lOMoARcPSD|41445193
Philippine History
Education (Bohol Island State University)
Scan to open on Studocu
Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
List of the Famous Filipino Writers and their
Pen Names or Pseudonyms
Jose dela Cruz - Huseng Sisiw
Marcelo H. Del Pilar - Plaridel, Dolores Manapat,
Piping Dilat, Siling Labuyo, Kupang, Haitalaga,
Patos, Carmelo, D.A. Murgas, L.O. Crame D.M.
Calero, Hilario, and M. Dati.
Severino de las Alas - Di-kilala
Epifanio delos Santos - G. Solon
Valeriano Hernandez Peña - Ahas na Tulog,
Anong, Damulag, Dating Alba, Isang Dukha,
Kalampag and Kintin Kulirat
Severino Reyes - Lola Basyang
Pedro de Govantes de Azcarraga - Conde de
Albay
Francisco dela Cruz Balagtas - Francisco Baltazar
Asuncion Lopez Bantug (Rizal’s grand niece) Apo ni Dimas
Jose Ma. Basa
Dr. José Protasio Rizal Mercado y Alonso
Realonda - José Rizal, Dimas-alang (Tagalog for
Touch me not), Laong-Laan (which means Everprepared), Agnoand Calambeño
Hugo Salazar - Ambut
Moises Salvador - Araw
Jose Turiano Santiago - Tiktik
Lope K. Santos - Anak-Bayan and Doctor Lukas
Juan Crisostomo Soto - Crissot
Luis Taruc - Alipato (which means spark that
spreads a fire and one of Rizal’s pet dogs)
Jose Ma. Sison - Amado Guerrero
Dr. Pio Valenzuela - Madlang-Away
Clemente Jose Zulueta - M. Kaun
J. Zulueta - Juan Totoó
Isaac Fernando delos Rios
Bautista - Ba Basiong
Gen. Vito Belarmino - Blind Veteran
Andres Bonifacio - Agapito Bagumbayan, while
his inspiring Katipunan name was Maypagasa
Felipe Calderon - Simoun and Elias (names from
Rizal’s novels)
José Corazón de Jesús - Huseng Batute
Mariano del Rosario - Tito-Tato
Antonio K. Abad - Akasia
Jose Abreu - Kaibigan
Macario Adriatico - Amaori, C. Amabri and
Felipe Malayo
Faustino Aguilar - Sinag-Ina
Emilio Aguinaldo - Magdalo
Virgilio Almario - Rio Alma
Pascual Alvarez - Bagongbuhay
Aurelio Alvero - Magtanggul Asa
Cecilio Apostol -Catulo, Calipso and Calypso
Francisco Arcellana - Franz Arcellana
Salvador Vivencio del Rosario - X and Juan
Tagalo
Domingo Gomez - Romero Franco
Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzalez - N.V.M.
Gonzalez
Fernando Ma. Guerrero - Fluvio Gil
Amado Hernandez - Amante Ernani, Herininia de
la Riva and Julio Abril
Emilio Jacinto - Dimas-ilaw and his Katipunan
name was Pingkian
Nick Joaquin - Quijano de Manila
Jesus Lava - B. Ambrosio Rianzares
Sixto Lopez - Batulaw
Gen. Antonio Luna - Taga-Ilog
Juan Luna - J.B. and Buan (a translation of his
surname Luna which means moon)
Apolinario Mabini - Bini and Paralitico
Jose Palma - Ana-haw, Esteban Estebanes and
Gan Hantik
Rafael Palma - Hapon and Dapit-Hapon
Jose Maria Panganiban - Jomapa and J.M.P.
Pascual H. Poblete - Anak-Bayan
Mariano Ponce - Naning, Tikbalang, and
Kalipulako
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
SABERTOOTH CURRICULUM - responsive to
the environment
SPIRALLED CURRICULUM - increasing level
of difficulty
CURRICULUM - planning, design, development,
implement, evaluation, engineering
CURRICULUM PLANNING - aligned to
mission, vision, goals
TYPES OF LESSON:
• development lesson
• review lesson
• drill lesson
• appreciation lesson
ENCULTURATION TYPOLOGIES
• pre-figurative
• post figurative
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
• co figurative
ACCULTURATION TYPOLOGIES
• adopted change
• free borrowing
SOCIETAL TRENDS - Alvin Teoffer
• explosion
• implosion
• technoplosion
• dysplosion
PREFIGURATIVE - learn older generation
POST FIGURATIVE - learn younger generation
CO FIGURATIVE - learn same age
ADOPTED CHANGE - acculturation that is
imposed
EXPLOSION - influx of people from rural to
urban
INPLOSION - influx of information
TECHNOPLOSION - influx of ICT tools and
gadgets
DYSPLOSION - deterioration of human values
KNOWLEDGE FOR PRACTICE – malaman |
teacher preparation
KNOWLEDGE IN PRACTICE – maranasan |
artistry of practice
KNOWLEDGE OF PRACTICE – maunawaan |
systematic inquiries about teaching
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT - decision
making
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
• content knowledge
• pedagogical knowledge
• technological knowledge
• context knowledge
LEE S. SHULMANS - PCK model
ELEMENT OF TIMELINESS – classic |
transcends through generation
ELEMENT OF TIMELESSNESS - can withstand
the test of time
TOTAL DEVELOPMENT
• beginner survival
• content survival
• mastery survival
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT
• social
• economic
• cultural
• political
• technological
• ethico moral
J. ABNER PEDDWELL (1939) - sabertooth
curriculum
4 DOMAINS
1. planning and preparation
2. classroom environment
3. instruction
4. professional response
TRIVIUM - rhetoric (speech) | grammar
(English) | logic
QUADRIVIUM – arithmetic | geometry | music |
astronomy
ARITHMETIC - number itself
GEOMETRY - number in space
MUSIC - number in time
ASTRONOMY - number in time and space
HERACLITUS - one cannot bathe in the same
river twice
CURRICULUM - sum total of all the experiences
provided by the school to students for optimum
growth and development
HARD SKILLS - what do you want the students
to learn?
SOFT SKILLS - why do you want them to learn
it?
THEORY OF APPERCEPTION - familiar to
unfamiliar
EDUCATIONAL DELIVERY SYSTEM
• instruction
• research & extension library
• communication school guidance
• physical facilities canteen
• curriculum
SERVICE LEARNING - teaching method that
combines meaningful service to the community
with curriculum based learning and education in
action
CLOZE TEST/ PROCEDURE - every 5th or 7th
word is omitted
ARBORESCENT - growth is vertical
RHIZOMATIC - growth is horizontal
PROGRESSIVE LEARNING - in order
RETROGRESSIVE LEARNING - reverse order
ROTE LEARNING - not progressive or retro
5 MAJOR CLUSTERS OF STRATEGIES
DIRECT INSTRUCTION - developing skills or
providing information
INDIRECT INSTRUCTION - involvement
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING - process not
product
INDEPENDENT STUDY - student initiative
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTION - social skills
PHILIPS 66 - students group by 6 | 6mins time
MUSIC TYPOLOGIES
STORY MUSIC - tells a story
PROGRAM MUSIC - describes
PURE OR ABSOLUTE MUSIC - doesn’t tell or
describe
GESSELSCHAFTLICH – market | perspective of
schooling | (efficiency, productivity, competition)
GEMEINSHAFT – community | cultural
relationship
TECHNOLOGICAL FORCES OF CHANGE
• acceleration- mabilis
• novelty – new
• diversity
MAX SCHELLER - state of valuelessness |
anomie
EDUCATION TYPOLOGIES
• formal
• non formal- alternative learning system
• informal - hidden curriculum
STRATIFICATION - divided grouping
PRIMARY GROUP – family |face to face |
intimate and personal
SECONDARY GROUP – impersonal | business
like | casual
IN GROUP – solidarity | camaraderie |
sympathetic attitude
OUT GROUP – indifference | avoidance | hatred
PEER GROUP - same age | social and economic
status including interest
CLIQUE - different age | same interest
SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF
CURRICULUM - belief will determine the practice
CHARACTERS OF CULTURE
• diverse - environment
• gratifying – needs based
• learned - instruction
• adaptive – borrowed, imposed and invented
• social - contact
• transmitted - language
HOW IS CULTURE LEARNED
• enculturation – learning own culture
• acculturation – Knowing the culture of other
people
• inculturation – adapt the culture of other people
CULTURAL VIEWS
1. ethnocentrism – my culture is better
2. xenocentrism – your culture is better
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF
CURRICULUM
• traditional – cultural heritage
• experiential – experience for the growth of
individual
• structure of discipline – structure of discipline
of knowledge
• behavioral • constructivist
SCHOOL - a privileged place where cultural
transmission occurs
COLONIAL MENTALITY - preference for
foreign
CURRICULUM ENGINEERING - comprises all
process and activities that are necessary to keep the
school curriculum dynamic and functional
CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES
1. ideal – represents what scholars say and
advocate
2. formal – standards sets by the education
agencies
3. instructional – represents the course syllabus /
lecture notes used by the teachers
4. operational – represents the actual teaching
learning process
5. experiential – more powerful / what the
students think about the lesson delivered by the
teachers
6. hidden – students learned experiences outside
the classroom
TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE Robert Sternberg
ASSURE MODEL
• analyses learners
• state objectives
• select media and materials
• utilize media and materials
• require learner participation
SMITH AND NAGEL PPPF
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION - process
of ensuring that the curriculum that has been
planned or developed is one being actually
implemented or taught by the teacher
CURRICULUM EVALUATION - process of
determining the EFFECTIVENESS of a curriculum
and the EFFICIENCY with which it is implemented
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
• used to create curricula
• individual learning areas
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
• instructional materials
CURRICULUM DESIGN -determining the
building blocks of curriculum
• LEARNING CONTENT
• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• LEARNING EXPERIENCES
• LEARNING EVALUATION
DESIGN BACKWARD and DELIVER
FORWARD –
• learning outcomes and course outcomes
• program outcomes
• institutional outcomes
PHILOSOPHY -common belief
VISION - future
MISSION - task
STRATEGIES - core areas
SUCCESS FACTORS - metric system
STATEMENT OF PURPOSES
• aim - national level
• goal - school level
• objectives - classroom level
• target - individual
RSEP - revised sec education program
RBEC - restructured basic education curriculum
BEHAVIORIST - correct answer | stimulus
response
COGNITIVIST - correct method
CONSTRUCTIVIST - correct meaning thru
sense making
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
SUBCATEGORIES OF TEACHER
MOVEMENT/MOVEMENT MANAGEMENT
1. THRUST – proceeding without assessing
2. DANGLING – hanging activity by giving
another
3. TRUNCATION – leaves activity
4. FLIP-FLOP – returns to a left activity while
currently
doing an activity
5. STIMULUS-BOUND – distracted
6. OVERDWELLING – overtime in one topic
7. OVERLAPPING – multitasking results
negatively
ISM’s IN EDUCATION
BEHAVIORISM – change ESSENTIALISM –
basic
EXISTENTIALISM – choice HUMANISM – build
IDEALISM – enough in mind PERRENIALISM –
constant
PRAGMATISM - practice (T&E)
PROGRESSIVISM – improve
REALISM – enough to see UTILITARIANISM best
SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIVISM – benefit of all
AIMS OF ERAS
PRE-SPANISH – survival and conformity
SPANISH – Christianity
AMERICAN – democratic ideals and way of life
COMMONWEALTH – moral character, efficiency
JAPANESE – progress
PROF. ED PROPONENTS
B.F. SKINNER – Operant Conditioning
BANDURA – Modeling
BANDURA & WALLACE – Social Learning
CARL JUNG – Psychological
CARL JUNG – Psychological
CONFICIUS – Education for all, Golden Rule
EDWARD THORNDIKE – Connectionism
ERICK ERIKSON – Psychosocial
IVAN PAVLOV – Classical Conditioning
JEAN PIAGET – Cognitive FROEBEL - Father of
Kndrgrtn
PEZTALLOZI – realia, Froebel’s protégé
JEROME BRUNER – Instrumental Conceptualism
JOHN DEWEY – learning by doing
JOHN LOCKE – Tabula Rasa (blank sheet)
KOHLERS – Insight Learning
LAURENCE KOHLBERG – Moral Development
LEV VGOTSKY – Social Cognitivist, Scaffolding
SIGMUND FREUD – Psychosexual
WILLIAM SHELDON – Physiological
PRINCIPLES
HEDONISM – pleasure principle
DOUBLE EFFECT – sacrifice for the good or bad
FORMAL COOPERATION – cooperation with will
LESSER EVIL – choice of the less one from two
bad things
MATERIAL COOPERATION – cooperation
without will
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL/
PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY
1. ORAL (0-1 yrs. old) – Infant
2. ANAL (1-3 yrs. old) – Toddler
3. PHALLIC – Preschool
4. LATENCY – School Age
5. GENITAL – Adolescense
OEDIPUS – son to mom ELECTRA – daughter to
dad
BRUNER’S THREE MODES OF
REPRESENTATION
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
1. ENACTIVE (0-1 yrs. old) – action-based
information
2. ICONIC (1-6 yrs. old) – image-based information
3. SYMBOLIC (7+) – code/symbols such as
language
TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES
COGNITIVE:
BLOOM (LOTS) (HOTS)
o Knowledge
o Comprehension
o Application
o Analysis
o Synthesis
o Evaluation
ANDERSON (LOTS) (HOTS)
o Remembering
o Understanding
o Applying
o Analyzing
o Evaluating
o Creating
AFFECTIVE:
o Receiving
o Responding
o Valuing
o Organizing
o Characterization
PSYCHOMOTOR:
SIMPSON HARROW
o Perception
o Set
o Guided Response
o Mechanism
o Complex Overt Response
o Adaptation
o Origination o Reflex movement
o Fundamental Movement
o Physical Movement
o Perceptual Abilities
o Skilled Movements
o Non-discursive communication
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL TASKS
1. TRUST VS. MISTRUST (0-12 months)
2. AUTONOMY VS. SHAME/DOUBT (1-3 years
old)
3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (3-6 years old)
4. INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY (6-12 years old)
5. INDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION (12-18
years old)
6. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION (early 20s-early
40s
7. GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION (40s-mid
60s)
8. INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR (mid 60s-death)
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
1. SENSORY – senses
2. PRE-OPERATIONAL - imagination
3. CONCRETE 4. FORMAL
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
1. VACUUM TUBES (1940-1956)
2. TRANSISTORS (1956-1963)
3. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (1964-1971)
4. MICROPROCESSORS (1971-present)
5. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (present-future)
MISTAKEN GOALS
1. ATTENTION SEEKER – “teacher, notice me”
2. REVENGE – “teacher, I am hurt”
3. POWER-SEEKING – “teacher, may I help?”
4. INADEQUACY – “teacher, don’t give up on me”
5. WITHDRAWAL – “teacher, please help me”
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships
Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order
LEVEL 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
Stage 6: Universal Principles
CENTRAL TENDENCY -Central (middle
location) Tendency
MEAN – Average MODE – most occurring
RANGE – highest score minus lowest score
LOW SD–Homogenous, scores near to
mean(almost same)
HIGH SD – Heterogenous, scores far to mean
(scattered)
DECILE – 10 grps (D1…D10) QUARTILE – 4
grps (Q1…Q4)
SUSPENSION – time REVOKATION – condition
DIFFICULTY INDEX
0-0.20 VERY DIFFICULT
0.21-0.40 DIFFICULT
0.41-0.60 MODERATELY DIFFICULT
0.61-0.80 EASY
0.81-1.00 VERY EASY
POSITIVELY SKEWED (LEFT FOOT)
- low scores, mean greater than mode
NEGATIVELY SKEWED (RIGHT FOOT)
- high scores, mean is lower than mode
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
HORN/HALO EFFECT
- overcoming other trait, either bad/good
GENERAL EDUCATION
FILIPINO/ENGLISH:
MGA TEORYA NG PINAGMULAN NG WIKA
1. BOW-WOW –kalikasan at hayop
2. DING-DONG – bagay
3. POOH-POOH – masidhing damdamin
4. YOHEHO – pwersang pisikal
MGA URI NG PANGUNGUSAP
WALANG PAKSA:
1. EKSISTENSYAL – mayroong isa o higit pang
tao
Halimbawa: Mayroon daw puno sa bakuran.
2. MODAL – nais/pwede/maari (Gusto ko matulog.)
3. PANLIPUNAN – pagbati, pagbigay galang atbp.
4. SAGOT LAMANG – “Talaga?”, “Oo”
5. SAMBITLA – masidhing damdamin (Aray!)
6. TEMPORAL – panandaliang kalagayan o
panahon
KAYARIAN:
1. PAYAK – iisang kaisipan
2. TAMBALAN – dalawang sugnay na ‘di
makapag-iisa
3. HUGNAYAN – madalas nagsisimula sa kung,
dahil sa
4. LANGKAPAN – mahabang pangungusap
MGA URI NG KWENTO
1. PABULA (fable) – hayop
2. PARABULA (parable)– Bibliya
3. ANEKDOTA (anecdote) – tunay na buhay
4. MITOLOHIYA (myth) – diyos at diyosa
(pinagmulan)
ASPEKTO NG PANDIWA (Verb)
1. PERPEKTIBO – tumakbo
2. IMPERPEKTIBO – tumatakbo
3. KONTEMPLATIBO – tatakbo
KAANTASAN NG PANG-URI (Adjective)
1. LANTAY – walang pinaghahambingan
2. PAHAMBING ¬– inihahalintulad
3. PASUKDOL – nangingibabaw (H: pinakamataas)
MGA URI NG TULA
1. PATULA (Moro-moro)
2. PASALAYSAY (Epiko, Awit, Korido)
MGA AWITING BAYAN
1. DALIT/HIMNO – pagsamba sa anito o pangrelihiyon
2. DIONA – kasal
3. DUNG-AW – patay (pagdadalamhati)
4. KALUSAN – paggawa
5. KUMINTANG – tagumpay (pandigma)
6. KUNDIMAN – pag-ibig
7. OYAYI – pagpapatulog ng bata
8. SOLIRANIN – pagsasagwan
9. TALINDAW – pamamangka
PAGBABAGONG MORPONEMIKO
1. ASIMILASYON – Parsyal (pangsukli), Ganap
(panukli)
2. MAY ANGKOP – wikain mo – “kamo”
3. MAYSUDLONG/PAGDARAGDAG NG
PONEMA
- muntik – muntikan, pagmuntikan, pagmuntikanan
4. METATESIS – linipad – nilipad
5. PAGKAKALTAS NG PONEMO – takipan –
takpan
6. PAGLILIPAT-DIIN – laRUan (playground) laruAN (toy)
7. PAGPAPALIT NG PONEMA – madapat –
marapat
MGA URI NG PANGHALIP/PRONOUNS
1. PANAO/PERSONAL PRONOUN – ako/I etc.
2. PAMATLIG/DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN –
ito/this etc.
3. PANAKLAW/INDEFINITE P. - isa, all, anyone
etc.
4. PATULAD – ganito, ganyan atbp.
5. PANANONG/INTERROGATIVE P. – sino, when
etc.
6. PAMANGGIT/RELATIVE P. – daw, umano,
which, who
MGA AKDANG NA MAY IMPUWENSYA SA
MUNDO
AKLAT NG MGA ARAW – China (by Confucius)
AKLAT NG MGA PATAY – Egypt cults & myths
(by Osiris)
AWIT NI ROLANDO-France (by Doce Pares,
Roncesvalles)
BIBLIYA – Palestino at Greece
CANTEBURY TALES – America (by Chaucer)
DIVINE COMEDIA – Italy (by Dante)
EL CID COMPEADOR – katangian at history ng
Spain
ILIAD o ODYSSEY – Myths of Greece made by
Homer.
ISANG LIBO’T ISANG GABI – Ugali sa Arabia at
Persia
KORAN – Arabia (Muslim Bible) MAHABRATA –
India
UNCLE TOM’S CABIN – about slaves that
becomes the basis of democracy. (by Harriet
Beecher Stowe of U.S.)
MGA URI NG PANITIKAN
1. TULUYAN – binubuo ng mga pangungusap
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
A. NOBELA – binubuo ng mga kabanata
B. DULA – pagtatanghal sa entablado
MGA DULANG PANLIBANGAN:
a. TIBAG – Sta. Elena
b. LAGAY – Pilarenos ng Sorsogon
c. PANUNULUYAN – pagtatanghal bago mag-alas
dose (12PM) ng gabi ng kapaskuhan
d. PANUBOL – parangal sa may kaarawan
e. KARILYO – ala-puppet show
f. KURIDO – katapangan, kabayanihan,
kababalaghan, pananampalataya
g. SARSUELA – musical tungkol sa pag-ibig,
paghihiganti atbp. masisidhing damdamin
C. ALAMAT – pinagmulan
D. ANEKDOTA – ugali, may mabuting aral
2. PATULA - may sukat, pantig, tugma, taludtod,
saknong
A. TULANG PASALAYSAY - mahahalagang tago
o pangyayari sa buhay.
a. EPIKO – kabayanihan sa kababalaghan
o BIDASARI, PARANG SABIR – Moro
o BIAG NI LAM ANG – Iloko
o MARAGTAS, HARAYA, LAGDA AT HARI SA
BUKID – Bisaya
o KUMINTANG – Tagalog
o DAGOY AT SUDSUD – Tagbanua
o TATUANG - Bagobo
b. AWIT o KORIDO - kaharian
c. TULA NG DAMDAMIN o LIRIKI – own feeling
MGA TULANG LIRIKO:
o AWITING BAYAN – kalungkutan
o ELEHIYA – yumao
o DALIT – pagpupuri sa Diyos
o PASTORAL – buhay sa bukid
o ODA – papuri
B. TULANG DULA O PANGTANGHALAN
a. KOMEDYA
b. MELODRAMA – musical
c. TRAHEDYA – death of main character
d. PARSA – mga pangyayaring nakakatawa
e. SAYNETE
-karaniwang pag-uugali ng tao/ pook
C. TULANG PATNIGAN
a. KARAGATAN – alamat ng singsing ng prinsesa
na naihulog niya sa dagat sa hangaring
mapangasawa ang kasintahang mahirap.
b. DUPLO – paligsahan ng husay sa pagtula
c. BALAGTASAN – pumalit sa Duplo
FIGURES OF SPEECH/TAYUTAY
PAG-UUGNAY O PAGHAHAMBING:
1. SIMILE/PAGTUTULAD – mayroong pangatnig
2. METAPHOR/PAGWAWANGIS – walang
pangatnig
3. ALUSYON – iba’t ibang aspekto ng buhay ng tao
4. METONYMY/PAGPAPALIT-TAWAG
5. SYNECDOCHE/SINEKDOKE – pagbanggit ng
isa upang tukuyin ang kabuuan
Hal: Dalawang bibig ang umaasa kay Romeo.
PAGLALARAWAN:
6. HYPERBOLE/ PAGMAMALABIS o
EKSAHERASYON
7. APOSTROPHE/PAGTAWAG – pakikipag-usap
sa hindi buhay o malayong tao. Hal: Ulan, tumigil
ka na.
8. EXCLAMATION/PAGDARAMDAM – strong
feeling.
9. PARADOX/PARADOKS -“malayo ma’y malapit
pa rin”
10. OXYMORON/PAGTATAMBIS - paradox w/
extra words
PAGSASALIN NG KATANGIAN:
11. PERSONIFICATION/PAGSASATAO
PAGSASATUNOG:
12. ONOMATOPOEIA/PANGHIHIMIG – tunog
ang paksa
13. ALLITERATION/PAG-UULIT – repetition of
1st letter in the 1st word. Ex: Dinggin mo ang Diyos
na Dinadakila
14. REPITASYON – repetition of phrase. Ex:
Tama! Tama!...
IBA PANG TAYUTAY NA GAMIT SA TULA:
ALITERASYON – unang titik o pantig ay parepareho
ANADIPLOSIS – paggamit ng salita sa unahan at
hulihan
EPIPORA – pag-uulit ng salita sa hulihan
PAG-UYAM – sarcasm
LITOTES – pagtanggi o pagkukunwari.
TALUDTOD – linya sa tula
UNFAMILIAR PARTS OF THE SPEECH
1. PREPOSITIONS-on, under, off, by, in near, for,
to, since
2. CONJUNCTIONS (PANGATNIG)
- para/for, at/and, nor, or, pero/but, yet, so, ni, ngunit
3. INTERJECTION – with exclamation mark
PROPER SEQUENCE OF WORDS IN A
SENTENCE
1. ARTICLES – a, an, the 2. OPINION 3. SIZE
4. AGE 5. SHAPE 6. COLOR
7. MATERIAL 8. PURPOSE
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
CLASSIFICATIONS OF POEM
1. BALLAD – narrative, less folk tale/legend, to be
sung
2. BLACK VERSE – with meter but no rhyme
3. DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE – written in form
of speech for individual character.
4. ELEGY –death of individual
5. EPIC – tells a story about heroic figure
6. EULOGY – message for the dead
7. FREE VERSE (vers libre) – without meter but
with rhyme
8. HAIKU – Japanese poem about nature. 5, 7, 5 (3
lines and 17 syllables)
9. IDYLL (Idyl) – peaceful, idealized country scene
10. LYRICS - thoughts and feelings
11. NARRATIVE – tells story
12. ODE -typically serious/meditative nature, type
of Lyric
13. PASTORAL –rural life in peaceful &
romanticized way
14. SONNET – Lyric poem consists of 14 lines
15. TANKA – Japanese poem: 5 lines, 31 syllables
PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTIONS
BIAK NA BATO – pact, thought of 1st Republic.
- Spainards paid P200 000
1. MALOLOS CONSTITUTION – Apolinario
Mabini
- rights of soldiers
- no Visayas yet in right of territories
2. 1935 CONSTITUTION – adapted from American
Const.
3. 1943 CONSITUTION - Jose P. Laurel
- Japan invades but gave freedom for Phil. to rule.
4. 1937 CONSTITUTION – Ferdinand Marcos
- Martial Law – 60days max
- Nat’l Territory forced Kalayaan grp. of Islands &
Saba
5. 1987 CONSTITUTION - 18 articles
- past chairwoman: Cecilla Muñoz Palma (Feb 2,
1987)
- Bill of Rights are for the criminals
JUS SANGUINI – blood JUS SOLI – place
SOME TYPES OF GOVERNMENTS
1. COMMUNIST – classless society
- State plans and controls economy
2. PARLIAMENTARY – majority of people voted
3. REPUBLICAN – power comes from people
PHILIPPINE PRESIDENTS
(AgQueLaOsRoQuiMagGarMaMarAquiRaEsArAq
uiDut)
ACTS
1. ASSOCIATION OF SE ASIAN NATIONS
(ASEAN)
- Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Brunei, Philippines,
Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaysia
2. BELL TRADE (PHILIPPINE TRADE ACT) –
bet. Phil. & U.S.
3. KYOTO PROTOCOL (UNNCC)
- fight global warming decreasing green house gases
4. RIO DE JANEIRO CONVENTION
- environment and sustainable development
5. TEJEROS CONVENTION – election
- Bonifacio elected as Director Imperior
6. TREATY ON GENERAL RELATIONS
- recognition of U.S. to Philippine freedom
7. UNDERWORLD-SIMMONS ACT – full free
foreign trade
8. PAYNE ALDRICH ACT – partial free foreign
trade
MISSIONARIES AND EXPEDITIONS
1. AUGUSTINIAN – most intelligent
2. FRANCISCAN – sends medical aids
3. JESUITS
4. DOMINICANS – richest
5. RECOLECTS – most killed schools
MARTYR PRIESTS
1. BURGOS – youngest, mastermind of
secularization
2. GOMEZ – Oldest, likes “sabong” and hid there
HOMO HABILIS – man of steel (bighead, uses
muscle)
HOMO ERECTUS – man who discovered fire &
clothes
HOMO SAPIENS – thinking man (can produce
materials)
UNFAMILIAR BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
ANATOMY – inner organs ENTOMOLOGY –
insects
BIOCHEMISTRY – chemical patterns of animals
ECOLOGY – living things bet. Each other in
environment
EMBRYOLOGY – developmental patterns fr.
zygote-birth
GENETICS – heredity MYCOLOGY – fungi
HERPETOLOGY – reptiles and amphibians
HISTOLOGY – plant and animal tissues
MORPHOLOGY – phenotype (appearance)
ORNITHOLOGY – birds PARASITOLOGY –
parasites
PALEONTOLOGY – fossils of animals and plants
PHYSIOLOGY – function of tissue, organ &
system
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
TAXONOMY – classification of living organisms
SCIENCE PROPONENTS
CAROLUS LINNAEUS – Father of Taxonomy
ROBERT HOOKE – termed “cells” (cellulae)
ANTON VAN LEUWENHOEK – 1st person to
observe microscopic organisms (animal cule)
ROBERT BROWN – discovered Nucleus
MATTHIAS SCHIEDEN (Botanist) &
THEODORE (Zoologist)
- found all plants consist of cells
RUDOLF VIRCHOW – proposed cells come fr.
existing cells
EARTH’S SPHERES
ATMOSPHERE – gaseous sphere protection from
meteors
Divided into five:
 Troposphere
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
 Exosphere
HYDROSPHERE – water
LITHOSPHERE – oceanic and continental crust
BIOSPHERE – all life forms in Earth
CRYOSPHERE – ice ANTHROSPHERE –
ancestors
PLANETS AND THEIR SEQUENCE
1. SUN – 99.86% of Solar System
- believed was formed 4.6 billion years ago
- Responsible for weather and climate
2. MERCURY – named after Roman God
- no satellite and atmosphere
- discovered by Mariner Ten
3. VENUS – Goddess of Love and Beauty (Mariner
2)
- Perfect sphere, sister planet of Earth
4. EARTH
5. MARS – God of War, red planet (Mariner 9)
6. JUPITER -Gas Giant, fastest rotating planet
(10hrs less)
- has Great Red Spot: huge storm for 350yrs
7. SATURN – God of Agriculture (chunks of rocks)
- made mostly of hydrogen
8. URANUS – Frederick William Herscel
- Sky & Ice Giant, 3rd largest planet
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL TASKS
1. TRUST VS. MISTRUST (0-12
months)
2. AUTONOMY VS. SHAME/DOUBT
(1-3 years old)
3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (3-6 years
old)
4. INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY (6-12
years old)
5. INDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION
(12-18 years old)
6. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION (early
20s-early 40s
7. GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION
(40s-mid 60s)
8. INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR (mid 60sdeath)
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
1. SENSORY – senses
2. PRE-OPERATIONAL - imagination
3. CONCRETE
4. FORMAL
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
1. VACUUM TUBES (1940-1956)
2. TRANSISTORS (1956-1963)
3. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
(1964-1971)
4. MICROPROCESSORS (1971-present)
5. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
(present-future)
MISTAKEN GOALS
1. ATTENTION SEEKER – “teacher,
notice me”
2. REVENGE – “teacher, I am hurt”
3. POWER-SEEKING – “teacher, may I
help?”
4. INADEQUACY – “teacher, don’t
give up on me”
5. WITHDRAWAL – “teacher, please
help me"
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
MORALITY
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment
Orientation
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Stage 3: Good Interpersonal
Relationships
Stage 4: Maintaining the Social
Order
LEVEL 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL
MORALITY
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
Stage 5: Social Contract and
Individual Rights
Stage 6: Universal Principles
CENTRAL TENDENCY -Central (middle
location) Tendency
MEAN – Average MODE – most
occurring
RANGE – highest score minus lowest
score
LOW SD–Homogenous, scores near to
mean(almost same)
HIGH SD – Heterogenous, scores far
to mean (scattered)
DECILE – 10 grps (D1…D10)
QUARTILE – 4 grps (Q1…Q4)
SUSPENSION – time REVOKATION –
condition
DIFFICULTY INDEX
0-0.20 VERY DIFFICULT
0.21-0.40 DIFFICULT
0.41-0.60 MODERATELY DIFFICULT
0.61-0.80 EASY
0.81-1.00 VERY EASY
POSITIVELY SKEWED (LEFT FOOT)
- low scores, mean greater than
mode
NEGATIVELY SKEWED (RIGHT FOOT)
- high scores, mean is lower than
mode
HORN/HALO EFFECT
- overcoming other trait, either bad/
ENGLISH NOTES PART 2
AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
Chinese Literature – one of the major cultural
heritage of the world
Confucius or Kung Fu-tze – first sage of China who
wanted to make education available to all men.
SHIH CHING – first anthology of Chinese poetry
Five Books
1. Yiking (Book of Changes) divination
2. Liking (Book of Ceremonies) etiquette
3. Shuking (Book of Historical Documents) political
ideas & fundamentals of good government
4. Shiking (Book of Poetry) best poems
5. Chun Chiu (Spring & Autumn) history of
Confucius native province
Arabia
A Thousand & One Nights – a collection of stories
and folk tales compiled in Arabic.
Ex.: Aladdin, Ali Baba and Forty Thieves and
Sinbad the Sailor
Kahlil Gibran – great poet
Indian Literature – oldest scared literature is found
in four VEDAS (knowledge)
a. Rigveda – oldest – Veda of Praise
b. Brahmanas – rituals and prayers
c. Upanishads – discourses between teachers and
pupils
d. Puranas – history of the Aryan race
Mahabharata(Hindu epic)- longest poem in the
world about the bitter quarrel of two brothers –
Pandu & Kuru
Ramayana (Hindu epic) - depicts the duties of
relationship portraying ideal characters like the
ideal servant, ideal brother, ideal wife and ideal
king.
Kalidasa – poet known for Sakuntala/greatest
Sanskrit playwright and poets
Rabindranath Tagore – best known of all recent
writers in India;Gitanjali-masterpiece
Hebrew Literature
Bible – book of all books, 39 books Old Testament/
27 books New Testament
Psalm of David –greatest lyric poem in the literature
of the world
Persian Literature (Iran)
Rubaiyat – Omar Khayyam (tent-maker) poem of
high divine and spiritual meaning.
Egyptian Literature
Pharaoh, pyramids, mummies, papyrus Book of the
Dead, Hymns to the Sun-God, Rosetta Stone –
reveals the antiquity of Egypt
Hieroglyphics – Egyptian writing
Japanese Literature
1. NOH DRAMA – dramatic dance with lyrical
poetic texts and masked actors
2. HAIKU- 7 syllable poetic form usually about
nature
3. WAKA/TANKA – 31 syllable classical poetry
4. KABUKI – Japanese dance drama
5. KOJIKI (Record of Ancient Matters) –earliest
surviving work in Japan
ENGLISH/AMERICAN LITERATURE
-Jutes, Angles, Saxons
Anglo Saxon – language
Angleland – stone age people
BEOWULF (England) – epic of more than 3,000
lines
CHAUCER – Canterbury Tales
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
-greatest English writer of the middle ages
-St. Thomas a Becket
-Through Harry Bailly – innkeeper – Tabard Inn
King Arthur & the Knights of the Round Table
-rise and decline of the Round Table, quest for the
Holy Grail & establishment of the first printing
press in English by William Caxton
William Shakespeare – greatest writer of all times
-Venus & Adonis/ Romeo and Juliet/ Hamlet/
Macbeth
-Sonnets
Thomas Campion – My Sweetest Lesbia – “Let us
live & love”
Francis Bacon – Father of English Essay
Of Studies – Studies serve for delight, for ornament
& for ability
Ben Johnson – Song to Celia “Drink to me only
with thine eyes and I will pledge with mine or leave
a kiss but in the cup and I’ll not look for mine.”
John Milton- Paradise Lost, On His Blindness
Thomas Gray – Elegy Written in Country
Churchyard
Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Rhyme of the Ancient
Mariner
Percy Blysshe Shelley – Ode to the West Wind
Alfred Lord Tennyson- Break, Break, Break
Robert Browning- Last Duchess
Elizabeth Barrett Browning – How Do I Love
Thee?
Matthew Arnold – Dover Beach
Rudyard Kipling – Mandalay/Recessional
John Masefield- Sea Fever
David Herbert Lawrence- Lady Chatterly’s Lover
American Literature
-Captain John Smith (Pocahontas)
-Virginia
Thomas Jefferson- Declaration of Independence of
the 13th United Sates of America
Patrick Henry – Give me liberty or give me death
Washington Irving – Legend of Sleepy Hollow
-Rip Van Winkle
-Ichabod Crane
-Rose of Alhambra
Edgar Allan Poe- Annabel Lee, Tell-Tale Heart
-Father of Horror Stories
Ralph Waldo Emerson- Self-Reliance
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow- A Psalm of Life
-“Tell me not in mournful numbers”
-“Life is but an empty dream”
Samuel Langhorne Clemens (Mark Twain) –
Adventures of Tom Sawyer
Henry James – Tree of Knowledge
Stephen Crane-Blades of Grass
Ernest Hemingway – Old Man & the Sea
Robert Frost – The Road Not Taken
William Ernest Henley – Invictus
Walt Whitman – O Captain, My Captain
Charles Dickens – Christmas Carol
Greek Literature
1. Pre Homeric and Homeric Age
2. Athenian period – Alexander the Great
3. Period of Decline
Homer – blind poet of Greece/great epics – Iliad &
Odyssey
theme- Man’s fate is the result of his actions
Mythological background of Iliad:
Achilles – greatest Greek warrior
Thetis and Peleus (parents)
Eris – goddess of mischief
Golden Apple – to the fairest of the goddess
-Hera, Athena, Aphrodite claimed
Alexandros or Paris – Prince of Troy
Hera- promised power
Athena-wisdom
Aphrodite – most beautiful woman in the world
Helen- married to Menelaus
-Alexandros abducted Helen and brought her to
Troy
Trojan War – 10-year war
Iliad – violent quarrel between Agamemnon &
Achilles
Odyssey- return of Odysseus or Ulysses from the
Trojan war
Dramatist s of the Athenian Age
1. Aeschylus – Father of Tragedy
-theological poet
-soldier playwright
-Battle of Marathon/Salamy
2. Sophocles
- Oedipus Rex/Oedipus the King
3. Euripides – modern playwright
4. Aristophanes - master of Greek comedy
Rome – Virgil – greatest writer that Rome produced
Aeneid- Aeneas (Trojan hero)
-great destiny was to be the founder of Rome
Nibelungenlied – Siegfred/epic of Germany
Song of Roland – epic of France
El Cid – epic of Spain
Divine Comedy- Dante – Father of Italian Literature
-greatest literary production of the middle ages
Greek Gods and Goddesses
Zeus – father of gods and men
Hades-god of the dead and the king of the
underworld
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
Thetis – sea goddess, mother of Achilles
Poseidon- fierce god of the sea and of earthquakes
Hermes- Son of Zeus and Maia; messenger of the
gods
Hera- wife and sister of Zeus; patroness of female
life in general and of marriage in particular
Hephaestus- god of fire; divine smith and patron of
craftsmen
Athena (Pallas) – patron goddess of Athens, and
personified wisdom; Minerva in Roman mythology
Artemis- primitive earth-goddess; a virgin huntress
and patroness of chastity
Aphrodite- goddess of beauty and love; Venus in
Roman mythology
Apollo- archer god, main protector of the Trojans
Ceres- Roman goddess of corn; identified with the
Greek Demeter
Ares – represented the distasteful aspects of brutal
warfare and slaughter
Achilles – greatest and bravest warrior among the
Greeks
Agamemnon- legendary king of Mycenae;
commander-in-chief of the Greek expedition against
Troy
Neptune, Neptunus – Roman god of water; later
elevated to god of the sea after his identification
with the Greek Poseidon
Vulcan – Roman god of fire and in particular of
furnaces; identified with the Greek Hephaestus
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Figurative Language -a language that uses words or
expressions with a meaning that is different from
the literal interpretation.
1. Simile - An indirect association and comparison
between two things.
Example: She is like a flower.
2. Metaphor - A direct comparison.
Example: You are the sunshine of my life.
3. Personification - Giving human attributes to an
inanimate object (animal, idea, etc…)
Example: The sun is looking down on me.
4. Oxymoron - A self-contrasting statement.
Examples: Loud silence
The sound of silence is indeed deafening.
5. Metonymy - An association wherein the name of
something is substituted by something that
represents it.
Example: The crown prefers taxes from the
underlings to support his expenses.
6. Irony - The contrast between what was expected
and what actually happened.
Examples: No smoking sign during a cigarette
break.
You’re so beautiful; you look like a Christmas tree!
7. Hyperbole - An exaggeration
Example: Cry me a river.
8. Synecdoche - An association of some important
part with the whole it represents.
Example: The face who launched a thousand ships.
9. Euphemism - Creating a positive connotation out
of something negative.
Examples: Loved child (illegitimate child).
She’s on the streets. (meaning ‘She’s homeless”)
10. Asyndeton - Not putting any connectors
(conjunctions or prepositions).
Examples: I came, I played, I won.
The car crashed, exploded, burned, melted.
11. Apostrophe - A direct address to an abstract
things or a person who passed away.
Example: Love, please come and take me!
12. Litotese – a deliberate understatement used to
affirm by negating its opposite.
Example: Edgar Allan Poe is no mean writer.
13. Periphrasis- the substitution of a descriptive
phrase for a name or vice-versa.
Example: The sleeping Giant has broken ties with
its neighbors.
14. Climax – the arrangement of words or ideas
according to their degree of importance; thus, the
last set appears most valuable.
Example: “ I came, I saw, I conquered.” (Julius
Caesar)
15. Anti-Climax – a real apparent or ludicrous
decrease in the importance or impressiveness of
what is said. Opposed to climax.
Example: He lost his shoelace, his house charred to
ashes, his wife even abandoned him.
16. Anti-thesis- equating or balancing two opposing
ideas.
Example: There is a time to sow and there is a time
to reap.
17. Parallelism or Juxtaposition- placing two
comparable ideas side by side.
Example: “Yea! Though I walk in the valley of the
shadow of death, I shall fear no evil. Thy rod and
thy staff thy comfort me.”
18. Pun- a play on words with humorous, witty
effects.
Example: House’s everything for all Filipinos.
19. Paradox – a seemingly, contradictory but true
example.
Example: There is grief in happiness.
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
Most Important Terms in Literature
⚘⚘⚘⚘⚘⚘⚘⚘⚘⚘⚘⚘⚘
1. Comedy:-is a play written to entertain its
audience, ends happily.
2. Classical:-means any writing that conforms to the
rules and modes of old Greek and Latin writings.
3. Antithesis: -is contrast or polarity in meaning.
4. Allusion: -is a reference to an idea, place, person
or text existing outside the literary work.
5. Allegory: - is a literary work that has an implied
meaning.
6. Alliteration:-the repetition of a consonant in two
or more words.
7. Ballad: -is a song which tells a story.
8. Biography: -is the history of a person’s life by
one else.
9. Blank Verse: -Verses written in iambic
pentameter without any rhyme pattern are called
blank verse.
10.Auto-Biography: -is the history of one’s life
written by one self.
11.Act: - is the major division of a drama.
12. Canto:-is a sub-division of an epic or a narrative
poem comparable to a chapter in a novel.
13. Chorus:-is a group of singers who stand
alongside the stage in a drama.
14. Catharsis:-is emotional release of pity and fear
that the tragic incidences in a tragedy arouse to an
audience.
15. Comic relief:-a humorous scene in a tragedy to
eliminate the tragic effect from audience.
16. Couplet:-To lines of the same material length
usually found in Shakespearean sonnets.
17. Catastrophe:-Catastrophe is the downfall of the
protagonist in a tragedy.
18. Didactic:-is a literary work which aims at
teaching and instructing its readers.
19. Dirge:-is a short functional term.
20. Diction:-is the selection of words in literary
work.
21. Dialect:-is the language of particular district;
class or a group of people.
22. Drammatical Monologue:-In a poem when a
single person speaks along with or without an
audience is called drammatical monologue.
Example “My last Duchess”-----Br
owning.
23. Difference between drama and novel:-A drama
is meant to be performed whereas a novel is meant
to be read.
24. Difference between stanza and paragraph:-A
stanza contains verses whereas a paragraph contains
prosaic lines.
25. Epic:-is a long narrative poem composed on a
grand scale and is exalted style. Example “Paradise
Lost”-------Milton.
26. Epilogue:-is the concluding part of a longer
poem or a novel or a drama.
27. Fable:-is a brief story illustrating a moral.
28. Farce:-A form of low comedy designed to
provoke laughter.
29. Foot:-A basic unit of meter.
30. Fiction:-A fiction is an imaginative narrative in
prose e.g.
Lord of the fly—by Golding.
31. Elegy:- is a poem mourning to the death of an
individual or a lament for a tragic event.
32. Genre:-means category or types of literatureepic, ode, ballad etc.
33. Hyperbole:-An overstatement or exaggeration.
34. Image:-is the mental picture connected with
metaphor, smile and symbol.
35. Limerick:-is a short poem of a five-line stanza
rhyming aaba.
36. Lyric:-A lyric is a short poem expressing a
simple mood. It is usually personal and musical e.g.
Keats’s odes.
37. Linguistic:-is the scientific and systematic study
of language.
38. Melodrama:-A highly sensational drama with
happy ending.
Example ‘The Spanish Tragedy’ –Kyd.
39. Metaphysical Poetry:-Meta means beyond and
physical is related to body . . . . . . . . .
40. Mock-epic:-It is a long satirical poem dealing
with a trivial theme. Example: “The rape of the
lock”-Alexander Pope.
41. Metaphor:-A metaphor is an implicit
comparison between two different things.
42. Metre:-The recurrence of similar stress pattern
in some lines of a poem.
43. Novel:-is a long prose narrative fiction with
plot, characters, etc.
44. Novelette:-is longer than a short story and
shorter than a novel.
45. Ode:-is a long narrative poem of varying, line
length dealing with serious subject matter.
46. Objectivity:-We have objectivity in a literary
piece when the author focuses on an object from
broadened point of view.
47. Octave:-is the firs part of Italian sonnet.
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
48. Oxymoron:-is apparently a physical contrast
which oddly makes sense on a deeper level.
49. Prologue:-is the beginning part of a novel or a
play or a novel.
50. Prose:-Any material that is not written in a
regular meter like a poetry.
51. Prosody:-Prosody is the mechanics or grammar
of verse.
52. Protagonist:-Protagonist is the main character in
a literary work
53. Plot:-The arrangement of incidents is called
plot.
54. Pun:-A pun is playing with words.
55. Periods of English literature:-The Anglo-Saxon,
Middle English Renaissance, Restoration,
Neoclassical Romantic,
Victorian, Modern, Post-Modern.
56. Romanticism:-was a literary movement. It
stands Opposite to reason and focuses on emotion.
57. Rhetoric:-Rhetoric is the art of persuasive
argument through writing.
58. Symbol:-A symbol is anything that stands for
something else.
59. Sonnet:-is a lyric poem consisting of fourteen
rhymed lines dealing with a lofty theme.
60. Satire:-is ridiculing the vices and follies of an
individual or a society with a corrective design. E.g.
“The rape of the lock”---Pope.
List of Literary Terms
Abstract Language- Language describing ideas
and qualities rather than observable or specific
things, people, or places. The observable or
"physical" is usually described in concrete
language.
Ad homonym—Latin for "against the man."
When a writer personally attacks his or her
opponents instead of their arguments
Ad populum— Latin for "to the crowd." A fallacy
of logic in which the widespread occurrence of
something is assumed to make it true.
Allegory—A narrative or description having a
second meaning beneath the surface one. A story,
fictional or nonfiction, in which characters, things,
and events represent qualities or concepts. The
interaction of these characters, things, events is
meant to reveal an abstraction or a truth. These
characters, etc. may be symbolic of the ideas
referred to.
Alliteration—The repetition at close intervals of
initial identical consonant sounds. Or, vowel sounds
in successive words or syllables that repeat.
Allusion—An indirect reference to something
(usually a literary text) with which the reader is
expected to be familiar. Allusions are usually
literary, historical, Biblical, or mythological.
Ambiguity—An event or situation that may be
interpreted in more than one way. Also, the manner
of expression of such an event or situation may be
ambiguous. Artful language may be ambiguous.
Unintentional ambiguity is usually vagueness.
Anachronism—Assignment of something to a
time when it was not in existence, e.g. the watch
Merlyn wore in The Once and Future King.
Analogy—An analogy is a comparison to a
directly parallel case. When a writer uses an
analogy, he or she argues that a claim reasonable for
one case is reasonable for the analogous case.
Anaphora—Repetition of a word, phrase, or
clause at the beginning of two or more sentences in
a row. This device is a deliberate form of repetition
and helps make the writer's point more coherent.
Anecdote—A brief recounting of a relevant
episode. Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional
or nonfiction texts as a way of developing a point or
injecting humor.
Angst—A term used in existential criticism to
describe both the individual and the collective
anxiety-neurosis of the period following the Second
World War. This feeling of anxiety, dread, or
anguish is notably present in the works of writers
like Jean Paul Sartre and Albert Camus.
Annotation—Explanatory notes added to a text to
explain, cite sources, or give bibliographic data (by
the author or student).
Antithesis—A balancing of two opposite or
contrasting words, phrases, or clauses.
Apostrophe—An address to the dead as if living;
to the inanimate as if animate; to the absent as if
present; to the unborn as if alive. Examples: "O
Julius Caesar thou are mighty yet; thy spirit walks
abroad," or "Roll on, thou deep and dark blue
ocean, roll."
Archetype—A term borrowed by psychologist
Carl Jung who described archetypes as "primordial
images" formed by repeated experiences in the lives
of our ancestors, inherited in the "collective
unconscious" of the human race and expressed in
myths, religion, dreams, fantasies, and literature.
These "images" of character, plot pattern, symbols
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
recur in literature and evoke profound emotional
responses in the reader because they resonate with
an image already existing in our unconscious mind,
e.g. death, rebirth.
Argumentation—Exploring of a problem by
investigating all sides of it; persuasion through
reason. One of the four chief forms of discourse, the
others being exposition, narration, and description.
The purpose of argumentation is to convince by
establishing the truth of falsity of a proposition.
Aside—A dramatic convention by which an actor
directly addresses the audience but it is not
supposed to be heard by the other actors on the
stage.
Assonance—Repetition of a vowel sound within
two or more words in close proximity. "Fake" and
"lake" denote rhyme; "lake" and "fate" demonstrate
assonance.
Asyndeton—A series of words separated by
commas (with no conjunction), e.g. "I came, I saw, I
conquered." The parts of the sentence are
emphasized equally; in addition, the use of commas
with no intervening conjunction speeds up the flow
of the sentence.
Balance—Construction in which both halves of
the sentence are about the same length and
importance, sometimes used to emphasize contrast.
Bandwagon—Trying to establish that something
is true because everyone believes it is true.
Catharsis—The process by which an unhealthy
emotional state produced by an imbalance of
feelings is corrected and emotional health is
restored.
Causal Relationship (cause and effect)—In causal
relationships, a writer assert that one thing results
from another. To show how one thing produces or
brings about another is often relevant in establishing
a logical argument.
Characterization—The method an author uses to
develop characters in a work. In direct
charachterization, the author straightforwardly
states the character’s traits. With indirect
characterization, those traits are implied through
what the character says, does, how the character
dresses, interacts with other characters, etc.
Chiasmus—Arrangement of repeated thoughts in
the pattern of X Y Y X. Chiasmus is often short and
summarizes a main idea, e.g., "ask not what your
country can do for you; ask what you can do for
your country."
Chronological Ordering—Arrangement of ideas
in the order in which things occur; may move from
past to present or in reverse, from present to past.
Classification (as means of ordering)—
Arrangement of objects according to class; e.g.,
media classified as print, television, radio.
Comedy of Manners—Deals with the relations
and intrigues of gentlemen and ladies living in a
polished and sophisticated society; it evokes
laughter mainly at the violations of social
conventions and decorum and relies on the wit and
humor of the dialogue for its effect.
Comic relief—Humorous speeches and incidents
in the course of the serious action of a tragedy;
frequently comic relief widens and enriches the
tragic significance of the work.
Conceit—Unusual or surprising comparison
between two very different things (a special kind of
metaphor or complicated analogy.
Concrete Language—Language that describes
specific, observable things, people or places, rather
than ideas or qualities.
Connotation—Rather than the dictionary
definition, the associations associated by a word.
Implied meaning rather than literal meaning or
denotation.
Consonance—Repetition of a consonant sound
within two or more words in close proximity.
Conventional—Following certain conventions, or
traditional techniques of writing. An over reliance
on conventions may result in a lack of originality.
The five-paragraph theme is considered
conventional.
Cumulative—Sentence which begins with the
main idea and then expands on that idea with a
series of details or other particulars.
Deduction—A form of reasoning that begins with
a generalization, then applies the generalization to a
specific case or cases.
Diction—Word choice, particularly as an element
of style. Different types and arrangements of words
have significant effects on meaning. An essay
written in academic diction, for example, would be
much less colorful, but perhaps more precise, than
street slang.
Didactic—A term used to describe fiction or
nonfiction that teaches a specific lesson or moral or
provides a model or correct behavior or thinking.
Digression—A temporary departure from the
main subject in speaking or writing.
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
Dramatic Irony—When the reader is aware of an
inconsistency between a fictional or nonfiction
character's perception of a situation and the truth of
that situation.
Elegy—A formal sustained poem lamenting the
death of a particular person.
Elliptical—Sentence structure which leaves out
something in the second half. Usually, there is a
subject-verb-object combination in the first half of
the sentence, and the second half of the sentence
will repeat the structure but omit the verb and use a
comma to indicate the ellipsed material.
Emotional Appeal—When a writer appeals to an
audience's emotions (often through "pathos") to
excite and involve tem in the argument.
Ennui—A persistent feeling of tiredness or
weariness which often afflicts existential man, often
manifesting as boredom.
Enthymeme—A syllogism in which one of the
premises—often the major premise—is unstated,
but meant to be understood, e.g. "Children should
be seen and not heard. Be quiet, John." Here, the
minor premise—that John is a child—is left to the
ingenuity of the reader.
Epigraph—A quotation or aphorism at the
beginning of a literary work suggestive of a theme.
One found at the beginning of John Kennedy
Toole's Confederacy of Dunces: "When a true
genius appears in the world, you may know him by
this sign; that all the dunces are in a confederacy
against him." —Jonathan Swift.
Epiphany—A major character's moment of
realization or awareness.
Epithet—a term used to characterize a person or
thing, such as rosy-fingered in rosy-fingered dawn
or the Great in Catherine the Great. Also a term
used as a descriptive substitute for the name or title
or a person, such as The Great Emancipator for
Abraham Lincoln.
Ethical Appeal—When a writer tries to persuade
the audience to respect and believe him or her based
on a presentation of image of self through the text.
Reputation is sometimes a factor in ethical appeals,
but in all cases the aim is to gain the audience's
confidence.
Euphemism—The use of a word or phrase that is
less direct, but is also considered less distasteful or
less offensive than another. E.g. "He is at rest"
instead of "He is dead." Also consider "Technicolor
yawn" for "vomiting."
Example—An individual instance taken to be
representative of a general pattern. Arguing by
example is considered reliable if examples are
demonstrably true or factual as well as relevant.
Explication—The act of interpreting or
discovering the meaning of a text. Explication
usually involves close reading and special attention
to figurative language.
Exposition—Background information provided
by a writer to enhance a reader's understanding of
the context of a fictional or nonfictional story.
False Analogy—When two cases are not
sufficiently parallel to lead readers to accept a claim
of connection between them.
Farce—A type of comedy in which onedimensional characters are put into ludicrous
situations; ordinary standards of probability and
motivation are freely violated in order to evoke
laughter.
Fiction—A product of a writer's imagination,
usually made up of characters, plot, setting, point of
view, and theme.
Figurative Language—A word or words that are
inaccurate literally, but describe by calling to mind
sensations or responses that the thing described
evokes. Figurative language may be in the form of
metaphors or similes, both non-literal comparison.
Shakespeare's "All the world's a stage" is an
example of non-literal figurative language
(metaphor specifically).
Figure of Speech—A form of expression in which
words are used out of the usual sense in order to
make the meaning more specific
Flat Character—A character constructed around a
single idea or quality; a flat character is
immediately recognizable.
Foil—A character whose traits are the opposite of
another and who thus points up the strengths and
weaknesses of the other character.
Freight-train—Sentence consisting of three or
more very short independent clauses joined by
conjunctions. Generalization—When a writer
bases a claim upon an isolated example or asserts
that a claim is certain rather than probable.
Sweeping generalizations occur when a writer
asserts that a claim applies to all instances instead of
one.
Genre—French, a literary form or type;
classification. e.g. tragedy, comedy, novel, essay,
poetry.
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
Hubris—Overwhelming pride or insolence that
results in the misfortune of the protagonist of a
tragedy. It is the particular form of tragic flaw that
results from excessive pride, ambition, or
overconfidence. The excessive pride of Macbeth is
a standard example of hubris in English drama. Also
spelled hybris
Hyperbole—Conscious exaggeration used to
heighten effect. Not intended literally, hyperbole is
often humorous. Example: "And fired the shot heard
round the world."
Image—A word or group of words, either
figurative or literal, used to describe a sensory
experience or an object perceived by the senses. An
image is always a concrete representation.
Imagery—The use of images, especially in a
pattern of related images, often figurative, to create
a strong unified sensory impression.
Induction—A form or reasoning which works
from a body of facts to the formulation of a
generalization; frequently used in science and
history.
Inversion—Variation of the normal word order
(subject first, then verb, then complement) which
puts a modifier or the verb as first in the sentence.
The element that appears first is emphasized more
than the subject.
Irony—When a reader is aware of a reality that
differs from a character's perception of reality
(dramatic irony)/ The literal meaning of a writer's
words may be verbal irony. Generally speaking, a
discrepancy between expectation and reality.
Litotes—Opposite of hyperbole; litotes
intensifies an idea understatement by stating
through the opposite. E.g. saying "It wasn't my best
day" instead of "It was my worst day."
Logical Appeal—Relies on the audience's logical
faculties; logical appeal moves from evidence to
conclusion.
Metaphor—A comparison of two things, often
unrelated. A figurative verbal equation results where
both "parts" illuminate one another. Metaphors may
occur: in a single sentence —"Talent is a cistern;
genius is a fountain;" as a controlling image of an
entire work —"Pilgrim at Sea by Par F. Lagerkvist;
as obvious ("His fist was a knotty hammer.") or
implied (But O beware the middle mind that purrs
and never shows a tooth.").
Dead Metaphor—So overused that its original
impact has been lost.
Extended Metaphor—One developed at length
and involves several points of comparison.
Mixed Metaphor—When two metaphors are
jumbled together, often illogically.
Metonymy—Designation of one thing with
something closely associated with it. E.g. calling the
head of a committee a CHAIR, the king the
CROWN, a newspaper the PRESS, or old people
the GRAY HAIRS.
Mood—An atmosphere created by a writer's
word choice (diction) and the details selected.
Syntax is also a determiner of mood because
sentence strength, length, and complexity affect
pacing.
Moral—The lesson drawn from a fictional or
nonfictional story. A heavily didactic story.
Motif—A frequently recurrent character, incident,
or concept in literature.
Negative-Positive—Sentence that begins by
stating what is not true, but ending by stating what
is true.
Non-sequiter—Latin for "it does not follow."
When one comment isn't logically related to
another.
Novel—An extended piece of prose fiction. Some
examples include:
sociological novel —emphasizes the influence of
economic and social conditions on characters and
events and often embodies an implicit thesis for
social reform.
historical novel —takes its setting and a number
of its characters and events from history.
regional novel —emphasizes setting and mores of
a particular locality as these affect character and
action (local color); e.g. Confederacy of Dunces by
John Kennedy Toole.
novel of ideas
epistolary novel—tells narrative through letters
(beginning of Frankenstein by Mary Shelly)
Onomatopoeia—The use of a word whose
pronunciation suggests its meaning. "Buzz," "hiss,"
"slam," and "pop" are commonly used examples.
Oxymoron—A rhetorical antithesis. Juxtaposing
two contradictory terms, like "wise fool" or
"deafening silence."
Parable—A short story from which a lesson may be
drawn.
Paradox—A seemingly contradictory statement
or situation which is actually true. This rhetorical
device is often used for emphasis or simply to
attract attention.
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
Parallelism—Sentence construction which places
in close proximity two or more equal grammatical
constructions. Parallel structure may be as simple as
listing two or three modifiers in a row to describe
the same noun or verb; it may take the form of two
or more of the same type of phrases (prepositional,
participial, gerund, appositive) that modify the same
noun or verb; it may also take the form of two or
more subordinate clauses that modify the same noun
or verb. Or, parallel structure may be a complex
blend of single-word, phrase, and clause parallelism
all in the same sentence.
Parody—An exaggerated imitation of a usually
more serious work for humorous purposes. The
writer of a parody uses the quirks of style of the
imitated piece in extreme or ridiculous ways.
Pathos—Qualities of a fictional or nonfictional
work that evoke sorrow or pity. Over-emotionalism
can be the result of an excess of pathos.
Periodic Sentence—Sentence that places the main
idea or central complete thought at the end of the
sentence, after all introductory elements—e.g.
"Across the stream, beyond the clearing, from
behind a fallen a tree, the lion emerged."
Peripety—Reversal in the hero's fortunes.
Persona—A writer often adopts a fictional voice
to tell a story. Persona or voice is usually
determined by a combination of subject matter and
audience.
Personification—Figurative Language in which
inanimate objects, animals, ideas, or abstractions are
endowed with human traits or human form—e.g.
"When Duty whispers…”
Plot—System of actions represented in a
dramatic or narrative work.
Point of View—The perspective from which a
fictional or nonfictional story is told. First-person,
third-person, or third-person omniscient points of
view are commonly used.
Polysyndeton—Sentence which uses and or
another conjunction, with no commas, to separate
the items in a series, usually appearing in the form
X and Y and Z, stressing equally each member of
the series. It makes the sentence slower and the
items more emphatic than in the asyndeton.
Post hoc Fallacy—Latin for "after this, therefore
because of this." When a writer implies that because
one thing follows another, the first caused the
second. Establishes an unjustified link between
cause and effect.
Protagonist—Chief character in a dramatic or
narrative work, usually trying to accomplish some
objective or working toward some goal.
Pun—A play on words that are identical or
similar in sound but have sharply diverse meanings.
Red Herring—Device through which a writer
raises an irrelevant issue to draw attention away
from the real issue.
Refutation—Occurs when a writer musters
relevant opposing arguments.
Repetition—Word or phrase used two or more
times in close proximity.
Rhetoric—The art of effective communication,
especially persuasive discourse. Rhetoric focuses on
the interrelationship of invention, arrangement, and
style in order to create felicitous and appropriate
discourse.
Rhetorical Criticism—Emphasizes
communication between the author and reader.
Analyzes the elements employed in a literary work
to impose on the reader the author's view of the
meaning, both denotative and connotative, of the
work.
Rhetorical Question—A question asked for
rhetorical effect to emphasize a point; no answer is
expected.
Round Character—A character drawn with
sufficient complexity to be able to surprise the
reader without losing credibility.
Satire—A work that reveals a critical attitude
toward some element of human behavior by
portraying it in an extreme way. Satire doesn't
simply abuse (as with invective) or get personal (as
with sarcasm). Satire usually targets groups or large
concepts rather than individuals; its purpose is
customarily to inspire change.
Sarcasm—A type of verbal irony in which, under
the guise of praise, a caustic and bitter expression of
strong and personal disapproval is given. Sarcasm is
personal, jeering, and intended to hurt.
Setting—Locale and period in which the action
takes place.
Simile—A figurative comparison of two things,
often dissimilar, using the connecting words: "like,"
"as," or "then." E.g. "More rapid than eagles his
coursers they came."
Situational Irony—Applies to works which
contain elaborate expressions of the ironic spirit.
Also, irony applies to both Hamlet's situation and to
his famous soliloquy, "To be or nor to be."
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
Soliloquy—When a character in a play speaks his
thoughts aloud —usually by him or herself.
Stock Character—Conventional character types
that recur repeatedly in various literary genres. E.g.
the wicked stepmother or Prince Charming or the
rascal.
Stream of Consciousness—Technique of writing
that undertakes to reproduce the raw flow of
consciousness, with the perceptions, thoughts,
judgments, feelings, associations, and memories
presented just as they occur without being tidied
into grammatical sentences or given logical and
narrative order.
Style—The choices in diction, tone, and syntax
that a writer makes. In combination they create a
work's manner of expression. Style is thought to be
conscious and unconscious and may be altered to
suit specific occasions. Style is often habitual and
evolves over time.
Syllogism—A form of reasoning in which two
statements or premises are made and a logical
conclusion is drawn from them (a form of deductive
reasoning).
Symbol—A thing, event, or person that
represents or stands for some idea or event.
Symbols also simultaneously retain their own literal
meanings. A figure of speech in which a concrete
object is used to stand for an abstract idea —e.g. the
cross for Christianity.
Synecdoche—Part of something is used to stand
for the whole —e.g. "threads" for clothes; "wheels"
for cars.
Syntax—In grammar, the arrangement of words
as elements in a sentence to show their relationship.
Theme—A central idea of a work of fiction or
nonfiction, revealed and developed in the course of
a story or explored through argument.
Tone—A writer's attitude toward his or her
subject matter revealed through diction, figurative
language, and organization of the sentence and
global levels.
Tragedy—Representations of serious actions
which turn out disastrously.
Tragic Flaw—Tragic error in judgment; a
mistaken act which changes the fortune of the tragic
hero from happiness to misery; also known as
hamartia.
Understatement-Deliberately representing
something as much less than it really is —e.g. "Last
week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly
believe how much it altered her appearance." —
Jonathan Swift
Unity—A work of fiction or nonfiction is said to
be unified is all the parts are related to one central
idea or organizing principle. Thus, unity is
dependent upon coherence.
Verbal Irony—When the reader is aware of a
discrepancy between the real meaning of a situation
and the literal meaning of the writer's words.
Zeugma—The writer uses one word to govern
several successive words are clauses —e.g. She
discovered New York and her
PHILOSOPHY/FOUNDATIONS OF
EDUCATION
John Locke — tabularasa , empiricism:"Father of
Liberalism"
Francis Bacon — "Father of scientific method"
"Father of empiricism"
Jean Jacques Rousseau -- "Hollistic
education"(physical, moral, intellectual): nature of
child.
Edgar Dale - "Cone of Experience" aka "Father
of Modern Media in Education"
Erik Erickson — Psychosocial development
Theory
Edward Lee Thorndike =Theory of
Connectionsim “satisfaction” “the law of effect,
readiness and exercise”." Father of Modern
Educational psychology;
Friedrich Frobel — "Father of kindergarten"
Johann Herbart — founder of pedagogy as an
academic discipline.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi — symmetrical and
harmonious devt of child: motto " Learning by
head, hand and heart"
THEORIES AND THEIR PROPONENTS
Sigmund Freud — psychosexual ,
psychoanalytic; “father of modern psychology”
Wilhelm Woundt = german psycologist “father of
psychology’.
John Dewey – Learning by doing: education for
all.
David Froebel – Father of kinder garten
Ivan Pavlov = classical conditioning: involuntary
behavior
Burrhus Frederic Skinner — operant cond.
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|41445193
Jean Piaget —cognitivist/ Cognitive dev’t
Theory, info processing , dynamic interrelation.
David Ausubel — meaningful learning
envronment theory, graphic organizer, assumption
William Kohler — insight learning theory
Lawrence Kohlberg — moral dev’t theory
Albert Bandura —Modeling/Imitate: Social
learning Theory,"bobo doll" experiment, neo –
behaviorism
Robert Gagne — Cumulative Learning Theory:
sequence of instruction
Abraham Maslow — hierarchy of needs ,
motivation theory
Brofenbrenner's - Ecological System Theory
(microsystem, mesosystem, exo, macro and chrono)
Benjamin Bloom — bloom’s cognitive taxonomy
David Krathwohl — affective domain
Simpsons / Anita Harrow — psychomotor
domain
Jerome Bruner — Discovery Learning
Theory/Inquiry method: Scaffolding Theory
:constructivist, spiral curr, instrumental
conceptualism
Lev Vygotsky — constructivist :Social
Constructivism; Zond of Proximal Development
(ZPD) : More knowledgeable others (MKO)
Edgar Dale — cone of exp. (20% remember)
John Locke — tabularasa , empiricism:"Father of
Liberalism"
Howard Gardner — multiple int.
John Flavel — metacognition
John Watson — behaviorial theory: “Father of
Behaviorism”, psychological school of behaviorism.
Kurt Lewin - The Father of Social Psychology;
his work pioneered the use of scientific methods to
study social behavior.
Charles darwin = theories to mental
characteristics as human think, feel & behave(”
evolutionary psychology”)
William Sheldon – Physiological
Max Wertheimer = gestalt psychology
Wolfgang Ratke — used vernacular for
approaching the class.
Edward Tolman — purposive behaviorism and
goal oriented
Plato --- Idealist/Idealism(own ideas) nothing
exist except in the mind of a man.
Aristotle-- Realist/Realist (experience) mastery of
organized subject matter.
Cunfucios – Great philosopher, analects, golden
rule, society, name (essence) rule.
Mencius — idealistic wing of confucianism; love
covers all (good, right)
Hzun tzu — realistic wing of confusianism
Lao tzu — taoism: Go with the flow.
Bowlby — attachment theory
Downloaded by Chog-ap, Pamela Mari (pamelamarie0374@gmail.com)