TIDE AND SEEK: A STUDY ON PHILIPPINE MANGROVE EXPANSION DYNAMICS
AND ITS IMPACT ON MARINE FAUNAL DIVERSITY AND ECOLOGICAL NICHES
A Research Proposal Presented to
The faculty of the
Ateneo de Manila University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Course
General Zoology - Laboratory
ENRICO MIGUEL ATENTAR
SEAN CHRISTOPHER BALTAZAR
ARCELLE MARIZ BRAGANZA
PAOLO LORENZO CABATO
RAPHAEL BENEDICT CLUTARIO
JOHN DARYLL SHERWIN DIAZ
MICHAELLA SOPHIA KING
BIO 100.02-LAB 2-JL
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Mangrove expansions form a unique wetland ecosystem, inhabiting the edge of land and
sea, rooted and thriving in seawater. They play a vital role in coastal ecology and in sustaining
and securing coastal communities (Commonwealth, n.d.). With this, from its rich marine
resources to its abundant mangrove ecosystems, the Philippines is known to be a beacon of
biodiversity. The Philippines’ mangrove forests offer numerous ecosystem goods and services to
coastal populations (Long & Giri, 2011).
Mangrove diversity is relatively high in the Philippines with 35 true mangrove species
compared with North and Central America, which combined have 10 species (Lillo, 2019).
Given such, it draws implications that the abundance of mangrove species in the Philippines
offers a richer tapestry of habitats for a diverse array of animal species, contributing to more
complex ecological interactions within it.
Acknowledging the wide array of biodiverse areas of study in the Philippines and the
need to fully grasp the various aspects of one of the richest type of ecosystem in the country, this
study embarks on a comprehensive exploration of Philippine mangrove expansion dynamics,
aiming to unravel the intricate relationship and correlation between mangrove ecosystems and
marine biodiversity, including an analysis of the species complexities, community ecology, and
trophic interactions within these habitats. With mangrove expansions hosting a myriad of animal
species, the research paper provides a valuable opportunity to look into the distribution patterns
of various animal species in such areas. Through the study of mangrove expansion dynamics,
researchers can also explore the drivers for community ecology and trophic interactions within
these ecosystems and their effects on prey availability, predator-prey dynamics, and interspecific
relationships. Moreover, its significance also lies upon delving into the ecological preferences
and habitat requirements of diverse animal taxa inhabiting mangrove environments. Lastly, with
this study, the researchers aim to back up profound implications for the conservation of
threatened species reliant on mangrove habitats, paving the way for the heightening of ecological
management strategies towards the area.
Statement of the Problem
1.​ What are the potential drivers in mangrove expansions that contribute to marine faunal
life biodiversification and its depletion?
2.​ Is there a correlation between expansions in the Philippines and improvements in marine
faunal diversity and ecosystem health?
3.​ How do mangrove expansions affect marine faunal diversity and ecosystem health if
characterized by species diversity, biomass accumulation, and habitat complexity within
mangrove-associated marine environments?
Alternative Hypothesis:
1.​ There are significant and identifiable potential drivers that contribute to marine life
biodiversification and depletion in mangrove expansions
2.​ There is a correlation between mangrove expansions in the Philippines and improvements
in marine biodiversity and ecosystem health
3.​ There is a significant effect of mangrove expansions to marine biodiversity and
ecological niches characterized by species diversity, biomass accumulation, and habitat
complexity within mangrove-associated marine environments
Null Hypothesis:
1.​ There are no significant and identifiable potential drivers that contribute to marine life
biodiversification and depletion in mangrove expansions
2.​ There is no correlation between mangrove expansions in the Philippines and
improvements in marine biodiversity and ecosystem health
3.​ There is no significant effect of mangrove expansions to marine biodiversity and
ecological niches characterized by species diversity, biomass accumulation, and habitat
complexity within mangrove-associated marine environments
Definition of Terms
a.​ Biomass Accumulation: The process where living organisms, especially plants, gather
organic material over time, crucial for storing energy and nutrients in ecosystems.
b.​ Ecological Niche: The specific role and position a species holds within its ecosystem,
including its interactions with other species and the environment.
c.​ Ecosystem Health: The overall condition and functionality of an ecosystem, determined
by its ability to sustainably support diverse species and ecological processes.
d.​ Habitat Complexity: The diversity and variation in physical features within a habitat or
ecosystem, important for supporting a wide range of species and ecological interactions.
e.​ Mangrove Expansion: The growth of mangrove forests into new areas or increase in size
within their existing range, which can enhance coastal resilience and biodiversity.
f.​ Species Diversity: The variety of species within a habitat or a region and each species’
relative abundance
g.​ Zoogeography: A branch of biology that is primarily concerned about the geological
distribution of animals
Research Objectives
The study primarily aims to investigate the relationship between mangrove expansions in
the Philippines and marine faunal diversity found within its coastal habitats. Specifically, it aims
to:
1)​ Assess the dynamics and extent of mangrove forest expansion in the Philippines;
2)​ Identify potential drivers of marine life biodiversification, depletion, and their
distribution patterns within mangrove habitats;
3)​ Quantify the effectiveness of mangrove forest expansion and other related conservation
efforts in promoting marine faunal diversity and ecosystem health in the country; and
4)​ Provide evidence-based recommendations and strategies to improve marine faunal
diversity in mangrove-associated marine environments.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Natural Factors of Mangrove Expansion
One of the largest natural factors of mangrove expansion is climate change, or more
specifically, the rising sea levels (Saintilan et al., 2020). This submerges low-lying coastal areas,
creating new habitats for mangroves to colonize. The increased inundation and altered tidal
patterns provide mangroves with the ideal conditions they require, such as regular tidal flushing
and a balanced salinity range (Alongi, 2018). Another crucial factor driving mangrove expansion
is sediment deposition and accretion. Mangroves are known for their ability to trap and stabilize
sediments, which is essential for their growth and survival (Scanlan, 2022). Changes in river
flow, coastal currents, and land-use practices can lead to increased sediment input into mangrove
habitats. As these sediments accumulate, they create new substrates for mangrove seedlings to
establish themselves. The gradual buildup of sediments also helps mangroves to keep pace with
rising sea levels, allowing them to maintain their position in the intertidal zone (Friess et al.,
2019).
Hydrological changes, such as alterations in freshwater input and tidal patterns, also play
a significant role in mangrove expansion. Mangroves require a delicate balance of freshwater and
saltwater to thrive, and changes in this balance can either facilitate or hinder their growth
(Habitat Requirements, n.d.). Other natural processes, such as coastal geomorphology and
ecological interactions, can also contribute to mangrove expansion (Ellison, 2021). It must be
taken into consideration, however, that the extent and impact of such factors may vary depending
on local and regional context.
Philippine Mangrove Expansion
In recent decades, the Philippine government and various non-governmental
organizations have put into place policies and programs aimed at protecting mangrove
ecosystems. These initiatives have led to the designation of mangrove-protected areas, such as
the Bakhawan Ecopark (Mangrove Eco-Park, 2023) and the Pagbilao Mangrove Forest (Abracia,
n.d.).
The natural expansion of mangroves in the Philippines has also been a significant factor
in the growth and recovery of such ecosystems. The country's extensive coastline, tropical
climate, and favorable hydrological conditions provide an ideal environment for mangroves to
thrive and expand naturally (Long & Giri, 2011). However, certain anthropogenic activities have
not had a positive impact on mangrove expansion. Coastal development, as well as the
exploitation and transformation of certain areas, has led to the destruction of mangrove habitats
(GMA Integrated News, 2023). Between 2000 and 2020, there was an observed decrease of
29,000 hectares in mangrove cover in 12 out of 17 regions in the Philippines (Baloloy et al.,
2023).
Aside from anthropogenic factors resulting in the decrease of these mangrove forests,
other factors also include changes in rainfall, temperature, sea level, and typhoons. In specific
regions with higher precipitation and sea surface temperatures, mangrove losses are more
significant (Baloloy et al., 2023).
Philippine Marine Zoological Diversity and Zoogeography
Mangroves are vital ecosystems, serving as crucial breeding grounds for a plethora of
marine life, including fish, shrimp, crabs, and shellfish. Species like barracuda, tarpon, and snook
seek refuge among the roots as juveniles, later venturing into seagrass beds and the open ocean
as adults. These coastal forests harbor a diverse array of organisms, from bacteria to big fish,
providing habitats for countless species like insects, birds, macaque monkeys, and endangered
creatures such as olive Ridley turtles and dugongs. Mangroves play a pivotal role in filtering
pollutants from rivers and streams, protecting both saltwater and freshwater ecosystems from
contamination and preventing seawater intrusion into inland waterways (Uijttewaal, 2021).
The Philippine islands are globally recognized as a haven for a great diversity of marine
life. It is among the Southeast Asian countries that are bound by the Coral Triangle and is
inhabited by roughly ¾ of the world’s recognized aquatic animals and plants (Goulding and
Dayrat, 2023) which thrive in different coastal habitats which include coral reefs and mangrove
forests. To concretize the Philippines’ marine resource distribution across different habitats,
Honda et al. (2013) conducted a field study on two different marine protected areas (MPAs) and
revealed that while most fish species were found in coral reef reserves, mangrove forests and
seagrass are also home to unique marine animals. Out of 15,930 recorded fishes, 12,306 fishes
and 265 different species were found in coral reefs while 2,426 fishes and 47 species were in
mangrove forests.
However, it is no secret that these coastal habitats are continually degraded by
anthropogenic activity which impedes the effectiveness of MPAs which are primarily established
to preserve marine biodiversity (Alva et al., 2015). Furthermore, these MPAs, while vital to
maintaining coastal health, are deemed inadequate to address the aforementioned issues
including their ecological ramifications for a country that is greatly dependent on fishery
networks for their livelihoods (Kockel et al., 2019).
Despite Palawan’s, a central biodiversity hotspot in the Philippines, stature as one of the
primary MPAs in the country, it remains vulnerable to the depletion of marine biodiversity
(Balisco et al., 2023). This vulnerability mainly stems from practices of overfishing, shoreline
development, and other unsustainable practices closely tied to rapid urbanization. Palawan’s
coastal communities recognize that the status of coastal ecosystems have greatly improved over
the past decade—the amount of seagrass bed, coral reef systems, and mangrove habitats is
expected to follow a positive trajectory moving forward (Sumeldan et al., 2021). Meanwhile, as
it stands, Sumeldan et al. (2021) also revealed that the residents of Palawan anticipate that the
diversity of shellfish and fish species will plummet in the near future. This is indicative of the
urgent need to establish habitat-specific management strategies to effectively preserve marine
biodiversity, even in coastal environments outside the established MPAs.
Mangrove Expansion Dynamics
Osland et al. (2022) conducted a thorough assessment of the intricate relationship
between mangrove expansion and wetland ecosystem services in the southeastern United States
which revealed the ecological benefits presented by mangrove expansion and its consequent
trade-offs. The study covered important concepts such as carbon cycling, nutrient filtration, and
effects on coastal food webs and fisheries, highlighting the complex local-scale impacts brought
about by mangrove expansion. The perceived trade-offs of expanding mangrove forests can vary
depending on the needs of the surrounding biotic components of the ecosystem.
​
Mangrove forests are key players in the ecosystem and as such, countries including the
Philippines have been exploring mangrove forest restoration opportunities for decades which
even date back to the early 20th century (Elisa & Salmo, 2022). While clearing hectares of
mangrove forests have paved the way for the expansion of aquaculture ponds, policy-makers and
coastal stakeholders have a common understanding that mangrove forest degradation does not
only reduce its service to the ecosystem, but effectively results in biodiversity loss (Elisa &
Salmo, 2022; Sannigrahi et al., 2020). Bryan-Brown et. al (2020) further explained how other
rehabilitation strategies which include natural mangrove regrowth have allowed already depleted
and disconnected mangrove habitats to become seasonal migration corridors for a wide variety of
fish species, but the forestry’s fragmented nature is no longer suited to sustain marine life, and
thus the consequent biodiversity loss.
Ultimately, it all boils down to the ecological and societal implications which may or may
not concern the locality, but it becomes conflicting when the very fisheries and aquaculture
ponds which are greatly dependent on marine life inhabiting coastal habitat depleted mangrove
habitats, inadvertently contribute to biodiversity loss.
METHODOLOGY
Locale of the Study
​
The study will be conducted in the Mangrove Population Enhancement Project in
Barangay Eztanza in Lingayen, Pangasinan located at 16.0217° N, 120.1761° E (Estanza,
Lingayen, Pangasinan Profile – PhilAtlas, 1990). Pangasinan was chosen in particular for its
proximity to the Lingayen Gulf and Dasol Bay along the West Philippine Sea, and its shrinking
mangrove areas located in coastal areas and riverbanks that covered 615.02 hectares in 2014
from an area of about 990 hectares in 1978 (Mayo et al., 2014). In Barangay Eztanza, the
Mangrove Population Enhancement Project is co-managed by the local government and the
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), but there is little not materials present about
the area or the effects of the project on the local biodiversity.
Use of Geospatial Data and Characterizing the Mangrove Area
​
In the study, the mangrove area of Barangay Eztanza will be examined by the researchers
using a satellite application accessible online such as Global Forest Watch and Google Earth.
This was the decided approach by the researchers in examining the mangroves of the Philippines
since this procedure was also utilized in similar studies and provides an overview of the area and
the growth of the mangrove project over the years (Amalo et al., 2023; Ibharim et al., 2024). The
researchers will then examine the dynamics of the mangroves in the chosen areas and the data
and observations gathered will be written down in a table. By comparing the growth of the area
using geospatial data over a period of time, it can provide the data needed in order to infer the
relationship between the effectiveness of the mangrove population enhancement project on the
diversity of the animals in the area.
​
The researchers will also characterize the mangroves and project area by observing any
potential drivers for marine faunal life to deplete or flourish such as pollution or other
environmental characteristics.
Sampling Techniques
​
Protocol for faunal assessment was adapted from Cerezo et al. (2018) and Idrus et al.
(2019). Observations on the types of fauna will be carried out on permanent transects for
sampling units, both in established mangrove areas and parts of the expanded mangroves, plotted
on Google Maps and coordinates will be recorded using a Global Positioning System (GPS). At
each sampling unit, quadrants measuring in 10 m x 10 m will be used to gather data on the
species of mollusks. Samples of fishes and crustaceans will be collected using fyke nets set out
in areas within the established mangrove area and in parts of the expanded mangroves, which
will be counted, identified, and classified to the Family level. Areas where fish and crustaceans
were collected will have their coordinates recorded using a GPS as well.
Identification of Species
​
Fishes, crustaceans, and mollusks will be identified using primary data taken from
immediate observation and data collection on the species common name, scientific name,
lengths, weights, and other relevant information that will be recorded in a separate data sheet.
Secondary data will also be used to identify the animals using previous research and data from
Municipal Agriculture Office (MAO) of Lingayen, Pangasinan or the Regional Office of BFAR
in the area.
Conservation Status
​
Conservation statuses of each species will be based on The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species 2010-2, 2011-1 and 2019-3 (IUCN, 2020) and Department of Environment and Natural
Resources Administrative Order No. 2007-1 (DAO 2007-1) and 2017-11 (DAO 2017-11). Data
such as declines in conservation status or increases in the number of threatened species may
indicate threats to biodiversity in the area, it can also provide insights into the health and
functioning of those ecosystems, and can also help in identifying species at higher risk of
extinction.
Diversity Analysis
Diversity indices are quantitative measures that aim to describe general properties of
communities that allow us to compare different regions, taxa, and trophic levels (Morris et al.,
2014). These indices are statistical representations of biodiversity in different aspects such as
richness, evenness, and dominance. In order to get a complete understanding of the faunal
diversity in the mangrove areas, indices such as species richness, diversity, evenness, and
dominance will be calculated. Data from the species collection and identification will be used in
the solving for the different indices.
Shannon–Wiener Index of Diversity (H’)
​
The Shannon-Wiener Index of Diversity (𝐻') measures the diversity of species in a
community by taking into account both species richness, or the number of different species, and
species evenness, or how evenly the individuals are distributed among the different species
(Nolan & Callahan, 2006). The value of 𝐻 ranges from 0 to 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥is different for each
community and depends on species richness. In the formula, 𝑝𝑖 represents the fraction of the
entire population made up of species i, 𝑆 represents the number of species encountered or species
richness, and ⅀ represents the sum from species 1 to species S.
𝑠
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑊𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐻') =
− Σ𝑖=1(𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑛𝑝𝑖)
Figure 1. Formula of Shannon–Wiener Index of Diversity​
Pielou’s Index of Evenness (J)
​
The Pielou’s Index of Evenness (J) is an index that specifically measures how evenly
individuals are distributed among different species in a community (Jost, 2010). The value of J
ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values getting closer to 1 indicating higher levels of evenness. In
the formula, H’ represents Shannon’s Diversity Index and ln S represents the natural logarithm of
species richness.
𝐻
𝑃𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑢'𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝐽) = 𝑙𝑛 𝑆
Figure 2. Formula of Pielou’s Index of Evenness
Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D)
​
The Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) is a measure of diversity which takes into account
the number of species present, as well as the relative abundance of each species (English et al.,
1997; Simpson, 1949). The index is the complement of Simpson’s Index of Dominance and can
be calculated by subtracting Simpson’s Index of Dominance to 1. In the formula, 𝑝𝑖 represents
the fraction of the entire population made up of species i, 𝑆 represents the number of species
encountered or species richness.
𝑠
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑠𝑜𝑛’𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐷) = Σ𝑖=1(𝑝𝑖)
2
Figure 3. Formula of Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D)
Simpson’s Index of Dominance (C)
​
The Simpson’s Index of Dominance (C) quantifies the dominance or commonness of
species within a community. The index values range from 0 to 1, and the higher values indicate
greater dominance of one or a few species within the community (English et al., 1997; Simpson
1949).
The index is the inverse of Simpson’s Index of Diversity and can be calculated by
dividing 1 by Simpson’s Index of Diversity. Likewise with Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D), 𝑝𝑖
represents the fraction of the entire population made up of species i, 𝑆 represents the number of
species encountered or species richness.
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑠𝑜𝑛’𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝐶) =
1
𝑠
2
Σ𝑖=1(𝑝𝑖)
Figure 4. Formula of Simpson’s Index of Dominance ©
Data Analysis
​
By using the data from the species collection and identification, as well as the data from
the diversity indices, the relationship between the mangrove growth data observed in the
geospatial data of the area will be established by comparing the diversity indices of the area with
previous research conducted before the prescribed year of the Mangrove Population
Enhancement Project. Diversity data taken from within the established mangroves and in the
enhancement project area will also be used to establish the difference in diversity between the
two areas and what it indicates for the effectiveness of the Mangrove Population Enhancement
Project. Lastly, analysis of the diversity in the established mangroves and enhancement project
area can allow for the identification of potential drivers of marine life biodiversification and
depletion by observing the abundance and richness of faunal life in the areas.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study holds significance within the context of the ecological landscape in the
Philippines, wherein numerous life forms depend on mangrove ecosystems for habitat and
sustenance, particularly marine life. Mangrove expansions serve as crucial nurseries and shelters
for diverse marine species, contributing to the productivity and resilience of coastal ecosystems.
Understanding mangrove expansion dynamics, its relationship, and its impact on marine
biodiversity is vital for conservation and sustainable management efforts among stakeholders.
The study can aid in the process of making informed policies and practices aimed at protecting
and uplifting the resilience of such coastal ecosystems. Moreover, the findings of this study can
be of great benefit to the research community as the data may be utilized as scientific evidence in
further investigations of specific aspects of mangrove ecology, species interactions, and
ecosystem functioning.
TIMELINE AND BUDGET
Figure 5. Table of Fieldwork Itinerary
Budget Allocations
BUDGET DESCRIPTION
AMOUNT
Transportation
Php 3,000.00
Accommodation
Php 4,000.00
Food
Php 4,000.00
Cost of Disposable Equipment
Php 750.00
Total
Php 11,750.00
Table 1. Table of Budget Allocations
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
One crucial aspect of the research study’s ethical framework is the inclusion and
consideration of local communities. The researchers are to recognize the importance of engaging
with community leaders and stakeholders to obtain their consent and involvement in our research
activities. By fostering open communication and collaboration with local communities, it is
ensured that the local communities' perspectives, values, and needs within the area of study are
accounted for. Prioritizing community engagement and cooperation, the researchers aim to
conduct the research in a manner that is respectful, inclusive, and beneficial to all stakeholders
involved.
​
Moreover, the researchers are also committed to acquiring the necessary permits for
animal and plant testing from relevant government agencies such as the Bureau of Fisheries and
Aquatic Resources (BFAR), the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR),
and local councils. These permits shall ensure compliance with legal and ethical standards, as
well as to protect the welfare of the flora and fauna involved in the study. From the collection
and handling to testing of plant and animal specimens, the researchers are dedicated to upholding
strict guidelines and regulations governing such. Through these ethical considerations, the
researchers strive to conduct their research responsibly and ethically, contributing to the
advancement of scientific knowledge and the preservation of the environment and local
communities.
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