
movies, songs, and advertisements.
Task 1
What type of text do you think you will use during your university studies? Tick / highlight the ones
that apply most to you. (Look up any words which you may not know 1).
Blogs
Journal articles
Newspaper articles
Books
Web pages
Seminar papers
Films
Novels
Cases
Textbooks
Series
Study guides
Academic posters
Audio broadcasts
•
Why do you think you will use these types of texts?
•
Are some of these texts better sources than others in terms of looking for reliable
information? Why?
You will soon notice that as a student, you will be expected to read a large amount. When you
are reading for this subject and others, you need to make sure you are actively involved with the
text.
Reflect on the questions in the table to gauge your level of interaction with texts.
•
Tick / highlight the boxes which apply to you.
Remember that any word or term you do not understand can be looked up. Use the oxford dictionary online at
https://www.oed.com or your own dictionary or dictionary app.
1
53
Tick
1
2
3
4
5
•
Do you know exactly what you are looking for while
reading academic texts?
Can you select important and/or relevant information
for your purpose?
Can you pick out key words and /or information?
Do you vary your approach to reading a text depending
on the nature of the task?
When you get the information do you know what to do
with it?
Do you think you need to improve on how you are interacting with texts? Explain.
Now answer the following questions.
•
Which subject do you battle with the most?
•
When you think of this subject’s textbook, how do you feel about reading it?
•
What makes this textbook so difficult to read?
54
Task 2
Read the text below.
Principles for knowledge co-production in sustainability research
Adapted from a journal article i by Jose, R and Ramakrishna, S
Comprehensiveness in the Research on
Sustainability
“Sustainability” has been defined as the “new normal” by many nations; many efforts are
being undertaken for setting up a framework on “low-carbon economy” for sustainability.
What does sustainability mean? Is it the maintenance of status quo on climate and resources?
Or else, is it the reversal of existing conditions to the ones before the first industrial
revolution? We would answer as “all these and beyond”; for example, eradication of poverty,
creation of new jobs and resources for the growing population, and resilience from alienistic
attack such as the novel corona virus are a few to mention to be included in the definition of
sustainability. In our perspective, research on sustainability should have the following five
components: resource sustainability, environmental protection, social well-being, knowledge
integration, and circular economy, as schematically demonstrated in Fig. 1. The researcher’s
community has been investing substantial efforts on this topic; a simple Scopus search using
the keyword “sustainability” on 14 Dec 2020 retrieved nearly 250,000 publications worldwide,
which has grown from a single paper published in the year 1970 to nearly thirty thousand
papers published in 2020 alone. Sustainability is therefore not a new topic for the learnt
society and the knowledge enterprise; instead, it is a topic of steady momentum and popularity
with time, which justifies our definition for sustainability.
Fig. 1
55
Comprehensive sustainability research and its key pillars
As of now, the sustainability research encompasses over a hundred keywords which range
from sustainability of environment to secondary batteries, from life cycle analysis to energy
efficiency, from resource sustainability to circular economy, and so on. In all sense,
sustainability research is multidisciplinary; i.e., it addresses the real-life problem rather than
mono-disciplines such as history, psychology, physics, chemistry, mathematics, or
engineering. In the multidisciplinary approach, people from different disciplines work
together, each drawing on their disciplinary knowledge, to create something better (Norström
et al. 2020). Cross-disciplinary is viewing one discipline from the perspective of another.
Other terminology often employed include interdisciplinary, which involves integrating
knowledge and methods from different disciplines, thus meaning synthesis of approaches.
Transdisciplinary involves creating a unity of intellectual frameworks beyond the disciplinary
perspectives. All these research approaches are necessary for accelerating the sustainability
solutions.
“Materials” occupy the largest share of economy at all levels of human life and could be
classified into “materials for life sustenance” (e.g., food, food supplements, and medicines)
and “materials for improving the living standards” (e.g., computers, bridges, vehicles, etc.).
Obviously, the above classification defines sources of primary materials. “Materials for life
sustenance” has directly or indirectly been resourced from plants and processed and can be
56
grown and regrown. While sustainability is generally the case with plants, our habits ended up
in the extinction of certain plant species (together with animal species) and some are nearing
extinction. On the other hand, “materials for improving the living standards” are mined from
the Earth, processed, value-added, and used for performing specific functions in devices and
structures including life supporting machines. The terrestrial resources are anyway not
renewable; the mines are not automatically filled up with similar resources with time. This is
where the materials circular economy evolves: how do we reprocess an end used product as a
resource of primary materials for making an improved product considering a growing
population in mind? How do we ensure that every atom in a used product is fed to
manufacturing again? How do we ensure that the recycling process do not contribute adverse
additives to the environment? That is, Materials Circular Economy is beyond just a recycling
process but is fundamental to preserve the planet for the generations to come for their safer
and comfortable habitat. Circular economy is projected to be the next major job creator
(Stahel 2016), many realms of which are yet to be conceived. In the journal Materials Circular
Economy, we pledge to highlight these important activities for a sustainable planet Earth and
its beings.
References
Norström AV, Cvitanovic C, Löf MF et al (2020) Principles for knowledge coproduction in sustainability research. Nat Sustain 3:182–
190. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0448-2
Stahel WR (2016) The circular economy. Nature 531:435–
438. https://doi.org/10.1038/531435a
•
Did you understand the writer’s ideas and thoughts? Explain.
•
What is the writer’s message? Explain.
•
If you did understand this text completely, what did you do to help you reach this level of
understanding?
57
•
Was there something that you did not understand? If so, explain what you did not
understand and how you would try to improve this
We will come back to this text later after learning a little more about the reading process.
Task 3
On your own think about these questions and write down the answers.
•
What do you think you could do to make it easier to read the text above (or any textbook
or difficult piece of writing)?
•
Have you ever heard of skimming or scanning? What do you think these words mean?
What do you think pre-reading, while-reading and post-reading would entail? (What sorts
of activities would you do during these stages?)
• Fill in the table below while you think about this.
Pre-reading
While-reading
Post-reading
•
Read the important information in the grey information box below.
Tricks for accessing difficult texts: Understanding the reading process
Reading in a way that you will fully understand a text means that you will often have to read the
text more than once for different reasons. You may also have to skim or scan a text to look for
important information.
Skimming means reading quickly to get the general gist or idea.
Scanning means to look quickly for a specific piece of information or answers
58
First though, it is important to understand that reading (very similar to writing) is a process
consisting of the following stages:
1. Pre-reading: this stage occurs before reading takes place. In this stage having a
purpose in mind helps you to make sure that the text you are reading will answer your
question. Thus, having a brief look or skimming and scanning a text, will help you to
make sure of this. In other words, you are basically, “previewing” a text, as you would
preview a movie you would like to see. This is achieved by quickly glancing through a
text, and then looking at important parts of it such as headings, introductions, topic
sentences, definitions, and graphic material.
2. While-reading: this stage occurs during reading. This is when you would read with a
purpose or specific questions in mind. You are looking for answers. As you read, it would
be a good idea to begin highlighting important points, definitions, and interesting facts
which would help you to achieve your goal (gaining answers to your questions). Make
notes in margins, to help you remember important information. Underline difficult words,
but rather do not look them up until later (you can come back for these if you still do not
understand them after reading the document).
3. Post-reading: in this stage, the reader takes a moment to reflect on the content, to
possibly read through important notes and to remember the answers to questions. This
is the stage which occurs after reading, in which questions may be answered. Often
though, it is helpful to reread in this stage. Summarizing significant information from
your notes will help you to remember and be able to synthesise information if you need
to write an assignment at a later stage.
https://englishatstbenedict.wordpress.com/the-reading-process/
•
Do you think knowing this process will help you to understand the reading above? Explain.
•
Do you think that when you are required to read, that skimming and scanning could be
useful skills to know?
59
•
Why would skimming and scanning be useful when reading a lot of information (during
your studies and even later on in the workplace)?
Fill in the table below saying whether you would skim or scan. (Look at the definitions of
skim and scan in the grey box in task 2).
Skim or
Why?
Scan?
I would _________________through
the table of contents to see what
information a book contained.
I would _______________ through the
index of a textbook to look for a certain
topic.
I would ________________ through
the glossary to find the meaning of a
word from the textbook.
I would ________________ through
the headings of a chapter before I read
it to see if I know anything about it.
I would ______________ to search for
an unanswered question on an exam
paper or test.
•
I would ______________ to find a
number in a chart.
I would _______________to refresh
my memory about a topic I studied
before.
Task 4
It is often useful to use text features (such as the title, headings and subheadings) to predict
information. This helps you to interact on a deeper level with the text.
• On your own, use the text features listed in the first column to predict what you will learn.
• After you have read the text, see how many of your predictions were correct.
• Lastly, which text features helped you the most?
Write the text feature What I think I will learn based on the text Was my prediction
as you see it in the feature
correct?
text
Title:
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Subheadings:
Bold words:
Italicised words:
Charts/Diagrams:
Pictures:
In summary from the In summary, I have learned…from this text
above text features, I
predict that…
Now that you have some understanding of the reading process, as well as how to begin to
navigate texts, answer these questions:
•
Do you understand the writer’s ideas and thoughts? Write these down.
•
What is the writer’s message/opinion?
Task 6: Reflection
After reading the article about sustainability, what do you understand about the circular economy?
61
Next time
In the next lesson, we will focus on reading as a process, specifically focusing on while-and postreading.
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LESSON 3 – READING AS A PROCESS: FOCUS ON WHILE-AND POSTREADING (WEEK 3)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
Take part in the process of reading by analysing an academic text: focus on whileand post-reading
Activate background knowledge about a topic
Gain comprehension from reading a text as a result of following the reading process
Watch the video about While- and Post-reading by clicking the link below or watching it directly
on Blackboard. You do not have to make notes of all the information in the video, but if something
stands out, and you would like to remember it, you can make a note in the space below or jot
down notes in your notebook:
Introduction academic writing: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qv-eOtO9f-A
Video notes:
Refer to the reading in lesson 2, Task 2: “Circular economy - A new relationship with our goods
and materials would save resources and energy and create local jobs”.
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What should you do before you read a text?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Establish a purpose for reading
Create expectations about the topic or theme of the reading
Activate prior knowledge about the text or topic
Practise pre-reading strategies: skim, scan, preview, predict
Explore text organisation and structure: Look at the title, headings, subheadings, words
in bold, diagrams, number of paragraphs, and the first sentence of every paragraph. You
do not have to read every word.
We read for different purposes. Academic reading differs slightly from reading for pleasure,
although, as you will see from this lesson (and the previous one, in which we analysed a short
story), there is a similar approach.
When reading academic texts, your general purpose is likely to be one the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
to find details (facts, data, etc.) to support an argument or answer questions;
to understand ideas or theories;
to apply the reading material (use it in new situations)
to understand the author's viewpoint;
to gain background information about the topic; or to support your own views (using
citations).
Activating background knowledge: Thinking about what you already know
On your own, think about this process for a minute.
•
Once you started thinking about the topic (in this case about the circular economy and
sustainability) did you actually know quite a lot? Write down a few points you already know.
When it comes to reading academically, you actually might know a lot more about a topic than
you realise. One method of accessing this information is through a KWL chart. A KWL chart can
also assist you in understanding what you are about to read. Complete the first two columns below
based on your understanding of “Circular Economy”. Refer back to your mind map in the previous
lesson as a reminder.
64
K
W
L
What do I already know What do I want to know about What have I learnt about
about________?
________?
________?
•
Read through what you have filled in. Are you surprised about some of the things you
already know?
•
Does it help you to have an idea about what you still would like to find out about (based
on the question you will soon need to answer)?
Read the information box below.
While-reading and post-reading strategies
Here are some strategies you can use to deepen your understanding of what you are reading.
 Connect what you read to what you already know. (Possibly using KWL or similar
techniques)
 Relate the reading to your own life
 Always try and visualise anything that you read; this will help you to remember it more
easily
 Pay attention to graphics in the text – this often helps make abstract ideas more
understandable
 Understand the text you are reading in context. For example, details such as who the
author is, when it was written, and the subject written could be clues to more information
which will help your understanding.
65
 Talk and write about what you read. This will help you to verbalise your understanding
of the text and check misconceptions.
 Ask questions to guide your understanding.
 Constantly check the author’s logical thought process. For instance, whether they
based their opinions on evidence and whether the argument is sound.
 Take note of important vocabulary and definitions.
 Reflect on the text. Really think about what the text was about and the author’s ideas.
 Conduct further research and try to gain more information about the topic.
Task 3
Take 25 minutes to critically read the text, “Circular economy - A new relationship with our goods
and materials would save resources and energy and create local jobs”
As you read independently and silently, remember to:





•
circle important/difficult vocabulary
take note of (if any) pictures, graphics, figures, definitions
look for and underline the main ideas in each paragraph
take notes in the margin (questions, key ideas, etc.)
keep a brief record of the most important points from the text in note form.
Use the above list as a check-list and tick all the strategies you followed.
Circular economy
A new relationship with our goods and materials would save resources
and energy and create local jobs
© 2016 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved
W
hen my battered 1969 Toyota car approached the age of 30, I decided that her
body deserved to be remanufactured. After 2 months and 100 hours of work, she returned
home in her original beauty. “I am so glad you finally bought a new car,” my neighbour
remarked. Quality is still associated with newness not with caring, long-term use as
undesirable, not resourceful.
Cycles, such as of water and nutrients, abound in nature — discards become resources
for others. Yet humans continue to ‘make, use, dispose’. One-third of plastic waste
globally is not collected or managed.
There is an alternative. A ‘circular economy’ would turn goods that are at the end of
their service life into resources for others, closing loops in industrial ecosystems and
minimizing waste (see ‘Closing loops’). It would change economic logic because it
replaces production with sufficiency: reuse what you can, recycle what cannot be reused,
66
repair what is broken, remanufacture what cannot be repaired. A study of seven European nations found that a shift to a circular economy would reduce each nation’s greenhouse-gas emissions by up to 70% and grow its workforce by about 4% — the ultimate
low-carbon economy (see go.nature.com/biecsc).
The concept grew out of the idea of substituting manpower for energy, first described
40 years ago in a report to the European Commission by me and Geneviève RedayMulvey while we were at the Battelle Research Centre in Geneva, Switzerland. The early
1970s saw rising energy prices and high unemployment. As an architect, I knew that it
took more labour and fewer resources to refurbish buildings than to erect new ones. The
principle is true for any stock or capital, from mobile phones to arable land and cultural
heritage.
Circular-economy business models fall in two groups: those that foster reuse and extend
service life through repair, remanufacture, upgrades and retrofits; and those that turn
old goods into as-new resources by recycling the materials. People — of all ages and
skills — are central to the model. Ownership gives way to stewardship; consumers
become users and creators. The remanufacturing and repair of old goods, buildings and
infrastructure creates skilled jobs in local workshops. The experiences of workers from
the past are instrumental.
Yet a lack of familiarity and fear of the unknown mean that the circular-economy idea
has been slow to gain traction. As a holistic concept, it collides with the silo structures
of academia, companies and administrations. For economists who work with gross
domestic product (GDP), creating wealth by making things last is the opposite of what
they learned in school. GDP measures a financial flow over a period of time; circular
economy preserves physical stocks. But concerns over resource security, ethics and
safety as well as greenhouse-gas reductions are shifting our approach to seeing materials
as assets to be preserved, rather than continually consumed.
In the past decade, South Korea, China and the United States have started research
programmes to foster circular economies by boosting remanufacturing and reuse. Europe
is taking baby steps. The Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research
(Mistra) and the EU Horizon 2020 programme published their first call for circulareconomy proposals in 2014. The European Commission submitted a Circular Economy
Package to the European Parliament last December. Since 2010, the Ellen MacArthur
Foundation, founded by the round-the-world yachtswoman, has been boosting
awareness of the idea in manufacturers and policymakers. And circular-economy
concepts have been successfully applied on small scales since the 1990s in eco-industrial
parks such as the Kalundborg Symbiosis in Denmark, and in companies that include
Xerox (selling modular goods as services), Caterpillar (remanufacturing used diesel
engines) and USM Modular Furniture. Selling services rather than goods is familiar in
hotels and in public transport; it needs to become mainstream in the consumer realm.
Few researchers are taking note. Excellence in metallurgical and chemical sciences is a
precondition for a circular economy to succeed. Yet there is too little research on finding
ways to disassemble material blends at the atomic level. The body of a modern car
incorporates more than a dozen steel and aluminium alloys, each of which needs to be
retrieved.
Circular-economy knowledge is concentrated in big industries and dispersed across
small–medium enterprises (SMEs). It must be brought into academic and vocational
67
training. A broad ‘bottom up’ movement will emerge only if SMEs can hire graduates
who have the economic and technical know-how to change business models.
Governments and regulators should adapt policy levers, including taxation, to promote
a circular economy in industry. And scientists should scan the horizon for innovations
that could be patented and licensed to pave the way for greater leaps in splitting up
molecules to recycle atoms.
SYSTEMS THINKING
There are three kinds of industrial economy: linear, circular and performance. A linear
economy flows like a river, turning natural resources into base materials and products
for sale through a series of value-adding steps. At the point of sale, ownership and
liability for risks and waste pass to the buyer (who is now owner and user). The owner
decides whether old tyres will be reused or recycled — as sandals, ropes or bumpers —
or dumped. The linear economy is driven by ‘bigger-better-faster-safer’ syndrome — in
other words, fashion, emotion and progress. It is efficient at overcoming scarcity, but
profligate at using resources in often-saturated markets. Companies make money by
selling high volumes of cheap and sexy goods.
A circular economy is like a lake. The reprocessing of goods and materials generates
jobs and saves energy while reducing resource consumption and waste. Cleaning a glass
bottle and using it again is faster and cheaper than recycling the glass or making a new
bottle from minerals. Vehicle owners can decide whether to have their used tyres
repaired or regrooved or whether to buy new or rethreaded replacements — if such
services exist. Rather than being dumped, used tyres are collected by waste managers
and sold to the highest bidder.
A performance economy goes a step further by selling goods (or molecules) as services
through rent, lease and share business models. The manufacturer retains ownership of
the product and its embodied resources and thus carries the responsibility for the costs
of risks and waste. In addition to design and reuse, the performance economy focuses on
68
solutions instead of products, and makes its profits from sufficiency, such as waste
prevention.
For example, Michelin has since 2007 sold tyre use ‘by the mile’ to operators of vehicle
fleets. The company has developed mobile workshops to repair and regroove tyres at
clients’ premises and aims to develop products with longer service lives. Worn tyres are
sent to Michelin’s regional plants for rethreading and reuse. The Swiss company Elite
uses the same strategy for hotel mattresses, and textile-leasing companies offer uniforms,
hotel and hospital textiles and industrial wipes as a service.
Conventional waste management is driven by minimizing the costs of collection and
disposal — landfill versus recycling or incineration. In a circular economy, the objective
is to maximize value at each point in a product’s life. New jobs will be created and
systems are needed at each step.
Commercial markets and collection points are needed for users and manufacturers to
take back, bring back or buy back discarded garments, bottles, furniture, computer equipment and building components. Goods that can be reused may be cleaned and re-marketed; recyclables are dismantled and the parts are classified according to their residual
value. Worn parts are sold for remanufacturing, broken ones for recycling. These
markets used to be common — milk and beer bottles and old iron were once collected
regularly from homes. Some have re-emerged as digital global market places, such as
eBay.
Professional marketplaces (perhaps online) also need to be set up for the exchange of
used parts, such as electric motors, bearings and microchips. Even components of liquid
waste, such as lubrication and cooking oils or phosphorus from sewage, can be refined
and resold. Scientists should re-market rather than dump their used kit.
Stewardship rules are needed for used goods. Austria is a world leader in this area.
Collecting and reusing ‘waste’ are labour intensive and expensive, but they have been
fostered in the nation through taxation changes and by recouping costs through remarketing rather than scrapping parts.
The ultimate goal is to recycle atoms. This is already done for some metals. The
Brussels-based company Umicore extracts gold and copper from electronic waste. The
Swiss firm Batrec removes zinc and ferromanganese from batteries. These processes are
energy-intensive and recover the metals only partly. To close the recovery loop we will
need new technologies to de-polymerize, de-alloy, de-laminate, de-vulcanize and decoat materials.
Methods and equipment are needed to deconstruct infrastructure and high-rise buildings.
For example, the ANA InterContinental hotel in Tokyo was demolished in 2014 beneath
a ‘turban’ that was lowered hydraulically floor by floor to minimize noise and dust
emissions. A vertical shaft with a goods lift in the middle of the building allowed the
deconstructors to recover components and sort materials while using the lift as a
generator.
Services liberate users from the burden of ownership and maintenance and give them
flexibility. Examples include: ‘power by the hour’ for jet and gas turbines; bike and car
rentals; laundromats and machine-hire shops. Fleet managers benefit from resource
security — the goods of today become the resources of tomorrow at yesterday’s prices.
Covering the costs of risk and waste within the price of use or hire provides economic
incentives to prevent loss and waste over the lifetimes of systems and products.
69
SOCIETAL TREND
The circular economy is part of a trend towards intelligent decentralization — witness
3D printing, mass customization of manufacturing, ‘labs-on-a-chip’ in chemistry and
functional services. The French car-sharing service Autolib offers people flexible,
hassle-free urban mobility by using small electric cars that have low maintenance costs
and can be recharged in reserved parking spaces throughout Paris. Such business models
jeopardize the fundamentals of the linear economy — ownership, fashion and emotion
— and raise fears in competing companies. For example, car manufacturers’ strengths
of mass production, patented technologies in combustion engines and gearboxes, big
investments in robotic factories and global supply and marketing chains are of little use
when competing with local Autolib services.
Public procurement can exploit the potential of the performance economy. Yet despite
some successes, governments remain hesitant. NASA decided a decade ago to buy space
transport services, leading to start-up companies such as SpaceX competing for contracts
using innovative, cheap and reusable equipment. Assigning maintenance costs to the
private constructor of the Millau Viaduct in the south of France led the tenderer, Eiffage
Construction, to develop a structure that could be erected quickly and would have
minimal maintenance and liability costs over its 75-year service life.
TIPPING POINTS
Realizing a circular economy will take concerted action on several fronts. Research and
innovation are needed at all levels — social, technological and commercial. Economists
and environmental and materials scientists need to assess the ecological impacts and
costs and benefits of products. Designing products for reuse needs to become the norm,
making use of modular systems and standardized components, for instance. More
research is needed to convince businesses and governments that a circular economy is
feasible.
Communication and information strategies are needed to raise the awareness of
manufacturers and the public about their responsibility for products throughout their
service lives. For instance, it should be fashion magazines, not science journals, that
bang the drum about jewellery sharing, leased jeans and rental designer handbags.
Policymakers should use ‘resource-miser’ indicators such as value-per-weight and
labour-input-per-weight ratios rather than GDP. Policies should focus on performance,
not hardware; internalization of external costs, such as emissions and pollution, should
be rewarded; stewardship should overrule ownership and its right to destroy. The Internet of Things (in which everyday objects are digitally connected) and Industry 4.0 (intelligent technical systems for mass production) will boost such a shift, but also demand a
policy review that considers questions of ownership and liability of data and goods.
Policies should promote activities that are desired by society and punish those that are
not. Taxes should be raised on the consumption of non-renewable resources, not on
renewable resources including human labour. Value-added tax (VAT) should be levied
on value-added activities, such as mining, construction and manufacturing, but not on
value-preserving stock management activities such as reuse, repair and remanufacture.
Carbon credits should be given to emissions prevention at the same rate as to reduction.
Societal wealth and well-being should be measured in stock instead of flow, in capital
instead of sales. Growth then corresponds to a rise in the quality and quantity of all stocks
— natural, cultural, human and manufactured. For example, sustainable forestry
70
management augments natural capital, deforestation destroys it; recovering phosphorus
or metals from waste streams maintains natural capital, but dumping it increases
pollution; retrofitting buildings reduces energy consumption and increases the quality of
built stock.
Marrying the three types of economy is a formidable challenge. A shift in policy focus
from protecting the environment to promoting business models that are based on full
ownership and liability, and that are unlimited in time, rather than imposing a two-year
warranty for manufacturing quality, could transform a nation’s competitiveness. IN
NOVATION
Adaptation of an extract from Stahel, W.R. 2016. The circular
https://doi.org/10.1038/531435a
•
Fill in the table below:
Reading Strategy
Write down five words
you circled, plus their
meaning/synonym
Important Notes
1
2
3
4
5
Write down key
definitions (two at
least if possible), or
what any
pictures/graphics
figures meant to you.
List the main ideas of
each
paragraph/section
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
5
economy.
Nature 531:435–438.
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What other notes did
1
you take which you
thought were
2
important? (at least
two)
Is there any other
information you wish to
mention?
In the space below, create a graphic organiser which will help you remember the important
points you made. You may use any form of graphic organiser (e.g. list, table, brainstorm, mind
map) that you feel comfortable with.
72
•
Think about your graphic organiser. Are you happy with everything you have here, or
would you like to add more? Add anything else that you feel will be beneficial.
Now go back to the KWL chart and fill in the rest of the information needed.
•
Do you feel as if you have understood the text? Explain.
•
Would you be able to use these steps in other subjects? Explain.
•
Task 4: Reflection
Does having a good understanding of the reading process help you with reading in this subject
and other subjects? Explain.
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LESSON 4 – UNPACKING QUESTIONS (WEEK 3 AND WEEK 4)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
•
Understand how to write for a certain audience
Access meaning in a question or task through the identification of keywords
Brainstorm to gain ideas and then identify the most important ideas for answering a
specific question
Answer a question in the form of a reflective paragraph
In today’s lesson, we will be focussing on a skill which will be useful in this subject and almost all
your other subjects at university: how to answer questions.
Task 1
Write down answers to the following questions:
•
Have you ever looked at a question from one of your other subjects (now or in school) and
felt completely overwhelmed at how you will even start to answer it? Describe this feeling.
•
What are ways you can go about trying to answer a difficult question, which looks long
and complicated?
Now read the box below.
Answering questions successfully
Answering questions at university may seem difficult, but there are tricks to help you do this.
Here are a few tips:
Break up the question into keywords and important parts: if you do this, it is simpler
to find the actual purpose of the question and what your lecturer/facilitator wants you to
answer.
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Select the most important information: narrow down the most important points you
have to answer a question by brainstorming, mind-mapping, outlining or listing. (or
whichever way suits you).
Focus on answering the question: always answer the question. Edit your work and
take out unimportant information which goes off the topic.
Be aware of your audience: who is your audience and who are you writing for?
Remember that the language you use to answer a question for your lecturer will be
different from the language you use to send a WhatsApp message to your best friend.
•
•
Tick the boxes (or highlight) the steps above that you take in this subject and others.
Do you think taking these steps will help you? Explain.
Task 2
Discuss the following questions and then discuss:
•
Fill in the table below. How would you write/communicate in the following situations? (Hint:
think of your audience and the previous lesson). Tick the boxes that apply and add extra
information where you think it necessary.
Formal
Language
An assignment for a
lecturer
A cover letter applying
for a job
A WhatsApp message
to your love interest
When you are in
trouble with your
parents
When you are posting
a Facebook
/Instagram message
An email to a
lecturer/employer
Referencing
Argument
Formal
Structure
Extra
information
76
Creative writing, such
as a short story
•
Refer back to the texts in lesson 1, Task 3. Using the table below to help you, consider
the type of audience the text was meant for and whether the audience was considered.
Text Text Type
A
Who is the
audience?
Was the text appropriate
for the audience?
Why/Why not?
B
C
D
E
With this in mind, answer these questions.
•
When you are writing at university, who is usually your audience?
•
How would you write to “please” this audience? (Think about what you learnt in the
previous lesson as well).
77
General parts of an academic assignment brief: Assignment Questions
Academic assignments are known to be extremely complex. However, understanding
the purpose and outcomes of the assignment can make the task less intimidating.
Thus, regardless of the subject or assignment style, it is important that you understand
the different parts of the assignment brief as well as any instructions given to you.
If you can identify the different parts of your assignment brief you can narrow down the
focus or question that you need to address in your writing.
Task 3
The next video (unpacking an academic question) explains the parts of an assignment
brief, and what you should consider before answering a question set by your lecturer.
In the space below, take notes by doing the following:
•
•
Write down the name of each step.
Take note of the definition and some examples
You will encounter more examples later in the lesson, which you can add to your notes.
Unpacking an academic question: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=29M8N9AdiPw
78
Task 4
To see how to go about identifying the parts and what you could do with the identified
information, watch the video where an assignment brief is analysed by identifying the
different parts.
What is the first step of his process?
 Highlighting key information
 Brainstorming
 Search the internet for information
 Start writing his essay
Why does he do this first? How do you think this is helpful to him?
What is the second step of his process?
 Highlighting key information
 Brainstorming
 Search the internet for information
 Start writing his essay
79
Why do you think he does this after the first step? How do you think this is helpful to
him?
Task 5
Let us recap what you have learnt
In order to determine what the focus of the assignment is, you will need to
consider the following three parts of assignment briefs:
PART 1) Instruction words (action verbs):
Explanation: In this step, you need to identify the instruction words by looking for
action verbs. These are verbs that indicate that you have to DO something.
Some examples of action verbs include discuss, compare and contrast, evaluate,
explain
Sometimes the instruction is not stated but implied:
As an example, the assignment instructions can say: What is the importance of
academic literacy in preparation for study at university?
In terms of instruction words, this would mean explaining the importance of
academic literacy in preparation for study at university.
80
Another example is if the assignment instructions say “How useful is the knowledge of
academic skills in preparation for study at university?”
In terms of instruction words, this would mean, evaluating the extent to which the
knowledge of academic skills is useful for study at university.
a) And sometimes an instruction can be affected by the content of the question,
e.g. ‘discuss’, which can cover a variety of meanings from a factual ‘describe’
to ‘evaluate’.
PART 2) Content words (key terms):
Explanation: Content words are words that have to do with the topic and
question/focus of your assignment instructions. It is a good idea to try to identify which
works have to do with the broader topic and which words have to do with the specific
focus or question. Steps 1 and 3 in this process can help you with that.
Some examples of content words in assignment questions can be:
e.g. What is the importance of academic literacy in preparation for study at university?
e.g. How useful is the knowledge of academic skills in preparation for study at
university?
Important: these terms usually need to be defined.
PART 3) Restricting words (words implying a scale of degree or importance)
81
Explanation Restricting words are words that indicate a scale of degree of importance.
This can help you to know how different parts of the topic relate to one another.
Examples:
Assignment question: Discuss the following statement: Academic literacy is central to
student success.
Restricting word: ____________
Assignment questions: The EAL classes are key to student success at the UFS.
Restricting word: _________
Important: these words usually indicate that an evaluative or argumentative stance is
required.
In this lesson, we will practice identifying these aspects in various briefs and think about
how this information can help us figure out the focus of the assignment and what the
appropriate response should be.
82
Task 6
Before we look at all the parts of the assignment brief together, we will first look at the
instruction words as this is the aspect students often overlook.
Subjects are designed with a specific learning experience in mind. By reviewing the
subject outline, assigned readings, and the assignment brief, you may be able to
identify the overall plan, purpose or approach the lecturer has for the subject. Once
you have identified this bigger picture, the next question is: “What is the purpose of
completing this assignment?” Is it to gather research and present a coherent
argument? Is it to take materials learnt in class and apply it to a new situation? The
instruction words (active verbs) in the assignment brief can help you to answer this
question. (Boston media house).
Below is a table of typically used instruction words and their definitions. Keep this
throughout your undergraduate degree as a reference.
Category
Remembering
Instruction Word
1. Define
2. List
3. Relate
What is required
1. State clearly what something is
and what it is like.
2. Write your answer in point form.
3. Tell the story in a clear sequence
or demonstrate how things are
connected to each other.
83
Understanding
Applying
Analysing
1. Compare
2. Contrast
3. Define/Discuss
4. Describe
5. Explain
6. Illustrate
7. Interpret
8. Outline
9. Summarise
1. Apply
1. Analyse
2. Examine
1. Focus on the similarities between
two or more objects, ideas, events
or theories (NB: sometimes this
word is used to refer to both
similarities and differences)
2. Focus on the differences between
two or more objects, ideas,
events, or theories.
3. State clearly what something is
and what it is like.
4. Give a detailed account of the
characteristics and qualities of a
thing.
5. Give a detailed account and
illustrate your answer with
examples.
6. Respond to a topic by using
examples, diagrams, statistics
etc. to support your argument.
7. Present the meaning of a text,
graph, image, etc. in your own
words, using examples where
appropriate.
8. Present the answer in the form of
main points only.
9. Outline the main points
Solve problems by applying acquired
knowledge, facts, techniques and rules
in a different way.
1. Focus on the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of
an issue or topic. Do not simply
describe or summarise. Break it
down into its component parts
and examine each part in detail.
2. Examine a subject critically,
analysing and commenting on the
main points.
84
Evaluating
Creating
1. Decide on the value or
significance of something after
considering its ‘positive’ and
‘negative’ features.
2. Asses the merit of something by
considering both good and bad
points and then draw a conclusion
from your analysis.(NB: this has
nothing to do with fault-finding)
3. Similar to assess.
1. Assess/Critically
assess
2. Criticise
3. Evaluate/Discuss
Compiling information from different
sources in different ways by combining
elements into new patterns or by
proposing alternative solutions, thus
creating new knowledge.
Compose/ Construct/
Create
Consider the assignment topics below. All of them are on the same general topic, but
the instruction words differ. The result is that the appropriate response to each of these
topics will be different. To complete this task:
•
•
Identify the instruction word in each brief (highlight or underline)
Then use the explanation of that instruction word in the table above to explain
exactly what the brief is asking of you.
Two examples have already been completed.
Assignment brief
Define what plagiarism is.
What it is asking me to do
State clearly what plagiarism is. Provide a
definition similar to what I would find in a
dictionary (but in more detail).
85
Explain how you can avoid plagiarism.
Discuss why it is important to fully
understand what plagiarism is.
Analyse how effective paraphrasing is in
avoiding plagiarism.
Apply the UFS plagiarism policy to your
own writing.
Take the UFS plagiarism policy and
consider whether I have plagiarised (or
not) according to what it says in the UFS
policy.
Critically assess your own work in terms
of the plagiarism policy
Create a plagiarism policy for your EALE
course.
Now we will practice identifying all of the aspects of the assignment brief and consider
how they help us figure out exactly what our lecturer wants us to do.
Task 7
Consider the assignment briefs below. Identify the 1) instruction words, 2) content
words, and 3) restricting words in each case. Underline or highlight this information or
make notes about it in the space provided.
86
Assignment brief
Would rather purchase cheaper clothing
manufactured by exploited children in another
country or buy more expensive clothing
manufactured locally and under humane
conditions. Discuss
Discuss the marketization of education.
Critically assess South Africa’s problem of gender
and culture discrimination in the workplace.
What is your stance about CEOs earning
exceptionally more than the average workers do,
and the effect it has on the socio-economic
environment? Would you feel the same if you were
a CEO? Explain.
Notes
87
Task 8
Using the notes you made in the previous task, write down what you think needs to be
done in each of the assignments. The first one has been done for you. The more
detailed your notes about what is expected, the easier it will be to write your
assignment. You can focus on:
•
•
the topic and specific focus of the assignment (you can look at the content words
and restricting words for hints), and
The type of response the lecturer is looking for (you can look at instruction words
for hints)
Assignment brief
Would you rather purchase cheaper
clothing manufactured by exploited
children in another country or buy more
expensive clothing manufactured locally
and under humane conditions. Discuss
Discuss the marketization of education.
Critically assess South Africa’s problem
of gender and culture discrimination in the
workplace.
What is your stance about CEOs earning
exceptionally more than the average
workers do, and the effect it has on the
socio-economic environment? Would you
feel the same if you were a CEO?
Explain.
What would an appropriate response
entail?
The focus of this question is on the
exploitation of children in some overseas
countries. It says that some overseas
countries exploit children to produce
goods much cheaper. My lecturer wants
to know what my moral stance is when it
comes to deciding who I buy my clothes
from.
88
Common problems to address with students’ writing
•
•
•
•
•
•
Not addressing the topic
Addressing only one part of the prompt.
Not using the thesis statement
Making statements without supporting what they said with any example,
evidence giving reason after reason
Not taking a position when the prompt requires it.
Not including the different parts or attachments of their assignment
Reflection
In groups, do you think this method of unpacking assignment briefs/analysing questions
is useful? Why, why not?
Next time
The next lesson will show you how to prepare yourself before attempting to write an
academic paragraph.
89
LESSON 5 – NOTE-TAKING AND SYNTHESISING (WEEKS 4 AND 5)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
•
•
Use a grid to take notes from academic texts
Analyse the usefulness of your notes
Extract key information from academic texts
Use a synthesis matrix to begin synthesising key information from the texts
Write a synthesised paragraph that directly responds to an assessment
question
Task 1
•
Why is it important to have questions about a text before you read it?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
•
How would you go about identifying key information within an academic text?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Below, you are going to highlight topic sentences and try to figure out whether they will
answer the given research questions below.
Task 2
Look at the example questions below about the extract called “How to organise your
work”:
90
1 Which type of organisations benefit from a task structure?
2 What is the difference between a task structure and a person structure?
3 What are the benefits of each structure mentioned in the reading?
4 What are the characteristics of a rigid hierarchy?
5 Is it possible to have more than one organisation structure?
6 What are the disadvantages of a large traditional hierarchy?
First, scan the extract, while identifying and writing down all the topic sentences (there
are 8) in the spaces below. Then write the number of the research question next to the
topic sentence that you think will answer the question.
Please note that some answers to the questions will be found in more than one
paragraph.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
91
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
How is work organized
In the first half of the 20th century, organizations tended to be
controlled in rigid hierarchies. In this type of structure there is one
person at the top, the managing director or chief executive officer
(CEO). There might be many layers of management. Information
and orders are passed down through the layers. Typically, the
company is divided into functional areas, such as sales,
marketing, finance, etc. Each area has a manager in charge of a
group of workers. Until recently, this arrangement was often
accompanied by a division of labour at the lower levels. This
means that each job is divided into clearly defined segments which
can be carried out with little skill or training.
However, there are a number of problems with large, traditional
hierarchies. First of all, communication is often poor. Messages
have to travel down from the top, and information from the bottom
may never reach the top at all. Secondly, these systems often do
not encourage people to take responsibility for the quality of their
work or to use their initiative. Finally, companies with these
structures may find it difficult to adapt to a changing business
environment quickly.
As a result, some companies have moved towards flatter
hierarchies, as recommended by Tom Peters in his book Thriving
on Chaos (1987). In other words, they have 'delayered', getting rid
of people in the middle levels of management. In addition, many
92
companies have adopted a team approach, with several people
working together on a task.
However, different types of company may need different types of
organizations. For example, a traditional hierarchical structure is
particularly appropriate for large government bureaucracies,
where things need to happen according to fixed rules. This
structure also suits big transport companies where, for safety
purposes, people need to be trained to work according to strict
standards. As Charles Handy points out, in this kind of structure
everyone has a precise job description. There are routines. rules
and procedures. and clear lines of management so everyone
knows what should happen and there are no surprises.
There are other possible ways in which organizations can be
structured. For instance. according to Handy, in the 'club'
structure, one individual leads a small group of perhaps 20 people.
The leader chooses people who share her beliefs and values, and
so the organization reflects the leader's personality. It is just like a
club. The leader is like a spider at the centre of its web. There is a
high level of trust, and communication is easy and informal
because everyone knows what everyone else thinks.
Communication lines are very short so these organizations can
react quickly to change or new opportunities. However, if the
leader is weak or leaves, the organization can disintegrate. This
type of structure can be seen in new businesses or the art world
or in politics.
In the 'task' structure, several people work together as a team,
using their different skills. There is little hierarchy but a lot of
cooperation and discussion. Leadership of the teams can change
from task to task. This structure is suitable for advertising agencies
or product development, where there is a problem to solve.
However, it is less useful for simple jobs because teams can be
expensive and time consuming.
Finally, a 'person' structure can be found where there is a group
of people who are experts in their field. They usually work
individually rather than as a team. However, the experts also need
administrators to help them. The administrators - often called
93
secretaries or clerks -do not have any control over the
professionals, and so an organization with a person structure may
be quite difficult to manage. This type of organization - called a
practice - is often used by groups of doctors or lawyers.
Of course, in real life, organizations rarely have just one structure. In fact,
most arc a mixture of two or more types. But a hundred years ago,
managers believed there was only one way to run all organizations, and
that is certainly no longer the case.
Text reference:
Walker, C. and Harvey, P. 2008. English for Business Studies in Higher
Education Studies. Reading: Garnet education.
In the next part, you will learn to take notes from the extract that will help you answer
this lesson’s research questions.
Task 3
Reflect and answer the following questions:
•
What is the purpose of taking notes?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
•
Try to mention a few note-taking strategies that you may have used at school.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
•
Do you ever take notes in your content courses? Why?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
94
Have you ever studied for a test using your notes? If so, to what extent did it
help?
•
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In this lesson, you are going to scan a text for important information by keeping the
previous lesson’s research questions in mind.
You are then going to attempt to take notes of the extract, “How is work organised?”
Finally, you are going to write a summary of the mentioned extract using your notes.
Task 4
Skimming and taking notes of important information:
•
•
Scan and highlight the topic sentences and try to figure out whether they will
answer the above research questions.
Jot down important information within each paragraph that potentially answers
the research questions.
Look at the example questions below from the previous lesson.
1 Which type of organisations benefit from a task structure?
2 What is the difference between a task structure and a person structure?
3 What are the benefits of each structure mentioned in the reading?
4 What are the characteristics of a rigid hierarchy?
5 Is it possible to have more than one organisation structure?
6 What are the disadvantages of a large traditional hierarchy?
•
How will you find this information from the previous lesson’s text based on the
research questions?
95
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Skimming and taking notes of important information:
•
•
•
Jot down important information within each paragraph that potentially answers
the research questions.
Do not write your notes in full sentences – only key words/phrases
Use abbreviations in some cases.
Look at each paragraph in the extract, and jot down the key words/terms that you think
will answer the above research questions.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
96
How is work organized
In the first half of the 20th century, organizations tended to be
controlled in rigid hierarchies. In this type of structure there is one
person at the top, the managing director or chief executive officer
(CEO). There might be many layers of management. Information
and orders are passed down through the layers. Typically, the
company is divided into functional areas, such as sales,
marketing, finance, etc. Each area has a manager in charge of a
group of workers. Until recently, this arrangement was often
accompanied by a division of labour at the lower levels. This
means that each job is divided into clearly defined segments which
can be carried out with little skill or training.
However, there are a number of problems with large, traditional
hierarchies. First of all, communication is often poor. Messages
have to travel down from the top, and information from the bottom
may never reach the top at all. Secondly, these systems often do
not encourage people to take responsibility for the quality of their
work or to use their initiative. Finally, companies with these
structures may find it difficult to adapt to a changing business
environment quickly.
As a result, some companies have moved towards flatter
hierarchies, as recommended by Tom Peters in his book Thriving
on Chaos (1987). In other words, they have 'delayered', getting rid
of people in the middle levels of management. In addition, many
companies have adopted a team approach, with several people
working together on a task.
However, different types of company may need different types of
organizations. For example, a traditional hierarchical structure is
particularly appropriate for large government bureaucracies,
where things need to happen according to fixed rules. This
structure also suits big transport companies where, for safety
purposes, people need to be trained to work according to strict
standards. As Charles Handy points out, in this kind of structure
everyone has a precise job description. There are routines. rules
and procedures. and clear lines of management so everyone
knows what should happen and there are no surprises.
97
There are other possible ways in which organizations can be
structured. For instance. according to Handy, in the 'club'
structure, one individual leads a small group of perhaps 20 people.
The leader chooses people who share her beliefs and values, and
so the organization reflects the leader's personality. It is just like a
club. The leader is like a spider at the centre of its web. There is a
high level of trust, and communication is easy and informal
because everyone knows what everyone else thinks.
Communication lines are very short so these organizations can
react quickly to change or new opportunities. However, if the
leader is weak or leaves, the organization can disintegrate. This
type of structure can be seen in new businesses or the art world
or in politics.
In the 'task' structure, several people work together as a team,
using their different skills. There is little hierarchy but a lot of
cooperation and discussion. Leadership of the teams can change
from task to task. This structure is suitable for advertising agencies
or product development, where there is a problem to solve.
However, it is less useful for simple jobs because teams can be
expensive and time consuming.
Finally, a 'person' structure can be found where there is a group
of people who are experts in their field. They usually work
individually rather than as a team. However, the experts also need
administrators to help them. The administrators - often called
secretaries or clerks -do not have any control over the
professionals, and so an organization with a person structure may
be quite difficult to manage. This type of organization - called a
practice - is often used by groups of doctors or lawyers.
Of course, in real life, organizations rarely have just one structure. In fact,
most arc a mixture of two or more types. But a hundred years ago,
managers believed there was only one way to run all organizations, and
that is certainly no longer the case.
Text reference:
Walker, C. and Harvey, P. 2008. English for Business Studies in Higher
Education Studies. Reading: Garnet education.
98
2. Reflect on your notes:
2.1 Do you think you made effective notes? In other words, did you produce notes that
are easy to understand, and did they relate to the research questions? Why do you
think so?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2.2 Did you write in full sentences? If so, do you think this is a good strategy?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2.2 Do you think your notes will be useful in a month’s time?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Task 5
Using only your notes, write a short summary about the extract in the space below.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
99
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3.1 Did writing the summary in your own words allow you to understand and remember
the extract better? Why?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3.2 Is there any information in the extract that you are still unsure about? Why?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Reflection
100
•
Why do you think notetaking and summarising a reading is important for your
studies?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Finally, we are going to summarise text from two different sources.
Task 6
Imagine that you had to write about a topic on the following question:
“Traditional hierarchy business structures improved by IT innovation. Discuss”
You have been given two texts to write your assignment, one from the previous lesson,
“How is worked organised?”, and the other, an extract taken from a business article.
You decide that you must read the texts and TAKE NOTES while reading.
Use your notes from the previous task and insert it in the grid provided.
Text reference:
Text 1: How is work organized
Walker, C. and Harvey, P. 2008. English for Business Studies in Higher Education Studies.
Reading: Garnet education.
In the first half of the 20th century,
organizations tended to be controlled in rigid
hierarchies. In this type of structure there is
one person at the top, the managing director
or chief executive officer (CEO). There might
be many layers of management. Information
and orders are passed down through the
layers. Typically, the company is divided into
functional areas, such as sales, marketing,
finance, etc. Each area has a manager in
charge of a group of workers. Until recently,
this arrangement was often accompanied by
a division of labour at the lower levels. This
means that each job is divided into clearly
Your notes
101
defined segments which can be carried out
with little skill or training.
However, there are a number of problems
with large, traditional hierarchies. First of all,
communication is often poor. Messages
have to travel down from the top, and
information from the bottom may never reach
the top at all. Secondly, these systems often
do not encourage people to take
responsibility for the quality of their work or to
use their initiative. Finally, companies with
these structures may find it difficult to adapt
to a changing business environment quickly.
As a result, some companies have moved
towards flatter hierarchies, as recommended
by Tom Peters in his book Thriving on Chaos
(1987). In other words, they have 'delayered',
getting rid of people in the middle levels of
management. In addition, many companies
have adopted a team approach, with several
people working together on a task.
However, different types of company may
need different types of organizations. For
example, a traditional hierarchical structure
is
particularly
appropriate
for
large
government bureaucracies, where things
need to happen according to fixed rules. This
structure also suits big transport companies
where, for safety purposes, people need to
be trained to work according to strict
standards. As Charles Handy points out, in
this kind of structure everyone has a precise
job description. There are routines. rules and
procedures. and clear lines of management
so everyone knows what should happen and
there are no surprises.
102
There are other possible ways in which
organizations can be structured. For
instance. according to Handy, in the 'club'
structure, one individual leads a small group
of perhaps 20 people. The leader chooses
people who share her beliefs and values, and
so the organization reflects the leader's
personality. It is just like a club. The leader is
like a spider at the centre of its web. There is
a high level of trust, and communication is
easy and informal because everyone knows
what everyone else thinks. Communication
lines are very short so these organizations
can react quickly to change or new
opportunities. However, if the leader is weak
or leaves, the organization can disintegrate.
This type of structure can be seen in new
businesses or the art world or in politics.
In the 'task' structure, several people work
together as a team, using their different skills.
There is little hierarchy but a lot of
cooperation and discussion. Leadership of
the teams can change from task to task. This
structure is suitable for advertising agencies
or product development, where there is a
problem to solve. However, it is less useful
for simple jobs because teams can be
expensive and time consuming.
Finally, a 'person' structure can be found
where there is a group of people who are
experts in their field. They usually work
individually rather than as a team. However,
the experts also need administrators to help
them. The administrators - often called
secretaries or clerks -do not have any control
over the professionals, and so an
organization with a person structure may be
quite difficult to manage. This type of
organization - called a practice - is often used
by groups of doctors or lawyers.
103
Of course, in real life, organizations rarely have
just one structure. In fact, most arc a mixture of
two or more types. But a hundred years ago,
managers believed there was only one way to run
all organizations, and that is certainly no longer
the case.
Summary (Do not refer back to your previous summary).
Look at your notes in the above grid:
•
Does any of the key information you selected relate to the briefing? Insert the
relevant notes in the space below.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
104
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
•
Write a list of questions (at least four) that you hope the next article will answer.
Remember that these questions need to support the brief.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Task 7
Now, scan through the article (Text 2) and try to highlight all the topic sentences, as
you did in the lesson, “Identifying key information”.
Now, read Text 2.
•
•
•
Underline the important information in each paragraph,
Make notes along the side of the text (don’t use full sentences!)
Write a brief summary at the end.
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Text Reference:
Text 2: Information Technology and Restructuring in Public Organizations:
Does Adoption of Information Technology Affect Organizational Structures,
Communications, and Decision Making?
Heintze, T. and Bretschneider, S. 2000. Information Technology
and Restructuring in Public Organizations: Does Adoption of
Information Technology Affect Organizational Structures.
Communications and Decision Making? Journal of Public
Administration Research and Theory.
The implementation of IT in an organization can have
two interrelated but distinct effects. First, it may reduce
the number of organizational members across the
whole of the organization, that is, reduce the size of
the organization. Alternatively, it may reduce or
expand employment at any particular organizational
level, thus significantly altering the structure of the
organization. It is the latter in which we are interested.
Early theories argued that IT would strongly affect the
nature of managerial employment and organizational
structure by removing middle management layers in
the organization and concentrating power at the top of
the hierarchy (Leavitt and Whisler 1958). Downs
(1967) theorized that IT would affect the manner in
which decisions are made and decrease the number of
units involved in the process. Although Simon (1977)
disagreed with Leavitt and Whisler, concluding that
computers would not alter the basic hierarchy of the
organization, he, too, believed that computers would
centralize decision making.
Disagreements as to the effects of IT on middle
management are mirrored in numerous more recent
studies. Some studies indicate that IT reduces the
number of middle managers (Bryn jolfsson, Malone,
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and Gurbaxani 1988; Whisler 1970; Hoos 1960).
Others claim that IT increases the number of middle
managers (Pfeffer and Leblebici 1977; Blau et al.
1976; Meyer 1968; Lee 1964). However, little
emphasis is placed on explaining these outcomes in
terms of the strength of the economic and political
environments surrounding these organizations and
their effect on employment in general. Pinsonneault
and Kraemer (1993) label these contradictory results
an empirical paradox. They indicate that the paradox
can be resolved not by assessing the surrounding
environment, but by considering the interaction
between the degree of centralization of both the
organization's decision-making process and its control
over IT.
Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1993 and 1997) theorize
that if the organization's decision-making process is
highly centralized, middle managers' roles emphasize
information handling and routine decision making
rather than more complex decision making and other,
less routine work. The implementation of IT can thus
displace these information-handling managers. If,
however, middle managers are more heavily involved
in complex, nonroutine decision-making, IT can
replace that portion of their work that requires
information and communication, freeing them for more
involvement in decision making. IT implementation in
these less centralized organizations will not displace
middle management. Where middle managers have
more control over the use of IT, they will select to use
that technology that reinforces their roles, rather than
that which replaces their work. The two continuums,
degree of centralization of decision making power and
degree of centralization of control over IT, interact.
Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1997) find that IT is
negatively associated with the size of middle
management in organizations that are highly
centralized (centralized on both continuums) and
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positively associated in organizations that are highly
decentralized.
How can we relate this to public organizations?
Accountability is strongly emphasized within public
organizations, implying that they are likely to have
more formalized decision making processes and
hierarchies. This suggests that decision making within
the organization is more likely to be centralized.
According to the theories of Pinsonneault and Kraemer
(1993 and 1997) the roles of middle managers in
centralized
organizations
will
emphasize
communication and routine decision making, and they
will thus be exposed to the downsizing effects of IT.
However, it has also been shown that public agencies
are heavily influenced by their surrounding political
environments. Therefore, even if decision-making
processes are found to be highly centralized within the
public agency, these decisions may still be highly
influenced by political forces external to the agency.
All managers must work within this political
environment, implying a need for individual judgment
on the political nature of information handled and its
relevancy, judgments that IT is perhaps unable to
handle (Appleby 1994; Katz and Kahn 1978).
It is thus unclear that middle managers' roles in public
organizations can be classified as information and
communication. Their roles will depend on both the
centralization of decision making within the
organization and the degree to which decisions and
processes are affected by the outside political
environment. In addition, the extreme rigidity of
personnel systems within public organizations implies
that middle managers are less likely to lose their jobs
because of downsizing,
because dismissing
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employees for any reason is a long and formal process
(Rainey, Facer, and Bozeman 1995).
Summary
Task 8
Look at your notes for text 2:
•
•
•
•
Is it easy to tell what the key points of the texts are?
Is it easy to tell what the overall message of the texts is?
Are these notes going to be useful to you in a month from now?
Does any of the key information you selected relate to the briefing? Insert the
relevant notes in the space below.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Task 9
Now, we are going to synthesise the key information from the two texts.
Creating synthesis in writing:
To synthesise information in writing means that you need to combine several
pieces of information from different sources to help you make a point.
The key features of synthesis:
• Accurately reports information from the sources using a variety of phrases
and sentences.
• Organized in such a way that readers can immediately see where the
information from the sources overlaps.
• Makes sense of the sources and helps the reader understand them in
greater depth.
Fill in the note-taking grid below, using your notes from each text.
110
Question: “Traditional hierarchy business structures improved by IT innovation. Discuss”
Text 1 (Walker and Harvey, 2008)
The disadvantages of a traditional
hierarchy (problem)
Text 2 (Heintze and Bretschneider, 2000)
How can IT innovation improve traditional
hierarchies?
(solution)
Look at your synthesis matrix and answer the following questions:
111
•
Did text 2 have any solutions that were posed in Text 1?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
•
How many solutions were there?
____________________________________________________________
Task 10
Using the grid you have created, write a paragraph which had the brief:
“Traditional hierarchy business structures are improved by IT innovation.
Discuss”
And the following response:
“Traditional hierarchy business structures are improved by IT innovation”
Synthesis of the information from both texts. In other words, use relevant
evidence from both texts to support this argument. Also, remember to put the
surname of the author and the date of the publication in brackets when you refer
to the information.
For example:
“Messages have to travel down from the top, and information from the bottom
may never reach the top at all” (Walker and Harvey, 2008).
OR
According to Walker and Harvey (2001), “[m]essages have to travel down
from the top, and information from the bottom may never reach the top at all”.
Topic sentence:
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Concluding sentence:
Task 11
Look at your paragraph and ask yourself the following questions:
•
Did I properly synthesise my texts?
•
Did I connect my paragraph to my topic sentence and my concluding
sentence?
•
Is my writing clear and easy to understand?
•
Is my writing accurate, or did I make many mistakes?
113
•
Can you correct any of your mistakes?
Next time
We are going to look at how you can make your writing more cohesive using
certain strategies.
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LESSON 6 – TEXTUAL COHESION (WEEK 6)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
•
•
Understand how transitional devices create cohesion
Recognise transitional devices in a text
Recognise different strategies to achieve text cohesion
Understand the main function of each of these text cohesion strategies
Practice and apply the specific text cohesion strategies
Watch the video about transitional devices by following the link below. You do not have to
make notes of all the information in the video, but if something stands out, and you would like
to remember it, you can make a note in the space below or jot down notes in your notebook:
Introduction academic writing: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7aksqJCgAMA
Video notes:
This lesson will deal with the importance and purpose of transitional devices.
Task 1
Quickly read the extract below, and answer the following questions.
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A) There are a number of problems with large, traditional
hierarchies. Communication is often poor. Messages have to
travel down from the top, and information from the bottom
may never reach the top at all. These systems often do not
encourage people to take responsibility for the quality of their
work or to use their initiative. Companies with these structures
may find it difficult to adapt to a changing business
environment quickly.
Some companies have moved towards flatter hierarchies, as
recommended by Tom Peters in his book Thriving on Chaos
(1987). They have 'delayered', getting rid of people in the
middle levels of management. Many companies have
adopted a team approach, with several people working
together on a task.
• Was the information in the extract easy to follow? Why do you think so?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
•
Without looking back at the text, how many problems were listed for a large,
traditional hierarchy in the extract?
___________________________________________________________________
116
Read the same extract below and answer the following questions.
B) There are a number of problems with large, traditional
hierarchies. First of all, communication is often poor.
Messages have to travel down from the top, and information
from the bottom may never reach the top at all. Secondly,
these systems often do not encourage people to take
responsibility for the quality of their work or to use their
initiative. Finally, companies with these structures may find it
difficult to adapt to a changing business environment quickly.
As a result, some companies have moved towards flatter
hierarchies, as recommended by Tom Peters in his book
Thriving on Chaos (1987). In other words, they have
'delayered', getting rid of people in the middle levels of
management. In addition, many companies have adopted a
team approach, with several people working together on a
task.
• What is the difference between the two texts?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
• Was it easier to follow than the previous extract? Why?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
117
•
Now try to answer the question again, how many problems were listed for a
large, traditional hierarchy in the extract? (Do not refer back to the text).
___________________________________________________________________
Was your answer for the two extracts the same? If they were correct, both times,
without referring to the texts, you are a genius.
•
Go back to the second extract. What words/phrases are used to count the
number of problems, listed in the extract?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Read the following and answer the question.
Coherence in writing is the logical bridge between words, sentences, and
paragraphs. Writers use devices to connect ideas within each sentence and
paragraph. The words that you use to build this logical bridge are called transitions.
To show
sequence:
The transitions that you identified above are there to show sequence (see grid
below). There are many other forms of transitions, each serving a certain purpose,
which will be discussed later in this lesson.
•
First, second, third, and so forth, a, b, c, and so forth. Next, then, following this, at
this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently,
previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next,
and then, soon
Why is it important to have transitional devices in your writing?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
118
•
What are the consequences if a text or piece of writing has no structure and
cohesion?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Why transitional devices are important
All good writers – whether they are students, journalists, teachers or business
people – will agree that one of the most important keys to effective writing is the
ability to write coherently.
Transitional devices function like bridges between parts of your written
assignment. They are cues that help the reader to interpret ideas in the way that
you, as a writer, want them to understand. Transitional devices help you carry over
a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one
paragraph to another with words or phrases. And finally, transitional devices link
your sentences and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps
or breaks between ideas.
There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads your
reader to make certain connections or assumptions about the areas you are
connecting. Some lead your reader forward and imply the “building” of an idea or
thought, while others make your reader compare ideas or draw conclusions from the
preceding thoughts.
•
•
Scan through the text, ‘Leadership and Teams’ below and highlight all the
transitions you can find.
Can you guess what direction they are telling the reading to take?
Effective leadership is crucial for the success of a business. It is the leader's job to
make sure that everyone works towards the achievement of the organization's
goals. But what is a good leader? Different people have different approaches to
leadership. Some leaders are autocratic, which means that they make all the
decisions and expect their staff to simply follow their orders. On the other hand, a
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democratic leader is more likely to involve staff in decisions, to delegate and to make
use of teams in the organization of work.
According to Douglas McGregor, in his book The Human Side of Enterprise
(published in 1960), managers tend to be divided according to their beliefs. Theory
X managers think that people are lazy, that employees need to be told what to do
and have to be forced into doing their jobs properly. In contrast, according to
McGregor, Theory Y managers believe that most people try hard to do their best,
that they want to enjoy their work, and that everyone can have good ideas. As a
leader, a Theory X manager is likely to be autocratic. A democratic leader will
probably have Theory Y beliefs.
However, the style of leadership which is appropriate may depend on the situation.
For example, in a crisis, an autocratic style may be more effective because people
may need a strong leader to tell them quickly what to do. On the other hand, in a
stable situation where everyone understands their roles, and where time is not a
problem, a democratic style can work well.
It is also important to consider the relationship between leadership and teams. This
is because recently there has been an increase in democratic management
techniques which make use of team work. According to John Adair, in his book
Effective Teambuilding (1987), the task of the team leader is to:
• know what the job is and get it done
• enable the team to work together
• allow individuals to develop their abilities
In order for a leader to lead a team successfully, according to Hooper and Potter (in
The Business of Leadership, 1997), there are some basic requirements. First, the
leader must inspire trust and respect, not fear. This can only be done if the leader is
open with team members and if the leader shows integrity. Second, the team needs
to understand very clearly what is to be done, which means that everyone must have
a 'shared vision'. In other words, orders are not imposed from above by the leader.
Instead, everyone agrees the goals. Finally, there must be very good
communications between all members of the team. Many problems in teams result
from breakdowns in communication, which cause misunderstandings.
120
Purpose
And, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor
too, next, lastly, what’s more, moreover, in addition.
Whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the other hand,
on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against,
but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be
true, by contrast, contrastively
To show
time:
Because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore,
moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is
Immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously,
formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then
To
repeat:
To
prove:
To compare:
Transition
To add:
Use the table below to fill in all the highlighted transitions and provide a purpose for
each of them. Below the table is a list of some common transitional devices that can
be used to cue a reader in a certain direction.
In brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted
Definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively,
naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically,
unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation
For example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this
situation take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration
In brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as
I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the
whole
To show
cause and
effect:
To show
opposition:
To show
identity:
To give an
example:
First, second, third, and so forth, a, b, c, and so forth. Next, then, following this, at
this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently,
previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next,
and then, soon
To
summarise
or conclude:
To show
sequence:
To
emphasise:
121
In other words, namely, that is, i.e., I mean, for example, for instance, specifically
But, however, while, instead, nevertheless, on the other hand, in contrast
As a result, because, for, so, as a consequence, therefore
Task 4
Let us practise! Add the correct transitional device to the sentences by using the
transitional expressions from the box below. You will later be given a 10-mark online
quiz based on transitions. Please make sure you follow your announcements on
Blackboard about upcoming quizzes.
122
however As a result
•
In contrast
furthermore
In other words
Learning to write in a second language takes a lot of patience and effort.
______________________, you need to be totally dedicated and determined
when learning to write in English.
The salesperson started losing interest in his job. ______________________, he
ended up losing all his commission.
•
I want to study Industrial Psychology at the University of the Free State to learn
more about discrimination in the workplace. ______________________, I do not
have enough funds to pursue this dream.
•
Academic writing requires a knowledge of standard grammar, subject-specific
vocabulary and good text organisation. ______________________, cell phone
messages use abbreviations, symbols and slang.
•
There are many diseases going around Somalia, contributing to many deaths.
____________, there is also a lack of food that contributes to the county’s death
rate.
Task 5 (reflect on today’s lesson)
1. What aspects of this lesson did you find most useful?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
123
2. Name an aspect of this lesson that can be applied to your other content areas
or subjects.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
In the next section, you are going to learn further about transitional devices, as well as
techniques that help to organise text.
This section deals with three strategies that knit together content to form meaning and
understanding for readers.
First, we will have further practice on how transitional devices create cohesion within
a given text.
Then, we will focus on words and phrases that reveal either the previous or the
following ideas in a text.
Task 6
Discuss the following questions:
•
From the previous lesson, what is your understanding of the term text
cohesion?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
124
•
Why do you think it is important to establish text cohesion in your academic
writing, especially at university?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Study the following two extracts, then answer the questions below the extract:
1) IT and its effect on organizations are the primary focus of this
research. We are interested in how IT implementation influences the
structure of the organization and how this restructuring, and the
adoption of IT itself, affects the organization's performance. We will
explore these effects in public organizations. Do structural changes
occur as a result of IT implementation in public agencies? Do IT-related
changes in organizational structure, along with IT implementation itself,
affect the communication and decision making stems of public
organizations?
We consider both managers' attitudes toward IT and the organization's
adoption of IT. Managers' attitudes affect how IT is implemented and
the extent to which it is accepted by the organization (Cooper and
Zmud 1990). Managers' attitudes may affect how IT adoption in turn
alters organizational structure and performance. They are affecting
performance, they are also affected by performance. Performance and
managerial attitudes are simultaneously determined. IT adoption
affects organizational structure and performance, their attitudes toward
technology will also affect the technology implemented by the
organization. Managerial attitudes and IT adoption are also
simultaneously determined.
2) Two aspects of IT and its effect on organizations are the primary
focus of this research. We are interested in how IT implementation
influences the structure of the organization and how this
restructuring, and the adoption of IT itself, affects the organization's
performance. We will explore these effects in public organizations.
We therefore ask: Do structural changes occur as a result of IT
implementation in public agencies? Do IT-related changes in
organizational structure, along with IT implementation itself, affect
125
the communication and decision making
organizations?
stems of public
A related research issue arises, however, when we consider both
managers' attitudes toward IT and the organization's adoption of IT.
Managers' attitudes affect how IT is implemented and the extent to
which it is accepted by the organization (Cooper and Zmud 1990).
Additionally, managers' attitudes may affect how. IT adoption in turn
alters organizational structure and performance. A problem in
analyzing the role of managerial attitudes is that while they are, in part,
affecting performance, they are also affected by performance.
Consequently, performance and managerial attitudes are
simultaneously determined. Similarly, we theorize that IT adoption
affects organizational structure and performance, yet managers'
attitudes toward technology will also affect the technology
implemented by the organization. Thus, managerial attitudes and IT
adoption are also simultaneously determined.
•
Which one of the two texts is better? In other words, which of the two texts is
easier to understand? Why?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
•
What is the difference between the two texts?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
What do you think is the purpose of the phrases and words that were left out in one of
the extracts?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
126
Strategies to achieve text cohesion:
Although there are numerous strategies that a person can use to create text
cohesion, we are going to focus on the following three.
Transitional devices: Academic writing usually deals with complex ideas.
To enable the reader to follow your thoughts and the connections between
them, they need to be clearly and smoothly linked. To join ideas and
sentences, we use a number of connecting words and phrases
Referring backwards (Anaphoric references): The reader needs to know
who and what is being referred to in a text. However, it is not good to repeat
the same phrases or words too often, so we use cohesive devices to make
references to other parts of a text; such as:
o Pronouns: it, he, she, his, her, they, their etc.
o Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
o Articles: a, the
o Adverbs: previously, subsequently
Referring forwards (cataphoric references): We often use words and
phrases to flag new information for the reader. This helps make a smooth
transition from one point to another. Such phrases include: the following, as
follows, below, next, subsequently etc.
•
•
•
We are going to learn how to link content (paragraphs) to create cohesion throughout
an entire piece of academic writing. We will discuss the three ways mentioned above
to accomplish this. The first of these strategies is the use of transitional
devices/linking words.
Task 7
Discuss the following questions:
•
What can you remember about transitional words or phases? In other words,
what is the purpose of these words and why does a person have to include
them in academic writing?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
127
Study the following examples and, on your own, add three additional linking words in
each category.
Category
For
instance
To add
Furthermore
To compare
However
To prove
Because
To show time
Immediately
To repeat
In brief
To emphasise
Indeed
Indicate
sequence
Firstly
Provide example
For instance
To conclude
Therefore
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
First, study the text and highlight all the transitional devices, then follow the instructions
below the extract.
In the first half of the 20th century, organizations tended to be
controlled in rigid hierarchies. In this type of structure there is
one person at the top, the managing director or chief
executive officer (CEO). There might be many layers of
management. Information and orders are passed down
through the layers. Typically, the company is divided into
functional areas, such as sales, marketing, finance, etc. Each
area has a manager in charge of a group of workers. Until
recently, this arrangement was often accompanied by a
division of labour at the lower levels. This means that each
job is divided into clearly defined segments which can be
carried out with little skill or training.
However, there are a number of problems with large,
traditional hierarchies. First of all, communication is often
poor. Messages have to travel down from the top, and
128
information from the bottom may never reach the top at all.
Secondly, these systems often do not encourage people to
take responsibility for the quality of their work or to use their
initiative. Finally, companies with these structures may find it
difficult to adapt to a changing business environment quickly.
As a result, some companies have moved towards flatter
hierarchies, as recommended by Tom Peters in his book
Thriving on Chaos (1987). In other words, they have
'delayered', getting rid of people in the middle levels of
management. In addition, many companies have adopted a
team approach, with several people working together on a
task.
However, different types of company may need different types
of organizations. For example, a traditional hierarchical
structure is particularly appropriate for large government
bureaucracies, where things need to happen according to
fixed rules. This structure also suits big transport companies
where, for safety purposes, people need to be trained to work
according to strict standards. As Charles Handy points out, in
this kind of structure everyone has a precise job description.
There are routines, rules and procedures and clear lines of
management so everyone knows what should happen and
there are no surprises.
There are other possible ways in which organizations can be
structured. For instance, according to Handy, in the 'club'
structure, one individual leads a small group of perhaps 20
people. The leader chooses people who share her beliefs and
values, and so the organization reflects the leader's
personality. It is just like a club. The leader is like a spider at
the centre of its web. There is a high level of trust, and
communication is easy and informal because everyone
knows what everyone else thinks. Communication lines are
very short so these organizations can react quickly to change
or new opportunities. However, if the leader is weak or leaves,
the organization can disintegrate. This type of structure can
be seen in new businesses or the art world or in politics.
In the 'task' structure, several people work together as a team,
using their different skills. There is little hierarchy but a lot of
cooperation and discussion. Leadership of the teams can
129
change from task to task. This structure is suitable for
advertising agencies or product development, where there is
a problem to solve. On the other hand, it is less useful for
simple jobs because teams can be expensive and time
consuming.
Finally, a 'person' structure can be found where there is a
group of people who are experts in their field. They usually
work individually rather than as a team. However, the experts
also need administrators to help them. The administrators often called secretaries or clerks do not have any control over
the professionals, and so an organization with a person
structure may be quite difficult to manage. This type of
organization - called a practice - is often used by groups of
doctors or lawyers.
Of course, in real life, organizations rarely have just one structure.
In fact, most are a mixture of two or more types. But a hundred years
ago, managers believed there was only one way to run all
organizations, and that is certainly no longer the case.
Answer the questions below by showing the location of each example (e.g., However,
paragraph 2, line 1), then provide a reason for your answer.
•
Two examples of adding or sequence transitional devices:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
•
Two examples of comparing or contrasting transitional devices:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
130
•
Two transitional devices that indicate that an example is going to be
discussed:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
•
One transitional device that indicates a final point or conclusion to an idea:
_________________________________________________________________
•
One transitional device that shows identity:
_________________________________________________________________
Task 8
The second strategy that could be used to ensure cohesion throughout your
written work is by referring backwards to specific text.
•
•
As mentioned before, the reader needs to know who and what is being
referred to in a text.
However, it is not good to repeat the same phrases or words too often, so we
use cohesive devices to make references to other parts of a text, such as:
o
o
o
o
•
•
•
•
Pronouns: it, he, she, his, her, they, their etc.
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
Articles: a, the
Adverbs: previously, subsequently
For example, instead of writing it as follows
o The new students at the UFS are very excited about their first day of
classes. The new students have been waiting for this day for a very
long time.
It is better to write it as:
o The new students at the UFS are very excited about their first day of
classes. They have been waiting for this day for a very long time.
In this example, ‘they’ refers to the new students.
It is not good academic writing practice to repeat words or phrases too often
during the academic writing process, and we try to ‘substitute’ these words.
Study the paragraph below and answer the questions that follow.
131
The South African president has called an early election on the 27th of September
2020. He stated that the date was selected to coincide with the start of the Rugby
World Cup with the Springboks as defending champions. This decision was based
on the views of his ministerial advisors, who predicted that voter confidence in the
government’s policies would be strong at this time due to the euphoria of this global
event. As previously mentioned, decisions on the timing of elections are based
on predictions of voter confidence in the existing government.
Answer the following questions regarding backwards referencing:
•
To whom does the word ‘he’ refer in the second sentence?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
•
The phrase ‘this decision’ refers back to which subject?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
•
In the second last sentence of the paragraph, the writer mentions a global
event. What does this mean?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
•
The concluding sentence starts with the phrase ‘as previously mentioned’.
What does this phrase refer to? What is the purpose of this phrase? Can you
provide an alternative phrase for the one that is being used?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
132
Task 9
•
•
•
The final method that we are going to discuss in terms of establishing
text cohesion in an academic text is called referring forwards.
In contrast to backwards referencing, this strategy is used to inform the
reader of new information that will follow.
However, the ‘new’ information still refers to what was already discussed
previously.
Let us have a look at an example of forward referencing.
Example:
The South African president has called for an early election on the 27th of
September 2020. He stated that the date was selected to coincide with the start of
the Rugby World Cup with the Springboks as defending champions. This decision
was based on the views of his ministerial advisors, who predicted that voter
confidence in the government’s policies would be strong at this time due to the
euphoria of this global event. As previously mentioned, decisions on the timing of
elections are based on predictions of voter confidence in the existing government.
The following dates have been proposed for the forthcoming election, namely the
8th of September, the 15th of September and the 3rd of October.
Explanation:
•
•
As seen in the example, the added sentence is directly linked to the preceding
paragraph due to the mention of the election.
The inclusion of the word ‘following’ indicates that new information is going
to be mentioned that the reader has not yet encountered, which provides
additional information in terms of the preceding paragraph.
Study the following statements in reference to the example. Then, highlight the word
that is used as a forward reference and indicate to which information the statement is
referring to.
•
The results of the analysis of voter confidence are shown in Table 1 below.
___________________________________________________________________
133
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
•
The next issue to be discussed is the influence of the media on voter confidence
in the government.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Next time
We are going to focus on referencing.
134
LESSON 7– REFERENCING (WEEK 7)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
•
Understand the concept of referencing
How to avoid plagiarism
Use verbs for citation correctly
Use the Harvard referencing method to reference
Watch the video about referencing by clicking the link below. You do not have to make notes
of all the information in the video, but if something stands out, and you would like to remember
it, you can make a note in the space below or jot down notes in your notebook:
Introduction academic writing: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdOYE-FLNuo
Video notes:
Task 1
Reflect on the questions below.
135
Based on your knowledge and experience, what is your understanding of
plagiarism?
___________________________________________________________________
•
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
•
What should you try to do to avoid plagiarism?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
•
Why do you think students plagiarise?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
•
For students at a university, what do you think are the consequences of
plagiarism?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
What is referencing?
Referencing is a standardised academic method of acknowledging sources of
information that one would have used in their academic work. While there are
many styles of acknowledging sources, the University of the Free State
recommends the use of the Harvard referencing style.
136
The Harvard referencing style has in-text citations and a reference list. The in-text
citation is within the body of the assignment and is made of the author’s name and
the publication date. The end-of-text reference is at the end of the assignment,
where all details of the in-text citations are written in full.
Purpose of referencing
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
To give recognition to the source of the ideas that you have used
Use of authority to bolster your argument or claim.
Evidence of research
To direct the reader to the source for more information
To maintain academic integrity.
To show that you understand the topic and can explain your thoughts,
especially when you paraphrase
To avoid plagiarism
Plagiarism
•
•
Plagiarism is academic theft.
It is the intentionally or unintentionally stealing of another person’s work and
parading it as your own.
Acts of plagiarism include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Copying from a text, word for word, without using quotation marks and citing
the source
Citing a primary source without reading it yourself but giving the impression
that you read the text yourself
when you are simply repeating a review by your secondary source; or
Paraphrasing ideas but still failing to reference.
Put ideas in your own words but fail to cite the source of those ideas.
Translating material without acknowledgement.
Changing some words from copied text and presenting it as your own.
Consequences of plagiarism
•
•
No receiving a mark for your plagiarised assessment.
May face disciplinary action, which might lead to the suspension of your
studies.
137
Credible and acceptable sources
Not all sources you will come across in your research are acceptable to use in your
academic work. For example, Wikipedia is not considered an acceptable/credible
scholarly source for many reasons.
Task 2
List any three reasons why Wikipedia is not concerned credible academic source.
1.______________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________
3._______________________________________________________________
How to establish if a source is credible
Consider the following before you use a source in your academic work:
•
•
•
•
•
Authority – is the author recognised as knowledgeable on the subject?
Does the author have the relevant credentials? Professional affiliation?
Bias – Bias is when perceived academic sources use their beliefs and
opinions to shape and influence their research. One way of guarding
against bias is to determine if the source is peer-reviewed or not.
Content – Is content suitable? Is it written in an academic style? Is the tone
objective?
Publisher – is the publisher reputable and well known?
Currency –is the source current? How new is this information?
138
Task 3
What credible source(s) would you use to get information about the following?
Information
Credible Source
Justification
The 30-Day Low-Carb Diet
Solution
A news release published by
the Reserve Bank of South
Africa
Student Accommodation for
rental in your area
The life cycle of a butterfly
Task 3
In small groups, list and justify acceptable academic sources in your discipline or
qualification you are studying towards.
Acceptable source
Justification
Where did you find this
source?
Now that you can discern between acceptable and unacceptable academic sources
in your field of study, the next step is to master how to do practical referencing.
139
How to reference
1) In-text referencing
In-text referencing or citation is when you acknowledge sources of information or
ideas that you have used in the body text. The in-text referencing is placed next to
the ideas or information that you have quoted directly, paraphrased or summarised.
As stated at the beginning of this lesson, the in-text citation would typically include
the source’s name and date of publication. The full details regarding the source will
be included in the reference list as evidenced in the visual below, which shows you
both in-text citation and end-of-text referencing.
In-text referencing is done through the use of direct quotations or paraphrasing and
summarising. If you have forgotten how to summarise, refer back to the lesson on
summarising and note-taking.
Direct quotations: This is when you write the content word for word from the
sources. When you quote directly, make sure to include the author, year of
publication and page number.
Example:
Paraphrase: This is when you put the information from the source in your words.
When you paraphrase, make sure to include the author and year of publication.
140
Please note that it is not necessary to include page numbers when you paraphrase.
However, if you do include the page numbers, remember to apply this method
throughout your writing, consistency is KEY.
Example:
Note: when there are more than three authors, for the first time all the authors
surnames should be used in the in-text citation. Thereafter, et al. can be used after
the first surname. For example, (Potgieter, Mazibuko, Rowley and Rauch, 2023) or
According to Potgieter, Mazibuko, Rowley and Rauch (2023), … (First in-text
citation)
Thereafter, (Potgieter, et al., 2023) or According to Potgieter, et al. (2023), can
be used. Please note that ‘et al.’ is written in italics, this is a Latin term and shouldnly
used in the in-text referencing, in the reference list you will.
Text reference:
Information Technology and Restructuring in Public Organizations: Does
Adoption of Information Technology Affect Organizational Structures,
Communications, and Decision Making?
Heintze, T. and Bretschneider, S. (2000). Information Technology and
Restructuring in Public Organizations: Does Adoption of Information Technology
Affect Organizational Structures. Communications and Decision Making? Journal of
Public Administration Research and Theory.
“Early theories argued that IT would strongly affect the nature of managerial
employment and organizational structure by removing middle management layers in
the organization and concentrating power at the top of the hierarchy (Leavitt and
Whisler 1958).”
141
In-text citations: According to Leavitt and Whisler (1958) in Heintze and
Bretschneider (2000), “Early theories argued that IT would strongly affect the nature
of managerial employment and organizational structure by removing middle
management layers in the organization and concentrating power at the top of the
hierarch”.
or
“Early theories argued that IT would strongly affect the nature of managerial
employment and organizational structure by removing middle management layers in
the organization and concentrating power at the top of the hierarchy (Leavitt and
Whisler, 1958 in Heintze and Bretschneider, 2000).
Task 4
Use the information below to do an in-text citation using direct quotations and also a
paraphrase.
Text
In-text
citation
using
direct
quotations
1. “In real life, organizations rarely have just one
structure. In fact, most are a mixture of two or more
types”
Authors: Walker, C. and Harvey, P.
Title of book: English for Business Studies
Edition: First
Year of publication: 2008
Page number: 65
2. “Where middle managers have more control over the
use of IT, they will select to use that technology that
reinforces their roles, rather than that which replaces
their work”.
Author: Heintze and Bretschneider
Title of journal: Journal of Public Administration
Research and Theory
Title of article: Information Technology and
In-text
citation using
paraphrasing
142
Restructuring in Public Organizations:
Does Adoption of Information Technology
Affect Organizational Structures,
Communications, and Decision Making?
Year of publication: 2000
Page number: 805
When writing your in-text citations, you would typically incorporate what is called
verbs for citations.
Verbs for citations
•
Verbs for citations, also known as reporting verbs, verbs of saying or thinking,
link an in-text reference with a quotation or paraphrase.
One of the most common ways to incorporate in-text citations into your
writing is to use ‘reporting’ verbs to present the information.
Verbs for citation do not only help you to avoid plagiarising others’ work, but
they also help you to strengthen your argument and also help the reader
understand the relevance of the sources you are using in your writing.
The use of verbs for citation also shows that you are not merely namedropping but that you have a clear understanding of the patterns that you see
from the various sources you have looked at.
Below is a table of other useful reporting verbs that you might use with
citations. Please note, however, that these verbs are not all interchangeable.
•
•
•
•
Verbs for citations
-
advocate the view
-
describe
-
analyse
-
discuss
-
argue
-
dispute
-
believe
-
emphasises
-
claim
-
establish
-
comment
-
estimate
-
compare
-
evaluate
-
concede
-
explains
-
conclude
-
hold the position
143
-
confirm
-
illustrate
-
criticise
-
indicate
-
define
-
investigate
-
demonstrate
-
maintain
-
present arguments to emphasise
-
notes
-
propose
-
observe
-
recognise
-
point out
-
remarks
-
predict
-
report
-
stipulate
-
show
-
suggest
-
state
-
validate
-
verify
-
Example:
Task 5
Now let us go back to the previous task (task 4) and complete the following:
•
What verbs from the citation did you use?
___________________________________________________________________
144
•
How would you improve on the verbs of citations that you used?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Task 6
In the table below, list five verbs for citation for reporting something the author did,
stated, as well as the author’s opinion. Note that some verbs can fall into more than
one category depending on the context.
Reporting
something the
author did
Reporting something the
author stated
Example: conclude
comment
Reporting the author’s opinion
suggest
Task 7
Insert the most appropriate verb(s) in the space provided. When done share with the
class on the discussion forum and remember to motivate why you chose the verb
you decided.
1. Khumalo (2020: 10) ________ that study skills are increasingly used by
institutions of Higher Learning.
2. Modise (2020: 76) __________ three possible interpretations of these results.
3. It has been ________ (Sibanda, 2020: 5) that there are no native speakers of
Academic Literacy.
145
4. Mokoena (2020: 28) ____________ that there is a link between student’s
background and academic performance.
5. Akani (1988: 12) ______________ the issue of language competence and
academic competence.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Task 8
Based on the previous part on referencing, respond to the following:
1) Why do students struggle to reference?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2) Give an example of an in-text citation using:
a) Direct quotation
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b) Paraphrase
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
146
Now you can deal with the mechanics of the end-of-text referencing. Remember to
adhere to the formula or method that your discipline uses. In this lesson, we have
adopted the most well-known Harvard Referencing method as a guide.
End-of-text referencing
The end-of-text referencing also referred to as a reference list, contains complete
details of sources cited in the text only. The list is arranged alphabetically by the
author at the end of an academic work. Below is a guide on how to do the end-of-text
referencing.
1) A book by one author
Surname of the author, Full initials. Year. Title of the publication, exactly as it appears
on the title page of the publication in italics. Place of publication: Publisher.
2) Two or more authors
Surnames of both authors, Full initials. Year. Title of the publication, exactly as it
appears on the title page of the publication in italics. Place of publication: Publisher.
147
3) Three or more
Surnames of all the authors, Full initials of all the authors. Year. Title of the
publication, exactly as it appears on the title page of the publication in italics. Place of
publication: Publisher.
(Note: Do not use et al. in the list of references)
4) Editions
Surname of the author(s)/editor(s), Full initials. Year. Title of the publication, exactly as
it appears on the title page of the publication in italics. The edition. Place of
publication: Publisher.
5) With an editor
148
Surname of the editor, Full initials. Indicate the abbreviation for an editor (Ed.). Year.
Title of the publication, exactly as it appears on the title page of the publication in
italics. Place of publication: Publisher.
(Note the full stops: (Ed.).
6) Chapter or contribution
Surname of the author(s) of the specific chapter, Full initials. Year. Title of the chapter
(not in italics). In. The author/editor of the name of the publication. The name of the
publication is in italics. Place of publication: Publisher.
149
7) Journals
Surname of the author(s), Full initials. Year. Title of the article, exactly as it appears in
the journal. DO NOT USE IN here. The name of the journal is in italics Volume
Number: All the page numbers for this specific article: e.g., 20–34
8) Newspapers
Title of the newspaper in italics. The year. The name of the article. The date of the day
and the name of the month: The page number of the article
9) Online Source
Surname(s), Full initials. Date (if available) or use n.d. (if no date can be found). Title
of the article in italics (followed by a full stop). Available at: Web address. Date on
which the information was accessed.
150
Reference list principles
•
List in alphabetical order, include all sources used in the text.
•
The reference list should be on a new page
•
Do not number or bullet the reference list
•
Left align your reference list.
•
The reference list is not a bibliography. A reference list is a detailed list of
references that you have used/cited in your work. A bibliography is a
comprehensive list of references you have used/cited in work and background
readings or any other material that you may have read, but not actually cited.
•
List publications in the language in which it was published. Do not translate.
151
Task 9
In your structured groups, write in-text referencing and end-of-text referencing based
on the following:
1) Journal
https://www.pdcnet.org/cultura/content/cultura_2010_0007_0001_0086_0096
In-text citation using paraphrasing
Text: “Moreover, Ubuntu, which literally means humanness or humanity to others, is
deemed to promote a sense of community and communality” (page 86 of the above
journal)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
End of text referencing
Text: Use the Journal provided above.
152
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2 Online
https://www.psychologytoday.com/za/basics/identity
153
In-text
Citation using paraphrasing
Text: “Adolescents grapple with so many different aspects of identity, from choosing
a career path to cultivating moral and political beliefs to becoming a friend or partner.
Role confusion pertains to the inability to commit to one path. Adolescents then go
through a period of experimentation before committing, reconciling the pieces of their
identity, and emerging into adulthood” (no page given. Taken from the online source
above)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
End of text referencing
Text: Use the webpage provided
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
154
3) Book
In-text citation using paraphrasing
Text: “Positive psychology has been criticized for a lack of research support and for
being simplistic. It has also been criticized for implying that mainstream psychology
is negative” (page 16. Taken from the psychology textbook given above)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
End of text referencing
Text: Use the provided textbook above.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
155
4) Study guide
English Academic Literacy for Economic and
Management Sciences
NQF level: 5
Credits: 32
Unit for Language Development (CTL)
Compiled by
Michael Rowley
2019
[Revised September 2018]
156
In-text citation using paraphrasing
Text: “The process approach to academic writing is used to teach students to
engage with the writing process in a meaningful way. As a writer one can never
produce a perfect piece of writing the very first time. Thus, engaging with the piece
more than once (in the drafting process) ensures that ideas are clearly expressed
and aligned to the given task” (page 15. Taken from your EALE1508 module guide
above)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
End of text referencing
Text: Use the study guide provided above.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Task 10
Keeping in mind the reference list principles, create a reference list using the end-oftext information you created in Task 9.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
157
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Next time
The next lesson will show you how to structure an academic paragraph.
USED TO COMPILE THIS LESSON
Grimsley, E. 2014. Referencing Guide. Centre for Teaching and Learning, University
of the Free State.
Van Dyk, T. and Coetzee, M. 2009. Make Sense of Referencing. Stellenbosch:
Stellenbosch University Press
158
LESSON 8 – THE ACADEMIC PARAGRAPH (WEEK 8)
Lesson aims:
•
•
Recognise the structure of an academic body paragraph
Identify the three main parts of an academic paragraph
Understand the purpose of each of these main parts of an academic
paragraph
Practice knowledge gained regarding paragraph structure
•
•
•
Reflect on the writing you did at school. What were the three parts that you can
remember about this piece of writing?
In today’s lesson, we are going to learn about the structure of a body paragraph.
Task 1
Discuss the following questions:
•
Why is it necessary to be able to write a well-structured academic paragraph at
university?
•
What purpose does a body paragraph have?
159
What information/components do you think a body paragraph has?
Structuring and organising writing: The Paragraph
Writing in most forms, whether an essay, a longer assignment, a novel or even a
paragraph, always has three basic parts: introduction, body and conclusion.
The three basic parts of a body paragraph are:
•
•
•
Topic sentence: like its name, the topic sentence contains the topic or main
idea of the paragraph and your position on this topic. It is an introductory
sentence which explains briefly what the paragraph will be about. Formula:
Topic + Informed Opinion = TS
Supporting sentences: supporting sentences support the topic sentence in
that they give extra information, examples and ideas which elaborate or
explain the main idea or the paragraph. These sentences serve as evidence
to prove your argument made in the topic sentence.
Concluding sentence: This sentence concludes and sums up what the
paragraph was about. It repeats the main idea in different words, in other
words, you need to paraphrase the topic sentence.
Note that all parts of the paragraph are full sentences. Point form should not be
used.
Therefore, a Paragraph is:
•
•
•
•
Made of at least 6 to 8 sentences
The paragraph needs a TOPIC SENTENCE that consists of ONE specific topic (MAIN
IDEA FOLLOWED BY INFORMED OPINION)
The SUPPORTING IDEAS (two) supports the ONE specific topic (Quote and Paraphrased
Quote)
The paragraph concludes with a concluding sentence that links to the topic sentence
(Informed opinion followed by Main Idea and paraphrase)
160
Today we are going to discuss the ideal structure of an academic paragraph. We are
also going to examine the different components of an academic paragraph and
consider the relationship between these components.
Task 2
5-step process to paragraph development
Step 1: Decide on the main idea followed by your informed opinion
Step 2: Explain the main idea (make a statement – Quote/Paraphrased Quote)
Step 3: Explain the statement using your own words
Step 4: Give an example
Step 5: Complete the paragraph’s idea or transition into the next paragraph
(concluding sentence – informed opinion followed by main idea and paraphrase)
Look at the following paragraph and follow the instructions below.
Brief: In a well-structured paragraph, discuss which business area is the most important.
The most important area of a business is market research. Firstly, research is
essential so that you are aware whether certain products satisfy the needs of your
customers or not. For example, most of your customers might not like the value of
your goods so by researching, you will be aware of such issues. Secondly, research
plays a huge role in the functioning of any business as it ensures that your company
gains information about the it’s competitors and spending traits of its customers. For
instance, if you know the price the competition sells their bottle of cool drink, you will
make sure that you lower your prices to attract more people to your business. In
conclusion, for a business to flourish and be successful, effective market research
is of utmost importance.
•
Highlight the topic sentence. Does it abide by what was mentioned about it in
the information/grey box above? Why/Why not?
161
•
How many supporting sentences are there? Do they all support the topic
sentence? Why/Why not?
•
Refer back to the lesson about transitions. Do you think the student could make
better use of transitional devices? How?
•
Highlight the concluding sentence. Does it sum up the entire paragraph and link
back to the topic sentence? Why/Why not?
•
Concerning the concluding sentence, what will be a better transition to use?
162
Task 3
Study the following paragraph, which has the same brief:
Brief: In a well-structured paragraph, discuss which business area is the most important.
Marketing is the most important area because it brings customers and businesses
together by making the consumers aware of the products in the market. Moorman
& Roland (1999: 180) asserts that “marketing’s value, in turn, is found to be the
function of a degree to which it develops knowledge and the skills in connecting the
customer to the product.” This means that, by making use of marketing strategies,
businesses successfully connect with its customers in order to attain their profit
orientation margin. In addition, satisfying the requirements of customer’s needs and
wants, enables the firms and consumers to be able to perform, in order for each
party to get something of value through the exchange process. Moreover, marketing
is an essential function in the organisation that focuses mainly in customer
orientation.
•
Which of the two paragraphs is better? Why?
•
How did the student enhance his/her support in this paragraph?
•
Do you think the transitional devices the student used better the first? Why?
•
What is missing in this paragraph?
•
Does the concluding sentence link to the topic sentence?
163
•
Did the student use a proper transition for the concluding sentence?
Task 5
Now that you are familiar with the structure of an academic paragraph, let us try and
write one. Consider the following prompt:
In a well-structured paragraph, discuss which business area, in your opinion is
the most important. Why?
Refer to four different areas of business – finance, production, marketing and human
resources. You do not have to reference at this stage – this will be done in the next
lesson. You can also look back to the previous paragraphs for assistance, without
plagiarising them of course.
Complete the following in terms of unpacking the paragraph brief/prompt, similar to
what you have already done in the first outline you did. You can make use of the outline
in your study guide for assistance.
•
How will you answer the question? In other words, what is your stance/opinion?
(This will be your topic sentence).
•
Provide two ideas that will support your topic sentence.
•
Provide an example for each idea.
164
•
How will you end your paragraph?
•
Now, make use of the information you provided in the preceding questions and
write a well-structured paragraph
165
Task 6
Reflection
•
Ask yourself: what are the three main components of an academic paragraph
and the purpose for each?
Next time
In the next lesson, you will be guided towards writing an academic paragraph
(paragraph 1 draft 1) – this paragraph will be marked for assessment.
166
LESSON 9 – WRITING A PARAGRAPH (WEEK 9)
Lesson aims:
•
•
Recall the structure of an academic body paragraph and its three main parts
Unpack a paragraph prompt
Write a well-structured paragraph for a first draft (30 marks)
Achieve coherence and cohesion within a paragraph
•
•
Task 1
Discuss the following questions:
•
Can you still remember the three main components of a body paragraph as was
discussed in the previous lesson? Write these three components down in the
space below.
•
What are the respective purposes of these three components?
To recap, the main components and their functions are as follows:
Structuring and organising writing: The Paragraph
The three basic parts of a body paragraph are:
•
•
•
Topic sentence: like its name, the topic sentence contains the topic or main
idea of the paragraph. It is usually the introductory sentence, which explains
briefly what the paragraph will be about.
Supporting sentences: supporting sentences support the topic sentence in
that they give extra information, examples and ideas which elaborate or
explain the main idea or the paragraph.
Concluding sentence: This sentence concludes and sums up what the
paragraph was about. It repeats the main idea in different words.
Note that all parts of the paragraph are full sentences. Point form should not
be used.
167
Today we are going to go through the process of writing an academic paragraph. We
are first going to unpack the paragraph prompt, followed by writing an academic
paragraph while taking into consideration the ideal structure of a paragraph. Finally,
we are going to have a look at achieving coherence and cohesion within the
paragraph.
Task 2
Study the following paragraph brief:
“A democratic leadership style (Theory Y) is advantageous in all contexts.
Discuss whether you agree or disagree”
Provide two supporting reasons for your choice, followed by evidence for each
reason (refer to “Leadership and teams”, and “Leadership Styles and
Organizational Performance” from the articles below). Use at least two
quotes/references one from each reading to support your stance.
•
What action verb (instruction word) is present in the paragraph prompt? What
does the action verb mean? In other words, what does the action verb require
you to do?
•
What are the other keywords and main ideas in the paragraph brief?
•
Look at the first part of the brief. Which stance/position are you going to take?
•
Provide two ideas that will help you prove your opinion.
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•
Read the extract “Leadership and teams” while you try to find a quote to
support one of your ideas in the reading, then write it in the space below. Also,
refer back to the first lesson about referencing.
Text reference:
Text 1: Leadership and teams
Walker, C. and Harvey, P. 2008. English for Business Studies in Higher Education Studies.
Reading: Garnet education.
Effective leadership is crucial for the success of a business. It is the leader's job to make
sure that everyone works towards the achievement of the organization's goals. But what
is a good leader? Different people have different approaches to leadership. Some leaders
are autocratic, which means that they make all the decisions and expect their staff to simply
follow their orders. On the other hand, a democratic leader is more likely to involve staff in
decisions, to delegate and to make use of teams in the organization of work
According to Douglas McGregor, in his book The Human Side of Enterprise (published in
1960), managers tend to be divided according to their beliefs. Theory X managers think
that people are lazy, that employees need to be told what to do and have to be forced into
doing their jobs properly. In contrast, according to McGregor, Theory Y managers believe
that most people try hard to do their best, that they want to enjoy their work, and that
everyone can have good ideas. As a leader, a Theory X manager is likely to be autocratic.
A democratic leader will probably have Theory Y beliefs.
However, the style of leadership which is appropriate may depend on the situation. For
example, in a crisis, an autocratic style may be more effective because people may need
a strong leader to tell them quickly what to do. On the other hand, in a stable situation
where everyone understands their roles, and where time is not a problem, a democratic
style can work well.
It is also important to consider the relationship between leadership and teams. This is
because recently there has been an increase in democratic management techniques which
make use of team work. According to John Adair, in his book Effective Teambuilding
(1987), the task of the team leader is to:
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• know what the job is and get it done
• enable the team to work together
• allow individuals to develop their abilities
In order for a leader to lead a team successfully, according to Hooper and Potter (in The
Business of Leadership, 1997), there are some basic requirements. First, the leader must
inspire trust and respect, not fear. This can only be done if the leader is open with team
members and if the leader shows integrity. Second, the team needs to understand very
clearly what is to be done, which means that everyone must have a 'shared vision'. In other
words, orders are not imposed from above by the leader. Instead, everyone agrees the
goals. Finally, there must be very good communications between all members of the team.
Many problems in teams result from breakdowns in communication, which cause
misunderstandings.
•
Read the extract, “Leadership Styles and Organizational Performance”,
then try to find a quote to support your second ideas in the reading, and then
write it in the space below. Also, refer to the first lesson about referencing.
Text reference:
Text 2: Leadership Styles and Organizational Performance
Bhargavi, S. and Yaseen, A. 2016. Leadership Styles and Organizational Performance.
Strategic Management Quarterly. Vol. 4(1).
Autocratic Leadership
Autocratic leaders, who are also known as authoritarian leaders, provide clear
explanations for what the task is, what exactly has to be done, when the deadlines are and
the way it should be done in. This leadership style is instructions-centric and the ways of
controlling the followers. There is also a clear distinction between the leader and the
followers. Autocratic leaders make decisions independently with very few or even
sometimes no input is done by the rest of the group.
Researchers found that decision-making blocked creativity and put limits in the faces of
followers under the autocratic leadership. Lew in also found that it is more difficult to move
from the autocratic leadership style to a democratic style than from a democratic leadership
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style to the authoritarian one. The negative part of this style is that it is usually viewed as
controlling, bossy, and dictatorial (Lewin, Lippit, and White, 1939).
Autocratic leadership is best used in situations where there is a limited time for taking the
opinion of the group and making a decision or where the leader is the most knowledgeable
member of the group. The autocratic approach can be a good thing when significant and
rapid decisions are needed. However, it creates disorders and even unlikely environments
where the followers make the leader hated.
Autocratic leadership actually has some potential advantages; if leaders learn to use the
elements of the autocratic style properly. As an example, the autocratic style can be used
efficiently in cases where the leader is the most member who has knowledge in the group
or has access to information that other members of the group cannot access (Lewin, Lippit,
and White, 1939).
Democratic Leadership
Democratic leadership, also known as participative leadership, is a type of leadership style
in which members of the group take a more participative role in the decision-making
process unlike the autocratic style. Researchers have found that this leadership style is
usually one of the most effective styles and lead to higher productivity, better contributions
from group members, and increased group morale. Some of the primary features of
democratic leadership style include: group members are encouraged to share ideas and
opinions, even though the leader retains the final decision over their decisions. Also,
members of the group who feel more engaged in the process and tend to be more creative
and are encouraged and rewarded. Since group members are encouraged to share their
thoughts, democratic leadership increased the creativity and developed better ideas to
solve problems. Group members also feel more involved and committed to projects,
making them more likely to care about the end results. Democratic leadership works best
in situations where group members are skilled and eager to share their knowledge. It is
also important to have plenty of time to allow people to contribute, develop a plan and vote
on the best course of action afterwards (Lewin, Lippit, and White, 1939).
Did your first opinion of the briefing change after you read the extracts? Why?
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Use the above information and create a mind map below
Your mind map
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Task 3
It is now time for you to write your body paragraph. Refer back to your mind map.
Follow this structure:
•
•
•
•
Topic sentence: like its name, the topic sentence contains the topic or main
idea of the paragraph. It is usually the introductory sentence, which explains
briefly what the paragraph will be about.
Supporting sentences:
Quote or paraphrase (1st reading)
Support the quote
Quote or paraphrase (2nd reading)
Support the quote
Concluding sentence: This sentence concludes and sums up what the
paragraph was about. It repeats the main idea in different words.
Note that all parts of the paragraph are full sentences. Point form should not
be used.
Fill in the following table to help you:
Topic
sentence
Quote idea
1
Elaboration
on
supporting
idea 1
Quote idea 2
Elaboration
on
supporting
idea 2
Concluding
sentence
• Once you have completed this, check your ideas with a friend (if this is possible).
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Task 4
Evaluate your paragraph, using the table below.
QUESTION
YES
NO
MOTIVATE YOUR ANSWER
Does TS introduce what your
paragraph is about?
List one aspect that could make your TS better.
1)
Write down what your understanding is regarding supporting ideas
QUESTION
YES
NO
MOTIVATE YOUR ANSWER
Do you think your support is
sufficient? Does your quote and
your own idea relate to your
argument?
List two aspects that you think you can improve
1)
2)
What is meant by the term CS? What is the function of a CS?
QUESTION
YES
NO
MOTIVATE YOUR ANSWER
Does your CS round off your
paragraph and link to the topic
sentence?
Mention one thing that you could do to improve your CS.
1)
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Task 5
The final task is to add, transitional devices/ discourse markers/ linking words to
ensure the paragraph has a better ‘flow’, in other words, to ensure cohesion within the
paragraph.
•
What can you still remember about transitional devices from previous lessons?
Refer to the lessons about transitional devices and cohesion, and make sure
you include the relevant transitions.
•
Rewrite your paragraph (without the outline grid), by incorporating the
comments you made in the table, and include transitions where necessary.
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Keep this paragraph until the next online assessment opens, then upload it on
to Turnitin for 30 Marks.
Task 6
Reflection
•
What are the three main components of an academic paragraph.
Next time
The next lesson deals with the process of paraphrasing.
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LESSON 10 – THE PROCESS OF PARAPHRASING (WEEK 10)
Lesson aims:
•
•
Learn how to paraphrase complex sentences
Practise paraphrasing in academic writing
Watch the video about paraphrasing by clicking the link below or watching it directly on
Blackboard. You do not have to make notes of all the information in the video, but if
something stands out, and you would like to remember it, you can make a note in the space
below or jot down notes in your notebook:
The process of paraphrasing: http://youtube.com/watch?v=jyCMZRWo9Tg
Video notes:
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Task 1
Answer the following questions.
•
What is paraphrasing, and why is it important?
•
What is the difference between paraphrasing and summarising?
•
What tricks do you use to paraphrase texts? (Try to think of five ways).
Why do we paraphrase?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Avoid plagiarism
To improve your understanding of the work
To clarify difficult concepts
To improve your memory
Your voice is heard in your texts
Creates
connections
between
your
arguments
and
evidence
Remember to cite your sources!
When should we paraphrase?
1. To clarify a short passage from a text (A paraphrase should ALWAYS follow a direct
quote. This shows that the student understands the quote and it also ensures that
the reader understands the quote)
2. To avoid overusing quotations (No more than 10% of text may consist of quotes)
3. To explain a point when exact wording is not important
4. To explain the main points of a passage
5. To report numerical data or statistics
How to paraphrase effectively:
1. ALWAYS start by making sure that you UNDERSTAND the sentence/text you wish
to paraphrase.
2. If there is no understanding, you will not be able to apply the paraphrasing steps
effectively.
3. Once you understand the text, then you can apply various paraphrasing steps/ tools
to a text to paraphrase for use in your own work.
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4. It is advised to use at least THREE different paraphrasing steps to ensure that your
paraphrasing is effective.
5. Various paraphrasing methods will be addressed in the following lesson.
An easy 5-step process to follow to assist in this regard:
•
Have a look at the quotes on the next page. Try to put three of these quotes into your
own words.
179
Quotations
•
In your own words (paraphrase)
Was it easy or difficult to put these quotes into your own words?
180
•
What did you do to get these quotes into your own words?
Paraphrasing:
Paraphrasing involves writing a passage of an original text in your own words without
changing its meaning. In other words, you are expressing someone else’s idea in your own
words. In this way, you are showing that you understand what the author is saying. You are
also clarifying what was mentioned by a certain author.
Always remember, if you paraphrase someone else’s idea, you can still be guilty of
plagiarism, so it will still be necessary to cite the author (e.g., Mandela, 2013).
In this lesson, we are going to learn how to paraphrase academic texts making use of a set of
techniques.
The purpose of this lesson is to learn various techniques to assist you with paraphrasing.
Task 2
Look at part of the extract used in Task 2 below and paraphrase it. In other words, try to put it
into your own words. Remember that you are not trying to summarise it (i.e., make it shorter),
you are trying to put everything in the extract into your own words (i.e., the length will roughly
be the same).
Values are the standards people use to judge what is right and wrong. Values help
people to know what they should and should not do. When the values of employees and
those of their organisations are not the same, the work performance and motivation of the
employees decreases.
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Your paraphrase:
There are a few ways in which you can paraphrase.
1. Replace words with synonyms
2. Switch clauses around
3. Make an active voice sentence into the passive voice (and vice versa)
4. Break a long sentence into two sentences
5. Combine short sentences into one sentence
6. Try to find different ways of expressing information (e.g., ‘people from all over the world’
can become ‘international’ or ‘people from a variety of countries’).
Please note: You CANNOT use just one of these strategies to paraphrase. You should
be COMBINING a number of these strategies!
Today, we will focus on strategies 1 – 3, but will briefly look at 4 – 6.
Task 3
Recapping the previous lessons about skimming
•
What do you remember about skimming or scanning a text?
•
Why is skimming so important?
•
Have you already used any skimming techniques in your content courses?
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Do you find it difficult to skim for important/relevant information in your content
subjects?
•
Skim the extract below and highlight the topic sentences. Then do the activities that follow.
How people differ in the workplace
Differences in values
In the workplace, differences in values can affect how workers function effectively.
Values are closely related to culture. Values are the standards people use to judge what is
right and wrong. Values help people to know what they should and should not do. When the
values of employees and those of their organisations are not the same, the work
performance and motivation of the employees decreases. When the values of employees
and their organisations are the same, the commitment and job satisfaction of the employees
increases. These employees tend to stay in their jobs longer.
Differences in attitudes
Another important source of individual difference is a person’s attitudes. Attitudes are
feelings, beliefs and behaviours that people show towards other people or objects. Attitudes
have the following three essential dimensions or parts:



a cognitive component, which refers to what we know or believe about the person
or object,
an evaluative component, which is the extent to which we like or dislike a person or
object, and
a behavioural component, which refers to how we behave towards a person or
object.
Attitudes are similar in some ways to values and personality. They are relatively stable but
can change as a result of experiences and knowledge. They are, however, less central than
values. Usually you would have the same attitudes in the workplace as in other areas of
your life.
It is generally accepted that the most important organisational attitudes in the workplace
are job satisfaction and commitment to the organisation. Attitudes toward issues such as
diversity, safety, quality and productivity are also vitally important. If we understand how
attitudes function, we can find ways of changing them to fit what the organisation wants.
Differences in attribution
Attribution is the process by which people understand or explain other people and their
behaviour. Attributions can be internal or external. Internal attribution is used to explain
the behaviour of a person in terms of characteristics that are internal to the individual, such
as laziness, or some personality trait, such as being friendly. External attributions are
those factors that are outside the person and over which they have no control, such as luck
or the actions of powerful others. An example of an external attribution is to blame your tools
(rather than your own carelessness or lack of effort) when things go wrong.
183
Adaptation of an extract from Crafford, A., Moerdyk, A., Nel, P., O’Neill, C., Schlechter, A. & Southey, L. 2006. The Individual
in the Organisation. In Industrial Psychology: Fresh Perspectives. Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman. (53-55).
Make sure that you have selected valid topic sentences:
•
•
Do the topic sentences show the main idea of the paragraph? ____________
How many topic sentences are not located at the beginning of each paragraph?
____________
try to write the topic sentences in your own words, using the techniques you have just learned
about. Use the table below to fill in your answer.
Topic Sentence (as it appears in the text)
Paraphrase the topic sentence
In the workplace, differences in values can
affect how workers function effectively.
Another important source of individual
difference is a person’s attitudes
Attitudes are similar in some ways to values
and personality.
Attributions can be internal or external.
•
Do your paraphrased sentences look different to the original topic sentences? If so,
what was different?
•
Do your paraphrased sentences have the same meaning as the topic sentences?
Why? Why not?
Task 4
Have a look at your paraphrase in Task 2. Based on what you have learned in this lesson,
rewrite your paraphrase.
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Now choose one of the subheadings (either attitudes based on the second part under the
bulleted section, or the entire section about attributes) in the reading “How people differ
in the workplace” and try to paraphrase the first paragraph beneath it. Please note that this
will be the start of your paraphrased paragraph activity for 10 marks.
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LESSON 11 – READING TO BUILD VOCABULARY (WEEK 11)
Lesson aims:
The use of an academic vocabulary in reading
Strategies to build vocabulary
Formulating meaning beyond the surface level
•
•
•
This lesson will focus on vocabulary and word knowledge that you need as a student
to be a good reader and writer. As you might have noticed from your classes, and
this module, there are several new words that your lecturer uses and some which
you encounter in your textbook or study guide. Although some of these words would
be familiar to you and others not, it is important that you have a full understanding of
these words and how they are used so that you are able to access the information,
and clearly express your knowledge in assessments.
Task 1
Discuss the following.
•
If you think of previous lessons, do you think some words would be
considered more academic than others? Give some examples.
Look at the following words, and try to provide their general meanings:
alternative
expand
involve
environments
Which of these words were difficult to understand? Why?
continuum
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Let us try to see these words in context. Search for the abovementioned words in the
article (they are in bold) and try to see if your understanding about the word(s)
improves.
The implementation of IT in an organization can have two interrelated but distinct
effects. First, it may reduce the number of organizational members across the whole
of the organization, that is, reduce the size of the organization. Alternatively, it
may reduce or expand employment at any particular organizational level, thus
significantly altering the structure of the organization. It is the latter in which we
are interested.
Early theories argued that IT would strongly affect the nature of managerial
employment and organizational structure by removing middle management layers
in the organization and concentrating power at the top of the hierarchy (Leavitt and
Whisler 1958). Downs (1967) theorized that IT would affect the manner in which
decisions are made and decrease the number of units involved in the process.
Although Simon (1977) disagreed with Leavitt and Whisler, concluding that
computers would not alter the basic hierarchy of the organization, he, too, believed
that computers would centralize decision making.
Disagreements as to the effects of IT on middle management are mirrored in
numerous more recent studies. Some studies indicate that IT reduces the number
of middle managers (Brynjolfsson, Malone, and Gurbaxani 1988; Whisler 1970;
Hoos 1960). Others claim that IT increases the number of middle managers (Pfeffer
and Leblebici 1977; Blau et al. 1976; Meyer 1968; Lee 1964). However, little
emphasis is placed on explaining these outcomes in terms of the strength of the
economic and political environments surrounding these organizations and their
effect on employment in general. Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1993) label these
contradictory results an empirical paradox. They indicate that the paradox can be
resolved not by assessing the surrounding environment, but by considering the
interaction between the degree of centralization of both the organization's decisionmaking process and its control over IT.
Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1993 and 1997) theorize that if the organization's
decision-making process is highly centralized, middle managers' roles emphasize
information handling and routine decision making rather than more complex
decision making and other, less routine work. The implementation of IT can thus
displace these information-handling managers. If, however, middle managers are
more heavily involved in complex, nonroutine decision-making, IT can replace that
187
portion of their work that requires information and communication, freeing them for
more involvement in decision making. IT implementation in these less centralized
organizations will not displace middle management. Where middle managers have
more control over the use of IT, they will select to use that technology that reinforces
their roles, rather than that which replaces their work. The two continuums, degree
of centralization of decision making power and degree of centralization of control
over IT, interact. Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1997) find that IT is negatively
associated with the size of middle management in organizations that are highly
centralized (centralized on both continuums) and positively associated in
organizations that are highly decentralized.
Did reading the words in context, help you better understand the meaning of these
words? Why?
The Academic Word list
Below is a list of words, the majority of which can be found in The Academic
Word List (AWL) which was developed by Averil Coxhead (2000) from an
analysis of college texts. The AWL can be used by students working alone to learn
the words most needed to study at tertiary institutions. Thus, you are also
encouraged to further build your own vocabulary at your own pace this website;
https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/resources/academicwordlist could help you with this process.
188
Academic Word List (To access the complete word list, click the link in the
information/grey box).
abandon
access
accompany
accurate
achieve
acquire
adapt
adequate
adjust
administration
adult
affect
aid
alternative
amend
analyse
annual
apparent
consequent
appreciate
approach
demonstrate
depress
derive
draft
economy
edit
element
eliminate
emerge
emphasis
enable
encounter
energy
enormous
environment
equip
equivalent
error
establish
estate
estimate
evaluate
eventual
evident
evolve
exhibit
expand
expert
expose
external
factor
feature
federal
fee
file
final
final
flexible
focus
index
indicate
individual
initial
injure
input
instance
institute
intelligent
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intense
internal
interpret
interval
investigate
involve
Task 2
Read the box below about vocabulary building.
Vocabulary building strategies
Vocabulary building is an important skill for both your university career and future
working life. It is also vital to remember that this is a process which you are
responsible for developing. Thus, as a student, it is important that you have
several strategies to help you build your vocabulary and knowledge of words. In
this lesson, we will look at several strategies to help you in this process.
Note: Keep looking for new ways to build your vocabulary.
The Frayer model uses graphic organisers to help you learn different aspects of a
word and improve your vocabulary. This model has been adapted for the purpose
of this course to include the following aspects; meaning, parts of speech,
synonyms, and an example of the word in use. This will help you to know the
different aspects of a word which will make it easy to remember and use words in
context.
Complete the following activities:
•
Choose two words each which are new to you, from the AWL list above. Use
the words to complete the graphic organisers. The first one has been done
for you.
190
Meaning
Part of speech
Adj: Following as a result or
effect
N: something that follows
something else
Synonyms
Adjective/Noun
Word
Consequent
Following, resulting, subsequent
Sentence
He was imprisoned as a
consequence of the robbery that
took place last year.
Meaning
Part of speech
Word
Synonyms
Sentence
Meaning
Part of speech
Word
Synonyms
Sentence
191
Task 3
Consider some of the words below from the text and try to write these words in their
most basic form.
alternative
expansion
involvement
employment
Word families
Word families are a great way to learn new words. You can use word families to
compare and contrast words that are both familiar and unknown to you, and to
decode meaning from a word. These words are usually formed by adding affixes to
the root word.
Root/Base word: the most basic meaning of a word.
Affix: a group of letters that are added to the beginning (prefix) or the end (suffix)
of the root word that can change the word’s meaning.
Look at the following examples of suffixes you can use to form word families:
Nouns can be formed by adding: -ment, -ness, -tion, -sion, -lty, -ance, -ship, or –
hood as a suffix.
Verbs are usually formed by adding: -ed and -ing as a suffix.
192
Adjectives are usually formed by adding: -al. -ary, -ful, -ic, -cal, -less, -like, -ly, ous, or -y as a suffix to a noun or verb.
Adverbs are formed by adding –(i)ly or –y as a suffix to an adjective.
The following words are taken from the text that you went through earlier. Use your
online dictionary or app to look up the meaning of each word. Compete the table
below by filling in the missing parts of the word family. The first one has been done
as an example.
Noun
Involvement
Verb
Involve
Adjective
Involved
Adverb
involvedly
Task 4
Words in context
You would have noticed that some of the words from the Coxhead Academic
wordlist are familiar to you. This is because you tend to use these words daily as
part of your general vocabulary. However, these words may not hold the same
meaning within academic vocabulary or business vocabulary. It is important that
193
you have both meanings in mind when you are reading as this helps you to better
understand the correct meaning within the context of what the author meant.
Note: You can understand any new vocabulary term using the context around it.
Consider the main idea and the author’s purpose for the text.
Read the text. The bold words are probably familiar to you in general English.
However, can you think of a different meaning for each word in business English?
Complete the table below.
My friend walked into the bar, even though his wife was in labour. It was obvious
that he could only commit to watching his favourite soccer team at the pub, without
paying attention to the people around him. I tried having a brief conversation about
the weather and then started chatting about last night’s football match. I had hardly
finished a sentence, when he pulled out his gun and fired it twice at the ceiling,
shouting, “Shut up, I’m trying to watch the game”. The owner of the bar came
running out from his office, holding a shotgun, and ordered him to leave. After a
long pause, he got up murmuring something under his breath, and then left the
establishment.
General English
Labour
Team
Brief
Fired
Game
Running
Shotgun
Leave
Academic or Business English
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Establishment
•
Which word did you struggle with most? Why?
Try to do an Internet search for the word(s) you did not understand in a business
context. A good place to start is to type the word, then add business (e.g., running +
business).
You would have noticed from this exercise that there is a difference in meaning
between the general English use of the word, and the academic use of the word.
This is because words exist within a context. The meaning of a word is usually
embedded in the context in which you find it. Thus, it is important that as a student
you are aware of the contexts that exist when you are reading or writing.
Task 5
Making meaning above the text level
When reading an academic text, it is important to note that authors tend to use
words to try and evoke a sense of emotion from the reader by carefully selecting
certain words over others. Thus, readers can draw meaning from the text. This, in
turn, provides meaning over and above the one that can be seen in the text. In
addition, this allows readers to connect prior knowledge and experiences to the
text to make good guesses about the author’s message. This concept is known as
inferencing: the ability to connect what is in the text with what is in the mind to
create an educated guess (Beers, 2003). Making inferences is a vital
comprehension skill in academic reading and writing.
Understanding the different layers of a word helps a reader to better understand
an author, as well as to get as close as possible to an author’s intended meaning.
There are four important concepts to consider when reading academic text:
explicit and implicit meaning, as well as denotative and connotative meaning.
Take a look at the examples below;
195
Explicit: means something is stated directly and fully, made clear and stated
plainly. Also known as the primary meaning.
Implicit: means something is implied but not stated directly. This meaning is
understood because it is suggested by the choice of words or tone of voice.
Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GfpOMHkYyeg
Consider the picture below. Describe what you see explicitly in the picture, then state
what the intended meaning of the text is.
Zapiro Daily Maverick 6-12-19
Explicit description
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Implicit meaning
Denotation: The dictionary meaning of a word. It is the literal meaning of the
word, a gesture, or any mark, without emotion. Also known as the
primary meaning.
Connotation: The implied subtext of a word rather than the literal meaning. Thus
the feeling a word evokes. Also known as the secondary meaning.
Note: To help you distinguish between the two words, think of denotation as the
traveller and connotation as the baggage the traveller brings on the trip.
Denotation: The
literal word.
Connotation: the
baggage a word or
idea a person drags
around. This may be
positive or negative.
When people read between the lines, they are referring to connotation. However,
this is often held up against its more rigid friend denotation. Thus, in academic
text readers often contextualise the connotative meaning in the literal word.
197
Consider some of the words in the reading at the beginning of the lesson. Are there
any words that contain a double meaning? Write at least three words, providing both
their literal and connotative meanings.
Reflection: What have you learned about building a reading vocabulary for
academic use? Reflect on 2 aspects.
Next time
In the next lesson, you will learn how to understand the reading process, focusing
specifically on pre-reading.
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LESSON 12 – UNDERSTANDING THE READING PROCESS: FOCUS ON
PRE-READING (WEEK 12)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
Unpack the process of reading for a better understanding
Take part in the process of reading by analysing authentic academic text
Gain comprehension from reading a text as a result of following the reading process
Watch the video about the pre-reading by clicking the link below or watching it directly on
Blackboard. You do not have to make notes of all the information in the video, but if something
stands out, and you would like to remember it, you can make a note in the space below or jot
down notes in your notebook:
Introduction academic writing: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yq5BzoJvtjM
During the last reading lesson, we focused on how to read academic text by following the
reading process. Hopefully, this gave you an idea of how it helps to follow pre-while- and postreading steps during the process of reading.
Let us think a little about this for a moment. Answer these questions on your own.
•
Has following this process over the last few lessons helped you to improve the way
you read both in this class and in other classes? Explain.
•
Are you going to try following this process when you read texts in other subjects?
Explain.
Let us have a look at how to apply what you know to reading academically.
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Task 1
On your own, answer the following questions.
•
Which reading strategies have you adopted to help you cope with the reading demands at
university? Tick all those that apply.
Re-reading the text
Inferring meaning 2
Summarizing the text
Visualizing what you read
Underlining or highlighting
Asking questions about the text
Checking for understanding
Discussing the text
Making predictions about the text
Translating
Activating background knowledge
Locating keywords
Using context clues
Using a dictionary (online / paper-based)
Using graphic organisers
Taking notes
•
•
How many boxes did you tick?
Which skills do you think would be the most important?
•
Do you think that you could still be using a few more strategies to help you with
reading? Explain.
•
Which strategies would you still like to try to improve reading in this subject and other
subjects?
Task 2
Let us look at the first stage of the reading process, Pre-reading, in more detail. Read the
textbox below and answer the questions that follow.
What should you do before you read a text?
Establish a purpose for reading
Create expectations about the topic or theme of the reading
Activate prior knowledge about the text or topic
Practise pre-reading strategies: skim, scan, preview, predict
Explore text organisation and structure
We read for different purposes. Academic reading differs slightly from reading for pleasure,
although as you will see from this lesson (and the previous one, in which we analysed a
short story), there is a similar approach.
2
Inferring meaning: Making an informed guess
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When reading academic texts, your general purpose is likely to be one of the following:
to find details (facts, data, etc.) to support an argument or answer questions;
to understand ideas or theories;
to apply the reading material (use it in new situations)
to understand the author's viewpoint;
to gain background information about the topic; or
to support your own views (using citations).
Soon, you will need to read an excerpt entitled, “Circular economy - a new relationship with
our goods and materials would save resources and energy and create local jobs”. Before we
go through the steps which will help you to do this, refer to the reading in lesson 2, “Principles
for knowledge co-production in sustainability research”
Do you think the “circular economy” is the best way to move forward towards preserving
our resources? Also, explain whether you are conscientious about how you dispose of
waste products.
In what way do you think the excerpt will relate to the question you need to answer? Which
purpose(s) in the table below will inform your reading? Highlight those which apply and provide
reasons.
Reading purpose
Reason why you will need this
information
to find details (facts, data, etc.) to support an
argument or answer questions
to understand ideas or theories
to apply the reading material (use it in new
situations)
to understand the author's viewpoint;
to gain background information about the
topic
to support your own views (using citations).
Now have a look at the text below (Do not read it yet) and then answer the questions that
follow. We will come back to this reading in another lesson. Skim the text: Look at the title,
headings, subheadings, words in bold, diagrams, number of paragraphs, and the first
sentence of every paragraph. You do not have to read every word.
Circular economy
A new relationship with our goods and materials would save resources and
energy and create local jobs
© 2016 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved
W
hen my battered 1969 Toyota car approached the age of 30, I decided that her body
deserved to be remanufactured. After 2 months and 100 hours of work, she returned home in
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her original beauty. “I am so glad you finally bought a new car,” my neighbour remarked.
Quality is still associated with newness not with caring, long-term use as undesirable, not
resourceful.
Cycles, such as of water and nutrients, abound in nature — discards become resources for
others. Yet humans continue to ‘make, use, dispose’. One-third of plastic waste globally is
not collected or managed.
There is an alternative. A ‘circular economy’ would turn goods that are at the end of their
service life into resources for others, closing loops in industrial ecosystems and minimizing
waste (see ‘Closing loops’). It would change economic logic because it replaces production
with sufficiency: reuse what you can, recycle what cannot be reused, repair what is broken,
remanufacture what cannot be repaired. A study of seven European nations found that a shift
to a circular economy would reduce each nation’s greenhouse-gas emissions by up to 70%
and grow its workforce by about 4% — the ultimate low-carbon economy (see
go.nature.com/biecsc).
The concept grew out of the idea of substituting manpower for energy, first described 40
years ago in a report to the European Commission by me and Geneviève Reday- Mulvey
while we were at the Battelle Research Centre in Geneva, Switzerland. The early 1970s saw
rising energy prices and high unemployment. As an architect, I knew that it took more labour
and fewer resources to refurbish buildings than to erect new ones. The principle is true for
any stock or capital, from mobile phones to arable land and cultural heritage.
Circular-economy business models fall in two groups: those that foster reuse and extend
service life through repair, remanufacture, upgrades and retrofits; and those that turn old
goods into as-new resources by recycling the materials. People — of all ages and skills —
are central to the model. Ownership gives way to stewardship; consumers become users and
creators. The remanufacturing and repair of old goods, buildings and infrastructure creates
skilled jobs in local workshops. The experiences of workers from the past are instrumental.
Yet a lack of familiarity and fear of the unknown mean that the circular-economy idea has
been slow to gain traction. As a holistic concept, it collides with the silo structures of
academia, companies and administrations. For economists who work with gross domestic
product (GDP), creating wealth by making things last is the opposite of what they learned in
school. GDP measures a financial flow over a period of time; circular economy preserves
physical stocks. But concerns over resource security, ethics and safety as well as greenhousegas reductions are shifting our approach to seeing materials as assets to be preserved, rather
than continually consumed.
In the past decade, South Korea, China and the United States have started research
programmes to foster circular economies by boosting remanufacturing and reuse. Europe is
taking baby steps. The Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research (Mistra)
and the EU Horizon 2020 programme published their first call for circular-economy
proposals in 2014. The European Commission submitted a Circular Economy Package to the
European Parliament last December. Since 2010, the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, founded
by the round-the-world yachtswoman, has been boosting awareness of the idea in
manufacturers and policymakers. And circular-economy concepts have been successfully
applied on small scales since the 1990s in eco-industrial parks such as the Kalundborg
Symbiosis in Denmark, and in companies that include Xerox (selling modular goods as
services), Caterpillar (remanufacturing used diesel engines) and USM Modular Furniture.
Selling services rather than goods is familiar in hotels and in public transport; it needs to
become mainstream in the consumer realm.
Few researchers are taking note. Excellence in metallurgical and chemical sciences is a
precondition for a circular economy to succeed. Yet there is too little research on finding
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ways to disassemble material blends at the atomic level. The body of a modern car
incorporates more than a dozen steel and aluminium alloys, each of which needs to be
retrieved.
Circular-economy knowledge is concentrated in big industries and dispersed across small–
medium enterprises (SMEs). It must be brought into academic and vocational training. A
broad ‘bottom up’ movement will emerge only if SMEs can hire graduates who have the
economic and technical know-how to change business models. Governments and regulators
should adapt policy levers, including taxation, to promote a circular economy in industry.
And scientists should scan the horizon for innovations that could be patented and licensed to
pave the way for greater leaps in splitting up molecules to recycle atoms.
SYSTEMS THINKING
There are three kinds of industrial economy: linear, circular and performance. A linear
economy flows like a river, turning natural resources into base materials and products for sale
through a series of value-adding steps. At the point of sale, ownership and liability for risks
and waste pass to the buyer (who is now owner and user). The owner decides whether old
tyres will be reused or recycled — as sandals, ropes or bumpers — or dumped. The linear
economy is driven by ‘bigger-better-faster-safer’ syndrome — in other words, fashion,
emotion and progress. It is efficient at overcoming scarcity, but profligate at using resources
in often-saturated markets. Companies make money by selling high volumes of cheap and
sexy goods.
A circular economy is like a lake. The reprocessing of goods and materials generates jobs and
saves energy while reducing resource consumption and waste. Cleaning a glass bottle and
using it again is faster and cheaper than recycling the glass or making a new bottle from
minerals. Vehicle owners can decide whether to have their used tyres repaired or regrooved
or whether to buy new or rethreaded replacements — if such services exist. Rather than being
dumped, used tyres are collected by waste managers and sold to the highest bidder.
A performance economy goes a step further by selling goods (or molecules) as services
through rent, lease and share business models. The manufacturer retains ownership of the
product and its embodied resources and thus carries the responsibility for the costs of risks
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and waste. In addition to design and reuse, the performance economy focuses on solutions
instead of products, and makes its profits from sufficiency, such as waste prevention.
For example, Michelin has since 2007 sold tyre use ‘by the mile’ to operators of vehicle fleets.
The company has developed mobile workshops to repair and regroove tyres at clients’
premises and aims to develop products with longer service lives. Worn tyres are sent to
Michelin’s regional plants for rethreading and reuse. The Swiss company Elite uses the same
strategy for hotel mattresses, and textile-leasing companies offer uniforms, hotel and hospital
textiles and industrial wipes as a service.
Conventional waste management is driven by minimizing the costs of collection and disposal
— landfill versus recycling or incineration. In a circular economy, the objective is to
maximize value at each point in a product’s life. New jobs will be created and systems are
needed at each step.
Commercial markets and collection points are needed for users and manufacturers to take
back, bring back or buy back discarded garments, bottles, furniture, computer equipment and
building components. Goods that can be reused may be cleaned and re-marketed; recyclables
are dismantled and the parts are classified according to their residual value. Worn parts are
sold for remanufacturing, broken ones for recycling. These markets used to be common —
milk and beer bottles and old iron were once collected regularly from homes. Some have reemerged as digital global market places, such as eBay.
Professional marketplaces (perhaps online) also need to be set up for the exchange of used
parts, such as electric motors, bearings and microchips. Even components of liquid waste,
such as lubrication and cooking oils or phosphorus from sewage, can be refined and resold.
Scientists should re-market rather than dump their used kit.
Stewardship rules are needed for used goods. Austria is a world leader in this area.
Collecting and reusing ‘waste’ are labour intensive and expensive, but they have been
fostered in the nation through taxation changes and by recouping costs through re-marketing
rather than scrapping parts.
The ultimate goal is to recycle atoms. This is already done for some metals. The Brusselsbased company Umicore extracts gold and copper from electronic waste. The Swiss firm
Batrec removes zinc and ferromanganese from batteries. These processes are energyintensive and recover the metals only partly. To close the recovery loop we will need new
technologies to de-polymerize, de-alloy, de-laminate, de-vulcanize and de-coat materials.
Methods and equipment are needed to deconstruct infrastructure and high-rise buildings.
For example, the ANA InterContinental hotel in Tokyo was demolished in 2014 beneath a
‘turban’ that was lowered hydraulically floor by floor to minimize noise and dust emissions.
A vertical shaft with a goods lift in the middle of the building allowed the deconstructors to
recover components and sort materials while using the lift as a generator.
Services liberate users from the burden of ownership and maintenance and give them
flexibility. Examples include: ‘power by the hour’ for jet and gas turbines; bike and car
rentals; laundromats and machine-hire shops. Fleet managers benefit from resource security
— the goods of today become the resources of tomorrow at yesterday’s prices. Covering the
costs of risk and waste within the price of use or hire provides economic incentives to prevent
loss and waste over the lifetimes of systems and products.
SOCIETAL TREND
The circular economy is part of a trend towards intelligent decentralization — witness 3D
printing, mass customization of manufacturing, ‘labs-on-a-chip’ in chemistry and functional
services. The French car-sharing service Autolib offers people flexible, hassle-free urban
mobility by using small electric cars that have low maintenance costs and can be recharged
in reserved parking spaces throughout Paris. Such business models jeopardize the
204
fundamentals of the linear economy — ownership, fashion and emotion — and raise fears in
competing companies. For example, car manufacturers’ strengths of mass production,
patented technologies in combustion engines and gearboxes, big investments in robotic factories and global supply and marketing chains are of little use when competing with local
Autolib services.
Public procurement can exploit the potential of the performance economy. Yet despite some
successes, governments remain hesitant. NASA decided a decade ago to buy space transport
services, leading to start-up companies such as SpaceX competing for contracts using
innovative, cheap and reusable equipment. Assigning maintenance costs to the private
constructor of the Millau Viaduct in the south of France led the tenderer, Eiffage
Construction, to develop a structure that could be erected quickly and would have minimal
maintenance and liability costs over its 75-year service life.
TIPPING POINTS
Realizing a circular economy will take concerted action on several fronts. Research and
innovation are needed at all levels — social, technological and commercial. Economists and
environmental and materials scientists need to assess the ecological impacts and costs and
benefits of products. Designing products for reuse needs to become the norm, making use of
modular systems and standardized components, for instance. More research is needed to
convince businesses and governments that a circular economy is feasible.
Communication and information strategies are needed to raise the awareness of
manufacturers and the public about their responsibility for products throughout their service
lives. For instance, it should be fashion magazines, not science journals, that bang the drum
about jewellery sharing, leased jeans and rental designer handbags.
Policymakers should use ‘resource-miser’ indicators such as value-per-weight and labourinput-per-weight ratios rather than GDP. Policies should focus on performance, not hardware;
internalization of external costs, such as emissions and pollution, should be rewarded;
stewardship should overrule ownership and its right to destroy. The Internet of Things (in
which everyday objects are digitally connected) and Industry 4.0 (intelligent technical
systems for mass production) will boost such a shift, but also demand a policy review that
considers questions of ownership and liability of data and goods.
Policies should promote activities that are desired by society and punish those that are not.
Taxes should be raised on the consumption of non-renewable resources, not on renewable
resources including human labour. Value-added tax (VAT) should be levied on value-added
activities, such as mining, construction and manufacturing, but not on value-preserving stock
management activities such as reuse, repair and remanufacture. Carbon credits should be
given to emissions prevention at the same rate as to reduction.
Societal wealth and well-being should be measured in stock instead of flow, in capital
instead of sales. Growth then corresponds to a rise in the quality and quantity of all stocks —
natural, cultural, human and manufactured. For example, sustainable forestry management
augments natural capital, deforestation destroys it; recovering phosphorus or metals from
waste streams maintains natural capital, but dumping it increases pollution; retrofitting
buildings reduces energy consumption and increases the quality of built stock.
Marrying the three types of economy is a formidable challenge. A shift in policy focus from
protecting the environment to promoting business models that are based on full ownership
and liability, and that are unlimited in time, rather than imposing a two-year warranty for
manufacturing quality, could transform a nation’s competitiveness. IN
NOVATION
Adaptation of an extract from
https://doi.org/10.1038/531435a
Stahel,
W.R.
2016.
The
circular
economy.
Nature
531:435–438.
205
•
Predict what you think the text will be about. Predicting helps the reader to engage
with the text and anticipate possible content. Write down 2 or 3 predictions either in the
form of questions or short phrases.
•
Tabulate or list your predictions about the text (or use a graphic organiser, e.g. brainstorm,
a mind map to show your predictions). Your notes do not have to be in full sentences, they
can be key phrases, ideas, keywords etc. Make sure your list / graphic organiser contains
the main theme or topic, the main ideas of the text, supporting ideas, definitions, concept
words or short phrases.
Now read the information box below.
Why do we skim texts before reading
You need the “big picture” or main points when you are reading. Even if you are going to do
a more detailed reading of the text, skimming as a form of previewing can help you better
comprehend what you read. Knowing when and how to skim will help you become a more
efficient, strategic reader. Sometimes you do not have time to do everything. With skimming,
you will be able to cover vast amounts of material more quickly and save time for everything
else that you have on your plate. Maybe you do not have time to finish your reading before
class, but skimming will help you get the main points and attend class much more prepared
to maximize in-class learning.
For more information visit: https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/skimming/
Next time
In the next semester, we deal with how to access your facilitator’s feedback on your first
paragraph draft.
206
LESSON 13 – ACCESSING YOUR FACILITATOR’S FEEDBACK (WEEK 13)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
•
Follow facilitator feedback from a first draft of a paragraph
Engage in activities to improve writing (organisation and content)
Type out a second draft, and self-edit this draft using a checklist
Hand in a final draft on Turnitin (35 marks)
We are now at the brink of the final stage of writing an assignment. Again, keep in mind that
this process, as well as the stage which will happen today in class, is something you can
replicate and repeat for assignments in other classes.
Well done, if you managed to hand in all your work to this point, as well as completing all the
activities which led here. Handing in work and participating will help to achieve your goals in
this course and other subjects.
Let us have a look at your facilitator’s feedback. Without this, or without following this, you
cannot proceed to a better mark or improve your writing.
Task 1: Incorporating facilitator feedback into your work
Your facilitator has given you feedback on draft 1 and explained how you can improve. In the
space provided write down the following:
•
On my written work, what are the main areas I need to improve on? (Try to arrange
these in order of importance). Refer to higher and lower-order issues in the
previous lesson.
207
Were points of feedback like what you have received before, or have you improved?
Explain.
•
Was there anything you did not understand about your facilitator’s written feedback?
•
If you read through your work again, can you see what your facilitator means now? (In
other words, can you work out what your facilitator meant with their comments?)
•
Write down, in the box below, the most important comments made by your facilitator
(take notes, using the methods taugh previously).
Facilitator Feedback on Writing
208
•
Use a highlighter to mark the most important points.
Task 2
Below, you will find two examples of students’ paragraphs. Read each paragraph on your own.
Underline mistakes as you read.
Example A
What does marketing involve? and why is it so important?
Customer satisfaction is the main goal for marketing. “a business has to satisfy
customers’ needs if it is going to make a profit”. For any business to make a good profit
and a great success of their business, they have to make sure that the needs of their
customers are taken care of and that they are satisfied with the service. Marketing should
focus on what the customers are interested in and they should make it a priority to provide
the customers with the goods that they want. A satisfied customer will lead to the business
making a good profit and keeping as well as attracting potentially new customers to the
business.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dictionary, B., 2017. BusinessDictionary. [Online]
Walker,C.& Harvey,P. 2008. English for Business Studies.Garnet Publishing.Lt
•
Is this a good paragraph? Why/Why not?
•
Other than grammatical errors, what organisation and content mistakes did you find?
209
•
Now read the next paragraph, and underline mistakes along the way.
Example B
The importance of marketing in a changing environment.
The main aim of any business is to make a profit and to improve the financial performance
of the business. According to Moorman & Rust (1999:195) "The extent to which the
marketing function manages these connections, contribute to financial performance.” The
financial performance of a business is dependent on how all the aspects of marketing are
linked together. Therefore, without marketing the available product or service, there will be
no customer or sales or profit. As a result, marketing has become a function that is involved
in the all aspect of the business from the start to the end.
•
Is this a good paragraph? Why/Why not?
•
Other than grammatical errors, what organisation and content mistakes did you find?
•
When it comes to organisation and content, what have you learned from these
students’ paragraphs?
Do
Organisation
Don’t
210
Content
•
Also, comment on referencing. What mistakes did the students make? List as many
problems as possible. Also, list what the students did correctly. Here are some
questions to help you:
Were the sources used reliable/credible?
Are citations correct (see referencing lesson to help you)?
Is the reference list complete and in alphabetical order?
Student A
Incorrect
Proof of
statistics
Quoting
Correct
Student B
Incorrect
Correct
211
Reference
List
Task 3 Grammar Focus
In the previous task, you also had to point out grammatical mistakes. In the table below, list
the worst mistakes from each paragraph. Use the editing symbols provided. It does not
matter if you are unfamiliar with some of these terms – just identify what you can at this
stage.
A
B
Transitions (Tr)
Word Choice (wc)
Tense problems (T)
Repetition (Rep)
Redundancy (R)
Missing words (mw)
Word Form (wf)
Wrong word (ww)
Subject-verb agreement (s-v)
Run-on sentences (RO)
Fragments (Frag)
Spelling (sp)
Punctuation (p)
Capitalization problems (C)
Add any others you can think of
•
Decide which mistakes cause confusion and lack of clarity. Highlight these above.
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What are ways to improve mistakes like spelling, punctuation and capitalisation?
•
Go back to the examples and do the following:
Circle all the times these students, used “I” at the beginning of a sentence.
Try to think of ways these students could have avoided using “I” too many times.
Correct this in each paragraph.
Highlight all the transitions.
Did the students always use the correct transition? Make corrections where necessary.
Correct as many mistakes as possible in both paragraphs.
•
•
•
•
•
Task 4
You will now write a second draft. Think about everything you have done in this lesson so far
to help you as well. In the box below, write down four major points you need to improve on
(think of outline and draft 1 feedback, as well as what you have just learnt).
My own checklist for today
Now, follow these steps to write draft 2 on a new Word document (which will be completed
and submitted on Turnitin).
Task 6:
NB: After using the above checklists as well as the one below, you need to hand in
Draft 2 on Turnitin for 35 marks.
•
Use the checklist below to self-edit your first draft.
213
Make sure of the following in your own work.
Comment
Do you feel that you have followed as much
feedback as possible, as well as all the
instructions?
Is everything clear? Does everything make
sense? What can be made clearer?
Was everything on topic?
Has the question been answered?
Is the content good? Is it interesting? How can
it be improved?
Referencing: is in-text referencing correct?
Referencing: Is the reference list correct?
Are you sure that there is no plagiarism in this
document?
Organisation: does this assignment follow a
proper structure with an introduction, body
paragraphs and conclusion?
Does your text flow logically? Did you make
use of appropriate transitions?
Organisation: does each paragraph have a topic
sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding
sentence?
Grammar: spelling, punctuation, run-on sentences,
word use etc.
Do you believe you have checked your work,
and it is the best you can do?
Next time
In the next semester, we will start with the different methods of paraphrasing.
EALE 1508: CURRICULUM: LESSON PLAN OUTLINE FOR SECOND SEMESTER
214
Lessons
Aims
Week 1 - Orientation
•
•
•
•
•
Go through the 2nd -semester study guide
Preparation
Expectations
Assessments
Paraphrasing continues
Week 3 - Lesson 15:
Brainstorming and introductory
paragraphs
•
•
Recognise the different components of an introduction
Identify and understand the purpose of the different components of an
introduction
Apply the knowledge gained about how to write an introduction
Week 4 - Lesson 16: Thesis or
Purpose statement
•
•
•
•
•
Week 2 - Lesson 14: Different
methods for paraphrasing
Week 5 & 6 - Lesson 17: Writing a
body paragraph
Week 7 - Lesson 18: Concluding
paragraphs
Week 8 - Lesson 19: Putting it
together
Week 9 - Lesson 20: Hedging
Week 10 - Lesson 21:
Argumentation
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Week 11 - Lesson 22: Making
contributions to a seminar
•
•
•
Week 12 - Lesson 23: Accessing
your facilitator’s feedback
•
•
•
•
Week 13- Test written in class –
submitted later on Turnitin
Week 14 – Presentations (lesson
10) and Revision
Define a thesis statement or purpose statement
Recognise a thesis or purpose statement
Understand the purpose of a thesis or purpose statement
Formulate and write a good thesis or purpose statement
Revise the structure of an academic body paragraph and its three main
parts
Unpack a paragraph prompt
Write a well-structured body paragraph
Achieve coherence and cohesion within a paragraph
Recognise the different components of a conclusion
Identify and understand the purpose of the different components of a
conclusion
Write an essay conclusion
Understanding the essay’s outline
Complete an outline for an essay
Write a first draft of an essay
To become aware of hedging, and the reasons for hedging
To consider situations in which it is appropriate to make cautious or
strong claims in academic writing
To learn language and techniques for softening or strengthening claims
Understand how to argue a point of view
Apply Grice’s Maxims to writing
Ensure correct structure in paragraphs which allows for good
argumentation (with topic, supporting and concluding sentences)
Understand how to successfully conduct a seminar
Recognise certain phrases used in a seminar
Report ideas after a team discussion
Follow facilitator feedback from a first draft of an assignment
Engage in activities to improve writing (organisation and content)
Type out a second draft, and self-edit this draft using a checklist
Hand in a final draft on Turnitin
Presentations (lesson 10) and Revision
215
ASSESSMENT OUTLINE
Semester 2
Assessment type
Mark allocation
MReader quizzes
4 x 5 = 20 marks
iCAN quizzes
4 x 5 = 20 marks
Grammar course
40 marks
Essay: Draft 1
30 marks
Essay: Draft 2
35 marks
Blackboard activities
3 x 10 = 30 marks
Academic engagement (class attendance)
20 marks
Class assessment
20 marks
Essay Test
30 marks
Total
245 marks
216
LESSON 14 – DIFFERENT METHODS FOR PARAPHRASING (WEEK 2)
Lesson aims:
•
•
Learn about different paraphrasing techniques
Paraphrase a given text using the techniques you learned throughout the
two lessons.
Review
What techniques can you remember from the first lesson that will assist you in paraphrasing
a given text? Watch the next video and add it to your list if required.
This lesson is based on a continuation of the previous one. Here, you will be required to
paraphrase a given text using the techniques you learned throughout the two lessons.
Watch the video about paraphrasing by clicking the link below or watching it directly on
Blackboard. You do not have to make notes of all the information in the video, but if something
stands out, and you would like to remember it, you can make a note in the space below or jot
down notes in your notebook:
The process of paraphrasing: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oiM0x0ApVL8
Video notes:
217
Task 1: Using synonyms and different word forms
Study the nouns taken from the extract and complete the table below by answering the
following questions.
•
•
•
•
What is the verb form of each word?
What is the adjective form of each word?
What is the contextual meaning of each word? (i.e., in a different setting, words can
mean different things – if you think of the reading, what meaning did the author intend?)
What synonym can you give for each word?
Nouns
Verb
Adjective
Contextual
meaning
Synonym
Organisation
Satisfaction
Behaviour
Diversity
Student A has paraphrased a part of the extract by changing the form of certain words. Student
B has paraphrased part of the extract by using synonyms. Answer the questions about the
students’ paraphrasing before attempting your own paraphrase in the table below.
Sentence
the text
from When the values of employees and those of their organisations
are not the same, the work performance and motivation of the
employees decreases.
Student A
When the valuables of employers and those of their organise are not
the sameness, the worker performs and motivates of the employ
decrease.
Student B
When the prices of servants and those of their bodies are not the
identical, the grind show and impulse of the forces shrinks.
Own paraphrase
•
Did the students above paraphrase correctly? Explain why or why not.
218
•
Do you think that using only synonyms or only changing word form is classified as
paraphrasing? Why?
•
Now provide your paraphrase of the sentence in the space provided in the table
above.
Task 2: Switching clauses around
We can paraphrase a sentence by switching around the clauses in a sentence. Before we see
examples of this, let us first recap some key grammar structures.
Quick review: Components of a sentence
•
Main subject: refers to the main idea, which is usually at the beginning of a
sentence.
•
Main verb: refers to the action or state of being of the main subject. It is usually
located straight after the main subject.
•
Main object/compliment is an object/idea to which the action is happening. Usually
located after the verb.
Example of basic sentence structure:
All the people at the gathering + discussed + politics throughout the night.
S
V
O
Please note when it comes to complex sentences, it is always a good idea to first identify
the main sentence.
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•
Embedded clause: refers to an incomplete sentence that is located either before a
complete sentence (participle clause) or in between a complete sentence (relative
clause) or after a complete sentence.
o
Example of a sentence with a participle clause: As well as eating all the
food, all the people at the gathering discussed politics throughout the night.
o
Example of a sentence with a relative clause: All the people at the
gathering, who 3 were from all over the world, discussed politics throughout
the night.
Please note: Clauses are incomplete sentences that are embedded in complete sentences.
In other words, if you remove a clause from a sentence, the sentence will still make
grammatical sense.
•
Adverbial phrase: shows when, where, how, or why something happens
Example of a sentence with an adverbial phrase:
At the parliamentary building 4, all the people at the gathering discussed politics throughout
the night.
1. Look at the sentences below, and find the subject, verb, and object/compliment for each
one. Also, identify the embedded clauses, and insert them into the table below. For now, leave
out the “Own Paraphrase” section in the table below, until you have completed question 2.
a. Attribution is the process by which people understand or explain other people and their
behaviour.
b. Internal attribution is used to explain the behaviour of a person in terms of
characteristics that are not internal to the individual.
c. External attributions are those factors that are outside the person and over which they
have no control.
Main Subject
Main
verb
Main
object/compliment
Embedded clauses
a
An embedded clause contains a relative pronoun (that, which, who, whose, where, when). The example above
shows the relative pronoun “who”, which elaborates on the main subject, ‘All the people’.
4
The auxiliary phrase in this particular sentence indicates the location of the main subject (“where”).
3
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Own Paraphrase: (complete this section only at the end of question 2 below):
b
Own Paraphrase: (complete this section only at the end of question 2 below):
c
Own Paraphrase (complete this section only at the end of question 2 below):
2. Student A and B have attempted to paraphrase a part of the text by rearranging clauses in
the sentence.
Sentence
the text
from When the values of employees and those of their organisations
are not the same, the work performance and motivation of the
employees decreases.
Student A
The work performance and motivation of the employees decreases
when the values of employees and those of their organisation are not
the same.
Student B
Work performance and motivation is not the same as when the values
of employees and those of the organisation are decreased.
•
Which do you think is the better paraphrase? Explain why.
•
Do you think that only rearranging the sentence is classified as paraphrasing? Why?
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3. Now, go back to the table in question 1 of Task 2. Paraphrase sentences a-c by rearranging
clauses. Fill this in on the table in the space provided.
Task 3: Active and passive voice
Study the following sentences again from Task 2, and pay attention to the main
clause of each sentence (the underlined parts refer to the main clause, which is a
complete sentence):
o
Example of a sentence with a participle clause: As well as eating all the
food, all the people at the gathering discussed politics throughout the night.
o
Example of a sentence with a relative clause: All the people at the
gathering, who were from all over the world, discussed politics throughout
the night.
Active voice: In a sentence written in the active voice, the subject of a sentence performs
the action.
Example of active voice:
All the people at the gathering discussed politics throughout the night.
S
V
O
Passive voice: In a sentence written in the passive voice the subject receives the action.
Example of passive voice (pay attention to the form of the underlined verb when changing
the sentence to passive voice):
Politics was discussed by all the people at the gathering.
O
V
S
1. Look at the sentences taken from the previous task, and find the subject, verb and
object/compliment for each main clause by underlining them. In the spaces, change each
main clause from active to passive.
a. Attribution is the process by which people understand or explain other people and their
behaviour.
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b. Internal attribution is used to explain the behaviour of a person in terms of
characteristics that are not internal to the individual.
c. External attributions are those factors that are outside the person and over which they
have no control.
Look at the following sentence taken from the reading in Task 3.
It is generally accepted that the most important organisational attitudes in the workplace are
job satisfaction and commitment to the organisation.
Look at how Student A paraphrased each sentence:
Job satisfaction and commitment to the organisation are generally accepted as being the
most important organisational attitudes in the workplace.
What do you notice about Student A’s paraphrase?
Now, look at the following sentences and convert them either from the passive voice to the
active voice or vice versa:
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•
Usually, you would have the same attitudes in the workplace as in other areas of your
life.
•
We can find ways of changing attitudes to fit what the organisation wants.

A cognitive component refers to what we know or believe about the person or object.
•
Values can change as a result of experience and knowledge.
Task 4
Look at the extract below and the example of a student’s good paraphrase. Why is this a good
example?
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ORIGINAL TEXT:
People come in many different sizes, shapes and colors and have different belief systems
and ways of doing things. In the workplace, we need to understand which differences are
important and which are unimportant so that we can make the best use of people at work.
In South Africa we have a history of Apartheid and discrimination. Today, we have to ask
ourselves why we should look at differences rather than at those things we have in common.
The truth is that the little things that make us different can be very important. They affect
what we can do, what we want to do and how we do it. Although too much attention was
paid in the past to differences, and not enough to the things we have in common, it is still
very important that we understand how and why people differ.
STUDENT B’S PARAPHRASE
We are all different and we come in various shapes, colours and sizes. We even have
different belief systems and ways of doing things and this is true of the workplace too. Thus,
it is vital to reach an understanding of which differences are important in order to make the
most out of these in an organisation. South Africa has a history of discrimination as a result
of Apartheid, however in this day and age, we can look at those factors we have in common
as well as those which make us different. Knowing our differences means knowing our
different abilities, strengths and talents. Therefore, even though there was too much focus
on difference in the past, it is still crucial to understand each other’s differences and how
this causes us to function.
Task 5
Look at the paraphrase that you wrote about either attitudes or attributes in lesson 2, Task
4. Now, go back and rewrite it based on what you have learned today. You may copy and
paste it in the box below to help you; edit your work following these strategies. Your
paraphrase will later be assessed for 10 marks on Turnitin.
1. Replace words with synonyms
2. Switch around clauses
3. Make an active voice sentence into the passive voice (and vice versa)
4. Break a long sentence into two sentences
5. Combine short sentences into one sentence
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6. Try to find different ways of expressing information (e.g., ‘people from all over the world’
can become ‘international’ or ‘people from a variety of countries’).
Your paraphrase from lesson 1:
Your new paraphrase:
Task 6
Have a look at your paraphrase from Task 4 and compare it with the original text.
•
Does your paraphrase mean the same as the original text?
•
What techniques did you use to paraphrase?
•
Is there anything else you can do to improve your paraphrasing?
226
Next time
In the next lesson, you will learn how to brainstorm an essay topic and write an
introduction for an academic essay.
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LESSON 15 – BRAINSTORMING AND INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPHS
(WEEK 3)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
Recognise the different components of an introduction
Identify and understand the purpose of the different components of an introduction
Apply the knowledge gained about how to write an introduction
Watch the video about the components of an introductory paragraph by clicking the link below
or watching it directly on Blackboard. You do not have to make notes of all the information in
the video, but if something stands out, and you would like to remember it, you can make a
note in the space below or jot down notes in your notebook:
The process of paraphrasing: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=msaynBwwxkA
Video notes:
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Before we start, look at the entire essay outline. Take note of how the introduction
connects with the rest of the essay
Essay Structure:
Outline
Introduction
Essay title (1)
Background information
(Introduce the Topic) (1)
Broad/general info about topic Definitions/ stats/ historical info/
current affairs
Thesis Statement
(Topic + Opinion) (2)
Topic as per the prompt + your position/argument/stance in
regard to the topic (Keep it general)
Road map (main ideas in
body paragraphs) (1)
What reasons will you provide to prove the THS?
Topics of your body paragraphs
Topic Sentence (Main Idea)
(2)
Body Paragraph One
(Argument 1)
Supporting Sentence 1 (1)
Supporting Sentence 2 (1)
Supporting Sentence 3 (1)
Supporting Sentence 4 (1)
Concluding Sentence (1)
Topic Sentence (Main Idea)
(2)
Body Paragraph Two
(Argument 2)
Supporting Sentence 1 (1)
Supporting Sentence 2 (1)
Supporting Sentence 3 (1)
Supporting Sentence 4 (1)
Concluding Sentence (1)
Topic as per the road map + comment (Why/how)
1st fact supporting the topic sentence in the form of a Quote + intext ref
Explanation of the quote in your own words
2nd fact supporting the topic sentence in the form of a
paraphrase + in-text ref
Another fact/ an example
Paraphrase the topic sentence
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Restate your position (1)
Conclusion
Summary of reasons (1)
Paraphrase the thesis statement. Do not lose important
information when paraphrasing.
Reflects on road map.
Give a summary of body paragraphs. Use the topic sentences as a
id final thought would you like to leave your reader with?
What
Clincher (Conclude with your
Rhetorical question/ make a prediction/ make a recommendation/
opinion) (1)
suggest further research/ Connect to background information.
Reference List (2) Two references per paragraph
Task 1
Answer the following questions:
•
What do you think is the purpose of an introduction paragraph of an essay?
•
Do you think there is a difference between a body paragraph (as discussed in the first
semester) and an introductory paragraph of an academic essay? What do you think is
the difference?
230
Task 2
Let us reflect on a topic that you are already familiar with regarding the circular economy.
Write an introduction for the following topic in the space below (the topic is similar to the
previous semester’s paragraph test).
Is a circular economy a viable alternative to a linear economy? Explain and
provide two reasons for your stance.
Make use of the three articles at the back of your study guides for assistance. You
should already be familiar with two of these articles. After going through the articles,
discuss in groups of 4 what your learnt from each article, then answer the brief
below.
Before writing your introduction, let us recap the writing process…
Step 1: Activate BG knowledge
Watch the following clip about how the circular economy is replacing the linear
economy, and make notes:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=akBWuYo6QXQ
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Step 2: Deconstruct the prompt
When deconstructing the prompt, three different key words must be identified:
•
•
•
Content words (What is the topic?)
Task words (What words tell you how to answer the prompt?)
Limiting words (Any other instructions that may restrict your scope)
Step 3: Formulate research questions
Write down questions that will guide your research process once you start engaging
with the texts in the back of your guides.
What/Why/How/To what extent- type of questions should be asked
Step 4: Scan a text (Look for answers)
Use your research questions to guide your reading process.
Look for the answers to your questions in the topic sentences.
Also use the headings/graphics and any info that stands out to determine if the text
will provide answers, you are looking for.
Now, after going through the articles, discuss in groups of 4 what you learnt
from each article.
232
Step 5: Begin the writing process
Start by drawing a mind map in the space below (refer to the essay outline for guidance
regarding the information that should form part of your mind map):
Once you have completed your mind map you can go back to the beginning of task 2
and write your introduction.
REMEMBER:
Your introduction should have the following components:
Background information (Introduce the reader to the essay topic)
Thesis/goal statement (What is your position/argument regarding the prompt?)
Roadmap (What evidence do you plan to provide to prove your argument?)
Step 6: Review (Does the content make sense? Is the prompt answered?)
Step 7: Edit (Sentence level issues/ grammar)
Study and discuss the brief in groups of four, then create a mind map (below) that
shows the topic/argument (Thesis statement) and the two ideas (roadmap) that you
will use for evidence.
233
Your mind map
234
Reflecting on your mind map, write an introduction for the above topic in the outline below.
Background information
(Introduce the Topic) (1)
Thesis Statement
(Topic + Opinion) (2)
Introduction
Road map (main ideas in
body paragraphs) (1)
Task 3
Look at your introduction, and provide yourself with feedback on the following questions:
How clearly written is my introduction?
Is it clear to me what my essay will be about?
Is my answer to the assignment brief or the aim of my essay clear?
Have I given my reader any background information?
Is my introduction cohesive (i.e., have I used transitions/discourse markers/linking
words?)
•
•
•
•
•
What is an introductory paragraph in an academic essay:
•
•
•
The introduction to an essay is very important.
It is the FIRST paragraph that the reader reads and 'grabs' the attention of the
reader.
It is clearly written and provides some background on the main topic, highlights the
purpose of the essay and indicates to the reader what to expect in the rest of
the essay.
Thus,
•
An essay introduction is your roadmap for the entire essay, which states your
answer/purpose for the essay, sets the tone, and outlines the structure of the entire
essay you are going to present to your reader.
235
An introductory paragraph of an academic essay consists of the following
components:
•
Background information (BG info) regarding the topic: To provide the reader with
some relevant information about the main idea of the essay. This could be a
definition, some historical facts, statistics, profound quotes or contemporary ideas 5.
•
Thesis statement (THS): A THS indicates the topic that is going to be discussed as
well as your answer to the assignment brief. The thesis is the most important
component of an academic essay, since it drives the entire essay and all supporting
information you include in your essay relates to your thesis. A THS statement should
be constructed in such a manner that it could be debated in an academic context.
•
Roadmap/Direction: This is the final component of the introduction and informs the
reader how you will prove and support your THS throughout your academic essay.
One way to think about an introduction is like an upside-down triangle. The information you
provide your reader with goes from more general information to more specific information.
Background Information
Thesis statement
Roadmap
Task 4: Background information
During the rest of the lesson, we are going to individually look at the different components of
an introduction and apply them to the introduction you just wrote in order to improve it.
5
Contemporary ideas are theories/thoughts that apply to our lives at present.
236
The next section of the lesson will look at BG information. This is the first part of an introduction
and is usually only one or two sentences.
Different BG info ideas:
1. Definition (define difficult/unfamiliar topic that is to be discussed)
2. Historical facts (Refer to a similar/relevant incident in history)
3. Statistics (e.g., research that has been done on gender-based violence and
how it has increased in this Covid time when your essay topic is based on
abuse)
4. Profound quotes (e.g., quote from Nelson Mandela from the paraphrasing
lesson when your essay is about education)
5. Contemporary ideas (theories/thoughts that apply to our lives at present. Can
also been seen as current affairs)
•
First, let us have a look at a student’s essay introduction.
Solving discrimination in the workplace.
While there is a legislation to protect the rights of an individual and to punish those who
violate their rights, discrimination and prejudice based on race, gender, culture, religious
belief, age, nationality, and social and economic status are still found. In South Africa,
discrimination takes a considerable toll on the lives of many who are involved in the
workforce; the main solution to this problem is making employers aware of the issue. In this
case, two solutions will be discussed where the first will consider how to implement
educational programmes to help management become aware of discrimination, and the
other will show employers how to facilitate their employees to work together in groups that
cater for diversity.
•
Try to identify the BG info in the above essay introduction and underline it.
•
What type of BG info did the student provide? Highlight the applicable choice below
and support your choice.
Type of Background information used in the student’s essay
Historical information
Definition
Contemporary idea
Provide support for your choice:
1)
•
Revisit your introduction that you wrote at the beginning of the lesson and answer the
following questions in the table below.
Did you include relevant BG information in your
introduction?
YES
NO
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If so, which type of BG information did you
include?
If not, write down some relevant BG information regarding the assignment topic below.
(As discussed earlier, BG information could either indicate historical information, a definition
or a contemporary idea. The information box (grey box) below includes phrases that
could make it easier for you to start off your BG information. Try and make use of these
during your academic writing).
1)
2)
Use Background Information Language
Definition:
•
•
•
•
•
Throughout this essay the term X will refer to…
It is necessary here to clarify what is meant by….
In this essay the term x will be used to refer to…
While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this essay will use
the definition suggested by Jones (2004) who saw it as…
The term X will be used in this essay to describe the….
Historical or contemporary ideas:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The issue of X has received considerable attention
Studies on X represent a growing field
X is a major area of interest
One of the most significant current discussions in the field of X is…
X has received considerable scholarly attention in recent years
There has been increasing interest in the topic of X
X has been studied widely
Task 5: Thesis Statement
The next component of an Introduction is the THS. This is the most important part of the
introduction, as well as the entire essay, since it expresses the view/opinion of the essay.
However, in today’s lesson, we are only going to briefly touch on this concept, as we will be
spending the entire next lesson on formulating and writing a THS.
238
•
Review the definition of a THS (in the grey box in Task 3). In your own words write the
definition of a THS.
Consider the student’s THS in bold:
Solving discrimination in the workplace.
While there is a legislation to protect the rights of an individual and to punish those who
violate their rights, discrimination and prejudice based on race, gender, culture, religious
belief, age, nationality, and social and economic status are still found. In South Africa,
discrimination takes a considerable toll on the lives of many who are involved in the
workforce; the main solution to this problem is making employers aware of the issue.
In this case, two solutions will be discussed where the first will consider how to implement
educational programmes to help management become aware of discrimination, and the
other will show employers how to facilitate their employees to work together in groups that
cater for diversity.
•
•
•
How do you know it is his thesis statement? In other words, what kind of language
does he use? And what words make this statement arguable/ debatable?
Have another look at the introduction that you wrote at the beginning of the lesson. Did
you include a THS?
239
•
If you did, do you think that your sentence fulfils the function of a THS (i.e., is it in line
with the definition of a THS statement)?
•
How do you think you can improve on your THS?
Task 6: The Road Map
The last component of an introduction of an academic essay is the roadmap, or also known
as the direction.
The purpose of the roadmap is to allow the reader to predict what is to follow in the rest of
your essay, as well as how you will go about supporting your THS. This part of an introduction
tells the reader what the topics of your body paragraphs will be and the order in which the
body paragraphs will be discussed.
Study the student’s introduction again:
Solving discrimination in the workplace.
While there is a legislation to protect the rights of an individual and to punish those who
violate their rights, discrimination and prejudice based on race, gender, culture, religious
belief, age, nationality, and social and economic status are still found. In South Africa,
discrimination takes a considerable toll on the lives of many who are involved in the
workforce; the main solution to this problem is making employers aware of the issue. In this
case, two solutions will be discussed where the first will consider how to implement
educational programmes to help management become aware of discrimination, and the
other will show employers how to facilitate their employees to work together in groups that
cater for diversity.
•
Try to identify the roadmap in the student’s essay and underline it.
240
•
Take into consideration the roadmap that you underlined; what are the main ideas that
the student’s essay will discuss in the rest of his assignment?
•
Did you include a roadmap in your introduction?
•
If you did, does it clearly indicate the main points that you are planning to discuss in
your assignment?
•
Rewrite your roadmap here to meet the criteria of a good roadmap. Consider the
commonly used phrases for roadmaps (in the grey box below). Try and make use
of some of these in your own roadmap.
241
Phrases associated with the formulation of a roadmap sentence:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The essay begins by…It will then go on to…
The first section of the essay will examine…
The essay has been organised in the following way
The essay has been organised into X parts. The first part deals with….
The main issues addressed in this essay are…
The essay first gives a …. It then goes on to…
Now, explain how this roadmap will enable you to write your essay. In other words,
why did you choose the main ideas that you included in your roadmap?
Task 7
The final step is to put everything together. Combine all three revised components, BG info,
THS and Roadmap and write a complete introduction in the space below. Please note, you
will be using this introduction for your upcoming essay, which will count marks.
242
Next time
In the next lesson, you are going to learn more about the importance of a thesis statement.
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LESSON 16 – THESIS OR PURPOSE STATEMENT (WEEK 4)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
•
Define a thesis statement or purpose statement
Recognise a thesis or purpose statement
Understand the purpose of a thesis or purpose statement
Formulate and write a good thesis or purpose statement
Task 1
Answer the following questions:
•
What can you remember about a thesis statement (THS) from the previous lesson?
•
Why is it important to formulate a good THS in your academic assignments?
Task 2
Look at the following requirements/criteria for a THS:
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A good thesis/purpose statement requires the following:
1) A thesis or purpose statement must be clear and specific. Guard against making
a statement that is too broad, general, and / or vague. The thesis should also be
limited to what can be done within the scope of a few paragraphs or pages.
2) A thesis or purpose statement is original - use your own words in an informative
way. Do not repeat your lecturer's wording of the assignment in the same way. If
necessary, use only some of the key words or key phrases in the assignment to
guide or support your own formulation of the main idea or focus.
3) A thesis or purpose statement usually appears near the end of the introductory
paragraph after providing background information.
4) A thesis or purpose statement must be expressed in a full sentence(s).
5) A thesis or purpose statement is not necessarily one sentence long - it can span
more than one sentence, especially if the commentary on the topic is complex. For
now, only keep it at one sentence, so that it is easier to get used to the concept.
6) A THS is the main argument of the essay and should therefore be written in such
a way that it is arguable. Remember, the aim of the essay is to make a statement
which you will prove in the body paragraphs.
What a thesis statement is not:
1) Although a thesis statement contains the author's view on a topic, it does not express a
personal preference (personal opinion).
•
•
•
Home schooling is the best alternative to mainstream education.
Education is the profession that offers the most benefits.
Curriculum design is a very interesting module.
Statements like these express personal preferences that are difficult to analyse in a
structured way and cannot be explained by facts.
2) A thesis statement is never a question.
•
•
•
How can discipline problems be solved in South African schools?
Can bullying behaviour be attributed to poor social skills?
Does poor mother tongue education contribute to South Africa's poor school pass
rate?
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A thesis statement must comment on a topic. It is not possible to make a point of view by
means of a question.
3) A thesis statement is not a fact.
•
•
•
Penalties may not be applied in South African schools.
Home schooling is not accepted in all countries.
Prof. Maseko is a very well-known educator in South Africa.
When you state a fact, the reader can only agree with you. There is nothing further to say
or to prove. A fact is therefore not arguable.
4) A thesis statement does not involve an ill-considered or unprejudiced judgment that
simplifies a complex issue.
Education in South Africa is a national disaster.
Schools that do not perform well must be closed.
In order to prevent teachers from overworking, all extracurricular activities at schools
must be stopped
The above statements show topics that are too broad, and do not make practical sense.
•
•
•
A purpose statement:
There is a specific goal/ aim/ purpose the essay wishes to achieve.
It is not an argumentative statement
Always impersonal
Written in the present tense
The following phrases may form the beginning of purpose statements. Notice how each one
was written in the present tense and how no "I" (e.g., in this essay I am investigating ...) is
used.
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Answer the following questions:
•
After reading the text in the grey box, what do you think is the difference between a
purpose statement and a thesis statement? Explain.
•
Look at the thesis statement that you wrote in the previous lesson. Do you think that
you wrote a thesis statement or a purpose statement? Why?
This lesson will provide a deeper understanding of a thesis statement and add to what you
already learnt in the previous lesson.
Task 3
How to write a good thesis/purpose statement:
A good thesis statement uses the following structure:
A topic (only one) + comment/s on the topic = claim/point of view (i.e., thesis statement)
For example:
247
Assessment practices must adhere to the principles of transparency, reliability and
validity
Topic
Commentary on topic
Parents are responsible for combating bullying in schools
Commentary on topic
Topic
The principal plays a central role in establishing a healthy teaching and learning
culture at a school.
Commentary on topic
Topic
A thesis statement can also include specific ideas or arguments (roadmap) that will be
discussed within each body paragraph. However, you will be required to separate these two
aspects for now.
Coming up with a classroom code of conduct is a complex task, as a particular procedure
should be followed, and the code of conduct must meet certain requirements.
Commentary on topic
Topic
Ideas that will be developed
Purpose Statement
The following phrases may form the beginning of purpose statements. Notice how each one
was written in the present tense and how no "I" (e.g., in this essay I am investigating ...) is
used.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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The purpose of this assignment is ...
The purpose of this assignment is ...
This essay focuses on ...
The focus in this assignment is on ...
This essay examines ...
This assignment demonstrates how ...
This essay discusses ...
This assignment contains a description / explanation of ...
An explanation is given of ...
This assignment offers a perspective
It is then indicated how…
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•
After reading the text above, what do you think is the difference between a purpose
statement and a thesis statement? Explain.
Keeping these requirements/criteria, as well as the definition of a Thesis/Purpose statement
in mind, decide which thesis/purpose statement is better. Provide reasons for your choice.
A) In South Africa, discrimination takes a considerable toll on the lives of many who are
involved in the workforce; the main solution to this problem is making employers
aware of the issue.
B) Discrimination is a bad thing that occurs in South Africa every day.
A) There is a belief that technology plays a better role in an organisation than the
labour force; this essay will focus mainly on outlining the reasons to support this
belief.
B) Even though we live in a completely digitized world, the impact of new technology on
business is nothing new (Walker et al, 2008:33).
249
A) In this essay, I am going to talk about the fall of our economy during the COVID-19
epidemic.
B) This essay will discuss the concerns triggered by COVID-19, especially focusing on
the devastation it caused to the economy.
Task 4
The thesis statements below are all very vague. Review each statement by making it more
specific. Various adjustments are possible - decide for yourself how you want to change
each statement.
1.1 A student can learn a lot from practical teaching.
1.2 School sport contributes to the development of learners.
1.3 Technological tools are useful in class.
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Task 5
The purpose statements below are all very vague. Review each statement by making it more
specific. Various adjustments are possible - decide for yourself how you want to change
each statement.
2.1 The focus in this assignment is on discipline problems.
2.2 In this essay, the role of the teacher is discussed.
2.3 In this discussion Aids is being investigated at schools.
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Task 6:
Identify which of the following statements are fact and which are thesis statements:
1. The amount of financial aid available to students should be proportionate to
the earning potential of the career fields for which their majors prepare them.
2. Tom Holland should have won the Best-Actor award for his performance in Spiderman: No Way Home.
3. Nelson Mandela was loved and admired by many people.
4. South Africa contains citizens of many different ethnicities.
5. The University of the Free State should make coffee available to students in every
building.
6. Driving under the influence of alcohol is dangerous.
7. Penalties for drinking and driving should be more severe.
8. Television networks air a lot of reality shows nowadays.
9. The Avenger movies are better than Iron Man movies.
10. Steroid abuse can lead to serious health problems.
Task 7
In your pairs, improve the following THS’s:
1. The University of the Free State should make coffee available to students in every
building.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Penalties for drinking and driving should be more severe.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. The Avenger movies are better than Iron Man movies.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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Task 8
Choose the best THS and state why:
A: I want to show how cardiology has changed in the last 20 years.
B: The advances in cardiology over the last 20 years significantly impacted the field of
medicine.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
A: People are living longer than ever due to better diets, a cleaner environment, and
improved medical care.
B: The average person can now expect to live longer.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
A: Learning new skills can be difficult and frustrating.
B: Learning to write takes work, patience, and determination.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
A: In order to create a successful commercial, it is important to consider the target audience,
placement, and media.
B: Nike’s “Just do it” advertising campaign was created in 1988.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Task 9:
The THS mentioned above are not perfect and need improvement.
3. The advances in cardiology over the last 20 years significantly impacted the field of
medicine.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. People are living longer than ever due to better diets, a cleaner environment, and
improved medical care.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. Learning to write takes work, patience, and determination.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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6. To create a successful commercial, it is important to consider the target audience,
placement, and media.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Task 10
Write thesis statements based on the following topics:
a. Educational resources for low-income students
b. University athletes should be compensated
c. Online education, is this the future
In your groups, share your thesis statements and decide which statement is the most
appropriate. Be ready to give feedback to the class.
Task 11
Rewrite your entire introduction after your revisions.
254
Now that you know a little bit more about a THS, it is time for you to revisit your introduction
that you wrote in the previous lesson.
•
Is your THS based on your personal opinion? If so, how would you fix this?
•
Is your THS a question? If so, how would you rectify this?
•
Is your THS a fact? If so, how would you correct this?
•
Is your THS too broad and based on ill-informed claims? If so, how would you resolve
this?
•
With the knowledge that you have gained, rewrite your THS and share with your
partner. Give feedback to one-another about your thesis statements.
Next time
In the next lesson, you are going to learn more about writing a body paragraph.
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LESSON 17 – WRITING A BODY PARAGRAPH (WEEK 5 AND 6)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
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Revise the structure of an academic body paragraph and its three main parts
Unpack a paragraph prompt
Write a well-structured body paragraph
Achieve coherence and cohesion within a paragraph
Watch the video about writing a body paragraph by clicking the link below or watching it directly
on Blackboard. You do not have to make notes of all the information in the video, but if
something stands out, and you would like to remember it, you can make a note in the space
below or jot down notes in your notebook:
Writing a body paragraph: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I0SMvLu2D1Y
Video notes:
Task 1
Discuss the following questions:
•
Think back to the 1st semester, then write down the three main components of a body
paragraph in the space below.
•
Refer back to what you did in the 1st semester about paragraph writing; what are the
respective purposes of each component in a body paragraph?
256
Today we are going to focus on the process of writing an academic body paragraph. We will
begin by unpacking a paragraph prompt, before writing an academic paragraph and
considering its structure. In addition, we will look at achieving coherence and cohesion in the
paragraph.
Task 2
During the rest of the lesson, we are going to look at the different components of a body
paragraph and apply them to the two body paragraphs you wrote earlier.
Go back to Lesson 15, Task 6 and find your roadmap that you wrote on “Is a circular
economy a viable alternative to a linear economy? Explain and provide two
reasons for your stance”.
Rewrite your roadmap from lesson 15, Task 6 in the space below. The two ideas in
your roadmap will assist you with your topic sentences in each body paragraph.
•
To recap from the previous semester, the main components and their functions are
as follows:
The three basic parts of a body paragraph are:
Topic sentence: the topic sentence contains the topic or main idea of the
paragraph. It is usually the introductory sentence, which explains briefly what the
paragraph will be about.
• Supporting sentences: supporting sentences ­support the topic sentence in that
they give extra information, examples and ideas which elaborate or explain the main
idea or the paragraph.
• Concluding sentence: This sentence concludes and sums up what the paragraph
was about. It repeats the main idea in different words.
Note that all parts of the paragraph are full sentences. Point form should not be used.
•
257
Task 3: Topic Sentences
The next section of the lesson will look at the topic sentence. This sentence is usually the first
part of a body paragraph and tells the reader what the paragraph will discuss. Please note
that it is not always the first sentence of a body paragraph.
•
First, let us have a look at a student’s roadmap and body paragraphs for the essay.
Solving discrimination in the workplace.
Roadmap of previous lesson’s introduction:
In this case, two solutions will be discussed where the first will consider how to implement
educational programmes to help management become aware of discrimination, and the
other will show employers how to facilitate their employees to work together in groups that
cater for diversity.
Body paragraphs:
Employees of an organisation are usually influenced by the mind set of upper management,
hence the people in charge need to be provided with insight about discrimination so they
can assist their personnel accordingly. Aghazadeh (2004: 524) mentions that, “[to] be
successful, managers need to “unlearn” practices rooted in an old mind set, […] and
redesign human resource systems”. In other words, discrimination in a workplace cannot
be dealt with unless the leaders of an organisation alter their perspectives that pertain to
archaic views of seeing the “other” in a working environment. Furthermore, leaders need to
be educated on all the misconceptions they have over the “other”, so that they could be
perceived as positive role models to their work staff (Aghazadeh, 2004: 523). In turn, it is
important for management, not only to prove effective in being able to deal with diversity,
but they also need to be able to educate their employees proficiently on their conduct
towards their peers and colleagues. Therefore, management plays a vital role in
establishing content between the differences and views of each individual within a
company, and would be beneficial if training for them were to be prioritized.
One of the most important aspects of a successful company is that both employers and
employees work together collaboratively in groups, which could be quite taxing for an
organisation whose colleagues fall under different belief systems. Roberge & van Dick
(2010: 299) explain that research indicates, “[…] that diversity increases conflicts which in
return may be beneficial or not, depending on the type of conflict that is activated”. In this
case, it is important for management to learn how to regulate a disagreement toward a more
diplomatic and compromising outcome. On the other hand, it is supposed that different
beliefs could lead to a deeper understanding of a certain situation when observed through
multiple viewpoints that merge into a well-defined consensus (Roberge & van Dick, 2010:
295). In this case, leaders need to implement strategies that lead to better group
performance that results in eliciting a diplomatic and reasonable agreement between every
258
group member. As a result, it could be seen that diversity within groups could be highly
beneficial for a company, if regulated appropriately.
•
Try to identify the topic sentences in each body paragraph and underline it. Go back
to the student’s roadmap and observe how the ideas of the topic sentences link to
the ideas presented in the roadmap.
•
Answer the following questions:
o Were the ideas from the road map used to write the topic sentence? _________
o What is the connection between these ideas? _________________________
______________________________________________________________
o Is the topic sentence a ‘copy and paste’ of the road map? _________________
o Why not? ______________________________________________________
Try to create your own topic sentences for each of your body paragraphs in the table below:
Remember the formula for writing a proper topic sentence:
Topic (as per your road map idea 1 and 2) + Comment
How to formulate your comment: Turn the topic/RM idea into a question
Remember, this answer should also be general, as the detail will be discussed in the
supporting sentences. Make sure that your topic sentence is arguable. Remember, these
sentences serve as the sub-arguments to your main argument.
Did you include a relevant topic sentence for both body paragraphs?
Your topic sentences need to match the ideas that you presented in your introduction
(roadmap) in order
Write down the relevant topic sentences regarding the assignment topic. You can also try
to improve on your topic sentences at a later stage, even though you think they are correct.
1)
2)
259
Task 4: Supporting Sentences
Study the student’s body paragraphs again.
Solving discrimination in the workplace.
Body paragraphs:
Employees of an organisation are usually influenced by the mind set of upper management,
hence the people in charge need to be provided with insight about discrimination so they
can assist their personnel accordingly. Aghazadeh (2004: 524) mentions that, “[to] be
successful, managers need to “unlearn” practices rooted in an old mind set, […] and
redesign human resource systems”. In other words, discrimination in a workplace cannot
be dealt with unless the leaders of an organisation alter their perspectives that pertain to
archaic views of seeing the “other” in a working environment. Furthermore, leaders need to
be educated on all the misconceptions they have over the “other”, so that they could be
perceived as positive role models to their work staff (Aghazadeh, 2004: 523). In turn, it is
important for management, not only to prove effective in being able to deal with diversity,
but they also need to be able to educate their employees proficiently on their conduct
towards their peers and colleagues. Therefore, management plays a vital role in
establishing content between the differences and views of each individual within a company,
and would be beneficial if training for them were to be prioritized.
One of the most important aspects of a successful company is that both employers and
employees work together collaboratively in groups, which could be quite taxing for an
organisation whose colleagues fall under different belief systems. Roberge & van Dick
(2010: 299) explain that research indicates, “[…] that diversity increases conflicts which in
return may be beneficial or not, depending on the type of conflict that is activated”. In this
case, it is important for management to learn how to regulate a disagreement toward a more
diplomatic and compromising outcome. On the other hand, it is supposed that different
beliefs could lead to a deeper understanding of a certain situation when observed through
multiple viewpoints that merge into a well-defined consensus (Roberge & van Dick, 2010:
295). In this case, leaders need to implement strategies that lead to better group
performance that results in eliciting a diplomatic and reasonable agreement between every
group member. As a result, it could be seen that diversity within groups could be highly
beneficial for a company, if regulated appropriately.
•
Try to identify and underline where the student made use of direct quotes and
paraphrasing.
•
What is the difference between direct quotes and paraphrasing?
260
Remember, the purpose of referencing is to:
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•
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Give recognition to the source of the ideas that you have used
Use of authority to bolster (strengthen) your argument or claim.
Evidence of research
Direct the reader the source for more information
Maintain academic integrity.
Show that you understand the topic and can explain in your thoughts, especially when
you paraphrase
Avoid plagiarism
Refer back to the articles at the back of your study guides. Scan through each of the articles
again and find two quotes for each body paragraph from the articles that will back up each of
your topic sentences. In other words, you will end up having four quotes (two per paragraph).
Use at least two articles for your references.
•
Insert your two quotes from the article/s, that will back up your opinion that you gave
in your first body paragraph’s topic sentence. Also, refer back to the first lesson about
referencing and see the example of how the student quoted in the above sample
essay.
Quote 1:
261
Quote 2:
Now, follow the steps that you did in your previous lessons about paraphrasing and
paraphrase the second quote. Remember to change the referencing accordingly.
Paraphrased version of the Quote 2:
Now, do the same here. Scan through the articles and find two quotes that back up your topic
sentence for the second body paragraph.
•
Insert your two quotes from at least two articles that will back up your opinion that you
gave in your second body paragraph’s topic sentence. Also, refer back to the first
lesson about referencing and also see the example of how the student quoted in the
above sample essay.
Quote 1:
Quote 2:
262
Now, follow the steps that you did in your previous lessons about paraphrasing and
paraphrase the second quote. Remember to change the referencing accordingly.
Paraphrased version of the Quote 2:
•
Did you quote and/or paraphrase twice per body paragraph?
•
Do they support your two ideas that you presented in your roadmap and topic
sentences? How?
•
What did the student do after each quote and paraphrase? Why is this important to
do?
263
Task 5: Concluding Sentences
For the last time, scan the student’s body paragraphs. The next component of a body
paragraph is the concluding sentence. This is the closing sentence of the body paragraph and
usually links to the topic sentence.
Solving discrimination in the workplace.
Body paragraphs:
Employees of an organisation are usually influenced by the mind set of upper management,
hence the people in charge need to be provided with insight about discrimination so they
can assist their personnel accordingly. Aghazadeh (2004: 524) mentions that, “[to] be
successful, managers need to “unlearn” practices rooted in an old mind set, […] and
redesign human resource systems”. In other words, discrimination in a workplace cannot
be dealt with unless the leaders of an organisation alter their perspectives that pertain to
archaic views of seeing the “other” in a working environment. Furthermore, leaders need to
be educated on all the misconceptions they have over the “other”, so that they could be
perceived as positive role models to their work staff (Aghazadeh, 2004: 523). In turn, it is
important for management, not only to prove effective in being able to deal with diversity,
but they also need to be able to educate their employees proficiently on their conduct
towards their peers and colleagues. Therefore, management plays a vital role in
establishing content between the differences and views of each individual within a company
and would be beneficial if training for them were to be prioritized.
One of the most important aspects of a successful company is that both employers and
employees work together collaboratively in groups, which could be quite taxing for an
organisation whose colleagues fall under different belief systems. Roberge & van Dick
(2010: 299) explain that research indicates, “[…] that diversity increases conflicts which in
return may be beneficial or not, depending on the type of conflict that is activated”. In this
case, it is important for management to learn how to regulate a disagreement toward a more
diplomatic and compromising outcome. On the other hand, it is supposed that different
beliefs could lead to a deeper understanding of a certain situation when observed through
multiple viewpoints that merge into a well-defined consensus (Roberge & van Dick, 2010:
295). In this case, leaders need to implement strategies that lead to better group
performance that results in eliciting a diplomatic and reasonable agreement between every
group member. As a result, it could be seen that diversity within groups could be highly
beneficial for a company, if regulated appropriately.
•
Try to identify the concluding sentences in each body paragraph and underline it.
•
Revisit your body paragraphs that you wrote at the beginning of the lesson and answer
the following questions in the table below.
264
Did you write a relevant concluding sentence for each of your body paragraphs?
Did you make sure that they link to the topic sentences?
Did you make sure that your concluding sentences round off the entire paragraph?
Write down your concluding sentences regarding the assignment topic. You can also try to
improve on your concluding sentences later, even though you think they are correct.
1)
2)
Task 6: Cohesion
The final task is to add, transitional devices/ discourse markers/ linking words in order to
ensure the paragraph has a better ‘flow’, in other words, to ensure cohesion within the
paragraph.
•
What can you still remember about transitional devices from the first semester? Refer
back to the lessons about transitional devices and cohesion, and make sure you
included the relevant transitions.
Task 7
In this activity, you will be provided with a sample paragraph which does not adhere to the
principles of cohesion. In your groups decide on the correct order of information and
restructure the sentences by paying attention to the word choices that are used in this
paragraph.
7. Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1993) label these contradictory results an empirical paradox.
8. However, little emphasis is placed on explaining these outcomes in terms of the strength
of the economic and political environments surrounding these organizations and their
effect on employment in general.
265
9. Others claim that IT increases the number of middle managers (Pfeffer and Leblebici 1977;
Blau et al. 1976; Meyer 1968; Lee 1964).
10. Disagreements as to the effects of IT on middle management are mirrored in numerous
more recent studies. Some studies indicate that IT reduces the number of middle
managers (Bryn­ Jolfsson, Malone, and Gurbaxani 1988; Whisler 1970; Hoos 1960).
11. They indicate that the paradox can be resolved not by assessing the surrounding
environment, but by considering the interaction between the degree of centralization of
both the organization's decision-making process and its control over IT.
Now, write your body paragraphs in the outlines below, by including all the relevant information
that you did throughout this lesson. You can make use of the student’s sample essay that will
guide you with the organisation of your body paragraphs. Remember to use the quote and
paraphrase you did above for each body paragraph. Also, remember to use these same
quotes and paraphrases for the next lesson.
Topic Sentence (Main Idea)
(2)
Supporting Sentence 1 (1)
Body Paragraph One (Argument 1)
Supporting Sentence 2 (1)
Supporting Sentence 3 (1)
Supporting Sentence 4 (1)
266
Concluding Sentence (1)
Topic Sentence (Main Idea)
(2)
Supporting Sentence 1 (1)
Body Paragraph Two (Argument 2)
Supporting Sentence 2 (1)
Supporting Sentence 3 (1)
Supporting Sentence 4 (1)
267
Concluding Sentence (1)
Reference List (2) Two references per paragraph
Look at your body paragraphs and provide yourself with feedback on the following questions:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Are my ideas clearly stated in each paragraph?
Is it clear to me what each body paragraph discusses?
Are my two ideas in the introduction (roadmap) discussed separately in each
paragraph?
Did I use any direct quotes/paraphrasing to back up my arguments?
Are my body paragraphs cohesive (i.e., have I used transitions/discourse
markers/linking words?)
Do each of my body paragraphs have a concluding sentence?
Next time
By now, you have written both the introduction and body paragraph of your first essay. The
next lesson will finish off your essay by adding a concluding paragraph to it. Remember that
this essay will count marks after it is complete.
268
LESSON 18 – CONCLUDING PARAGRAPHS (WEEK 7)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
Recognise the different components of a conclusion
Identify and understand the purpose of the different components of a conclusion
Write an essay conclusion
Watch the video about concluding paragraphs by clicking the link below or watching it directly
on Blackboard. You do not have to make notes of all the information in the video, but if
something stands out, and you would like to remember it, you can make a note in the space
below or jot down notes in your notebook:
Concluding paragraphs: http://youtube.com/watch?v=2UElC_YZ0Eo
Video notes:
Task 1
Answer the following question:
•
In your opinion, what is the purpose of a concluding paragraph?
269
•
Is there a link between a concluding paragraph and an introductory paragraph of an
academic essay? If there is, how are the two paragraphs linked?
•
What is the main difference between these two types of paragraphs?
Task 2
Before we discuss the concluding paragraph in detail, try to write a concluding paragraph on
your own. You are going to make use of the same assignment brief as used in the previous
lessons. You have already written an introduction, as well as two body paragraphs, so all you
have to do now is write a suitable ending in the form of a concluding paragraph.
Is a circular economy a viable alternative to a linear economy? Explain and
provide two reasons for your stance.
270
Task 3
After completing your conclusion, answer the following questions:
How clearly written is my conclusion?
Did my conclusion show my essay topic and the key supporting information (two ideas)
that was discussed?
Have I restated my thesis or purpose statement?
Does my conclusion end in a way that catches a reader’s attention?
•
•
•
•
What is a concluding paragraph in an academic essay:
•
•
•
A concluding paragraph is the last paragraph in an academic essay and
generally summarises the essay
It also presents the main idea (thesis/purpose) of the essay, or
gives an overall solution to a problem or argument given in the essay
Thus,
•
The purpose in a concluding paragraph is to restate the thesis, summarise the
essay's body, and leave readers with a final impression. Key aspects to remember:
A strong essay conclusion restates (paraphrases), not rewrites your thesis
from the introduction.
A concluding paragraph of an academic essay consists of the following 3
components:
•
Restate (not rewrite) the essay’s thesis or purpose statement: To remind the
reader what the purpose or viewpoint of the essay was. In other words, what did the
essay set out to prove or discuss in the introductory paragraph?
•
Summary of reasons/main ideas: To summarise the main ideas and focus the
essay’s discussion in an effort to support the thesis or purpose statement as
indicated in the introduction of the academic essay. Here you should provide a
summary of your body paragraphs and show how you proved your argument
by tying up the evidence in each body paragraph.
•
Clincher: A "clincher" sentence offers a summary and conclusion that is delivered
in powerful language. It is often preceded by several sentences that pull together
the threads of evidence or argument, and then delivers the knock-out punch as the
"clincher." It is meant to grab a reader’s attention. It could also be in the form of a
relevant quote form well-known or respected figure.
Please note that no new information aimed at providing evidence to prove your
argument is permitted in the concluding paragraph.
271
Think about the conclusion as a mirror image of the triangle you did in the lesson about
introductions. The information you provide your reader moves from very specific information
to a more generalised form of information.
Thesis or purpose
statement restated
Summary of main ideas
Clincher
The focus of today’s lesson is on concluding paragraphs. We are going to discuss the three
main parts of a concluding paragraph in turn. We will also establish the purpose and
relationship of these components to the rest of your academic assignment.
Task 4
Taking into consideration the description of a concluding paragraph, do you notice the link
between the introduction and the conclusion of an academic essay? Briefly write down your
thoughts regarding this connection.
272
Task 5: Restating the THS
Similar to the previous lesson about introductory paragraphs, this lesson will also break the
conclusion down into three different parts.
The following section will investigate the first part, namely restating the thesis or purpose
statement.
•
First, have a look at the bolded sentences in both the introduction and conclusion of
the student’s essay.
Solving discrimination in the workplace.
Introduction sample:
While there is a legislation to protect the rights of an individual and to punish those who
violate their rights, discrimination and prejudice based on race, gender, culture, religious
belief, age, nationality, and social and economic status are still found. In South Africa,
discrimination takes a considerable toll on the lives of many who are involved in the
workforce; the main solution to this problem is making employers aware of the issue.
In this case, two solutions will be discussed where the first will consider how to implement
educational programmes to help management become aware of discrimination, and the
other will show employers how to facilitate their employees to work together in groups that
cater for diversity.
Conclusion sample:
As a result, the current findings clearly indicate that discrimination is a relentless
struggle faced by many businesses, and the only solution to this problem is to make
managers alert to this issue. This paper evidently highlighted the need to create
managerial awareness and the importance of teaching their staff how to amicably work
together to timeously combat discrimination in the workplace. In all, discrimination must go
beyond the punishment of those who prejudicially transgress against the “other’s” rights and
views, but rather we need to ensure that both management and their employees are
constantly wary and tolerant of each other’s uniqueness.
•
In what way is the above essay’s thesis statement different to the sentence highlighted
in the conclusion?
273
Revisit your own conclusion and review the way in which you restated the THS.
•
Do you feel that it is sufficiently written according to what you just learned?
•
Based on your review, restate your thesis statement below. Consider the useful
phrases in the grey box below and also what you learnt about paraphrasing thus far
(see lesson 14):
Useful language for restating the thesis or purpose statement.
To reiterate the main point, ...
As argued throughout this paper, ...
To restate the core idea, ...
To underscore the main theme, ...
In light of the evidence,
274
Task 6: Summary of Reasons
The next component of a conclusion is the summary of reasons. This consists of information
that comes directly after restating the thesis and reminds the reader about the essay’s topic
and brings together all the arguments provided by the writer.
•
Let us have another look at the introduction and conclusion (see bold sentences) of
the student’s essay.
Introduction sample:
While there is a legislation to protect the rights of an individual and to punish those who
violate their rights, discrimination and prejudice based on race, gender, culture, religious
belief, age, nationality, and social and economic status are still found. In South Africa,
discrimination takes a considerable toll on the lives of many who are involved in the
workforce; the main solution to this problem is making employers aware of the issue. In this
case, two solutions will be discussed where the first will consider how to implement
educational programmes to help management become aware of discrimination, and
the other will show employers how to facilitate their employees to work together in
groups that cater for diversity.
Conclusion sample:
As a result, the current findings clearly indicate that discrimination is a relentless struggle
faced by many businesses, and the only solution to this problem is to make managers alert
to this issue. This paper evidently highlighted the need to create managerial
awareness and the importance of teaching their staff how to amicably work together
to timeously combat discrimination in the workplace. In all, discrimination must go
beyond the punishment of those who prejudicially transgress against the “other’s” rights and
views, but rather we need to ensure that both management and their employees are
constantly wary and tolerant of each other’s uniqueness.
•
What observation can you make with regard to the student’s roadmap and summary
of reasons?
275
Revisit your own conclusion that you wrote at the beginning of the lesson and review the way
in which you wrote a summary of the reasons.
•
Do you feel that it is sufficiently written according to what you just learned?
•
Now, rewrite the summary of reasons section of your conclusion. There is some
useful language you can use in the grey box below. You can also refer to your roadmap
in the introduction lesson.
Academic phrases associated with summarising your reasons/findings:
•
•
•
•
•
This paper has argued that…
The current findings clearly indicate that…
The investigation of X has revealed that…
One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that…
The second major finding was that…
Task 7: Clincher
The next component of a conclusion is the clincher. The clincher leaves the reader with a final
thought about your essay. To write a clincher sentence, you need to know your key message
first. So, think about this: If readers could remember one thing from your essay, what would it
be? There are various ways of writing a clincher:
Consider the following THS 6:
6
Found: https://lib.conestogac.on.ca/writing-services/clinchers-in-academic-writing
276
The incidence of depression has created a crisis in Canadian society that must be
addressed through a combination of counselling, medicine, and social? (Missing
word?)
1. Make a Prediction
•
Make sure your prediction flows logically from your research. Do not make a
guess.
•
If Canadian society continues to isolate people suffering from depression,
these people will continue to experience difficulties, pain, and loneliness.
2. Offer a Recommendation
•
Ensure your recommendation is something realistic.
•
The Canadian mental health community should work towards raising
awareness of the impact of depression on society. By making this clear to
community leaders, the mental health community can be a voice for positive
change.
3. Suggest Opportunities for Further Research
•
Make use of this method when there is a lack of research on your topic.
•
Future research should examine the treatment strategies employed in other
countries and incorporate successful approaches in the struggle with the
disease. By making use of this information, Canada could effectively support
those who live with depression.
4. Ask a Thought-Provoking Rhetorical Question
•
Invite the reader to consider the question based on the evidence in your essay.
•
With all that is known about depression and its devastating impact, why has
Canada not committed more political and economic resources to the fight
against the disease?
5. Connect Back to the Background Info
•
Provide closure to an essay by connecting back to the grabber. Note that a
citation is needed because information has been taken from another source.
•
Example BG info: Lim et al. (2008) estimated that mental illnesses such as
depression cost the Canadian economy $51 billion in lost employee
productivity, hospitalization and treatment costs, and tax-funded government
assistance programs.
•
Example Clincher relating back to BG Info: As Lim et al. (2008) pointed out,
with an estimated $51 billion in costs and damages at stake each year, Canada
cannot afford to neglect this issue any longer.
Let us have another look at the introduction and conclusion (see bold sentences) of the
student’s essay.
277
Introduction sample:
While there is a legislation to protect the rights of an individual and to punish those who
violate their rights, discrimination and prejudice based on race, gender, culture, religious
belief, age, nationality, and social and economic status are still found. In South Africa,
discrimination takes a considerable toll on the lives of many who are involved in the
workforce; the main solution to this problem is making employers aware of the issue. In this
case, two solutions will be discussed where the first will consider how to implement
educational programmes to help management become aware of discrimination, and the
other will show employers how to facilitate their employees to work together in groups that
cater for diversity.
Conclusion sample:
As a result, the current findings clearly indicate that discrimination is a relentless struggle
faced by many businesses, and the only solution to this problem is to make managers alert
to this issue. This paper evidently highlighted the need to create managerial awareness and
the importance of teaching their staff how to amicably work together to timeously combat
discrimination in the workplace. In all, discrimination must go beyond the punishment
of those who prejudicially transgress against the “other’s” rights and views, but
rather we need to ensure that both management and their employees are constantly
wary and tolerant of each other’s uniqueness.
•
What observation can you make about the student’s clincher?
Keeping your previous paragraphs, introduction and two body paragraphs in mind, as well as
the first part of your conclusion that you have already completed in this lesson. Write two
different ‘clinchers’ for your academic assignment. You can make use of the academic phrases
that are commonly used in academic writing.
278
Academic phrases associated with a clincher:
•
•
•
The contribution of this essay has been to confirm…
The current findings add to a growing body of literature on…
The present paper confirms previous findings regarding…
1)
2)
Task 8: Putting it all together
•
The final step is to put your concluding paragraph together. Combine the three
components, restate the THS, summary of reasons and clincher, and write a
complete conclusion in the space below.
Restate your position (1)
Conclusion
Summary of reasons (1)
Clincher (Conclude with your
opinion) (1)
Reference List (2) Two references per paragraph
Next time
In the next lesson, we are going to focus on putting your essay into an outline, and seeing how
it will look when all the components are brought together. Please note that all the work you
do will contribute to an assessment at a later stage.
279
LESSON 19 – PUTTING IT TOGHETHER (WEEK 8)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
Understanding the essay’s outline
Complete an outline for an essay
Write a first draft of an essay
This lesson follows the lessons about writing an essay. In this lesson, you will start packing all
your information from the previous lessons into a single outline. After filling in the outline, you
will get ready to hand in draft 1 for an assessment.
What you will need for this lesson:
The introduction you wrote in lesson 15
Your two body paragraphs you wrote in Lesson 17
The concluding paragraph you did in lesson 18
Task 1
Go through the following essay outline that a student completed. Please note that you will do
the same as this student using the information you gathered for your own essay. Remember
your facilitator will later mark the final product. Please make sure that you follow all the steps
first.
280
Brief: Do you think that South Africa faces serious problems of discrimination
in the workplace? Mention at least two ways you will go about alleviating this
problem if you happen to come across it in your working environment.
Essay Structure:
Essay title
Solving discrimination in the workplace
Outline
Background information
(Introduce the Topic)
Introduction
Thesis Statement
(Topic + Opinion)
Road map (main ideas in
body paragraphs)
Topic Sentence (Main Idea)
Body Paragraph One (Argument 1)
Supporting Sentence 1
(Direct quote)
Supporting Sentence 2
(Elaborate on quote)
Supporting Sentence 3
(Paraphrase)
Supporting Sentence 4
(Elaborate on paraphrase)
Concluding Sentence
While there is a legislation to protect the rights of an individual
and to punish those who violate their rights, discrimination
and prejudice based on race, gender, culture, religious belief,
age, nationality, and social and economic status are still
found.
In South Africa, discrimination takes a considerable toll on the
lives of many who are involved in the workforce; the main
solution to this problem is making employers aware of the
issue.
In this case, two solutions will be discussed where the first
will consider how to implement educational programmes to
help management become aware of discrimination, and the
other will show employers how to facilitate their employees
to work together in groups that cater for diversity.
Employees of an organisation are usually influenced by the
mind set of upper management, hence the people in charge
need to be provided with insight about discrimination so they
can assist their personnel accordingly.
Aghazadeh (2004: 524) mentions that, “[to] be successful,
managers need to “unlearn” practices rooted in an old mind
set, […] and redesign human resource systems”.
In other words, discrimination in a workplace cannot be dealt
with unless the leaders of an organisation alter their
perspectives that pertain to archaic views of seeing the
“other” in a working environment.
Furthermore, leaders need to be educated on all the
misconceptions they have over the “other”, so that they
could be perceived as positive role models to their work staff
(Aghazadeh, 2004: 523).
In turn, it is important for management, not only to prove
effective in being able to deal with diversity, but they also
need to be able to educate their employees proficiently on
their conduct towards their peers and colleagues.
Therefore, management plays a vital role in establishing
content between the differences and views of each individual
within a company and would be beneficial if training for them
were to be prioritized.
Body Paragraph Two (Argument 2)
281
One of the most important aspects of a successful company
Topic Sentence (Main Idea) is that both employers and employees work together
collaboratively in groups, which could be quite taxing for an
organisation whose colleagues fall under different belief
systems.
Roberge & van Dick (2010: 299) explain that research
Supporting Sentence 1
indicates, “[…] that diversity increases conflicts which in
(Direct quote)
return may be beneficial or not, depending on the type of
conflict that is activated”.
Supporting Sentence 2
(Elaborate on quote)
In this case, it is important for management to learn how to
regulate a disagreement toward a more diplomatic and
compromising outcome.
Supporting Sentence 3
(Paraphrase)
On the other hand, it is supposed that different beliefs could
lead to a deeper understanding of a certain situation when
observed through multiple viewpoints that merge into a welldefined consensus (Roberge & van Dick, 2010: 295).
Supporting Sentence 4
(Elaborate on paraphrase)
Concluding Sentence
Restate your position
Conclusion
Summary of reasons
In this case, leaders need to implement strategies that lead
to better group performance that results in eliciting a
diplomatic and reasonable agreement between every group
member.
As a result, it could be seen that diversity within groups could
be highly beneficial for a company, if regulated appropriately.
As a result, the current findings clearly indicate that
discrimination is a relentless struggle faced by many
businesses, and the only solution to this problem is to make
managers alert to this issue.
This paper evidently highlighted the need to create
managerial awareness and the importance of teaching their
staff how to amicably work together to timeously combat
discrimination in the workplace.
Clincher (Conclude with your In all, discrimination must go beyond the punishment of
those who prejudicially transgress against the “other’s” rights
opinion)
and views, but rather we need to ensure that both
management and their employees are constantly wary and
tolerant of each other’s uniqueness.
Reference list:
Reference List (2) At least two references
Aghazadeh, S. (2004), "Managing workforce diversity as an essential resource for improving
organizational performance", International Journal of Productivity and Performance
Management, Vol. 53 No. 6, pp. 521-531. https://doi.org/10.1108/17410400410556183
Roberge, M. & van Dick, R. 2010. Recognizing the benefits of diversity: When and how does
diversity increase group performance? Human Resource Management Review. 20 295–308
282
Keep in mind what the student did above, and copy/paste the various parts of your essay that
you wrote into the correct sections of the outline below.
Task 2: Filling in your outline
Fill in this outline and compare it with the student’s version above. After you complete your
outline follow the instructions below. Keep in mind what the student did above and copy the
various parts of your essay that you wrote in the previous lessons into the correct sections
of the outline below. N.B Remember to copy your lesson 17 quotes and paraphrases into this
outline.
Essay brief
Is a circular economy a viable alternative to a linear economy? Explain and
provide two reasons for your stance.
Essay Structure: Outline
Essay title (1)
Introduction
Background information
(Introduce the Topic) (1)
Thesis Statement
(Topic + Opinion) (2)
Road map (main ideas in body
paragraphs) (1)
283
Topic Sentence (Main Idea)
Supporting Sentence 1
(Direct quote)
Body Paragraph One (Argument 1)
Supporting Sentence 2
(Elaborate on quote)
Supporting Sentence 3
(Paraphrase)
Supporting Sentence 4
(Elaborate on paraphrase)
Concluding Sentence
Body Paragraph One (Argument 2)
Topic Sentence (Main Idea)
Supporting Sentence 1
(Direct quote)
Supporting Sentence 2
(Elaborate on quote)
Supporting Sentence 3
(Paraphrase)
.
284
Supporting Sentence 4
(Elaborate on paraphrase)
Concluding Sentence
Conclusion
Restate your position
Summary of reasons
Clincher (Conclude with your
opinion)
Reference List (2) Two references per paragraph
Award an extra 1 point for:
Quote plus explanation
Paraphrase plus explanation
•
•
Total out of 25
When you have completed this, read carefully and critically through your work.
Pretend you are your facilitator and mark your work as s/he would. Give yourself a
mark.
285
•
•
Do you think you should still improve what you wrote? Highlight any problem areas
and change these.
Check your grammar. Is this perfect? Are you using full, clear sentences? Did you use
transitions? Change anything that needs improving.
Task 3: Writing draft 1 using your outline
NB: Remember that your essay will consist of four separate paragraphs.
At the end of this section, you will find a box in which to write your essay. Make sure you follow
each instruction and step very carefully.
Use this as a checklist by ticking each category after you do it.
Step 1: Write down your title
Step 2: Write your introductory paragraph
Skip a line after your title.
Write your introductory paragraph as it is in your outline.
Make sure you include a hook or background information.
Add the thesis statement and roadmap.
Read through and improve.
Step 3: Write your body paragraphs (1 & 2)
Skip a line after your introduction and between each body paragraph.
This should include a topic sentence (where you introduce the main idea of your
paragraph)
Add supporting sentences which give evidence, examples, and an elaboration of
your topic sentence.
Your quote / paraphrase should be included.
An explanation of your quote needs to be included.
End with a concluding sentence which summarizes the main idea.
Add transitional devices to assist your reader in understanding the purpose of the
provided evidence.
Step 4: Write your conclusion
Skip a line after your body paragraphs.
The concluding paragraph includes repeating the thesis statement (in different words)
and summarizing the ideas in your body paragraphs.
Add a closing thought.
Add a transition to announce the concluding paragraph.
Step 5: Reference list
Is the list indicated with a heading?
Are the sources listed alphabetically?
Are all in-text references listed in your reference list?
Write your essay here:
286
287
Now use the second checklist below to improve your essay.
Make sure of the following in your own work.
Is everything clear? Does everything make
sense? What can be made clearer?
Was everything on topic?
Has the question/brief been answered?
Is the content good? Is it interesting? How can
it be improved?
Referencing: is in-text referencing correct?
Referencing: Is paraphrasing correct?
Referencing: Is the reference list correct?
Are you sure that there is no plagiarism in this
document?
Organisation: does this assignment follow a
proper structure with an introduction, body
paragraphs and conclusion?
Comment
288
Organisation: does each paragraph have a topic
sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding
sentence?
Grammar: spelling, punctuation, run-on sentences,
word use etc.
Do you believe you have checked your work,
and it is the best you can do?
Now copy your essay onto a new Word document and submit it for 30 marks before the
deadline.
Next time
In the next lesson, you are going to learn about the term called hedging. You will also be
asked to copy/paste your essay into the next lesson.
289
LESSON 20 – HEDGING AND BOOSTING (WEEK 9)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
To become aware of hedging, and the reasons for hedging in academic writing
To consider situations in which it is appropriate to make cautious or strong claims
in academic writing
To learn language and techniques for softening or strengthening claims
Watch the video about Hedging by clicking the link below or watching it directly on Blackboard.
You do not have to make notes of all the information in the video, but if something stands out,
and you would like to remember it, you can make a note in the space below or jot down notes
in your notebook:
Hedging: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aSHFtylZTNA
Video notes:
Task 1
Read the three texts below and answer the following questions.
1. What are the differences between them?
2. What is the effect of this difference?
290
3. How does this difference affect you as a reader?
4. Why did the writer of Text A choose to write in this way?
5. Why did the writer of Text B choose to write in this way?
6. Why did the writer of Text C choose to write in this way?
7. Which do you think is better for academic writing in your FACULTY?
Text A
Nevertheless, although a cash economy is expensive to maintain, it provides several
safeguards for ordinary citizens. Firstly, two billion of the world’s poorest people have no
access to banking systems or digital payment systems (Wheatley, 2017). This is
exclusionary and the poorest individuals will find it difficult to participate in the economy.
Furthermore, the use of cash allows for greater flexibility in budgeting for those on lower
incomes (Wheatley, 2017). Secondly, there is an issue with individual privacy. Bendell
(2015) shows that no consent has been given for a system that allows governments and
corporations to access the huge amounts of personal data held by digital payments systems.
291
Text B
Nevertheless, some researchers argue that although a cash economy may be expensive
to maintain, it provides several safeguards for ordinary citizens. Firstly, it is estimated that
two billion of the world’s poorest people have no access to banking systems or digital
payment systems (Wheatley, 2017). It can be argued that this is exclusionary and that the
poorest individuals will find it difficult to participate in the economy. Furthermore, it has been
suggested that the use of cash allows for greater flexibility in budgeting for those on lower
incomes (Wheatley, 2017). Secondly, there appears to be an issue with individual privacy.
Bendell (2015) argues that no consent has been given for a system that allows
governments and corporations to access the huge amounts of personal data held by digital
payments systems.
Text C
Nevertheless, it is clear that although a cash economy may be expensive to maintain, it
most definitely provides several safeguards for ordinary citizens. Firstly, there is strong
evidence that the use of cash allows for greater flexibility in budgeting for those on lower
incomes (Wheatley, 2017). Secondly, it is reasonable to argue that there is an issue with
privacy. Bendell (2015) insists that no consent has been given for a system that allows
governments and corporations to access the huge amounts of personal data held by digital
payments systems.
The more cautious style of writing in Text B is called ‘hedging’. The ‘stronger’ way of
writing in Text C is known as ‘boosting’.
Why do you think a writer would want to write in a ‘cautious’ way?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Why do you think a writer would want to write in a ‘stronger’ way?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Why do we hedge?
292
There are many circumstances in which we may ‘hedge’ our language. For example,
when we want to say something to someone in a gentle way. Instead of saying:
•
‘You should really wear another t-shirt. That one looks horrible!’
You could instead say:
•
‘You may want to consider wearing another t-shirt. That one does not really suit
you.’
Do you see how the second sentence is a bit gentler?
We can also use hedging when we want to avoid saying something negative. For
example, instead of saying:
•
‘This food is bad.’
You may want to say:
•
‘This food isn’t really my taste.’
In the second sentence, you are not saying anything negative about the food itself.
In academic writing too, it is sometimes necessary to use more cautious or tentative
language (hedging). We do this to differentiate between facts and claims and show our
readers that, although we may have evidence of something, this may not be true for all
situations/scenarios/contexts. In other words, we hedge in order to be accurate in the
presentation of our arguments.
293
When to Hedge
Task 2
Which of the following statements would you hedge? Why? Mark the sentences which
should be hedged.
1. Two plus two equals four.
2. The Simpsons is the most popular television programme in the world.
3. The Amazon is 7,000km long.
4. The Free State is located in the centre of South Africa.
5. The temperature tomorrow will not be 0 degrees centigrade.
6. This essay will be divided into four sections.
What do you notice about when to hedge?
How to Hedge
a) Modal verbs (verb inflections that express how the action or state is conceived
by the writer)
It could be argued that….
It may be the case that…
This might be interpreted…
b) Reporting verbs (seem, appear, tend, suggest, etc.)
It seems that…
It appears to be the case that….
This suggests that…
294
c) Adverbs / adverb phrases (perhaps, possibly, presumably, arguably, relatively to
some extent, etc.)
The second solution is perhaps more convincing…
This argument is to some extent justified…
Aristotle is arguably the founder of the natural sciences…
d) Adverbs of degree (approximately, about, almost, etc.)
Approximately 60 million people live in the UK…
e) Adverbs of frequency (generally, commonly, in some cases, etc.)
Generally, examples of this can be found among international students…
f) Adjectives
It is + adjective + that
(doubtful, unlikely, possible, etc.)
It is possible that these arguments will not stand up to scrutiny…
It is doubtful that these claims can be substantiated …
It is + adjective + to
(possible, reasonable, etc.)
It is possible to argue that…
It is reasonable to suggest that…
Task 3
Look again at the bold text in Text B. Which of the techniques above does the writer use to
‘hedge’ their claims?
295
Task 4
Now, go back to the sentences in Task 2 which need to be hedged. Rewrite the sentences in
the box below, including suitable hedging language shown in the grey box above.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Hedging Practice
Task 5
Below is a paragraph from the student’s essay that was used previously. All the hedging has
been removed from this paragraph.
1. Read the paragraph and add hedging in appropriate places. Uses the empty box
below to make these changes.
2. Give a reason for why you chose to hedge. Do this for each ‘hedge’ you add to the
text. Write down your reasons using the space below the box.
The most important aspect of a successful company is that both employers and employees
work together collaboratively in groups, which will be quite taxing for an organisation whose
296
colleagues fall under different belief systems. Roberge & van Dick (2010: 299) explain that
research indicates, “[…] that diversity increases conflicts which in return may be beneficial
or not, depending on the type of conflict that is activated”. In this case, it is important for
management to learn how to regulate a disagreement toward a more diplomatic and
compromising outcome. On the other hand, it is proven that different beliefs could lead to
a deeper understanding of a certain situation when observed through multiple viewpoints
that merge into a well-defined consensus (Roberge & van Dick, 2010: 295). In this case,
leaders need to implement strategies that lead to better group performance that results in
eliciting a diplomatic and reasonable agreement between every group member. Without a
doubt, diversity within groups is highly beneficial for a company.
Why do we boost?
However, there may also be occasions when you want to state information in a clear and
strong way (boosting). A writer would typically boost their statements to show that they
are confident in their claims and to show that they have done proper research to prove
their claims. These may be in a results section of a research report, or when there is
stronger evidence for information.
Useful language for strong claims (‘boosting’)
a) Adverbs of certainty (certainly, clearly, evidently, inevitably, obviously,
undoubtedly, etc.)
297
The results clearly demonstrate that the research was valid…
b) Adverbs of degree (exactly, precisely, etc.)
Exactly the same rules apply in all situations…
c) Adjectives
It is + adjective + that
(clear, certain, evident, etc.)
It is clear that…
It is certain that…
It is evident that…
It is + adjective + to
(essential, vital, necessary, etc.)
It is essential to understand that the situation continues to cause problems.
adjective + noun
(strong, clear, compelling, irrefutable, etc)
There is strong evidence that…
There are compelling reasons to believe that…
298
Task 6
Which of the following statements would you boost? Why? Mark the sentences which should
be boosted.
1. Two plus two equals four.
2. The Simpsons is the most popular television programme in the world.
3. The Amazon is 7,000km long.
4. The Free State is located in central South Africa.
5. The temperature tomorrow will not be 0 degrees centigrade.
6. Johnson (2013) shows that reading is an important part of good learning. [Johnson says
this strongly in his text).
Rewrite the sentences in the box below, including suitable boosting language.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
299
Task 7:
Look again at the bold text in Text C. Which of the techniques below does the writer use to
‘boost their claims?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Task 8:
Rewrite your entire essay that you wrote during the previous lessons in the box below and
add hedging and boosting where needed:
Remember to ask yourself the following questions:
Where does my argument seem to be too strong?
Do I have enough evidence to validate this ‘fact’?
Are there any areas where I can strengthen my argument?
300
Task 9
After you have made the changes to improve your essay, copy your essay on a word
document, and then upload it on Turnitin. The first draft counts 30 marks, so make sure you
followed all the steps to get here.
Next time
In the next lesson, you will learn about argumentation, and improve once more on your draft.
You will be asked again to copy your essay into the next lesson, which will also prepare you
for your second draft. Please note that your facilitator will take two weeks to mark your
first draft.
301
LESSON 21 – ARGUMENTATION (WEEK 10)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
Understand how to argue a point of view
Apply Grice’s Maxims to writing
Ensure correct structure in paragraphs which allows for good argumentation (with
topic, supporting and concluding sentences)
Watch the video about Grice’s Maxims by clicking the link below or watching it directly on
Blackboard. You do not have to make notes of all the information in the video, but if something
stands out, and you would like to remember it, you can make a note in the space below or jot
down notes in your notebook:
Grice’s Maxims: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vEM8gZCWQ2w
Video notes:
Being able to express yourself is one of the most important skills needed at university. In all
forms of writing, you will be asked to do by lecturers, you will need to have a good argument
to be successful.
Task 1
Answer the following questions.
•
What makes an argument good or bad? Tabulate points of each kind of argument
below. (Think about when someone is trying to convince you of something, what is it
that makes you trust their point of view?)
302
Good arguments
Bad arguments
Task 2:
Have a look at the two essays below. As you read, highlight anything that is unclear or that
does not make sense. After you have read both essays, discuss the questions that follow with
the person next to you.
Essay 1
Discrimination in the workplace
Recently the Statistic South Africa (Stats S.A) has revealed that South Africa (S.A) is
amongst the countries that has the most discrimination in the world, nevertheless being
biased against someone is not a good thing, therefore it is not good to discriminate, for
instance many people in our country struggle at work, as the result of this most of the people
can’t enjoy their job because they feel threatened.
The unemployment rate in S.A is high because of discrimination, as the result of this many
people are stealing so that they can be able support their families and then people judge
them for that also, secondly inequality in the workplace also has immense impact on the
creativity of the staff and people are frustrated with current situation people and end up
quitting their jobs, and thirdly lack of skills and education also contribute because education
can uplift people from discrimination and also improve their financial skills when it comes to
their money, hence the discrimination in S.A is high because of poverty.
303
We as the citizens of this country we have seen the politicians getting arrested for
discrimination, furthermore most people aren’t willing to work hard because of discrimination
so they tend to be jealous/envy so they steal other people belongings, moreover some
people steals because of low status and discriminating , and lastly greedy people are never
satisfied with they have and discriminate against the poor and take their moneys also.
Summing up the information mentioned above discrimination can have negative
consequences as you can end being a criminally serving time behind the prison.
Essay 2
Discrimination in the workplace
While there is a legislation to protect the rights of an individual and to punish those who
violate their rights, discrimination and prejudice based on race, gender, culture, religious
belief, age, nationality, and social and economic status are still found. In South Africa,
discrimination takes a considerable toll on the lives of many who are involved in the
workforce, and so being said, this essay will try to seek solutions to alleviate this problem.
In this case, two solutions will be discussed where the first will consider how to implement
educational programmes to help management become aware of discrimination, and the
other will show employers how to facilitate their employees to work together in groups that
cater for diversity.
Employees of an organisation are usually influenced by the mind set of upper management,
hence the people in charge need to be provided with insight about discrimination so they
can assist their personnel accordingly. Aghazadeh (2004: 524) mentions that, “[to] be
successful, managers need to “unlearn” practices rooted in an old mind set, […] and
redesign human resource systems”. In other words, discrimination in a workplace cannot
be dealt with unless the leaders of an organisation alter their perspectives that pertain to
archaic views of seeing the “other” in a working environment. Furthermore, leaders need to
be educated on all the misconceptions they have over the “other”, so that they could be
perceived as positive role models to their work staff (Aghazadeh, 2004: 523). In turn, it is
important for management, not only to prove effective in being able to deal with diversity,
but they also need to be able to educate their employees proficiently on their conduct
towards their peers and colleagues. Therefore, management plays a vital role in
establishing content between the differences and views of each individual within a company,
and would be beneficial if training for them were to be prioritized.
304
One of the most important aspects of a successful company is that both employers and
employees work together collaboratively in groups, which could be quite taxing for an
organisation whose colleagues fall under different belief systems. Roberge & van Dick
(2010: 299) explain that research indicates, “[…] that diversity increases conflicts which in
return may be beneficial or not, depending on the type of conflict that is activated”. In this
case, it is important for management to learn how to regulate a disagreement toward a more
diplomatic and compromising outcome. On the other hand, it is supposed that different
beliefs could lead to a deeper understanding of a certain situation when observed through
multiple viewpoints that merge into a well-defined consensus (Roberge & van Dick, 2010:
295). In this case, leaders need to implement strategies that lead to better group
performance that results in eliciting a diplomatic and reasonable agreement between every
group member. As a result, it could be seen that diversity within groups could be highly
beneficial for a company, if regulated appropriately.
The current findings clearly indicate that discrimination is a relentless struggle faced by
many businesses, and any solution to this problem will take time and patience to remedy.
The solutions posed by this essay to consider managerial awareness and to train a diverse
staff to work together in harmony, could prove to be a virtuous start, but these solutions will
still need to be maintained through constant guidance. In all, discrimination must go beyond
the punishment of those who prejudicially transgress against the “other’s” rights and views,
but rather we need to ensure that staff in the workplace are constantly taught how to
appreciate everyone’s uniqueness.
Reference list
Aghazadeh, S. (2004), "Managing workforce diversity as an essential resource for improving
organizational performance", International Journal of Productivity and Performance
Management,
Vol.
53
No.
6,
pp.
521-531.
https://doi.org/10.1108/17410400410556183
Roberge, M. & van Dick, R. 2010. Recognizing the benefits of diversity: When and how
does diversity increase group performance? Human Resource Management Review.
20 295–308
•
Which argument do you prefer? Why?
•
Fill in the table below, listing what was done well in each essay and what could be
improved. (With regards to argumentation).
305
Essay 1
Pros (good)
Cons (bad)
Essay 2
Pros (good)
Cons (bad)
Task 3:
Now read the information in the grey box below about Grice’s Maxims. These maxims are a
good guideline to follow when it comes to having an argument.
Grice's Maxims
1. The maxim of quantity: it is important to be informative, but definitely not give too
little information or too much.
2. The maxim of quality: information should always be truthful and supported by
evidence.
3. The maxim of relation: always be relevant and do not go off topic. For example,
make sure that you answer the question when you are writing.
4. The maxim of manner: be as clear, as brief, and as orderly as you can. Make
sure to avoid obscurity or ambiguity.
306
Wilson, E. Grice’s Maxims. Available online at: https://tinycards.duolingo.com/decks/52v4kdAM/grices-maxims [last
accessed: 23 April 2020]
•
Watch the video’s below and have a look at the pictures (above and below) that explain
each maxim.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HcR9KYLuIGA
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oI9tFOcVnV4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vEM8gZCWQ2w
307
2014. Gricean Maxims. Literacy Professionals News. Available online at: https://www.languages.ac.nz/gricean-maxims/
[Last accessed: 23 April 2020]
•
Take notes in the box below about each maxim, as you find out more information (both
from the pictures and videos)
Quantity
Quality
Relation
Manner
308
•
•
Now fill in the table below, saying where the authors of each essay went wrong using
Grice’s maxims.
Now add what each author did correctly.
Maxim
Essay 1
Incorrect
Correct
Essay 2
Incorrect
Correct
Quality
Quantity
Relation
Manner
Task 4: Grammar Focus
As you were working with these essays, you may have noticed that grammar also contributed
to the way the authors presented their messages. This is why grammar is so important when
it comes to writing.
With a partner, highlight the worst grammar mistakes you can find. Discuss why these caused
the authors’ message to be distorted or confusing.
•
•
What were the worst grammar mistakes and why do you think these caused the most
problems?
Also state how these errors could be improved.
309
Grammatical Error
Why is this a problem?
How
could
improved?
it
be
Task 5: Focus on Structure
In argumentative writing, you have learnt the basic structure of a paragraph. If paragraphs
follow a clear structure, it is much easier for the reader to follow the author’s train of thought.
•
What are the three main parts of a paragraph? Fill these in, along with an explanation
of each part in the table below.
Paragraph part
•
Explanation
Refer back to the essays in task 1. Do these essays have all the necessary structural
elements? Explain what is missing in each essay using the table below to help you.
Structural problem
Essay 1
Essay 2
310
Read the grey box below.
The importance of paragraph structure in argumentation
Remember that the topic sentence in a paragraph is usually about the main idea.
Supporting sentences then give details about that main idea. Supporting sentences not
only elaborate on that idea, but this is usually where the writer will prove the point of view
or idea expressed in the topic sentence. Examples are also added with the use of supporting
sentences. Similar supporting ideas about the main idea need to be grouped together in the
paragraph so that the writer maintains logical flow. This helps the reader to understand the
author’s message. To improve clarity even more, a concluding sentence is useful in
summing up the main idea of the paragraph. This final sentence also reminds the reader of
your argument briefly, by bringing focus back to your main idea. This is the basic formula
for academic writing.
Task 6:
Refer back to your first draft of your essay.
•
•
•
•
Rewrite your essay into the box below.
Go through your essay and add or change the arguments in your body paragraphs.
Make sure your body paragraphs have the correct structure.
Using what you have learnt in this lesson, check grammar in your essay and correct
where necessary.
311
312
•
•
Make sure you follow all the steps that were previously taught using the checklist below
to help you.
Also, make sure that you try to follow to keep to Grice’s Maxims of quality, quantity,
relation and manner.
Make sure of the following in your own work.
Comment
Do you feel that you have followed as much feedback
as possible, as well as all the instructions?
Is everything clear? Does everything make sense?
What can be made clearer?
Was everything on topic?
Has the question been answered?
Is the content good? Is it interesting? Is there a good
argument? How can it be improved?
Are you sure that there is no plagiarism in this
document?
Organisation: does your paragraph have a topic
sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding
sentence?
Grammar: spelling, punctuation, run-on sentences, word
use etc. Have you proofread your work?
Do you believe you have checked your work, and it is
the best you can do?
Next time
You will learn how to make contributions to a seminar and report ideas after a team
discussion.
313
LESSON 22 – MAKING CONTRIBUTIONS TO A SEMINAR
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
Understand how to successfully conduct a seminar
Recognise certain phrases used in a seminar
Report ideas after a team discussion
Task 1
Answer the following questions:
•
Have you ever worked in a team with others? Did you feel at ease? Provide your
thoughts.
•
Did you ever present to an audience? How did you feel? Was it successful and why?
Task 2
Let us take a look at the extracts below from a seminar about business location.
Read the following extract and answer the questions below:
314
Extract 1
Now, as we know, the location of their operations is one of the most important decisions that
companies have to make. I asked you to look at the case of Continental Airlines, which in
2005 established a new non-stop route from Bristol Airport in the south-west of the UK to
New York. Why did they do this? They already had routes to several other places in the UK,
including London Gatwick and Birmingham, which are not far away. Also, there are many
other airlines flying from the London airports to the USA. So, let us have some views.
•
What question will the students talk about in the seminar?
•
Why is the decision made by Continental airlines a bit strange?
Task 3
Read the second extract:
Extract 2
TIM: Well. I'd like to make two points. First, Bristol gives easy access to several popular
tourist destinations.
JANE: Can you expand on that, Tim?
315
TIM: Sure, Jane. Bristol is near Wales and the South-west peninsula of the UK.
JANE: So?
TIM: So, the point is that both areas are famous for their beaches and natural beauty.
LECTURER: OK. So, what's your second point, Tim?
TIM: I was coming to that! My second point is that Bristol is an important regional business
centre.
JANE: Yes, but that's true for London, too. Even more so, I'd say. So, there's no need to
expand outside London.
THABO: Well, I don't agree with that, Jane, because from what I've read, there's huge
untapped potential for business customers based in or near Bristol.
KATE: Sorry, but who are we talking about, exactly? People flying into the UK from the
USA? Or people going to the USA?
JANE: Yes, we need to be clear here. It must be both. Anyway, I'd just like to say that
according to what I've read, in the case of a service industry like travel, convenience for
customers is a major factor in location.
KATE: In what way?
JANE: Well, if you can bring your service nearer to the customer, you can charge a bit more.
Also, you may be able at the same time to offer a more attractive service than the
competitors.
KATE: I don't get that. How can it be more attractive if it's more expensive?
JANE What I'm trying to say is, the company can charge more for their product but actually
the customer might get the product more cheaply overall.
KATE: I still don't understand. Can you give me an example, Jane?
JANE: OK. Look at it this way. People who live near Bristol would have to travel to London or
Birmingham to fly to the USA. That will cost them money - say, £100. If they go from Bristol
they don't have to spend that money. If Continental Airlines charge £50 more for the flight
than a flight from London, the customers still get the flight for £50 less.
THABO: So, everybody wins! It's all about money, in fact.
LECTURER: Absolutely. In making a decision on location, companies have to think about
their fixed and variable costs, as well as the revenue they're likely to get from a particular
site.
THABO: Yes, and I'd just like to say something else. As I mentioned before, there are
potentially a lot of business customers who might use the Bristol flight. So, it's a good
investment, as business usage is likely to increase in the future
316
Answer the following true/false questions:
1 Bristol is a good airport for tourists ____
2 There are not many potential business customers in Bristol ___
3 Customer convenience is a key factor in service business location ____
4 Even if the flight was more expensive, many customers will find it attractive ____
5 Costs are the main issue in choosing a business location ____
Task 4
Study tasks a-d below and the phrases.
1 Write a, b, c or d next to each phrase to show its use.
A: introducing
B: asking for clarification
C: agreeing/disagreeing
D: clarifying
Read Extract 2 again to check your answers.
I'd like to make two points. First, ...
Can you expand on that?
The point is ...
What's your second point? My second point is that ...
My second point is that ...
Yes, but ...
I don't agree with that because ...
Sorry, but who are we talking about, exactly?
317
We need to be clear here.
I'd just like to say that ...
ln what way?
What I'm trying to say is ...
Can you give me an example?
Look at it this way.
Absolutely.
How to present a good seminar:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Pick a good topic.
Know your audience.
Begin with a title slide and show a brief outline or list of topics to be covered.
Introduce your topic well.
Data presentation is the heart of a successful talk.
Always give a synthesis or conclusion.
Answer questions thoroughly and thoughtfully.
How do you start a seminar presentation?
Here are seven effective methods to open a speech or presentation:
1. Quote. Opening with a relevant quote can help set the tone for the rest of your
speech.
2. “What If” Scenario. Immediately drawing your audience into your speech works
wonders.
3. “Imagine” Scenario.
4. Question.
5. Silence.
6. Statistic.
7. Powerful Statement/Phrase.
Task 5
Work in groups of four to research the main types of business location criteria below. Each
person should choose a different criterion.
318
Student A: read about fixed costs
Student B: read about variable costs
319
Student C: read about revenue
Student D: read about qualitative factors
After reading one of the notes that you selected, report back orally to your group. Use fixed
phrases to ask for and give clarification. It is important to take turns.
320
Task 6
Work in groups of 4. Each group will randomly be provided one of the products or services
shown below. Each group member needs to discuss the aspect that they were assigned in
the previous task (Task 5).
1 Have a practice seminar in which you decide where the business should be located.
2 In your groups, make notes for a presentation. Choose one group member to compile a
PowerPoint using the notes to present in the next class for 10 Marks per student. Each
group member has to present his or her own section that was discussed in the previous task.
Task 7
1: Report to the class on your discussion, giving reasons for your decisions.
2: Participation 10 Marks for each group member. N.B. You need to participate orally to get
your 10 marks.
321
322
Next time
The final lesson (Lesson 23) will teach you how to access your facilitator’s feedback
effectively to prepare you for your second draft.
323
LESSON 23 – ACCESSING YOUR FACILITATOR’S FEEDBACK (WEEK 12)
Lesson aims:
•
•
•
•
Follow facilitator feedback from a first draft of an assignment
Engage in activities to improve writing (organisation and content)
Type out a second draft, and self-edit this draft using a checklist
Hand in a final draft on Turnitin (35 marks)
We are now at the brink of the final stage of writing an assignment. Again, keep in mind that
this process, as well as the stage which will happen today in class, is something you can
replicate and repeat for assignments in other classes.
Well done, if you managed to hand in all your work to this point, as well as completing all the
activities which led here. Handing in work and participating will help to achieve your goals in
this course and in other subjects.
Let us have a look at your facilitator’s feedback. Without this, or without following this, you
cannot proceed to a better mark or improve your writing.
Task 1
Have a look at the graph below which shows how students in an academic literacy course (in
2019) improved their writing because of process writing (i.e., by following pre-writing strategies
and by writing different drafts). Answer the following questions.
324
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
under 50%
50-60%
60-70%
Pre-Test
70-80%
over 80%
Post-Test
•
In the pre-test, when students wrote their first essay, what was the mark students
mostly received? Circle the answer below.
a. under 50%
b. between 50-60%
c. between 60-70%
d. over 70%
•
In the post-test, when students wrote their final essay of the year, what mark did they
mostly receive? Circle the answer below.
a. under 50%
b. between 50-60%
c. between 60-70%
d. over 70%
•
What do you think this shows? Did students improve their writing as a result of process
writing?
•
Do you think your writing has improved as a result of process writing and drafting?
Explain.
(If you answer no, explain why you think this might be).
•
325
Task 2
Below, you will find two examples of students’ essays. Read each essay on your own.
Underline mistakes as you read.
Example A
What does marketing involve? and why is it so important?
In this essay I shall be evaluating the importance of marketing, as well as what marketing
involves. Marketing can be referred to as the management process where products and
services are provided to consumers in return for payment so that businesses can make a
profit. This includes the four (4) p’s of marketing, namely price, product, promotion and
place. (Dictionary, 2017) Marketing is the most important aspect of management, as any
business rely on good marketing of their products to attract and sell to their customers and
so to fulfil their needs.
Customer satisfaction can be seen as how well the business meet the needs of the
customer. “a business has to satisfy customers’ needs if it is going to make a profit”. For
any business to make a good profit and a great success of their business, they have to
make sure that the needs of their customers are taken care of and that they are satisfied
with the service. Marketing should focus on what the customers are interested in and they
should make it a priority to provide the customers with the goods that they want. A
satisfied customer will lead to the business making a good profit and keeping as well as
attracting potentially new customers to the business.
Market research is when businesses gather information about customers’ needs and
preferences in order to provide that to them. “first they must begin by analysing the
market”. Every business should do efficient research about what is happening in the
market and what their potential customers are interested in, so that they can be well
informed about the market competition and the demands of their customers. By doing
market research, businesses will be able to identify the basic characteristics of the market.
Research will be advantageous for the business as they will know how to perform against
other leading markets and they will know the needs in the market and what to sell to their
customers.
Marketing is the most important aspect of management, as any business rely on good
marketing of their products to attract and sell to their customers and so to fulfil their needs.
326
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dictionary, B., 2017. BusinessDictionary. [Online]
Walker,C.& Harvey,P. 2008. English for Business Studies.Garnet Publishing.Ltd.
•
Is this a good essay? Why/Why not?
•
Other than grammatical errors, what organisation and content mistakes did you find?
•
Now read the next essay, and underline mistakes along the way.
Example B
The importance of marketing in a changing environment.
Marketing is the process of supplying customers with the right product at the right price and
place to ensure that the business makes a profit. Therefore, it is the most important function
that plays a significant role in a success of a business. Marketing is beneficial in connecting
customers with needed goods and services provided by the business and to ensure that the
business makes a profit by improving their financial performance.
Business and customers are always evolving and it is very important for the business to
always stay connected to their customers. This is an integral part of the marketing function.
327
As stated by Moorman and Rust (1999:195) "marketing is best viewed as the function that
manages connections between the organisation and the customer”. Without marketing there
will be no link between the organisation and the customer. Thus, the marketing function will
ensure that there is a connection between the business and its customers.
The main aim of any business is to make a profit and to improve the financial performance
of the business. According to Moorman & Rust (1999:195) "The extent to which the
marketing function manages these connections, contribute to financial performance.” The
financial performance of a business is dependent on how all the aspects of marketing are
linked together. Therefore, without marketing the available product or service, there will be
no customer or sales or profit. As a result, marketing has become a function that is involved
in the all aspect of the business from the start to the end.
In conclusion, marketing is involved in all aspects such as product, price, place and
promotion. Finally, with technology, people and environments always changing, it is very
important for businesses also to evolve and provide customers with needed products at the
right price to improve the financial
performance of the business.
•
Is this a good essay? Why/Why not?
•
Other than grammatical errors, what organisation and content mistakes did you find?
328
•
When it comes to organisation and content, what have you learned from these
students’ essays?
Do
Don’t
Organisation
Content
•
Also, comment on referencing. What mistakes did the students make? List as many
problems as possible. Also, list what the students did correctly. Here are some
questions to help you:
Were the sources used reliable / credible?
Are citations correct (see referencing lesson to help you)?
Is the reference list complete and in alphabetical order?
329
Student A
Incorrect
Correct
Student B
Incorrect
Correct
Paraphrasing
/ Proof of
statistics
Quoting
Reference
List
Task 3: Incorporating facilitator feedback into your work
Your facilitator has given you feedback on draft 1 and explained how you can improve. In the
space provided write down the following:
•
On my written work, what are the main areas I need to improve on? (Try to arrange
these in order of importance). Refer back to higher and lower-order issues in the
previous lesson.
Were points of feedback similar to what you have received before or have you improved,
since the first semester? Explain.
330
•
Was there anything you did not understand about your facilitator’s written feedback?
•
If you read through your work again, can you see what your facilitator means now? (In
other words, can you work out what your facilitator meant with their comments?)
•
Write down, in the box below, the most important comments made by your facilitator
(take notes, using the methods taught in the previous semester).
Facilitator Feedback on Writing
331
Use a highlighter to mark the most important points.
Task 4: Grammar Focus
In the previous task, you also had to point out grammatical mistakes. In the table below, list
the worst mistakes from each essay. Use the editing symbols provided. It does not matter if
you are unfamiliar with some of these terms – just identify what you can at this stage.
A
B
Transitions (Tr)
Word Choice (wc)
Tense problems (T)
Repetition (Rep)
Redundancy (R)
Missing words (mw)
Word Form (wf)
Wrong word (ww)
Subject-verb agreement (s-v)
Run-on sentences (RO)
Fragments (Frag)
Spelling (sp)
Punctuation (p)
Capitalization problems (C)
Add any others you can think of
•
Decide which mistakes really cause confusion and lack of clarity. Highlight these
above.
•
What are ways to improve mistakes like spelling, punctuation, and capitalisation?
332
Go back to the examples and do the following:
Circle all the times these students, used “I” at the beginning of a sentence.
Try to think of ways these students could have avoided using “I” too many times.
Correct this in each essay.
Highlight all the transitions.
Did the students always use the correct transition? Make corrections where necessary.
Correct as many mistakes as possible in both essays.
•
•
•
•
•
Task 5
You will now write a second draft. Think about everything you have done in this lesson so far
to help you as well. In the box below, write down four major points you need to improve on
(think of outline and draft 1 feedback, as well as what you have just learned).
My own checklist for today
Now, follow these steps to write draft 2 on a new Word document (which will be completed
and submitted on Turnitin).
Task 6:
NB: After using the above checklists as well as the one below, you need to hand in
Draft 2 on Turnitin for 35 marks.
•
Use the checklist below to self-edit your first draft.
Make sure of the following in your own work.
Do you feel that you have followed as much
feedback as possible, as well as all the
instructions?
Is everything clear? Does everything make
sense? What can be made clearer?
Was everything on topic?
Comment
333
Has the question been answered?
Is the content good? Is it interesting? How can
it be improved?
Referencing: Is in-text referencing correct?
Referencing: Is paraphrasing correct?
Referencing: Is the reference list correct?
Are you sure that there is no plagiarism in this
document?
Organisation: does this assignment follow a
proper structure with an introduction, body
paragraphs, and conclusion?
Organisation: does each paragraph have a topic
sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding
sentence?
Grammar: spelling, punctuation, run-on sentences,
word use etc.
Do you believe you have checked your work,
and it is the best you can do?
Facilitator Name:
End lessons
334
 APPENDIX A: STUDENT GENERATED ACADEMIC WORDLIST
Word
&
Word class
Guessed meaning
Paraphrased
definition
dictionary
Example sentence
Word family
Mother tongue
335
Word
&
Word class
Guessed meaning
Paraphrased
definition
dictionary
Example sentence
Word family
Mother tongue
336
Word
&
Word class
Guessed meaning
Paraphrased
definition
dictionary
Example sentence
Word family
Mother tongue
337
Word
&
Word class
Guessed meaning
Paraphrased
definition
dictionary
Example sentence
Word family
Mother tongue
338
Word
&
Word class
Guessed meaning
Paraphrased
definition
dictionary
Example sentence
Word family
Mother tongue
339
  APPENDIX B: ARTICLES
Text 1:


In-text referencing:
 (Jose & Ramakrishna, 2021) OR
 According to Jose and Ramakrishna (2021)...
End-of-text referencing: Jose, R. and Ramakrishna, S. 2021. Comprehensiveness in
the research on Sustainability. Materials Circular Economy. 3(1).
Text 2:


In-text referencing:
• (Stahel, 2016)
• Stahel (2026) stated that...
End-of-text referencing: Stahel, W.R. 2016. Circular economy. Nature. 531:
435–438.
Text 3


In-text referencing:
• (Sariatli, 2017)
• As per Sariatli (2017)...
End-of-text referencing: Sariatli, F. 2017. Linear Economy Versus Circular
Economy: A Comparative and analyzer study for optimization of Economy
for Sustainability. Visegrad Journal on Bioeconomy and Sustainable
Development. 6(1): 31–34.
Allport, W. 1954. The nature of prejudice. New York: Doubleday Books.
Durrheim, K., Tredoux, C., Foster, D., & Dixon, J. 2011. Historical trends in South African race attitudes.
South African Journal of Psychology, 41, 263-278.
MacCrone, I. 1937. A quantitative study of race stereotypes. South African Journal of Science, 33,
1104-1111.
Nonyongo, E. 1998. South Africa Committee for Higher Education (SACHED) Trust. In E. Nonyongo, & A.
Ngengebule (Eds), Learner support services: Case studies of DEASA member institutions: 116-129. Pretoria,
SA.:University of South Africa Press. http://www.c3l.uni-oldenburg.de/cde/support/readings/nonyo98.pdf
Seekings, J., & Nattrass, N. 2006. Class, race and inequality in South Africa. Pietermaritzburg: University of
KwaZulu-Natal Press.
Sherif, M. 1967. Group conflict and cooperation. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Talbot, K. & Durheim, K. 2012. The Princeton Trilogy revisited: how have racial stereotypes changed in South
Africa? South African Journal of Psychology, 42(4): 476-491.
Yan den Berghe, P. 1962. Race attitudes in Durban, South Africa. Journal of Social Psychology, 57, 55-72.
i
340
 APPENDIX B: ARTICLES
Materials Circular Economy (2021) 3: 1
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42824-020-00015-x
EDITORIAL
Comprehensiveness in the Research on Sustainability
Rajan Jose 1 & Seeram Ramakrishna 2
Published online: 3 January 2021
# The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. part of Springer Nature 2021
“Sustainability” has been defined as the “new normal” by
many nations; many efforts are being undertaken for setting up a framework on “low-carbon economy” for sustainability. What does sustainability mean? Is it the maintenance of status quo on climate and resources? Or else, is
it the reversal of existing conditions to the ones before the
first industrial revolution? We would answer as “all these
and beyond”; for example, eradication of poverty, creation
of new jobs and resources for the growing population, and
resilience from alienistic attack such as the novel corona
virus are a few to mention to be included in the definition
of sustainability. In our perspective, research on sustainability should have the following five components: resource sustainability, environmental protection, social
well-being, knowledge integration, and circular economy,
as schematically demonstrated in Fig. 1. The researcher’s
community has been investing substantial efforts on this
topic; a simple Scopus search using the keyword “sustainability” on 14 Dec 2020 retrieved nearly 250,000 publications worldwide, which has grown from a single paper
published in the year 1970 to nearly thirty thousand papers
published in 2020 alone. Sustainability is therefore not a
new topic for the learnt society and the knowledge enterprise; instead, it is a topic of steady momentum and popularity with time, which justifies our definition for
sustainability.
* Rajan Jose
rjose@ump.edu.my
* Seeram Ramakrishna
seeram@nus.edu.m
1
Nanostructured Renewable Energy Materials Laboratory, Faculty of
Industrial Sciences & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang,
26300 Kuantan, Malaysia
2
Center for Nanotechnology & Sustainability, National University of
Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
As of now, the sustainability research encompasses over a
hundred keywords which range from sustainability of environment to secondary batteries, from life cycle analysis to
energy efficiency, from resource sustainability to circular
economy, and so on. In all sense, sustainability research is
multidisciplinary; i.e., it addresses the real-life problem rather
than mono-disciplines such as history, psychology, physics,
chemistry, mathematics, or engineering. In the multidisciplinary approach, people from different disciplines work together,
each drawing on their disciplinary knowledge, to create something better (Norström et al. 2020). Cross-disciplinary is viewing one discipline from the perspective of another. Other terminology often employed include interdisciplinary, which involves integrating knowledge and methods from different disciplines, thus meaning synthesis of approaches.
Transdisciplinary involves creating a unity of intellectual
frameworks beyond the disciplinary perspectives. All these
research approaches are necessary for accelerating the sustainability solutions.
“Materials” occupy the largest share of economy at all
levels of human life and could be classified into “materials
for life sustenance” (e.g., food, food supplements, and medicines) and “materials for improving the living standards” (e.g.,
computers, bridges, vehicles, etc.). Obviously, the above classification defines sources of primary materials. “Materials for
life sustenance” has directly or indirectly been resourced from
plants and processed and can be grown and regrown. While
sustainability is generally the case with plants, our habits ended up in the extinction of certain plant species (together with
animal species) and some are nearing extinction. On the other
hand, “materials for improving the living standards” are
mined from the Earth, processed, value-added, and used for
performing specific functions in devices and structures including life supporting machines. The terrestrial resources are anyway not renewable; the mines are not automatically filled up
with similar resources with time. This is where the materials
circular economy evolves: how do we reprocess an end used
product as a resource of primary materials for making an improved product considering a growing population in mind?
1 Page 2 of 2
Mater Circ Econ (2021) 3: 1
process do not contribute adverse additives to the environment? That is, Materials Circular Economy is beyond just a
recycling process but is fundamental to preserve the planet for
the generations to come for their safer and comfortable habitat.
Circular economy is projected to be the next major job creator
(Stahel 2016), many realms of which are yet to be conceived.
In the journal Materials Circular Economy, we pledge to
highlight these important activities for a sustainable planet
Earth and its beings.
References
Fig. 1 Comprehensive sustainability research and its key pillars
How do we ensure that every atom in a used product is fed to
manufacturing again? How do we ensure that the recycling
Norström AV, Cvitanovic C, Löf MF et al (2020) Principles for knowledge co-production in sustainability research. Nat Sustain 3:182–
190. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0448-2
Stahel WR (2016) The circular economy. Nature 531:435–438. https://
doi.org/10.1038/531435a
COMMENT
PSYCHOLOGY Game our
emotions about ownership to
reduce consumption p.438
ECONOMICS How China has
driven businesses to reuse
each other’s waste p.440
ECO-DESIGN Three case
studies of circular
manufacturing p.443
CONSERVATION Czech national
park under threat from
development pressures p.448
UMICORE
W
Workers at Umicore in Brussels separate out precious metals from electronic waste.
Circular economy
A new relationship with our goods and materials
would save resources and energy and create local jobs,
explains Walter R. Stahel.
hen my battered 1969 Toyota
car approached the age of 30,
I decided that her body deserved
to be remanufactured. After 2 months and
100 hours of work, she returned home in
her original beauty. “I am so glad you finally
bought a new car,” my neighbour remarked.
Quality is still associated with newness not
with caring; long-term use as undesirable,
not resourceful.
Cycles, such as of water and nutrients,
abound in nature — discards become
resources for others. Yet humans continue to
‘make, use, dispose’. One-third of plastic waste
globally is not collected or managed1.
There is an alternative. A ‘circular
economy’ would turn goods that are at the
end of their service life into resources for
others, closing loops in industrial ecosystems
and minimizing waste (see ‘Closing loops’).
It would change economic logic because it
replaces production with sufficiency: reuse
what you can, recycle what cannot be reused,
repair what is broken, remanufacture what
cannot be repaired. A study of seven European nations found that a shift to a circular
economy would reduce each nation’s greenhouse-gas emissions by up to 70% and grow
its workforce by about 4% — the ultimate lowcarbon economy (see go.nature.com/biecsc).
The concept grew out of the idea of substituting manpower for energy, first described
40 years ago in a report2 to the European
Commission by me and Geneviève RedayMulvey while we were at the Battelle Research
Centre in Geneva, Switzerland. The early
1970s saw rising energy prices and high
unemployment. As an architect, I knew that
it took more labour and fewer resources to
refurbish buildings than to erect new ones.
The principle is true for any stock or capital, from mobile phones to arable land and
cultural heritage.
Circular-economy business models fall
in two groups: those that foster reuse and
extend service life through repair, remanufacture, upgrades and retrofits; and those
that turn old goods into as-new resources by
recycling the materials. People — of all ages
and skills — are central to the model. Ownership gives way to stewardship; consumers
become users and creators3. The remanufacturing and repair of old goods, buildings and infrastructure creates skilled jobs
in local workshops. The experiences of
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COMMENT
CLOSING LOOPS
Using resources for the longest time possible could cut some nations’ emissions by
up to 70%, increase their workforces by 4% and greatly lessen waste.
DISTRIBUTION
Ownership
transfers from
manufacturer to
consumer at
point of sale.
,R
EM
ANUFACTURE
USE
Is controlled by
buyer-owner-consumers
of goods, or by fleet
managers who retain
ownership and sell
goods as services.
IR
REUSE
INNOVATION
Research is needed to
transform used goods
into ‘as-new’ and to
recycle atoms.
RE
CY
C
,R
A
EP
Resource losses
partly recoverable
by industrial
symbioses.
TAKE
-BACK
OF GOODS
LE
EXTRACTED RESOURCES
MANUFACTURING
Renewing used
products lessens
the need to make
originals from
scratch.
Water, energy and natural resources
enter the manufacturing process.
SYSTEMS THINKING
There are three kinds of industrial economy:
linear, circular and performance.
A linear economy flows like a river, turning natural resources into base materials and
products for sale through a series of valueadding steps. At the point of sale, ownership and liability for risks and waste pass
to the buyer (who is now owner and user).
The owner decides whether old tyres will
be reused or recycled — as sandals, ropes or
bumpers — or dumped. The linear economy
is driven by ‘bigger-better-faster-safer’ syndrome — in other words, fashion, emotion
and progress. It is efficient at overcoming
scarcity, but profligate at using resources in
often-saturated markets. Companies make
money by selling high volumes of cheap and
sexy goods.
A circular economy is like a lake. The
reprocessing of goods and materials generates jobs and saves energy while reducing
resource consumption and waste. Cleaning
a glass bottle and using it again is faster and
cheaper than recycling the glass or making
a new bottle from minerals. Vehicle owners
can decide whether to have their used tyres
repaired or regrooved or whether to buy new
or retreaded replacements — if such services
exist. Rather than being dumped, used tyres
are collected by waste managers and sold to
the highest bidder.
THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY
A Nature special issue
nature.com/thecirculareconomy
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© 2016 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved
A performance economy goes a step
further by selling goods (or molecules) as
services through rent, lease and share business models4,5. The manufacturer retains
ownership of the product and its embodied
resources and thus carries the responsibility
for the costs of risks and waste. In addition to
design and reuse, the performance economy
focuses on solutions instead of products, and
makes its profits from sufficiency, such as
waste prevention.
For example, Michelin has since 2007 sold
tyre use ‘by the mile’ to operators of vehicle
fleets. The company has developed mobile
workshops to repair and regroove tyres at
clients’ premises and aims to develop products with longer service lives. Worn tyres are
sent to Michelin’s regional plants for retreading and reuse. The Swiss company Elite uses
the same strategy for hotel mattresses, and
textile-leasing companies offer uniforms,
hotel and hospital textiles and industrial
wipes as a service.
Conventional waste management is
driven by minimizing the costs of collection
and disposal — landfill versus recycling
or incineration. In a circular economy, the
objective is to maximize value at each point
in a product’s life. New jobs will be created
and systems are needed at each step.
Commercial markets and collection points
are needed for users and manufacturers to
take back, bring back or buy back discarded
garments, bottles, furniture, computer equipment and building components. Goods that
can be reused may be cleaned and re-marketed; recyclables are dismantled and the
ADAPTED FROM KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER NETWORK
workers from the past are instrumental.
Yet a lack of familiarity and fear of the
unknown mean that the circular-economy
idea has been slow to gain traction. As a holistic concept, it collides with the silo structures
of academia, companies and administrations. For economists who work with gross
domestic product (GDP), creating wealth by
making things last is the opposite of what they
learned in school. GDP measures a financial
flow over a period of time; circular economy
preserves physical stocks. But concerns over
resource security, ethics and safety as well as
greenhouse-gas reductions are shifting our
approach to seeing materials as assets to be
preserved, rather than continually consumed.
In the past decade, South Korea, China
and the United States have started research
programmes to foster circular economies by
boosting remanufacturing and reuse. Europe
is taking baby steps. The Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research
(Mistra) and the EU Horizon 2020 programme published their first call for circulareconomy proposals in 2014. The European
Commission submitted a Circular Economy
Package to the European Parliament last
December. Since 2010, the Ellen MacArthur
Foundation, founded by the round-the-world
yachtswoman, has been boosting awareness
of the idea in manufacturers and policymakers. And circular-economy concepts have
been successfully applied on small scales
since the 1990s in eco-industrial parks such
as the Kalundborg Symbiosis in Denmark,
and in companies that include Xerox (selling modular goods as services), Caterpillar
(remanufacturing used diesel engines) and
USM Modular Furniture. Selling services
rather than goods is familiar in hotels and in
public transport; it needs to become mainstream in the consumer realm.
Few researchers are taking note. Excellence
in metallurgical and chemical sciences is a
precondition for a circular economy to succeed. Yet there is too little research on finding ways to disassemble material blends at
the atomic level. The body of a modern car
incorporates more than a dozen steel and
aluminium alloys, each of which needs to be
retrieved.
Circular-economy knowledge is concentrated in big industries and dispersed across
small–medium enterprises (SMEs). It must
be brought into academic and vocational
training. A broad ‘bottom up’ movement will
emerge only if SMEs can hire graduates who
have the economic and technical know-how
to change business models. Governments
and regulators should adapt policy levers,
including taxation, to promote a circular
economy in industry. And scientists should
scan the horizon for innovations that could
be patented and licensed to pave the way for
greater leaps in splitting up molecules to
recycle atoms.
COMMENT
spaces throughout Paris. Such business
models jeopardize the fundamentals of the
linear economy — ownership, fashion and
emotion — and raise fears in competing
companies. For example, car manufacturers’ strengths of mass production, patented
technologies in combustion engines and
gearboxes, big investments in robotic factories and global supply and marketing chains
are of little use when competing with local
Autolib services.
Public procurement can exploit the
potential of the performance economy. Yet
despite some successes, governments remain
hesitant. NASA decided a decade ago to buy
space transport services, leading to start-up
companies such as SpaceX competing for
contracts using innovative, cheap and reusable equipment. Assigning maintenance costs
to the private constructor of the Millau Viaduct in the south of France led the tenderer,
Eiffage Construction, to develop a structure
that could be erected quickly and would have
minimal maintenance and liability costs over
its 75-year service life.
TIPPING POINTS
GONZALO FUENTES/REUTERS
Autolib car-sharing schemes free users from the demands of ownership.
parts are classified according to their residual
value. Worn parts are sold for remanufacturing, broken ones for recycling. These markets
used to be common — milk and beer bottles
and old iron were once collected regularly
from homes. Some have re-emerged as digital global market places, such as eBay.
Professional marketplaces (perhaps
online) also need to be set up for the
exchange of used parts, such as electric
motors, bearings and microchips. Even
components of liquid waste, such as lubrication and cooking oils or phosphorus from
sewage, can be refined and resold. Scientists
should re-market rather than dump their
used kit.
Stewardship rules are needed for used
goods. Austria is a world leader in this area.
Collecting and reusing ‘waste’ are labour
intensive and expensive, but they have been
fostered in the nation through taxation
changes and by recouping costs through
re-marketing rather than scrapping parts.
The ultimate goal is to recycle atoms.
This is already done for some metals. The
Brussels-based company Umicore extracts
gold and copper from electronic waste. The
Swiss firm Batrec removes zinc and ferromanganese from batteries. These processes
are energy-intensive and recover the metals
only partly. To close the recovery loop we
will need new technologies to de-polymerize, de-alloy, de-laminate, de-vulcanize and
de-coat materials.
Methods and equipment are needed
to deconstruct infrastructure and highrise buildings. For example, the ANA
InterContinental hotel in Tokyo was
demolished in 2014 beneath a ‘turban’ that
was lowered hydraulically floor by floor to
minimize noise and dust emissions. A vertical shaft with a goods lift in the middle of
the building allowed the deconstructors to
recover components and sort materials while
using the lift as a generator.
Services liberate users from the burden of
ownership and maintenance and give them
flexibility. Exam“We will
ples include: ‘power
need new
by the hour’ for jet
technologies to and gas turbines;
de-polymerize, bike and car rentals;
de-alloy,
laundromats and
de-laminate,
machine-hire shops.
Fleet managers bende-vulcanize
efit from resource
and de-coat
security — the goods
materials.”
of today become the
resources of tomorrow at yesterday’s prices.
Covering the costs of risk and waste within
the price of use or hire provides economic
incentives to prevent loss and waste over the
lifetimes of systems and products.
SOCIETAL TREND
The circular economy is part of a trend
towards intelligent decentralization — witness 3D printing, mass customization of
manufacturing, ‘labs-on-a-chip’ in chemistry and functional services. The French carsharing service Autolib offers people flexible,
hassle-free urban mobility by using small
electric cars that have low maintenance costs
and can be recharged in reserved parking
Realizing a circular economy will take
concerted action on several fronts.
Research and innovation are needed at
all levels — social, technological and commercial. Economists and environmental
and materials scientists need to assess the
ecological impacts and costs and benefits of
products. Designing products for reuse needs
to become the norm, making use of modular systems and standardized components,
for instance6. More research is needed to
convince businesses and governments that a
circular economy is feasible.
Communication and information
strategies are needed to raise the awareness
of manufacturers and the public about their
responsibility for products throughout their
service lives. For instance, it should be fashion magazines, not science journals, that bang
the drum about jewellery sharing, leased jeans
and rental designer handbags.
Policymakers should use ‘resource-miser’
indicators such as value-per-weight and
labour-input-per-weight ratios rather than
GDP. Policies should focus on performance,
not hardware; internalization of external
costs, such as emissions and pollution, should
be rewarded; stewardship should overrule
ownership and its right to destroy. The Internet of Things (in which everyday objects are
digitally connected) and Industry 4.0 (intelligent technical systems for mass production) will boost such a shift, but also demand
a policy review that considers questions of
ownership and liability of data and goods7,8.
Policies9 should promote activities that are
desired by society and punish those that are
not. Taxes should be raised on the consumption of non-renewable resources, not on
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COMMENT
renewable resources including human
labour. Value-added tax (VAT) should
be levied on value-added activities, such
as mining, construction and manufacturing, but not on value-preserving stock
management activities such as reuse,
repair and remanufacture. Carbon credits
should be given to emissions prevention
at the same rate as to reduction.
Societal wealth and well-being should
be measured in stock instead of flow, in
capital instead of sales. Growth then
corresponds to a rise in the quality and
quantity of all stocks — natural, cultural,
human and manufactured. For example, sustainable forestry management
augments natural capital, deforestation
destroys it; recovering phosphorus or
metals from waste streams maintains
natural capital, but dumping it increases
pollution; retrofitting buildings reduces
energy consumption and increases the
quality of built stock10.
Marrying the three types of economy
is a formidable challenge. A shift in
policy focus from protecting the environment to promoting business models
that are based on full ownership and
liability, and that are unlimited in time,
rather than imposing a two-year warranty for manufacturing quality, could
transform a nation’s competitiveness. ■
Stalls known as mtumbas (‘second-hand’ in Swahili) in Nairobi sell repurposed goods, many from the West.
Walter R. Stahel is founder and director
of the Product-Life Institute in Geneva,
Switzerland. He is also a member of the
Club of Rome and a visiting professor at
the Faculty of Engineering and Physical
Sciences, University of Surrey, UK.
e-mail: wrstahel2014@gmail.com
1. Ellen MacArthur Foundation, World Economic
Forum and McKinsey & Company. The New
Plastics Economy: Rethinking the Future of
Plastics (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2016).
2. Stahel, W. R. & Reday-Mulvey, G. Jobs for
Tomorrow: The Potential for Substituting
Manpower for Energy ((Vantage Press, 1981).
3. Stahel, W. R. in The Circular Economy — A
Wealth of Flows (ed. Webster, K.) 86–103
(Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2015).
4. Stahel, W. R. The Performance Economy
(Palgrave, 2006).
5. Stahel, W. R. in Handbook of Performability
Engineering (ed. Misra, K. B.) Ch. 10, 127–138
(Springer, 2008).
6. Stahel, W. R. in Our Fragile World: Challenges
and Opportunities for Sustainable Development
Vol. II (ed. Tolba, M. K.) Ch. 30, 1553–1568
(UNESCO/EOLSS, 2001).
7. Giarini, O. & Stahel, W. R. The Limits to
Certainty, Facing Risks in the New Service
Economy (Kluwer, 1989).
8. Stahel, W. R. in The Industrial Green Game:
Implications for Environmental Design and
Management (ed. Richards, D. J.) Ch. 4,
91–100 (National Academy Press, 1997).
9. Stahel, W. R. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 371,
20110567 (2013).
10. Stahel, W. R. & Clift, R. in Taking Stock
of Industrial Ecology (eds Clift, R. &
Druckman, A.) Ch. 7, 137–158 (Springer,
2016).
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THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY
A Nature special issue
nature.com/thecirculareconomy
1/2017
Visegrad Journal on Bioeconomy and Sustainable Development
DOI: 10.1515/vjbsd-2017-0005
31
Linear Economy versus Circular Economy:
A comparative and analyzer study for Optimization
of Economy for Sustainability
Furkan Sariatli
Szent István University, Gödöllő, Hungary
Upon visiting the existing literature on the subject of linear vs. circular economy, this paper finds that, the blueprint of the current economy is
hardly sustainable by using the comparative benchmarking method that drained from literature. The intrinsic mechanics of the linear economy,
by relying on the wasteful take – make – dispose flow, is detrimental to the environment, cannot supply the growing populace of our planet with
essential services and it naturally leads to strained profitability. Elements of a plausible solution to the challenges have been around for decades,
although they have only recently been compiled in to the conceptual framework of circular economy. The core ideas of Circular Economy are
elimination of waste by design, respect for the social, economic and natural environment and resource-conscious business conduct. Built on
the backbone of these principles, the circular economy has demonstrated to deliver tangible benefits and viability to address the economic,
environmental and social challenges of our days.
Keywords: circular, linear, environment, failure, benefits, transition
Introduction
This paper discusses presumably the most fundamental, complex and systemic
challenges of our days: the foundations, the design and the substantial
principles of the economy. Hence, the circular economy implies a conception
or system that keeps the added value of a product as much as possible and
eliminates the waste. When a product ends its life cycle, it is supposed to be
kept within the economy as resource which can be used productively again
and again and thus create a further value (European Commission (2014).
The work includes the research on the unsustainability of the traditional
linear economy, which contains environmental, demographic and economic
components. Based on the input from credible secondary sources, it will be
demonstrated that the natural environment is approaching (or surpassing)
a tipping point where the world irreversibly loses its capacity to sustain the
biosphere as we know it. Further, it will be shown that the conventional linear
economic model that has shone in the conditions of resource abundance,
reaches the limit for supplying the input the mankind needs for sustenance
in the empirical economic and demographic trends. The paper will present
the basic principles, the composing elements and the benefits of the circular
economy alternative, which promises not merely to lengthen the availability
of the remaining pool of resources, but to permanently improve the efficiency
of the economy and to enable prolonged supply for the growing needs of
humanity.
Impetus to Transition: Environmental Concerns
Although the environmental burden of the humanity has been known to
accelerate since the industrialization, by the new millennium 1.5 Planet
Earths are estimated to be needed to support our social, economic and
demographic existence (WWF, 2012). In an attempt to classify the human
impact on the ecosystem, Rockström et al. (2009) introduced the concept
of Planetary Boundaries, referring to key environmental thresholds which,
when crossed, can change the current ecosystem irreversibly. In the latest
publication of the group (Steffen et al., 2015), the researchers claim that four
of the nine Planetary Boundaries have already been crossed: the climate has
already changed, the biosphere has lost its integrity, the land-system has been
altered and the biogeochemical cycles have been corrupted. The Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (2005, cited by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation
(2013)), states that fifteen out of the recognized twenty-four ecosystem
services (i.e. processes of nature that support human wellbeing) are used in
an unsustainable manner or are being depleted. Based on these recognitions,
Steffen et al. (2015) argue that the relative stability and the slowly evolving
environmental conditions that were characteristic in the Holocene geological
era has been surpassed by the era of Anthropocene, which is distinctive of
the abrupt and dramatic deviations caused by the economic activity as well
as the social and demographic burdens imposed by mankind. Although not
everyone embraces the radicalness of the ideas suggested by the Planetary
Boundaries, it is hardly debatable that the world’s natural tolerance to human
activity appears to be growing tired and the ecosystem shows signs of being
worn down.
The Linear Model and its Failure (strengths)
According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2013), the currently prevailing
economic design has its roots in the historically uneven distribution of wealth
by geographic region. As the consumers of resources have been largely
concentrated on the most developed regions (i.e. in the western societies), and
the material inputs have been sourced increasingly from the global arena, the
industrial nations have experienced an abundance of material resources and
energy. In this arrangement, the materials have been cheap compared to the
cost of human labor. Resultantly, the producers have been motivated to adopt
business models that relied on extensive use of materials and economized on
human work. What is more: the more energy and materials they have been
able to utilize to supplement human capital, the more competitive edge
they could manage to gain. The natural consequence of cheap material /
expensive labor is the common neglect of recycling, reusing and putting much
emphasis on waste. The regulatory, accounting and fiscal rules have also been
supportive of this scheme, as they did not issue a protocol to charge producers
with the externalities, therefore the producers have been less encouraged to
consider the external costs of their operations. In addition, the system had
Linear Economy versus Circular Economy: A comparative and analyzer study ... n Sariatli, F. n vol. 6, 2017, no. 1 n p. 31–34
32
Visegrad Journal on Bioeconomy and Sustainable Development
a natural lock-in inertia, as the official product approval procedures tend
to favor the existing practices over radical changes and reinvention of basic
principles. The upshot of this economic blueprint is the linear economy. Its
essence is generally summarized as take – make – dispose. That is, take the
resources you need, make the goods to be sold and make profit and dispose
of everything you do not need – including a product at the end of its lifecycle.
Based on empirical data and economic modelling, the Ellen MacArthur
Foundation (2013) quantifies some of the costs of the linear model. The
source cites the report of the Sustainable Europe Research Institute (SERI)
which claims that 21 billion tons of materials used in production do not
get incorporated in the final product (i.e. they are lost during the transition
between the forms of materials, in production, as unused by-products, due
to inefficiency, as a result of storage problems, etc.). The Ellen MacArthur
Foundation (2013) refers to Eurostat (2011) data indicating that the volume
of material input to the European economy tallied with 65 billion tons in
2010, out of which 2.7 billion tons were dumped as waste, merely 40 percent
of which was used again in any form (e.g. through recycling, reusing or
composting). The unmanaged waste lost not only its original function, but it
was also wasted as a source of energy.
While the linear economy has been highly successful in generating
material wealth in the industrial nations up to the 20th century, it has
demonstrated weaknesses in the new millennium and the ultimate
breakdown in the near future is forecast. Based on data of professional
sources, the Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2013) states that the commodity
prices have met a tipping point in 1999 and the previously declining material
costs gained a volatile upward momentum. The incremental prices and high
volatility can be attributed to the increased demand that pushed the output to
a point in the cost curve where incremental production costs dearly and to the
depletion of easy to access extraction sites, which exposes mining to taking
technological risks for bringing new sites online. This trend has been paired
with increasing competition, which has prevented companies from passing
the increasing prices on to their customers – eventually exerting a profit
squeeze on firms and driving the value of total economic output down.
According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2013), several of the
current trends extrapolated further deterioration in the potential of the linear
economy to the future projects. The demographic evolution of the mankind
further shifts the concentration of the population from the traditionally
densely populated industrialized nations towards the emerging markets. This
trend, coupled with the lightning-fast economic development of China and
India has been and is increasing the global mass of middle class consumers
by an estimated 3 billion with corresponding consumption, which is predicted
to cost 3 trillion USD per annum in infrastructural investment (Dobbs et al.,
2011). According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2013), failing to meet
this level of investment, the economy is unavoidably growing to be supply
constrained – particularly in the western economies that already operate at
their near maximum capacity for example in terms of food. Addressing these
questions is fundamentally challenging, even if one discounts the local and
global political tensions, the growing interconnectedness of the markets
through financialization and the deterioration of the environment.
Conceptual Overview of Circular Economy
Deriving from empirically tested models of environmental erosion and
the systemic impact of the economy on the environment, the prevailing
notion governing production and consumption more is better […] needs
to be entirely replaced by ‘positive development in which markets work to
automatically, systematically make things better both locally and globally
(Greyson, 2016). Conceptualized by environment-conscious economists, the
1/2017
conventional linear economy (described by the widely-cited line of take –
make – dispose) is to be supplanted by the circular economy.
The phrase circular economy (CE) itself was introduced by Pearce and
Turner (1989), although the concept has deep roots dating back to the 1960s
and it has been contributed by a large number of researchers, theorists and
vocational parties. As the Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2015a) puts it, the
circular economy should be considered a framework: as a generic notion, the
circular economy draws on several more specific approaches that gravitate
around a set of basic principles (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2015a). To
comprehend the concept, it is due to establish the composing ideas. The
relevance of this approach is underscored by the fact that pan-national
organizations (such as the World Economic Forum, 2016) also signed to and
adopted the interdisciplinary composition of circular economy.
The dawn of CE can be traced back to Boulding (1966), who suggested
to implement a cyclical ecological system instead of the wasteful linear
economic model. While the cyclical economic scheme of Boulding (1966)
was rather fluid, it spurred further conceptual development of sustainability.
Stahel (1982) introduced the notion of spiral–loop (or closed loop) selfreplenishing economic construct, which Stahel (2010) eventually developed to
the idea of “performance” economy. The essence of the performance economy
is the redefinition of the subject of production, sales and maintenance:
instead of goods, firms should market performance, as for example in the
recently surging sharing based business models. The concept of Stahl was
incorporated in the successful cradle-to-cradle initiative of Braungart and
McDonough (2008), which considers all material involved in industrial and
commercial processes to be nutrients, of which there are two main categories:
technical and biological (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2015b). A further
aspect and building block of the circular economy is biomimicry. Proposed by
Benyus (1998), the economic system is to mimic (as in learn from and imitate)
the ways of nature to cope with industrial and commercial challenges and
gauge operational efficiency against solutions experienced in the nature.
The circular economy also takes advantage of the scientific approach of the
industrial ecology, which is concerned with the energy and material flow
of the industrial (and other economic) systems, aiming to create closed
loop processes that minimize waste by deploying interdisciplinary scientific
methodology and by regarding both the local and the global natural and
social environments (Ellen Macarthur Foundation, 2015c). The notion of
natural capitalism aims to create a shared economic platform that recognizes
the needs of both the environment and the capital. The core propositions of
natural capitalism are: creating closed-loop production cycle to reuse nondegradable materials; elevating the efficiency of resource usage to lengthen
the availability of natural resources; redefining the producer – user contract to
“service and flow” model rather than “sell and use” and quantifying the value
of natural resources to promote reinvestment in nature (Hawken et al., 1999).
The blue economy concept extends the ideas regarding waste-usage; beyond
internal closed-loop production cycles, the waste of one industry should be
regarded as a potential input to different sectors, whose arrangement is often
dubbed as cascading (Pauli, 2009).
Benefits of Circular Economy
The more an industrial foundation reuses and cycles its waste, the closer it
approaches to the idea of circular economy and to being more profitable
(Lancaster, 2002) while also less harmless for environment. CE mainly
promotes virgin material minimization and espousal of clean technologies
(Andersen 1997, 1999). In industrial environment, it is intended to show
that circular economy would be beneficial for society. Benefits will be taken
not only using environment as a reservoir for residual wastes but restricting
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or minimizing the usage of exhausting material for production activities.
The expected benefits are focused on the basic monitoring that the loss of
material wastes, in countable units, is minimized (Andersen, 2007).
To expand, there are vital points made by the Ellen MacArthur
Foundation (2013), based on modelling the application of the principles of the
circular economy, a long range of tangible benefits can be detected first of all
that deploy circular design in technological product categories (for example
via standardization, modularization or via embedding disassembly concerns
in product design) and result in securing access to better and cheaper
materials. Furthermore, performance based (e.g. sharing) business models
have already proved their dollar worth in a number of sectors. In that sense,
Proficiency in the reverse material flow cycle is a potential competitive
edge for businesses while CE also opens up employment opportunities,
developing expertise in legal, mechanical, operational or cross-sectoral
challenges. The methods of circular economy are highly scalable; therefore,
CE is capable to fuel growth and attract investment capital. Thus,
incorporating the attributes of CE in the R & D phase of operation yields
spurs progress in material sciences and yields the development of higher
quality and more durable components.
The elimination of waste from the value chain has the quantifiable
benefit of reducing systemic and direct material cost and diminishing
resource dependence. Thus, circular economy benefits organizations with
operational as well as strategic advantages. It means that, by reducing the
level of material input needed, the economy may save billions of dollars. The
transition/advance scenario estimates of the Ellen MacArthur Foundation
(2013) say the European Union may save up to 400/600 billion USD in material
costs annually, primarily in the automotive and machinery sectors. From this
point of view, due to the closed-loop processes, the economy grows less
exposed to price fluctuations of the materials and the flattened cost curve
ultimately results in a more efficient use of resources in terms of both value
and volume.
As a result of that, the sectoral composition of the economy shifts
towards the more innovative, efficient and productive service sector, as the
majority of externalities is associated with the use and flow of material,
lower material consumption evidently decreases the exposure to externalities
and the growing efficiency of material use stimulates innovation and yields
creative solutions beyond the immediate cost related benefits
Last but not least, there are outcomes reflecting to end users such as
the reverse flow of materials extending the consumer – producer contact,
benefiting firms with elevated consumer loyalty, product designs with reuse
of materials incorporated reduce complexity and prolong product life-cycles
which will make product consumer-benefit centered, application of the
principles of the circular economy promotes production of goods built-to-last,
which ultimately reduces the total cost of ownership and the market receives
new ways of accessing goods (e.g. through sharing), which enriches the set
of choices and increases customer satisfaction. Controversially, although
practicing those above, there are still obstacles we have to cope with such
as in Chinese example; deficiency of social indicators, lack of indicators for
industrial/urban reconciliation, lack of indicators of business performance,
lack of prevention oriented indicators, lack of measurable criteria and certain
barriers on implementation (Geng et al., 2011).
SWOT Analysis for Circular Economy versus Linear Economy
Although there are quite enormous benefits and opportunities of circular
economy, it is also necessary to cope with a series of hardships. Circular
economy implies a more manageable waste, recyclable resources, profitable
organizations and more sustainable environment, however, awareness
33
of it is still arguable and tendency upon Circular economy by sectoral and
governmental still is quite minimal level. A set of legal, R & D, capital and
introductory rules and campaigns yet needs to be done. As described below,
it is intended to indicate some certain values which may assist us to scale
current and future standing implicated by the SWOT analysis.
Strengths:
ˆˆ Proficiency in the reverse material flow cycle is a potential competitive
edge.
ˆˆ Elimination of waste from the value chain has the quantifiable benefit
of reducing systemic and direct material cost and diminishing resource
dependence.
ˆˆ Incorporating the attributes of CE in the R & D phase of operation yields
spurs progress in material sciences and yields the development of
higher quality and more durable components.
ˆˆ Due to the closed-loop processes, the economy grows less exposed
to price fluctuations of the materials and the flattened cost curve
ultimately results in more efficient use of resources in terms of both
value and volume.
ˆˆ Externalities are associated with the use and flow of material,
lower material consumption evidently decreases the exposure to
externalities.
Weaknesses:
ˆˆ Circular economy still requires amalgamation of the entire product life
cycle from raw material provision to annihilation (Van Ewijik, 2014).
ˆˆ No specific guidelines to sectors on how to implement circular economy.
ˆˆ There is still no internationally recognized standards institution to
regulate the sector (Circular Academy, 2017).
ˆˆ Circular Economy may omit the feature of semi-recyclability when
choosing a raw material for production process.
ˆˆ Public opinion about CE is yet inefficient and social marketing
campaigns lack to access sectoral people.
ˆˆ There is still no special legal regulation about circular economy and its
application (Circular Academy, 2017).
ˆˆ Investments about circular economy to introduce the system to sector
are not enough.
Opportunities:
ˆˆ By reducing the level of material input needed, the economy may save
billions of dollars. The EU may save up to 600 billion USD in material
costs annually.
ˆˆ Deploying circular design in technological products, results in securing
access to better and cheaper materials.
ˆˆ Developing expertise in legal, mechanical, operational or cross-sectoral
challenges in circular solutions opens business opportunity for the
enablers.
ˆˆ Developing expertise in sectoral or cross-sectoral challenges in circular
solutions opens business opportunity for the enablers.
Threts
ˆˆ If companies can control entire life cycle, they can easily cross-subsidize
different activities and that can cause high prices and incapable
products.
ˆˆ If producers could direct their own product-waste, it may be more
difficult to benefit from waste management for those in scale economy.
ˆˆ Managing whole life cycle of product and strong collaboration can
cause cartel structures.
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ˆˆ A gradual or sequencing financial disruptions in the system can cause
unpleasant outcomes for the interdependant sector due to complex and
interlinked sector (Van Ewijik, 2014).
Conclusion
The paper observed the fundamental challenges of the current economic
arrangements: the linear economy. It was established that the take – make –
dispose construct is not suited to meet the current, let alone the projected
future needs of mankind. The investigation found that the economic agents
throughout the prevalence of the linear economy have been intrinsically
counter-motivated to be mindful for resource exploitation efficiency, which
resulted in excessive level of waste output. The recent environmental and
economic trends have palpably demonstrated that the blueprint of the linear
economy has met its limits: on the one hand, the natural environment seems
to be unable to tolerate the current level of resource exploitation; on the other
hand, the growing scarcity of resources driven both by the depletion and by
increasing demand due to the demographic trends exerts relentless pressure
on the attainable profit.
The paper found that the circular economy is a viable, sustainable and
unavoidable alternative which is capable to cope with the challenges. The
collection of concepts composing the circular economy enables reducing the
waste by incorporating reusing components of goods by design via closed
loop and cascaded approaches, containing the dependence of the economy on
material and energy inputs, increasing the resilience of the economic system,
the preservation of the environment, supplying the growing demands of the
ever more populated planet and increasing the operationability and costefficiency of production. What is more, the circular economy is compatible
with the inherent interests of the corporations, as it is aligned with the
competitive and the strategic frameworks and it is capable to enrich the
contract between the consumers and the producers.
Ultimately, the author personally finds the transition from the linear to
the circular economy essential. The author particularly finds it valuable that
although it requires fundamental alterations of the mechanics of production
and consumption, it is down to earth in terms of human needs and it does not
impose unrealistic expectations from any segment of the value chain or from
the consumers.
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Contact address
Furkan Sariatli, PhD Student, Szent Istvan University, Faculty of Economics
and Social Sciences, Doctoral School for MBA, Pater Karoly ut.1, 2100 Gödöllő,
Hungary, e-mail: fsariatli@anadolu.edu.tr
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