Bertrand
Becoming and Being an Early Childhood Professional
Becoming
and Being
an early childhood
professional
Jane
Bertrand
SE/Bertrand, Becoming and Being, 1ce ISBN 9780176916091 ©2022 Designer: Sharon Lucas Creative
Text & Cover printer: Quad Graphics Binding: PB Trim: 8” x 10” CMYK
Becoming
and Being
an Early Childhood
Professional
Jane Bertrand
Atkinson Centre for Society and Child Development
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the
University of Toronto
Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
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Becoming and Being an Early Childhood
© 2022 Cengage Learning Canada, Inc.
Professional
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
Jane Bertrand
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Compositor: SPi-Global
Subjects: LCSH: Early childhood education—Canada. | LCSH: Early
childhood educators—Training of—Canada.
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Contents
Preface xii
Acknowledgements xix
About the Author xx
Foreword by Dr. V. Angela James xxi
Introduction xxiv
SECTION 1
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION DEFINED 1
ECE Leaders: Maureen Dockendorf 2
CHAPTER 1
THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION 3
Objectives 3
Image of the Child 3
A Sense of Self 6
Relating with Others 6
Active, Involved and Confident Learners 7
Communication 7
Today’s Citizens and the Future Citizens of Tomorrow
Principles of Early Childhood Education 8
Holistic Development 8
Environments 9
Play 10
Belonging 10
Early Childhood Education Practices 11
Responsive Relationships 12
Inclusion 17
Cultural Competence 18
Reconciliation 19
Intentional Teaching 21
Professional Identity 21
7
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Summary 22
Review Questions 22
Study Activities 22
Key Terms 23
Suggested Readings 23
CHAPTER 2
HISTORY OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN CANADA 24
Objectives 24
Historical Foundations 24
Indigenous Views of Early Childhood 25
John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau 25
Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852) 25
Progressive Education 27
Psycho-analytic Theory 27
Behaviourism 28
The Child Study Movement in Canada 28
Mid–20th Century Theories and Early Childhood Education 30
Psychosocial Theory 31
Social Learning 32
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 32
Compensatory Preschool Programs 33
Compensatory Programs in Canada 36
Current Theories Informing Early Childhood Education 37
Information Processing Theory 37
Socio-cultural Theory 37
Ecological Theory of Human Development 38
Self-Regulation 38
Post-Foundation Theories in Early Childhood Education 40
Child Care Centre Programs and Policies in Canada 41
1830s to 1940—Child Care Centres 41
World War II to to 1960 43
1960 to 21st Century 44
Summary 46
Review Questions 47
Study Activities 47
Key Terms 47
Suggested Readings 48
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SECTION 2
PLAY-BASED LEARNING 49
ECE Leaders: Christine Alden 50
CHAPTER 3
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IS ­PLAY-BASED LEARNING 52
Objectives 52
Play Matters 52
Types of Play 53
Onlooker Play 55
Physically Active Play 56
Exploratory Play 57
Pretend Play 58
Creative-Constructive Play 60
Games with Rules 61
The Play–Learn Continuum 62
Free Play 63
Inquiry Play 64
Collaborative Play 64
Playful Learning 64
Learning Games 65
Play and Childhood 67
Continuity of Learning 67
Play and Self-Regulation 69
Summary 70
Review Questions 71
Study Activities 71
Key Terms 71
Suggested Readings 72
CHAPTER 4
OUTDOOR PLAY
73
Objectives 73
Focus on Outdoor Play 73
Outdoor Physically Active Play 76
Learning in Natural Settings 77
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A Pedagogy of Outdoor Play 80
Child Agency 82
Play-Rich Environments 82
Educator Support 84
Risky Play 85
Summary 87
Review Questions 88
Study Activities 88
Key Terms 88
Suggested Readings 89
CHAPTER 5
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION CURRICULUM APPROACHES 90
Objectives 90
Curriculum Approaches 90
Montessori Education 93
The Abecedarian Approach 94
HighScope 94
Developmentally Appropriate Practice 95
The Reggio Emilia Approach 96
Emergent Curriculum 97
The “Best” Curriculum Approach? 99
Curriculum Approaches to Support Self-Regulation 101
Mindfulness 101
Growth Mindset 101
Social-Emotional Learning 102
Executive Function 102
Trauma-Informed Practice 102
Indigenous Curriculum Approaches 103
Indigenizing Practices 104
Language Nests 104
Adapting Curriculum Approaches in Indigenous Communities 105
Summary 106
Review Questions 106
Study Activities 106
Key Terms 107
Suggested Readings 107
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CHAPTER 6
EARLY LEARNING FRAMEWORKS
108
Objectives 108
The Purposes of Early Learning Frameworks 108
Early Learning Frameworks in Canada 109
Similarities and Differences Among Canadian Early
Learning Frameworks 120
International Early Learning Frameworks 121
– riki, New Zealand 121
Te Wha
Australia 122
Ireland 123
Shared Focus 124
Good Education Cares; Good Care Educates 125
What Is the Impact of Early Learning Frameworks? 126
Summary 126
Review Questions 126
Study Activities 127
Key Terms 127
Suggested Readings 127
SECTION 3
EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
129
ECE Leaders: Dr. Christine McLean 130
CHAPTER 7
TIME, SPACE AND PEOPLE
133
Objectives 133
Time 133
Daily Schedules 134
Third Space of Childhood 138
Space 139
Child Care Space Regulations 141
Play Zones and Pathways 141
Aesthetics 141
Inclusive Spaces 141
Creating Spaces to Welcome Families 142
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People 142
Educators and Children 142
Pedagogical Strategies 143
Children Together 146
Educator and Family Interactions
Summary 151
Review Questions 151
Study Activities 151
Key Terms 152
Suggested Readings 152
148
CHAPTER 8
LEARNING EXPERIENCES 153
Objectives 153
Learning Pathways 153
Curriculum Areas 155
Social-Emotional Learning 155
Physically Active Play 157
Dramatic and Constructive Play 158
Creative Arts 160
Language and Literacy 162
STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics)
Summary 180
Review Questions 180
Study Activities 180
Key Terms 180
Suggested Readings 181
168
CHAPTER 9
INTENTIONAL TEACHING 182
Objectives 182
Observation 183
Becoming a Skilled Observer
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Documentation 186
Using Photographs and Videos for Documentation
Pedagogical Documentation 188
Sharing Documentation 190
Planning 193
Assessment 195
Assessment for Learning 195
Assessment as Learning 195
Assessment of Learning 196
Reflective Practice 197
Summary 199
Review Questions 199
Study Activities 200
Key Terms 200
Suggested Readings 200
186
CHAPTER 10
QUALITY MATTERS
201
Objectives 201
What Is Quality in ECE Programs? 201
Early Childhood Education Quality Perspectives 201
What Research Tells Us About ECE Quality 204
Components of Quality in ECE Programs 205
Structural Quality in ECE Programs 206
Process Quality in ECE Programs 208
Evaluating Quality 209
Rating Scales 210
Feedback from Families 212
Children’s Views on Quality 214
Continuous Quality Improvement 215
Summary 216
Review Questions 216
Study Activities 216
Key Terms 216
Suggested Readings 217
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SECTION 4
THE EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION LANDSCAPE 218
ECE Leaders: Jamie Kass
219
CHAPTER 11
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION PROGRAMS AND POLICIES 222
Objectives 222
Early Childhood Education Programs in Canada 222
Child Care Centres 224
Nursery Schools and Preschools 226
Regulated Home Child Care 227
Kindergarten and Prekindergarten 227
Before- and After-School Programs 230
Aboriginal Head Start 231
Programs and Services Related to Early Childhood Education
Programs 232
Child and Family Centres 232
Early Intervention Services 236
Integrating Early Education and Child Care 237
Community Early Child Development Centres 239
Early Childhood Education Public Policies in Canada 240
Early Childhood Education Program Policy Trends 241
Early Childhood Education Outside Canada 242
Summary 245
Review Questions 245
Study Activities 245
Key Terms 246
Suggested Readings 246
CHAPTER 12
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATORS: LOOKING AHEAD 247
Objectives 247
The ECE Professional Environment 247
Professional Practice 248
Professional Requirements 251
Recognition and Self-Governance 253
Early Childhood Education Organizations 254
The ECE Work Environment 258
ECE Career Pathways 259
Working Conditions for Early Childhood Educators
Well-Being Strategies for Educators 264
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Advocating for Early Childhood Education 266
Children’s Rights 267
ECE and Lifelong Learning, Earning and Health 267
Parental Employment 268
Social Benefits 268
Campaigns for Early Childhood Education 269
Summary 270
Review Questions 271
Study Activities 271
Key Terms 271
Suggested Readings 272
References 273
Glossary 297
Index 303
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Preface
Becoming and Being an Early Childhood Professional reflects the lives of young
children in Canada in the 21st century. Early childhood education programs
are an integral part of the landscape in local neighbourhoods and communities. They are the places and spaces where young children meet together, form
friendships and explore the world around them.
This text presents a range of approaches that reflect differing views among
early childhood professionals and experts about how children learn and how
best to organize early learning environments for children as they play together.
Readers are challenged to think deeply about their own talents, experiences
and biases that they bring to their work with young children. Debate and conversations about how children learn from different perspectives build a sturdy
framework for professional practice.
The practice of early childhood professionals must be grounded in deep
respect for children, their families and their communities. Our practice is supported by public policies and research evidence that will continue to evolve.
We learn together with children, families and our colleagues. Each child we
encounter is a unique human being who has much to teach us about learning
if we can take the time to listen, explore and learn together. This text offers
ideas and possible strategies for early childhood professionals to consider, but
it does not lay out a blueprint for practice. Rather, the text is intended to
challenge and provoke thinking and consideration of possibilities for exploring
early learning.
Three broad themes for the preparation of early childhood professionals
are incorporated throughout the text: reduction of inequities, respect for young
children and a landscape of expanding opportunities.
REDUCTION OF Inequities
The text reflects the author’s strong conviction that the early learning and care
of young children must address racial and economic inequities that continue to
exist in Canada. In particular, early childhood professionals must acknowledge
and counter historic racism toward Black and Indigenous children, children of
colour and their families. The recent Black Lives Matter movement and Truth
and Reconciliation Commission in Canada have exposed more than 400 years of
discrimination. However, recognition is not enough; action is needed, and early
childhood education has an essential role to make a difference in addressing
systemic racism.
As the COVID-19 pandemic swept across Canada in early 2020, early childhood education programs and schools mostly closed down across Canada. The
pandemic revealed many inequities including children’s and families’ access to
resources and services. As the pandemic continued and lower-income families
experienced greater challenges and fewer resources, inequities among children
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and their families grew. Early childhood education reduces equity gaps and could
be positioned to reduce the long-term impact of the pandemic on Canada’s
youngest citizens.
Emergency child care programs for essential workers led the way in adapting
practices to keep children and staff safe and to reduce the anxiety and isolation many children were facing. Early childhood education programs can adapt.
Educators can learn from each other and make changes in practices while they
strive to reverse inequities and address the trauma children may be experiencing.
Respect for Young Children
Early childhood education must begin with a fundamental respect for how
much young children know and can do. Rather than a focus on what children
cannot do, the text begins from a vision of children as active learners who are
capable and competent from birth and who benefit from opportunities offered
in early childhood education. When educators start with a focus on human
potential, they are inspired to think about what they can achieve if they support
every child.
The text takes a broad perspective about how early learning happens and
recognizes the wide arc of human possibilities. It reflects a diversity of practices
and interpretations of core early learning principles. Family, community and cultural context contribute to children’s experiences that they bring to early childhood education settings. How they explore their environments and interact with
other children may be familiar to our understandings of young children, or they
may challenge us to consider other understandings. A broad knowledge base
about human development is helpful if it is organized to recognize and celebrate
human diversity and personal biases that grow out of our own life experiences.
A Landscape of Opportunities
The social and economic benefits of early childhood education are well documented and now broadly recognized by Canadian society. The notion that
day care is necessary only so that parents, particularly mothers, can work is
replaced by the commitment to early childhood education as a valuable experience for all children, allowing them to play and learn together with a group
of friends guided by a qualified educator, regardless of whether or not their
parents are working. The rapid expansion over the past decade of schoolbased early childhood education for children under 5 years is welcomed by
families, and enrollment is soaring. At the same time, parental participation
in the labour force is an essential element of the Canadian economy in the
21st century.
Early childhood education is recognized as a powerful benefit for children’s
learning and well-being that carries forward to adolescence and beyond while it
enables parents, particularly mothers, to earn a living as they raise young children.
Early childhood educators are qualified professionals who have opportunities to pursue rewarding careers in early childhood education working directly
with children and families in school and community settings. Leadership, policy
and research in early childhood education are rapidly expanding. Early childhood
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educators are professionals who can follow career pathways to become leaders
who model and guide professional practice in programs for young children.
Leadership positions are opening up in organizations that offer professional
learning opportunities. Many Canadian colleges and universities are seeking
early childhood educators who have experience in working with young children
and have pursued further education to fill teaching and research positions. As
early childhood education expands, the design of public policies requires the
professional input of early childhood educators. Municipal, provincial, territorial
and federal governments are seeking experienced early childhood educators to
fill policy positions.
Early childhood professionals have opportunities to pursue rewarding
careers in early childhood education working directly with children and families
in school and community settings. Leadership, policy and research in early childhood education are rapidly expanding.
Chapter-by-Chapter Highlights
Section 1: Early Childhood Education Defined
The first section introduces the profession of early childhood education. It
offers an overview of the current scope of practice and how those practices have
evolved from various perspectives.
Chapter 1: The Principles and Practices of Early Childhood Education
Chapter 1 offers an overview of the principles and practices that are the
foundation of early childhood education (ECE).
Chapter 2: History of Early Childhood Education in Canada Chapter 2
explores how early childhood education practices and policies have evolved in
Canada from the 19th century to the 21st century.
Section 2: Play-Based Learning
The play of children is central to early childhood education. This section considers play from several perspectives including play-based learning, outdoor play,
curriculum models and early learning frameworks.
Chapter 3
describes different types of play and how early educators can facilitate playbased learning and sometimes provoke children’s play as well as the learning
opportunities that play offers.
Chapter 3: Early Childhood Education Is Play-Based Learning
Chapter 4 focuses on the scope and pedagogy of
outdoor play and considers land-based learning from Indigenous teachings.
Chapter 4: Outdoor Play
Chapter 5
explores early childhood education curriculum approaches currently used in
Canadian programs.
Chapter 5: Early Childhood Education Curriculum Approaches
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Chapter 6: Early Learning Frameworks Chapter 6 turns to early learning
frameworks that guide early childhood education programs in Canada
and internationally.
Section 3: Early Learning Environments
This section points to the essential elements for early childhood education programs. The elements of early learning environments discussed in this section
expand on the professional principles and practices for early childhood educators introduced in Chapter 1.
Chapter 7: Time, Space and People Chapter 7 describes the use of time
(schedules and routines), the set-up of physical environments, and the
interactions and relationships in ECE programs.
Chapter 8 outlines possibilities for a variety
of learning experiences in ECE programs.
Chapter 8: Learning Experiences
Chapter 9 considers professional practices
for educators who are committed to honouring children as active and
competent learners.
Chapter 9: Intentional Teaching
Chapter 10: Quality Matters Chapter 10 discusses how ECE program quality
is understood and measured.
Section 4: The Early Childhood Education Landscape
Early childhood education graduates in Canada are entering a workforce with
unprecedented opportunities. This final section identifies the range and organization of programs that employ early childhood educators.
Chapter 11
outlines how early childhood education programs are organized and the role of
governments in supporting them.
Chapter 11: Early Childhood Education Programs and Policies
Chapter 12 outlines
the work and professional environments for early childhood professionals and
points to the future of a career in the early childhood education profession.
Chapter 12: Early Childhood Educators: Looking Ahead
Pedagogical Elements
Early Childhood Leader Interviews
An interview with a Canadian early childhood professional introduces each
section. Their experiences and lessons learned are related to the topics of the
section chapters. Readers will find that the interviews contain many of the concepts
and vocabularies that are discussed in the section chapters.
Learning Outcomes
Each chapter opens with a set of learning objectives that indicate the topics to
be covered in the chapter and what the reader is expected to understand.
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Learning Together
Vignettes are based on the author’s own experiences and are designed to offer
examples of how educators and children learn together in early childhood education programs.
Making It Happen
Case studies illustrate examples of real-life early childhood education ­policies,
organizations, programs and practices from across Canada.
Research to Practice
Examples of evidence-based practice and practice-based evidence provide
­guidance to early childhood education policies and practices.
Consider
The Learning Together, Making It Happen and Research to Practice boxes conclude with an opportunity to pause and reflect on key ideas and information
presented in the box.
Weblinks
A MindTap icon in the margin indicates that additional information on concepts
referenced in the text can be found in MindTap and in the ebook.
Summary
A list of key points at the end of each chapter revisits the chapter’s learning
outcomes and reinforces key concepts.
Review Questions
Review questions at the end of each chapter are designed to examine the reader’s
understanding of the key concepts identified in the chapter learning objectives.
Activities
Suggested activities point to the application and further exploration of ideas and
concepts in each chapter.
Key Terms
Terms are defined in the margin and provide an introduction to the professional
vocabulary used in early childhood education.
Suggested Readings
Suggested readings listed at the end of each chapter are selected to expand on
the ideas and information presented in that chapter.
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Instructor Resources
All instructor ancillaries have been created by Professor Jane Bertrand and can
be downloaded directly from the book’s companion site at login.cengage.com.
Test Bank
The test bank is available on a cloud-based platform. Testing Powered by
Cognero® is a secure online testing system that allows instructors to author, edit
and manage test bank content from anywhere Internet access is available. No
special installations or downloads are needed, and the desktop-inspired interface, with its drop-down menus and familiar, intuitive tools, allows instructors
to create and manage tests with ease. Multiple test versions can be created in an
instant and content can be imported or exported into other systems. Tests can
be delivered from a learning management system, the classroom, or wherever an
instructor chooses. Testing Powered by Cognero for Becoming and Being an Early
Childhood Professional can be accessed through login.cengage.com.
PowerPoint
Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture slides have been created for this product.
There is an average of 20 slides per chapter, many featuring key figures, tables,
and photographs from Becoming and Being an Early Childhood Professional.
Instructors can customize the deck for their courses.
Image Library
This resource consists of digital copies of figures, tables, and photographs used in
the book. Instructors may use these JPEGs to customize the PowerPoint slides
or create their own PowerPoint presentations. The Image Library Key describes
the images and lists the codes under which the JPEGs are saved.
Instructor Guide
This resource is organized according to the textbook chapters and addresses key
educational concerns, such as typical stumbling blocks that students face and
how to address them. The Instructor Guide also contains suggested classroom
activities and additional resources.
MindTap
MindTap is the digital learning solution that powers students from memorization to mastery. It gives instructors complete control of their course—to provide engaging content, challenge every individual, and build student confidence.
Instructors can customize interactive syllabi to emphasize priority topics as well
as add their own material or notes to the ebook as desired. This outcome-driven
application gives instructors the tools needed to empower students and boost
both understanding and performance.
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Access Everything in One Place Cut down on prep with the preloaded and
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Twelve distinct metrics give you
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Empower Students to Reach Their Potential
Control Your Course—and Your Content Get the flexibility to reorder
textbook chapters, add your own notes, and embed a variety of content including
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Get access to a full, interactive ebook,
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Acknowledgements
I am grateful for Dr. Angela James’ contribution in the Foreword that explains how
Indigenous ways of learning and Western early learning approaches are interwoven.
She recognizes differences and then eloquently bridges principles and practices at
the core of early childhood education. Dr. James opens up possibilities for how all
early childhood education programs can benefit from Indigenous ways of knowing
to expand land-based learning opportunities.
I also acknowledge interviews with four Canadian early childhood education leaders: Maureen Dockendorf, Christine Alden, Dr. Christine McLean and
Jamie Kass. The interviews are the basis for each of the four section openers.
Dr. Emis Akbari and Kerry McCuaig generously shared findings from the Early
Childhood Education Report 2020 (Akbari & McCuaig, 2021) so recent data
could be included. My ongoing work with the Honourable Margaret Norrie
McCain continues to move the early years agenda forward across Canada and
informs this text.
I appreciate the efforts, expertise and responses of the editorial and production staff at Cengage Canada. I also appreciate the generous permissions
I received to reprint materials. Thanks to the Atkinson Centre for Society
and Child Development at Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the
University of Toronto and the Canadian Child Care Federation.
I continue to learn essential truths and pleasures of working with young
children from early childhood educators and dedicate this book to Canada’s
growing early childhood workforce.
Jane Bertrand
Atkinson Centre for Society and
Child Development
Ontario Institute for Studies in
Education of the University of Toronto
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About the Author
Courtesy of Jane Bertrand
Jane Bertrand is an early childhood educator who
has contributed to the growing capacity of the
early childhood professional workforce. Jane is
currently the Program Director at the ­Margaret
and Wallace McCain Family Foundation. The
foundation’s focus is on early c­hildhood practices, policies and research in ­Canada. Jane is
­ niversity
also an Adjunct Professor at OISE, U
of Toronto and participates in OISE’s Flex Early
Learning PhD program. In Australia, she currently is on the research advisory committee
for Our Place in Victoria and the Good Start
Thought Leaders Advisory Group.
Jane worked in collaboration with Dr. F
­ raser
Mustard and the Honourable Margaret Norrie
Jane Bertrand
McCain as the research coordinator for the
Early Years Study (1999), Early Years Study 2
(2007), Early Years Study 3 (2011) and now Early Years Study 4. In 2013, Jane
received an honourary doctorate from the University of New Brunswick for her
contribution to early childhood education in Canada.
Jane was Professor at the School of Early Childhood at George Brown
­College until June 2011 and initiated a Bachelor of Early Childhood Leadership
degree. She worked with the Ontario Early Learning Advisor to the Premier of
Ontario to prepare a report that led to full-day kindergarten for four- and fiveyear-olds and was chair of Ontario’s Expert Panel that produced a provincial
early learning curriculum framework. Jane is a member of the Directing Committee of the Centre for Excellence for Early Child Development and was a
member of the Toronto First Duty Research team. She is a contributing author
of the Science of Early Child Development (www.scienceofecd.com).
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Foreword
BALANCING THE INDIGENOUS WAYS WITH
WESTERN APPROACHES IN EARLY LEARNING
I am a Manitoba Métis with lineage to the founder of the Métis Nation, Louis
Riel, through my great-grandmother, Marie Ann Chartrand (née Lagimodière),
who was a first cousin to Riel. Marie Ann’s father, Roman, was the brother to
Louis Riel’s mother, Julie Riel (née Lagimodière). Although many Métis ­celebrate
their lineage to Louis Riel, it is with much pride and fortitude that I situate
myself, as in my youth, I endured racism and discrimination as a result of my
Indigenous ancestry. Fortunately, the tides have changed for many Indigenous
peoples in this new century and, as Vine Deloria expounds, “Indeed, today it is
popular to be an Indian” (Deloria, 1995, p. 14).
With my birthright in my back pocket, when I was a young woman, I moved
to Yellowknife, Northwest Territories (NWT), where I made my new home.
I have lived in the NWT for more than 40 years, marrying into an NWT
Chipewyan Dene family. Although both my husband and I had challenging
upbringings as a result of family issues, we now live the good life, with three
children, including one son-in-law, and recently have been blessed with
double joy: twin grandsons who are now two years old. My husband and I
are called Setsúne and Setsí-e (Grandmother and Grandfather) in the Dëne
Su˛łıné language of the NWT, or Susu and Sisi for short.
In 1989, I graduated from the University of Manitoba with my undergraduate degree in Education. I began my career as an educator and taught French
and English in Grades 7 to 12 at two local Yellowknife schools. Later I became
a K–12 school principal, working with amazing Indigenous Elders, community leaders, families and children for 12 years. Informed by the school leadership role in my Indigenous community school, I completed my EdD in the
Transformational Change Program at Simon Fraser University in 2016.
As the current Director of the Indigenous Languages and Education
Secretariat for the Government of the NWT, I am responsible for Indigenous
languages and Indigenizing education (culture-based) programming in NWT
schools and communities. As the former director for Early Childhood and School
Services, I also oversaw the development of the NWT Right from the Start
Framework and Action Plan, which defines goals and actions to support children
from birth through their transition to school. My life work centres on raising children through their own unique learning experiences into becoming, being and
believing as “a capable person,” and on the perspectives of Indigenous educational
theory and research in informing educational reform. Early relationships and
experiences with oneself, others, the land and the spiritual world allow learners
to develop the physical, mental, emotional and spiritual aspects of their being.
These things then form the holistic underpinnings that balance the growth and
development of those learners into the capable people that they are meant to be.
 
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Among the Dene, it is said that the child is born with a drum in its
hand … The child is born with integrity. The child has worth. It is the
birthright of the Dene child to be acknowledged and respected for this.
The child who is not respected cannot become what it is meant to be.
(Zhatie, Dene et al., 1993, p. vxi)
With this inherent respect that Dene children require for their learning, we
can begin to notice the fundamental differences between Indigenous and Western
cultures, values and actions. However, the paradox in understanding the differences allows us also to realize the similarities in the goals for children’s learning
that use different language. The concept of a capable child sometimes appears
with different wording but always with similar meaning of a child grounded in
traditions, culture and language. We can bridge the Western approaches with
Indigenous ways to inform our principles and practices for early childhood
education programs for young children. The table below exemplifies the initial
thinking that can foster such understandings.
Western Approaches
Indigenous Ways
Mindfulness and centring
Prayer and ceremony
Holism
Mind, heart, body, spirit
Cognitive focus
Remember the other three parts
Relationality
Respect for self, others, land and world
Reciprocity
Giving and taking and balancing both
Outdoor play
Four sacred elements—air, water, earth
and sun
Early learning
Nurturing, love, belonging and trust
Experiential
Listening, smelling, touching
Telling stories
Storytelling
Sequential
Cyclical learning
Linear and rationalistic
Spiral learning and metaphors
Revitalization
Coming full circle
A capable-person philosophy can guide early learning, and educators can
learn the respect, relationality, reciprocity and revitalization of Indigenous ways
that are necessary for children’s learning and development. We can ensure that
Indigenous educational values and ways of knowing are included in our conversations about ECE programs. We can recognize that parents are a child’s first
teacher, and that the reverential attitude toward the child in Indigenous families and the love of grandparents (Elders) for children are the closest love that
the Creator has for humankind. We can understand that identity and self are
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Foreword  
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critically important, and that human development is holistic of the body, mind,
heart and spirit. Most of all, we can acknowledge that spirituality is an extension
of culture and storytelling, and that experiences are valid ways to learn.
Indigenous peoples have thrived on the land now called Canada. Nature
remains a part of Indigenous systems including languages, politics, governance,
education and child rearing. Indigenous traditional settings with natural opportunities for children’s outdoor explorations have changed over time. Often outdoor
play opportunities in ECE programs for young Indigenous and non-Indigenous
children offer limited space and time. Built structures and surfaces replace natural materials and landscapes. Opportunities to encourage curiosity and choice
making are diminished. The Indigenous worldview of the capable child can
guide educators in ECE programs to expand land-based learning opportunities
in outdoor spaces. Land-based learning is the ways of being, knowing, doing
and believing, which helps children to develop their sense of place, people and,
ultimately, belonging.
Land-based learning informs the meaning and understanding of the
Indigenous curriculum in Canada. Indigenizing ECE programs to respect and
explore nature would benefit all children. I am convinced that Indigenous-based
philosophies and approaches need to be honoured and acknowledged and be
an integral part of the voice of policy and pedagogical practices related to early
childhood education across the land we now call Canada.
Dr. V. Angela James
Foreword
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Introduction
Becoming and Being an Early Childhood Professional is grounded in the evidence
presented in the Early Years Study, a series of Canadian reports that summarize
the evidence about how early experiences impact on lifelong learning, behaviour,
health and well-being outcomes. The reports also consider the public policies that
influence these outcomes, including early childhood education. They are informed
by leading scientists, policy researchers, early childhood educators and leaders, and
public administrators.
In their Early Years Study 3, McCain, Mustard and McCuaig (2011) define
early childhood education:
Early childhood education [ECE] refers to programs for young children
based on an explicit curriculum delivered by qualified staff and designed
to support children’s development and learning. Settings may include
child care centres, nursery schools, preschools, pre- or junior kindergarten
and kindergarten. [Early childhood education also includes before- and
after-school programs for c­ hildren attending kindergarten to grade 6.]
Attendance is regular and children may participate on their own or with
a parent or caregiver. (McCain, Mustard & McCuaig, 2011, p. xi)
This definition gives us a sense of the variety of settings that early
childhood education programs encompass. It conveys the concept that
early education includes various structures that meet individual needs for
different families. Learning and caring are central in this definition. Early
childhood education programs encourage families’ active participation in
their children’s early development and promote communities’ capacity to
support families.
The Early Years Study 4 (McCain, 2020) makes the case that early
childhood education is a right for all young children as the first tier of
publicly funded and publicly managed education, and is just as important
as elementary, secondary and post-secondary education. It documents the
benefits of early childhood education in supporting families to reconcile work
and family life; supporting parents’ labour force participation and gender
equity; reducing poverty and social inclusion; boosting later academic skills;
and reducing behaviour and learning difficulties.
“Most important, early education gives children a space where play and friendships flourish, making for happier, healthier childhoods” (McCain, 2020, p. 2).
Educators who are qualified early childhood professionals are committed to spaces
for children that nurture friendships and learning together. What this looks like will
evolve, but the commitment to nurturing environments will always be essential.
Educators must also be committed to addressing intolerable injustices, none
greater than the history of colonialism and the toll it continues to extract from
Indigenous peoples and ongoing racism toward Blacks and people of colour.
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Jupiterimages/Stockbyte/Thinkstock
Section
Early Childhood
Education Defined
Chapter 1 offers an overview of the vision, principles and practices of early
childhood education. The principles bring together diverse perspectives, values
and beliefs about childhood with current research findings. The practices are an
introduction to the role of early childhood educators in designing and implementing early learning environments for young children and their families. The
principles and practices for early childhood education are the foundation for the
text and are revisited, and expanded on, in chapters 3 to 12.
Chapter 2 traces the history of early childhood education in Canada,
including philosophical and social science roots and the evolution of programs
and policies from the 19th to 21st century. Consideration is given to Western
and Indigenous perspectives, echoing the wise words of Dr. Angela James in the
Foreword to the text.
Chapters 1 and 2 describe the work environment that awaits educators who
are preparing to learn together with young children in a variety of ECE settings.
It is a rewarding world that is ever-changing and exciting.
1
CHAPTER
ONE
The Principles
and Practices of
Early Childhood
Education 3
CHAPTER
TWO
History of Early
Childhood
Education in
Canada 24
1
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Ece Leaders
Maureen Dockendorf
Former primary teacher, elementary school principal, school district assistant supervisor, provincial government supervisor for literacy and early years. Now a Strategic Advisor to the British
Columbia Ministry of Education, Maureen works with community ECE programs and schools
demonstrating how to align ECE and primary education.
When I started teaching as an intermediate music
teacher in the 1970s, I wondered why we saw these
young children in kindergarten coming into school
with such joy and by the time they were in grade
seven, the joy just did not seem to be there in the same
way. I was curious and I wondered what changed
for young kids who started at five just excited about
learning, excited about being at school.
I started teaching kindergarten and I enrolled in
early childhood courses at UBC, which I had never
had for teaching kindergarten. I came to understand the importance of early childhood education.
I began to learn and transform my practice. If I could
mandate anything in the entire world, every teacher
at every level would have early childhood education
courses to understand the power of what happens
when children are young.
The learning environment we co-create for young
children matters. What educators contribute to learning
environments can actually stimulate the holistic development of the child. So, when we respond to what
children bring and stimulate their thinking and cause
them to be curious, we promote the asking of questions, provoke children to be excited about learning,
and move them to be engaged. Educators co-design
that learning environment to build on the capability,
the potential, the curiosity, which kids are just innately
born with. What we can do in early childhood fosters
that sense of engagement, well-being and belonging.
We can leverage our relationships with young children, to be curious with them.
But sometimes I believe it’s what we do that
actually closes some of those doors. When we
don’t recognize children’s unique experiences and
what really excites them, we negate the knowledge
they bring and what they have already learned.
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The shift in the role of the educator as not the
knower but as the wonderer and how is it that we’re
wondering alongside these kids and also with their families. I believe it’s so important, especially in those early
years, that that family is our co-creator in what we’re
setting up and wondering with that family. So, I think
there’s a shift there where the educator, in the past,
was about what you knew and you were expected to
be the knower. Now, for me, it’s really about us being
the wonderers and being as curious as these kids.
I began to let go of what I thought all children
needed and to focus on a curriculum that emerged and
was not governed by the curriculum learning outcomes.
What guided me was the children and the incredible,
rich knowledge they bring—what is their cultural background, who are they, who are their families, what are
they passionate about, what are they curious about?
The kindergarten learning environment changed based
on who those kids were, what their cultural backgrounds
were, on who their parents were and what their passions
were; the children owned the emerging curriculum.
A big shift in my practice was child agency. Children
now had voice and opinions that mattered. I let go of
the notion that everybody needed to do everything and
all the same—trying to standardize this. I let go of the
theme boxes. I started to play with bigger ideas.
Another change for me was really seeing and listening to children and being present in the moment
especially for our kids at the highest level of vulnerability. I had to practise being present; it didn’t come
naturally. Slowing down rather than moving on to
the next thing. What is the rush? Less content that
goes deeper and really wraps around a framework
of questioning, of wondering, of passion and not
being the knower—really being the wonderer.
Courtesy of Maureen Dockendorf
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The Principles and
Practices of Early
Childhood Education
Learning Objectives
1.1 Explain the concept of image of the child.
1.2 Identify principles and practices for early
childhood education.
1.3 Examine principles and practices that
promote a sense of belonging and
­acceptance of all children within a variety
of learning environments.
Chapter
1
1.4 Explain professional identity for early
­childhood educators.
1.5 Identify principles and practices ­consistent
with Indigenous philosophies and
­cultural values.
Chapter 1 is an overview of the current consensus among early learning experts,
researchers and early childhood educator leaders about how young children
learn and develop. You will be introduced to the vision, principles and practices
that underpin early childhood education in Canada today and outline the role
of early childhood educators in programs for young children.
Canadian ECE programs include child care centres, nursery schools and preschools, pre-kindergarten and kindergarten, Aboriginal Head Start, before- and
after-school programs and regulated home child care. Table 1.1 gives an overview
of seven categories of ECE programs. Some programs might be included in more
than one category, or they might overlap with related programs. Chapter 11
provides additional information about how ECE programs and policies are organized in provinces and territories across Canada.
Image of the Child
The vision for early childhood education begins with an image of the child as
­competent, curious, capable and an active participant in their own learning shown
in Figure 1.1.
This image is very close to Indigenous beliefs that create an image of the
child as a capable person. According to these beliefs, each child carries their own
early childhood
educator
People who work directly with
children in early childhood
education programs, have early
childhood post-secondary
education credentials and
are recognized by provincial/
territorial legislation as qualified
staff in ECE programs.
early childhood
­education (ECE)
Ongoing programs for young
children that are guided by
qualified educators and defined
curriculum and pedagogy
and may or may not provide
nonparental care.
image of the child
View of children as the agents
and experts of their own life
and active participants in their
own learning.
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nursery schools and
preschools
TABLE 1.1 ● Early Childhood Education Programs
Part-time ECE programs that
may be regulated centres or
an extension of elementary
schools for younger children.
Child care centres
Licensed full-day or part-day ECE programs for groups of
children from infancy up to 12 years that accommodate
parents’ work schedules
regulated home
child care
Preschool/nursery
school
Arrangements for child care
in small groups (often fewer
than six children), usually in the
caregiver’s home and either
directly licensed or regulated or
approved through an agency.
Part-day, often part-week ECE programs for children
between the ages of approximately 2 1/2 and 5 years;
usually less than four hours per day
Regulated home
child care
ECE program offered to a small group of children in a
caregiver’s home
Kindergarten
ECE program available to all five-year-old children
­delivered through the public education system
Kindergarten
ECE program for
five-year-old children.
prekindergarten/
junior kindergarten
ECE programs for four-year-old
and sometimes three-year-old
children before entry to fiveyear-old kindergarten.
LO 1.1
before- and afterschool programs
A range of programs for
children who are attending
school kindergarten,
prekindergarten programs or
grades 1 to 6 that are offered
before and after school hours
and on school holidays.
holistic
Understanding that the parts
of learning—mind, body and
spirit—are interconnected.
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Prekindergarten/
ECE program available to three- and four-year-old children
Junior Kindergarten delivered through the public education system
Before- and afterschool programs
Programs for children who are attending public
school before and after school hours and on school
holidays
Aboriginal Head Start Aboriginal Head Start (AHS) for First Nation, Inuit
and Metis children. The AHS program offers learning
­environments that reflects Indigenous languages and
­cultures and is intended to prepare children for school.
Early childhood education programs include programs for children from infancy through age 12 years.
gifts and is strong and resilient. Children have the right to explore, test and learn
on the land and be in relationship with the land (James, 2020). Learning is
viewed as sacred, holistic and a lifelong journey that respects children’s spiritual
life (Battiste & Youngblood, 2000).
The image of the child is a social construct—an idea that has been created
and accepted by people in a community or society. Today’s broad consensus
about the image of the child has numerous and sometimes competing interpretations in the implementation of early childhood education policies, programs
and practices. These reflect multiple perspectives based on culture and history.
But the overall consensus among early childhood education research, policy and
practice agrees on this image of the child.
The past three decades have radically changed what we know about babies
and young children. Science confirms that early experiences are the foundation
for lifelong learning, behaviour and health. Science reveals that young children
learn more, innovate more, care more and feel more than previously thought
possible (Gopnik, 2016). Children are natural and active learners. They are born
curious about the world around them and have remarkable abilities to learn.
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Figure 1.1 ● Image of the Child
social construct
An idea that is originated and
accepted by people.
culture
© Cengage
Ways of knowing, attitudes,
values, goals and customs
shared by a society.
Competent, capable and curious
LO 1.1
This understanding of childhood is the foundation for what is considered the
role of educators. It shapes pedagogy as a way of thinking about early learning
that mirrors the image of the child.
A Sense of Self
Children learn to understand and express emotions. They develop the capacity to
“wait a moment” and sometimes delay gratification. As children develop a positive sense of themselves, they become confident and more receptive to relating to
others and take pleasure in new learning. They demonstrate autonomy in selecting
materials, making choices and setting goals for themselves. They know their own
minds and preferences early in life and are active participants in their families and
communities (Rogoff, Mistry, Goncu & Mosier, 1993).
Individuals vary in their ability to recognize and manage their own emotions.
Children learn from their families, community and culture about how and when
to express emotions to others. When early childhood educators understand the
intersection of individual differences and children’s context, they can contribute
to the child’s emerging a sense of self.
Children’s growing sense of self finds expression in movement, drawing,
painting, music and socio-dramatic play. Opportunities for expression develop
decision-making skills, stimulate memory, facilitate understanding, encourage
communication, promote sensory development and encourage creative thinking.
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Stockbyte/Thinkstock
Young children are
active learners as they
design, create and
­construct together.
Expression encourages children’s imaginations, helps to develop empathy,
promotes relationships and builds self-esteem. Children experience a sense
of accomplishment.
Relating with Others
social competence
Social, emotional and thinking
skills children need to relate to,
and to get along with, others.
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Children need to interact with others in many different places and for many purposes. As children learn about themselves and the world around them, they also
begin to understand that all people have similar needs, feelings and aspirations.
They start to build concepts of equality, fairness and tolerance in relation to how
people are treated—including members of visible minorities, English language
learners, a range of gender identities, people with special needs and those with
diverse family structures. In early childhood programs, children should take part
in activities that increase their awareness of others and foster respect for individual differences.
Children’s experiences in nurturing environments encourage the knowledge
and skills they require to be constructive citizens. Children need to be affirmed
as individuals and as members of a diverse community of learners. Understanding
the influence of social and cultural contexts on learning enables early childhood
educators to recognize and support the children’s social competence and to find
a variety of ways in which the children can express their achievements.
Social competence grows through interactions with others and is interconnected with other areas of development. For example, children take on the
perspective of others when they role-play at the dramatic play centre, experimenting with a variety of social roles (e.g., firefighter, parent or restaurant cook).
They learn to persevere and to work independently as they solve puzzles, create
sculptures and construct models. Toddlers learn to wait for others during bathroom and meal times.
Section 1 Early Childhood Education Defined
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Active, Involved and Confident Learners
Young children take their prior knowledge and experience into new situations to
build an understanding of the world around them as active and inquisitive learners.
Children construct knowledge by defining, sorting, classifying, comparing, making
connections and predictions, testing theories and using their imaginations. Children
need time to explore, to reflect and to make connections between what they
already know and new learning. Children’s ability to manage emotions influences
their capacity to engage in learning challenges in their play.
Communication
Children begin to communicate at birth using sounds and then gestures. Oral language expands their communication. They start to express their needs, exchange
ideas, express feelings and make connections with others. Oral language increases
young children’s ability to manage their emotions and behaviour and get along
with others. Language is a tool for communicating and making meaning, and it is
central to cognitive development.
Today’s Citizens and the Future Citizens of Tomorrow
Young children are today’s citizens and have a right to spaces for childhood that
respect their competence and autonomy.
Children are also future citizens who will continually adapt to everchanging
demands. Learning to be learners is essential for life in the 21st century, and
early childhood is prime time to acquire the capacity for lifelong learning.
Thinking about early childhood education from a rights’ perspective does
not have to be at odds with thinking about early childhood education as a foundation for later life. In fact, early childhood settings that recognize children’s
rights, encourage communities of play and nurture friendships also prepare children to be continual learners.
United Nations Convention on the
Rights of the Child
autonomy
Knowledge that one has
control over one’s own
decisions and actions.
Making It
Happen
LO 1.1
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child advocates for the rights
of children on an international level. In 1989 world leaders recognized children
have their own rights to grow, learn, play and thrive with dignity.
Consider:
Why are rights of children important? How do children’s rights relate to your
image of the child?
Find out more about UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in Chapter 12.
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Principles of Early Childhood Education
Visit MindTap to learn more
about the UN Convention on
the Rights of the Child.
Cognitive
Mental processes involved in
learning, thinking and knowing.
language
Written or spoken
communication using words.
social
Relating to other people.
Principles of early childhood education in Figure 1.2 build on the image of the
child by setting out ways of thinking about early childhood and early learning. They
reflect the vision of the image of the child and values and understanding about
childhood and learning in early childhood education. The core principles include
holistic development, environments, play and belonging.
Holistic Development
Over the past 100 years, the study of child development has evolved. Scientists
have moved from a focus on linear developmental stages—the idea that all children
develop skills and abilities in the same sequence regardless of their cultural context—to a recognition that child development is multi-faceted and very much a
unique interaction between each child’s biology and environment. Scientists recognize that human development is deeply connected with cultural context. Children
develop as members of a family and community. Cognitive, language, social, emotional, spiritual and physical domains are now recognized as broad and overlapping
categories of development that help us understand the journey from infancy to
adulthood. For example, children bring their active bodies to their play with other
children in early childhood education settings. Their physical development is interconnected to their cognitive, social and emotional development. Language is a critical component of social-emotional development.
emotional
Feelings such as happiness,
anger or sadness.
Figure 1.2 ● Early Childhood Education Principles
spiritual
A sense of awe, wonder, being
and knowing.
Holistic
development
Environments
physical
Abilities to use and
control large and small
body movements.
Belonging
© Cengage
Play
LO 1.2
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The principles offer ways of thinking that underpin the image of the child as
capable, competent and curious.
Section 1 Early Childhood Education Defined
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Human brain development begins soon after conception. Current interpretations of neuroscience (e.g., Gopnik, 2016; Kolb, Whishaw & Teskey, 2019;
McCain 2020) provide guidance for early childhood education settings.
During the final phase of the prenatal period the human brain is actively
forming neural networks. While before and after birth, genes are the first
building blocks, it is a child’s social and cultural life after birth that shapes the
brain (Gopnik, 2016). Cascades of interactions and experiences build the human
brain’s complex neural pathways. Between three years and six years of age, the
brain’s neural pathways responsible for maintaining attention and focus undergo
a growth spurt, building on earlier neural pathways that manage emotions and
behaviour (Posner and Rothbart, 2006).
Scientists report that early brain development has extensive implications
on lifelong mental and physical health, learning and behaviour (McCain,
Mustard & McCuaig, 2011; Kolb, Whishaw & Teskey, 2019). While early brain
growth and development does set a foundation for life, the brain is a remarkably complex organ that continues to evolve throughout life. Neural pathways
can change at any age with experience, growing new connections and strengthening old ones.
The brain’s neural networks do not recognize separate developmental
categories; the brain is an integrated organ. Its neural networks for sensorymotor functions overlap with networks for thinking. Neural networks for
language are connected with networks involved with emotions. The brain
is holistic and supports a child’s holistic development, which is shaped by
the child’s experiences. Emerging skills will vary because of individual differences, diverse early learning experiences and the context in which the
skills emerge.
Environments
Children live in families and communities that are shaped by culture. The environment and experiences of the early years interact with a child’s biology to
construct the brain’s emerging neural networks. Families have the strongest
influence on children’s early learning and well-being. Strong parent–child relationships and the quality of parenting are powerful influences on children’s
development and learning and can act as an emotional protection for young
children (Bornstein, 2002; Centre for Community Child Health, 2007; Kirp,
2007). The family ­environment is the primary source of experience for children and mediates their contact with the broader environment (Siddiqi, Irwin &
Hertzman, 2007).
Home learning environments matter more to children’s learning and wellbeing than family structure or socio-economic status (Sammons et al., 2004;
Sylva et al., 2009). In a U.K. study of the impact of preschool and primary school
experiences at age of 16, the educational levels of mothers and the home learning
environment are strongest predictors of better academic outcomes for children
at age 10 and 16 (Taggart et al., 2015). Maternal education is linked to children’s
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higher achievement and enriched home learning environments. Mothers with
higher education levels were more likely to have learning materials, provide a
variety of experiences, be responsive to children’s learning and model how to get
along with others (Zadeh, Farnia & Ungerleider, 2010).
Families have cultural identities and ways of knowing that guide how they
raise their children. Parental sensitivity, responsiveness, warmth and consistency are important across cultures but diverse childrearing practices vary, often
reflecting cultural differences (Centre for Community Child Health, 2007;
Konner, 1991; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000; Taggart et al., 2015).
Early childhood education programs do not exist in isolation. They can
complement children’s family and community experiences when they collaborate with families and respect families’ cultural values. ECE programs live in
communities, and communities live in a broader society and cultural context.
Early childhood education programs are a product of society and reflect social
relations that exist nationally, provincially, regionally and locally (Daycare Trust,
2007; Robinson & Diaz, 2006).
Play
child-centred
Based on the child’s cues,
interests and abilities.
Play capitalizes on children’s curiosity and enthusiasm for learning. Because children organize and make sense of the world around them through play, it provides
a context for learning. Play offers children opportunities to expand language and
thinking skills and strengthen social, physical and emotional well-being. During
play, children explore, tinker, investigate, hypothesize, negotiate and, perhaps most
importantly, learn from each other.
Play is children’s primary method of learning. It mobilizes and enhances
children’s interest, imagination and curiosity. Knowledge and skills become
meaningful when used in play. Tools for learning are practised, and concepts
become understood. The whole child is unified and supported in environments
that support play. A play-based pedagogy is child-centred and purposeful.
Chapter 3 expands on the pedagogy of play-based learning. Play is central
to the early childhood education curriculum models described in Chapter 5 and
the early learning frameworks described in Chapter 6.
Belonging
Belonging is feeling valued and connected and making a contribution to others.
A sense of belonging is central to children’s happiness, well-being and learning.
Children who feel that they belong are confident in expressing themselves and
exploring new ideas. Young children’s growing sense of identity and security is
­supported when they belong at home, in communities and in early childhood
­education programs. A sense of belonging is essential to dealing with challenges
and difficulties. It also contributes to respecting others.
For children to feel a sense of belonging, their learning must be grounded
within their unique identities and contexts and acknowledge that they come
with their own histories (Bath, 2009). Being “different” should not result in any
child feeling that they do not belong (Brooker & Woodhead, 2008).
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About Me
Aisha is an educator in an Ontario full-day kindergarten program. Five-year-old
Stevan, who has recently moved to Canada with his family, is drawing a picture of
himself. He is using a pencil and coloured markers. Stevan begins making an oval
with the pencil. He then picks up a brown marker and rapidly draws many vertical
lines at the top of the oval. With a green marker Stevan draws two circles side by
side in the top third of the oval. He says “I have bright green eyes.”
Aisha is sitting beside Stevan and responds, “Yes, bright green eyes and
brown hair.”
Stevan continues drawing, adding lines for a mouth and then teeth. He draws
lines and shapes for the rest of the body, including carefully counting ten lines for
fingers and 10 lines for toes.
Aisha asks, “What do you like to do here with your friends?”
Stevan immediately replies, “Play ball outside with Roddy and Moussad. I can
kick the ball really, really far away.”
Aisha nods and says, “Do you want to draw the ball in your picture?”
Stevan immediately reaches for a black marker and draws a circle with many
lines inside the circle. He smiles, turns to Aisha and says, “This is the ball that I
kicked so far that it went out of the playground and you had to run after it.”
Aisha smiles back and says, “Yes, I remember that day. You kicked the ball
very far.”
Learning
Together
LO 1.4
Consider:
How does the Aisha (educator) encourage Stevan (child) to think about himself and his strengths and interests? How does this build his self-identity?
Belonging in early childhood education programs means that children know
that they are accepted for who they are. Each child is able to make their mark.
Each child has the right to active and equitable participation.
Early Childhood Education Practices
Today, professional ECE practice is grounded in the image of the child, and in
the principles: holistic development, environments, play and belonging. Chapter
2 reveals the roots of many practices in psychological theories and early learning
approaches of the 20th century. Later chapters describe a diverse variety of
approaches to designing learning environments and will expand on the practices
in Figure 1.3 and outlined in this chapter—responsive relationships, inclusion, cultural competence, reconciliation, intentional teaching and professional identity.
chapter 1 The Principles and Practices of Early Childhood Education
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Figure 1.3 ● Early Childhood Education Practices
Responsive
relationships
Intentional
teaching
Holistic
development
Environments
Play
Belonging
Inclusion
Cultural
competence
Reconciliation
LO 1.2
© Cengage
Professional
identity
The professional practices in ECE programs reflect the image of the child as competent, capable
and curious.
Responsive Relationships
Responsive
relationships
Ongoing connections built
on interactions between and
among children, educators
and families.
co-construct
A process in which a child
and an educator or a group
of children (with or without an
educator) work together to
figure something out and build
or create knowledge.
Educators build relationships with children, their families and communities that
are the anchor for early childhood education environments. Responsive ­relationships
are built on daily interactions between and among children, educators and families
that are respectful and sensitive to feelings and ideas.
Young children thrive in early childhood
programs when they have positive, predictable and stimulating interactions
with educators and other children. Educators pay attention and respond to what
children are feeling and thinking.
Educators:
Connecting with Children
• Are attentive to children, seek to help children understand their feelings, and
respond to children’s behaviours that suggest what the children are feeling
• Act on children’s requests when possible and take care of their physical
needs such as toileting promptly
• Regularly ask open-ended questions to find out children’s ideas and understand and extend children’s thinking
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Together, educators and children make meaning or co-construct understandings
about the world around them. Educators seek out opportunities to find out and
build on children’s ideas.
How Water Moves
Five–year–old Aisha is at the water table in her kindergarten class. As she tries
to pour water into a small plastic bottle from a pail, it splashes everywhere. She
calls out “I can’t do this” and throws the plastic bottle into the water. Mikaela, the
educator, picks up a funnel that is in the water table and asks Aisha if she knows
what it is. Aisha says “No.” Mikaela picks up a plastic bottle from the nearby bin
and fits the funnel in the top. She fills up a pail of water and then pours the water
through the funnel. Aisha smiles, grabs a funnel, puts in her plastic bottle and says,
“I am going to try it out.” She pours the water into the funnel and watches it gush
into the bottle, filling it halfway. Aisha then adds more water and fills the bottle to
the top with water.
Now Mikaela hands Aisha some flexible, clear tubing and says, “How could
we use this tubing?” Aisha takes the tubing and fits it on the bottom of the funnel.”
She turns to face Mikaela and says, “Look, it fits.” Aisha quickly empties the plastic
bottle and places the end of the tubing into the plastic bottle that is now on a shelf
in the water table and holds the funnel up as high as she can. Aisha asks Mikaela
to fill the funnel with water, and, as that happens, Aisha says, “Look, the water is
going through to fill the bottle.”
Mikaela comments, “You’re holding the funnel up high. Try holding it down low.”
Aisha tries and looks puzzled as no water flows through the tubing into the
bottle. She turns to Mikaela and says, “Look, the water is not going into the bottle.”
Mikaela says, “Yes, I see that. Why do you think that happens?” and pauses
as she waits for Aisha to think it through.
Learning
Together
LO 1.2
Consider:
How is Mikaela co-constructing Aisha’s understanding about the movement
of water? Why doesn’t Mikaela just tell Aisha that when she holds the funnel
below the level of plastic bottle, the water will not move?
Connecting Children with Each Other Educators value children’s
relationships and friendships with each other. They understand that even infants
can care deeply about their interactions with each other. Educators can learn
a lot from closely watching and listening to children’s play with each other.
Children’s interactions and conversations with each other often reveal valuable
insights into a child’s family and community life and culture.
Educators can seek out opportunities to nurture children’s relationships
with each other. In infant groups, educators can talk to babies about what their
chapter 1 The Principles and Practices of Early Childhood Education
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Jupiterimages/Stockbyte/Thinkstock
Young children and
­educators learn together in
ECE programs.
peers are doing—“Abby, Joseph likes to splash the water.” Large sheets of paper
and markers encourage children to create together. Providing a generous supply
of building blocks invites children to make a structure together.
Engaging Families Family engagement in early childhood programs
benefits children’s outcomes through improved future home–school
partnerships, parenting skills and home learning environments. Interactions
between educators set the stage for family engagement that can be built into
early childhood education programs. Educators complement and influence
home environments and families, and families can enrich ECE experiences.
Research
Into
Practice
LO 1.3
Engaging Families
Involving families in early childhood education programs benefits children’s learning
now and in the future.
The Chicago Child–Parent Centers measured parental involvement and found
that parental participation in preschool programs was associated with higher levels
of parental participation in grade 1 (Graue, Clements, Reynolds & Niles, 2004;
Reynolds, Ou & Temple, 2018).
An extensive international review of early childhood education programs
reported that family engagement is linked to improved interactions with the child,
including greater acceptance of the child’s behaviour, positive parenting, activities to help the child learn at home, involvement of fathers in the early childhood
(continued)
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settings and in parenting at home, and parental knowledge of early child development (Mitchell, Wylie & Carr, 2008). In a Canadian study of linguistic-minority
children attending junior kindergarten, parents reported a better understanding of
their children’s learning and development through the intentional opportunities for
communication (Pagani, Jalbert, Lapointe & Herbert, 2006).
Parental involvement in early childhood settings multiplies children’s opportunities for learning as parents reinforce skills and activities in the home environment
(Reynolds & Temple, 2008; Sylva et al., 2009; Weiss, Caspe & Lopez, 2006). When
parents support their children’s early learning, children are more likely to have positive experiences in formal schooling, including increased high school graduation
and participation in post-secondary education (Corter, Janmohamed & Pelletier,
2012; Wolanski, 2008).
A study of family involvement in an ECE program found family involvement had
a positive impact on children’s social-emotional and language skills that is likely to
carry forward into the school years (Cohen & Anders, 2020).
Consider:
Why do you think engaging families in early childhood education makes a difference to children’s outcomes and increases family involvement in children’s
later schooling?
Family members can offer feedback about what children do at home and
what experiences they are having. They often contribute stories, items and experiences that contribute to learning. In doing so, families become more involved
and engaged in their own children’s learning and development. Families who are
involved are likely to have more information about their children’s early childhood education experiences (Epstein & Sanders, 2016; Corter, Janmohamed &
Pelletier, 2012). Also, they are more likely to become friends with other families
and may build social networks outside the ECE program.
Families come in all sizes and shapes. Early childhood education has moved
away from a depiction of traditional, nuclear families as the norm with different
family constellations as the “others” to one that recognizes multiple family structures (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Educators increase family engagement when
they value and respect all families.
Children growing up with lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender/transsexual
and queer (LGBTQ) parents are often considered to be “invisible” minorities, although statistics indicate that their numbers are growing across Canada
(Janmohamed & Campbell, 2009). LGBTQ families warrant particular care,
consideration and sensitivity within early childhood programs. Depictions of
LGBTQ families within program policies and practices contribute to an environment that includes sexual diversity. ECE can be proactive in eliminating
homophobia and heterosexism (Robinson & Diaz, 2006).
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One educator expresses this concept in this way:
As an educator in a community college environment, I encourage students to challenge their understanding of the norm. In class discussions when I raise various forms of discrimination or prejudice, students
often respond by talking about the importance of helping children “get
along” and learning to accept all people regardless of difference. … I
challenge their common perceptions of people living on the street, new
refugees, or gays and lesbians. … In order for [ECE] students to articulate and understand systemic barriers, it is the responsibility of educators to create opportunities for transformation … (Janmohomed, 2001,
pp. 20–22)
Learning
Together
LO 1.4
Taking Learning Home
Alma is an early childhood educator working in a preschool program that is
part of a large multi-service agency. Four-year-old Pedro started the program
a month ago. Pedro speaks Portuguese at home, and his mother wants him to
know English before he starts kindergarten in six months. Pedro spends time
watching other children play. He follows the daily routines and seems to understand what is being said at snack time and group time, but he speaks very little.
Pedro’s mother asks Alma to help Carlos acquire English. Her own English is
limited, but she thinks that she should start speaking only English at home. Alma
says, “It is a very good idea to read books with Pedro. What kinds of books
do you think would interest him most? If I give you some storybooks without
text—you and Pedro could tell the story together in Portuguese. We use the
same books here and tell the story in English. Pedro’s ability to understand and
speak Portuguese will help him as he learns English. And he is learning—he
already understands a lot of English. When he is watching other children play,
he is hearing and understanding more and more of what they are saying. We
usually learn to speak a language by understanding before we speak. Could you
come early one day next week when you are picking up Pedro? I would like to
have you join our group time and introduce all of the children and myself to a few
Portuguese words.”
Alma demonstrated respect for Pedro and his mother. Her knowledge of how
language emerges from understanding produced many points from which Pedro
and his peers could continue their language learning.
Consider:
How did Alma demonstrate respect for Pedro and his mother?
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Inclusion
Inclusion of all children, including those with special needs or disabilities in an
ECE program, means that the program supports every child and family to fully
participate. Note that the language is currently shifting from children with special
needs or children with exceptionalities to children with disabilities (College of
Early Childhood Educators, 2019 a; Underwood, 2013). “Disability is now defined
as an interaction between the individual and their environment; it is not solely a
characteristic of the child” (Underwood, 2013, p. 5).
According to Underwood and Frankel (2012), high quality inclusive early
childhood education programs are:
Inclusion
An approach to practice and
policies in early childhood
education that accepts all
children, and every child,
including those with disabilities,
is supported to the fullest
extent of their abilities.
• Accessible to all children and their families
• Designed and carried out with consideration for the unique needs of each child
• Evaluated regularly to ensure full participation
Children’s strengths and abilities are valued and celebrated in inclusive early
childhood programs. Canadian and American studies find that ECE programs that
have higher levels of quality are more likely to have higher levels of inclusion of
children with disabilities (Irwin, Lero & Brophy, 2004; Underwood et al., 2019).
Early Childhood Education Reduces
Special Education Needs
A recent study of the impact of early childhood education in Canada, the United
States and the United Kingdom reports that participation in quality early childhood
education programs reduces the need for special education placement and lowers
the intensity of supports required for children with exceptionalities. The team of
special education researchers examined 50 years of data from studies that followed children into their adult years and compared those who participated in early
childhood education programs to those who did not.
The skills typically acquired in early childhood education programming include
a range of skills and are seen to set children on positive learning trajectories. About
60 per cent of students who receive special education have needs in areas such
as language, emotional and behavioural regulation, or academic performance in
literacy and numeracy. Also, since children from low income families are over-­
represented in special education, this group benefits the most from taking part in
early childhood education.
The study also found that children with developmental disabilities, including
autism, who participated in early childhood education programs required less
intensive special education when they entered the school system.
Research
Into
Practice
LO 1.3
Consider:
What ECE practices do you think help reduce children’s need for special
education when they enter the school system?
Source: Philpott, Young, Maich, Penney & Butler, 2019.
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Successful inclusion is never an accident (City of Toronto, 2007; Lero &
Irwin, 2008). Increased education about inclusion and working with children
with special needs is necessary at all training levels in early childhood education
(Lero, Irwin & Darisi, 2006).
Three Canadian studies (Irwin, Lero & Brophy, 2004) on the inclusion
of children with special needs identified multiple factors that contribute to
­successful inclusion, including the director’s inclusion leadership—modelling
commitment, ensuring staff are supported within the centre, acting as an advocate for inclusion and marshalling resources to support inclusion efforts; staff’s
attitudes and commitment toward inclusion; overall program quality; and skilled
support staff or in-house resource teachers to enhance ratios.
The support and involvement of resource consultants and a range of specialists are also important to help staff develop skills that allow them to promote
the development of children with a wide range of disabilities modify existing
curricula and encourage positive peer interactions among children.
Cultural Competence
Cultural competence
Effective understanding,
interacting and communicating
with people across cultures.
Cultural competence refers to the attitudes and skills one uses to work effectively
with people from different cultures. Cultural competence in early childhood education increases children’s sense of belonging. It also encourages children to become
more aware of and understand differences and similarities among their friends and
in their community. Cultural competence contributes to meeting the unique
­cultural or other needs of newcomer and minority language children and their
families.
Cultural competence is much more than being respectful of the cultures
represented in an early childhood education program or community. Cultural
competence educators are able to think, feel and express themselves in ways that
respect, understand and acknowledge ethnic and cultural diversity (Cameron &
Macdonald, 2015).
Cultural competence includes:
• Awareness of one’s cultural worldview
• Attitude toward cultural differences
• Knowledge of different cultural practices and worldviews
• Cross-cultural skills
Cultural competence applies to both organizations and individuals. Early
childhood educators can strengthen their personal cultural competence; look
for courses that help them strengthen their personal cultural competence and
work with other team members to make culturally responsive improvements
to program practices. Additionally, educators should explore ways to educate
children about cultural competence and help them build the skills and attitudes
they need to engage (and flourish) in a diverse community.
Early childhood programs can be organized to reflect and respect Canada’s
ethnocultural diversity. Children grow up with a strong sense of self in environments that support their full participation and promote attitudes, beliefs,
and values of equity and democracy (Bennett, 2004). Preconceived notions
about children’s ethnocultural backgrounds, gender, ability or socio-economic
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circumstances create barriers that reduce engagement and equitable outcomes
(Bernhard, Freire & Mulligan, 2004; Centre for Community Child Health, 2008;
Robinson & Diaz, 2006). Cultural competency recognizes that cultural differences are part of family practices and traditions. This diversity is a resource for
learning and can strengthen early childhood education.
Confronting Racism ECE programs reflect the surrounding media and
political dialogue. Racial, religious and ethnic tensions and incidents may be part
of the context. Educators can take action to avoid prejudice and to counteract
bias when it occurs in early childhood settings (MacNaughton, 2006; SirajBlatchford, 2006; Sharpe 2019). When educators confront prejudices or biases
that emerge as children interact with each other, it is an opportunity to increase
the involvement of all children and their families (MacNaughton, 2006).
Early childhood education can counter racism and stereotypes when educators listen to families and design programs that demonstrate equality, respect and
appreciation for cultures other than one’s own—beyond token gestures related
to food or celebrations (Ali, 2005; National Research Council 2001; Robinson
& Diaz, 2006).
To counter racism, educators can seek out those who have experienced
racism to review practices and champion positive racial identity. Also, early
childhood education programs can avoid token recognition of racial identities
that do not recognize the range of cultural practices and bodies of knowledge
that can be included in learning experiences and daily routines (Sharpe, 2019).
“As ECEs reflect upon their work with children they should be mindful of
how their actions and reactions to culture and racial identity craft their relationships with families and more specifically the children that they serve” (Cameron
& Macdonald, 2015, pp. 22–26).
Reconciliation
Canada established the Commission on Truth and Reconciliation in 2008 to document the history and lasting impacts of the Indian residential school system on
Indigenous children, their families and communities. The Commission reflects the
need to acknowledge discrimination and trauma and to articulate the tangible
expressions of racism in the system toward Indigenous people. Indigenous organizations and leaders have highlighted the need for honest acknowledgement of the
history of Indigenous and non-Indigenous relationships since European ­colonization
and to respect the rights of Indigenous peoples.
The Calls to Action state that Indigenous perspectives are to be situated into the heart of Canadian education settings and curricula. Indigenous
knowledge and ways of knowing and being is the foundation for educators,
children and families in safe environments that contribute to Indigenous
identity. Early childhood education programs are called upon to be culturally appropriate for Indigenous families. Call to Action 12 under the heading
of Education states, “We call upon the federal, provincial, territorial and
Aboriginal governments to develop culturally appropriate early childhood
education programs for Aboriginal families” (National Centre for Truth and
Reconciliation, 2015, p. 2).
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Reconciliation
Recognizing the impact of
colonization for Indigenous
peoples and Indigenous ways
of knowing and establishing
and maintaining a mutually
respectful relationship
between Indigenous and
non-Indigenous peoples.
colonization
The act of settling among
and gaining control over the
Indigenous people of the same
area.
Visit MindTap to learn
about the Urban Aboriginal
Knowledge Network.
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knowledge-keepers
Trusted, respected and valued
individuals who carry forward
Indigenous knowledge that
has been passed down from
generation to generation.
Land acknowledgement
Formal statement that
recognizes and respects
Indigenous peoples as
traditional stewards of the
land as well as the relationship
between Indigenous peoples
and their traditional territories.
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Indigenous children, families and communities benefit from effective early
childhood education programs that build on the culture of their families and
community. Programs controlled by First Nations contribute to the preservation of their own culture, including childrearing practices and language (Native
Council of Canada, 1990; Greenwood, 2006).
Indigenous peoples are in the best position to make decisions that affect
their children, youth, families and communities. Indigenous knowledgekeepers can take a lead role in addressing issues and establishing relationships
with non-Indigenous providers and organizations. These relationships should
be characterized by reciprocity, respect and a balance of power. Indigenous
and non-­Indigenous early childhood settings require program practices that
value Indigenous languages and culture and are generated from the community rather than imposed on it (Blackstock, Bruyere & Moreau, 2006).
The well-being of Indigenous children is a balance between the physical, spiritual, emotional and cognitive senses of self and how these interrelate with family, community, world and the environment, in the past,
present and future. Because culture and language are ways of seeing and
understanding the world, the program will be most effective when it can
relate to Indigenous children and their families in that context. Indigenous
children need the best that Indigenous and non-Indigenous systems have to
offer. For that to happen, the mainstream system needs to make space for
Indigenous concepts. Early childhood education can offer opportunities to
learn Indigenous languages and participate in cultural activities (Halseth &
Greenwood, 2019).
Non-Indigenous early childhood programs need staff and curriculum that
respectfully incorporate Indigenous cultures (Ball, 2008; OECD, 2004). The
Canadian review team for an international review of ECE noted that while
policy and program goals identified cultural sensitivity, there was little evidence this was practised in Canada (OECD, 2004). Australian researchers
(MacNaughton & Davis, 2001) investigated young children’s understanding
of Indigenous Australians and report that knowledge about Indigenous peoples was based on past cultural, often exotic, practices. Several research studies
suggest early childhood programs can avoid homogenizing Indigenous peoples
into a collective “they” and avoid building knowledge of Indigenous peoples
that positions them as different from the mainstream (MacNaughton & Davis,
2001). ECE programs in Canada that acknowledge local Indigenous values,
beliefs and ways of knowing create spaces that respect and nurture Indigenous
and non-Indigenous children as they grow and develop into capable people
(James, 2020).
Land acknowledgement at events and gatherings is a traditional Indigenous
practice to express recognition of the Indigenous peoples who first inhabited the
land. It is intended to show respect for the Indigenous peoples. It is also a concrete way to help educate people about the historical and ongoing impact of
colonization. The acknowledgement recognizes Indigenous presence past and
present. It is part of building respectful relationships that are part of reconciliation (CAUT, n.d.).
Section 1 Early Childhood Education Defined
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Land acknowledgements may be made at the beginning of events, conferences, presentations, courses and meetings. Begin a land acknowledgement by
recognizing which Indigenous territories one is on. An explanation of why the
land is being acknowledged follows. Often it is possible to have a local Indigenous
Elder participate in preparing and possibly giving the land acknowledgement.
Intentional Teaching
Intentional teaching practices carry out play-based curriculum and pedagogy in
ECE programs. Curriculum is often described as the what of ECE programs and
pedagogy as the how. Curriculum is what children experience with each other and
with educators in an ECE program. Pedagogy is how the learning happens, the
beliefs and practices that support an understanding of learning and how educators
approach curriculum and make decisions about what experiences children have.
Intentional teaching practices involve making ongoing decisions about the curriculum and pedagogy.
Curriculum and pedagogy are intertwined in early childhood education.
Curriculum in early childhood education programs includes both the care and
the learning that occur when the child participates in an early childhood education setting. It is everything that is part of the hours a child spends in an early
childhood education program. Curriculum and pedagogy include daily schedules
and routines; the physical environment; play materials; learning experiences; and,
most importantly, the people who are part of the early child development setting.
Professional Identity
ECE professional identity is an educator’s concept of their professional role and is
an essential element of professional practice. Educational backgrounds, engagement in professional learning and practice contribute to educators’ professional
identity (Jones, 2016). Specific language and beliefs that define the professional
culture of early childhood education also influence professional identity.
In ECE, professional identity is informed by the image of the child and professional knowledge and practices. Educators’ image of the child is the foundation for the image of themselves and their professional identity. The image of the
child influences how educators perceive children and what they know and can
do. It also influences how educators interact with children and what strategies
they use to support learning.
Professional knowledge and professional learning are part of a profession
and contribute to professional identity. Requirements for ECE qualifications are
increasing across Canada (Akbari & McCuaig, 2014, 2018), and professional
learning is actively encouraged by governments and researchers (Institute of
Medicine and National Research Council, 2015; OECD, 2017).
A shared professional language that reflects a common understanding about
how children learn across ECE programs also contributes to professional identity.
The term “early childhood educator” is attached to a professional identity that is
quite different from “daycare worker,” “child care worker” or “child minder.” The term
“early childhood education programs” suggests that early learning is the core purpose.
chapter 1 The Principles and Practices of Early Childhood Education
16091_ch01_hr_001-023.indd 21
Intentional teaching
Thoughtful and purposeful
design, organization and
implementation of early
learning environment.
curriculum
Sum total of the interactions,
planned and unplanned
learning opportunities, routines,
events, materials and physical
space that children experience
in an early childhood
education program.
pedagogy
Principles and practices related
to an understanding of how
learning happens in an early
childhood education program.
professional identity
How one perceives oneself
within an occupation and how
that is communicated.
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Summary
• The image of the child as active and competent is the vision that guides early childhood education.
• Principles for early childhood education are
grounded in the image of the child and include
holistic development, environments, play
and belonging.
• Professional early childhood education practices include responsive relationships, family
engagement, inclusion, cultural competence, reconciliation, intentional teaching and
­professional identity.
Review Questions
1. What is your image of the child in your own
words? LO 1.1
2. How are children’s experiences and learning
shaped by family, community and culture?
LO 1.2
3. How do the principles and practices outlined
in this chapter contribute to children’s lifelong
learning? LO 1.2
4. What are the benefits of family engagement in
early childhood education programs? LO 1.2
5. How can early childhood education programs
promote children’s sense of belonging? LO 1.3
6. What is curriculum and pedagogy in early
childhood education? LO 1.4
7. What does reconciliation mean for early childhood programs? LO 1.5
Study Activities
1. Prepare a statement about your personal image
of the child and compare that with how children are represented in Canadian popular culture in social media and in commercials aimed
at young children. LO 1.1
2. Visit an ECE program and observe the children
and educators. Describe a specific example that
illustrates each of the principles outlined in the
chapter. LO 1.2
3. Search and explore the UAKN (Urban
Aboriginal Knowledge Network), which
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comprises Indigenous communities, policy
makers and academics who are involved in
community-driven research for a better quality
of life for urban Indigenous people. LO 1.5
4. Territorial land acknowledgements recognize
the peoples who lived on the land before the
arrival of settlers and colonization. See www.
whose.land/en, find out whose land you are on
and prepare a land acknowledgement for your
class. Consult with local Indigenous groups and
Elders. LO 1.5
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Key Terms
Autonomy (p. 7)
Before- and after-school program (p. 4)
Child-centred (p. 10)
Co-construct (p. 13)
Cognitive (p. 8)
Colonization (p. 19)
Cultural competence (p. 18)
Culture (p. 5)
Curriculum (p. 21)
Early childhood education (ECE) (p. 3)
Early childhood educator (p. 3)
Emotional (p. 8)
Holistic (p. 4)
Image of the child (p. 3)
Inclusion (p. 17)
Intentional teaching (p. 21)
Kindergarten (p. 4)
Knowledge-keepers (p. 20)
Land acknowledgement (p. 20)
Language (p. 8)
Nursery schools and preschools (p. 4)
Pedagogy (p. 21)
Physical (p. 8)
Prekindergarten/Junior Kindergarten (p. 4)
Professional identity (p. 21)
Reconciliation (p. 19)
Regulated home child care (p. 4)
Responsive relationship (p. 12)
Social (p. 8)
Social competence (p. 6)
Social construct (p. 5)
Spiritual (p. 8)
Suggested Readings
Janmohamed, Z., & Campbell, R. (2009). Building bridges: Queer families in
early childhood education. Toronto: Atkinson Centre, Institute for Studies in
Education at University of Toronto.
Sharpe, N. (2019). Centering equity: Actionable next steps. Retrieved August
28, 2020, at https://www.newamerica.org/education-policy/edcentral/
centering-equity-actionable-next-steps
Underwood, K. (2012). Everyone is welcome: Inclusive early childhood education
and care. Toronto: Government of Ontario. Retrieved August 28, 2020, at
http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/childcare/underwood.pdf
For additional resources,
visit MindTap.
chapter 1 The Principles and Practices of Early Childhood Education
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CHAPTER
2
History of Early
Childhood Education
in Canada
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
2.1 Recognize philosophical and psychological
theories and historical trends related to current early childhood education principles,
practices and related programs.
2.4 Discuss the role of social context in the history of early childhood education.
2.2 Describe Indigenous understandings of
childhood and early childhood education.
2.6 Describe current philosophical and psychological theories related to early childhood education.
2.3 Identify early contributors to today’s early
childhood education.
This baby is having a bath
before the days of running water.
2.5 Consider the beginnings of early childhood
education systems and education systems.
Chapter 2 looks the historical roots of early childhood education curriculum
and pedagogy in Canada and the patterns that have evolved over time and continue into the present. Current theories that are influencing ECE practices are
introduced. You will also learn about the history of ECE policy and programs
in Canada.
Courtesy of Jane Bertrand
HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS
WESTERN
UNDERSTANDING
Beliefs, values, customs and
traditions that have their origins
in European civilizations, dating
back to ancient Greek and
Roman civilizations.
Worldviews, culture and languages from Indigenous communities have deep roots
across Canada. Recognizing, respecting and celebrating long-standing Indigenous
ways of being, knowing, doing and believing inform today’s early childhood education programs in Indigenous communities and elsewhere.
Western understandings are beliefs, values, customs and traditions that
have their origins in European civilizations, dating back to ancient Greek and
Roman civilizations. These understandings of early childhood have evolved and
dominated over the centuries. European philosophers from the 17th and 18th
centuries influence the understanding of early childhood and early childhood
education in Canada. Twentieth-century leaders in psychology and education
introduced approaches to early childhood education in nursery schools, child
care centres and kindergarten that continue to evolve.
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Debates continue about how early childhood education and educators best
meet the needs of young children. Ideas about early childhood and psychological
theories of child development and early learning do not occur in a vacuum; they
are products of the larger social context, which includes the structure of families, work, governments and communities; the dominant political and economic
systems; and the values and beliefs of a particular society.
Indigenous Views of Early Childhood
Long before European settlers arrived, Indigenous communities were spread across
North America. Indigenous societies differed from one language group to another,
but they did share a distinctive world view rooted in the stories of their ancestors and deep connections to the land and changing energies of the environment
(Greenwood, 2016). Indigenous childhood was framed by the ways in which societies sustained themselves (Sutherland, 2014). For example, some were primarily
hunters like the Blackfoot, others were farmers like the Huron or fishers like the
Kwakiutl. The Mi’kmaq lived by a combination of fishing, gathering and hunting.
Early childhood experiences in each community were shaped by the land and how
their communities acquired food.
The disruption of First Nations, Inuit and Metis peoples’ lives and communities through colonization, residential schools and ongoing racism disrupted
traditional culturally rich childhood experiences. Reconciliation recognizes that
all Canadian children benefit when Indigenous content and worldviews are
included in ECE programs in ways that are authentic and meaningful (British
Columbia Ministry of Education, 2019).
John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Toward the end of the 17th century, John Locke, an English philosopher, proposed
the blank slate, or tabula rasa view of childhood. He argued that children are not
born innately good or evil. Rather, their minds are like a blank slate that becomes
filled by experience. Locke believed that experiences during childhood determine
adult characteristics. He told parents to spend time with their children and to help
them become contributing members of society.
In the 18th century, Swiss/French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau
stressed that children are inherently good. His innate-goodness view argued
that children were born with a sense of right and wrong and a built-in plan for
orderly, healthy growth. Rousseau stressed a child-centred philosophy in which
adults were advised to be receptive to children’s needs during each of the four
stages of development: infancy, childhood, late childhood and adolescence.
Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852)
Fredrich Froebel, a German educator, is known as the originator of kindergarten,
which gets its name from the German word meaning “children’s garden.” He
believed that children could grow and flourish like plants in the right environment, developing internal impulses that would unfold naturally. Kindergarten
was designed for children between the ages of three and six. Froebel’s curriculum
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emphasized language, numbers, forms and eye-hand coordination to train children
in ways that would establish courtesy, punctuality, neatness, cleanliness and respect
for others. Frobel founded his kindergarten in 1837 in Germany (Olmsted, 1992).
The most notable elements of his tradition were the curriculum materials
that he called “gifts” and “occupations.” The gifts were a series of 10 concrete,
manipulative materials, such as wooden balls, wooden shapes and cubes of various sizes, tablets, wooden sticks and a variety of natural objects, all presented to
children at defined intervals with specific skills and symbolic concepts to learn.
The occupations included sewing, perforating paper, weaving, working with
clay and cutting paper. As Froebel said, “What the child tries to represent, he
begins to understand” (Olmsted, 1992, p. 4). Although this idea now seems very
familiar, it was considered quite revolutionary to educate children in a group
outside the home and to use play materials.
During the 1870s, Froebel kindergartens appeared in Canada as private
institutions supported by parent fees or charitable donations. Faced with concerns about growing numbers of preschool children left unattended while their
mothers worked, the Toronto school board introduced Froebel kindergartens.
The program responded to concerns about young children’s environments and
was also a vehicle for promoting curriculum innovation (Mathien, 1990, 2001).
The first Canadian public school Froebel kindergarten program opened in 1883
at Louisa Street School.
In 1885, Ontario officially recognized kindergartens as part of the public
school system. In 1887, the province began to provide grants to school boards
to establish kindergarten programs for children three to seven years old.
Kindergarten was introduced in several schools in Toronto and in towns and
cities across the province. By 1900, there were 120 public school kindergartens
across Ontario (Mathien, 1990). Quebec established kindergartens within its
school system in 1892.
In 1885, a kindergarten course was introduced at the Toronto Normal School
(a teacher-training facility), and in 1889 the Toronto Kindergarten Association
for kindergarteners was established.
Courtesy Ontario Archives
The Froebel kindergarten
at the Toronto Normal
School, circa 1890, is
very different from today’s
­kindergarten class.
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Courtesy of Jane Bertrand
Froebel kindergarten
paper weaving.
Progressive Education
John Dewey (1859–1952) was an American education leader, psychologist and philosopher who led and inspired education and social reform across North America.
Dewey believed that educators should not be instructors of knowledge and skills
to students but, rather, adopt the roles of facilitators and guides. He promoted the
idea that students should have opportunities to discover for themselves and be
active and independent learners.
John Dewey (1938) believed that educators build knowledge by asking
questions and refining and clarifying ideas about learning and teaching with children and with other educators. He introduced experiential learning to include
practices inside and outside classrooms that contribute to meaningful learning.
For Dewey, experiential learning included meaningful topics as well as intriguing
questions and interactions among peers and between educators and learners.
Psycho-analytic Theory
According to Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), humans form
their basic personality in the first few years of life. Freud identified five stages of
personality development from infancy to adolescence during which the individual
must deal with conflicts between their biological and sexual urges for pleasure and
the demands of society. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory proposes that an individual
is motivated by three levels of awareness: conscious, preconscious and unconscious.
According to this theory, which emphasized psychosexual development, the urge
for pleasure shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals. Freud
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PSYCHOANALYTIC
THEORY
A personality theory that
proposes an individual is motivated by three levels of awareness: conscious, preconscious
and unconscious.
PSYCHOSEXUAL
Relationship of psychological
and sexual events and feelings.
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proposed that adult personality is formed by the way conflicts between the early
sources of pleasure and the reality of social demands are resolved.
Freud’s theory focused on emotional life and feelings as the core of human
existence that shapes lives. He introduced a three-part model: the Id (powerful
unconscious feelings), the Super-ego (the conscience or internal watchdog to
monitor feelings) and the Ego (rational self).
Behaviourism
BEHAVIOURISM
Theory of learning that
­proposes that behaviours are
acquired through ­conditioning
or interactions with
the environment.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
A form of learning that links a
neutral stimulus with a ­stimulus
that results in a reflexive
behaviour. The neutral stimulus
alone then produces the same
reflexive behaviour.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
A form of learning in which
a behaviour is followed by
a stimulus that influences
whether the behaviour will
be repeated.
Behaviourism emerged during the early part of the 20th century. It focused on
behaviours that can be directly observed and objectively measured. It continues
to influence researchers and practitioners working with children and youth today.
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) carried out a number of studies
of animal learning that led to the theory of classical conditioning (Cleverly &
Phillips, 1986). Pavlov realized that the dogs would salivate before they actually
tasted food. In fact, Pavlov observed that the dogs would start to salivate when the
trainer came into the laboratory and headed toward the food storage cupboard.
Pavlov decided that the dogs had learned to associate a neutral stimulus (the trainer)
with another stimulus (food) that produced a reflexive response (salivation).
Because the dogs had learned this association, the neutral stimulus (the trainer)
could bring about the response by itself. Pavlov went on to design experiments in
which dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell that rang when they were fed.
American behaviourist John B. Watson (1849–1958) applied the classical conditioning that Pavlov had observed to explain human children’s behaviour and learning.
Consistent with Locke’s idea of a blank slate at birth, Watson argued that a child is
shaped completely by their experiences. Watson described a newborn as a “lively
squirming bit of flesh, capable of making a few simple responses. … Parents take this
raw material and begin to fashion it” (Watson, 1928, p. 46). Watson concluded that
children’s behaviour could be shaped by controlling stimulus-response associations.
B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist and social philosopher (1904–1990),
was influenced by Watson’s theories but also realized that people are not passive—
they engage with their environment. Skinner proposed another form of
behaviourism called operant conditioning. Behaviour is shaped by past experiences
and can be increased by a variety of reinforcements and decreased by punishments.
The Child Study Movement in Canada
World War I reminded Canadians of human vulnerabilities and the destruction that
comes from hate and violence. After the war, people wanted to benefit from growing
modern conveniences and health advances, including new understandings of mental
hygiene (the term used for mental health) from Freud and others. They wanted to
get on with the business of earning a living and raising children in a safe, secure world.
At the same time, the mental hygiene movement was launched in the
United States (Prochner, 2000). The movement shifted from treatment and prevention of mental illness to the promotion of mental health. Researchers and
practitioners in mental health disciplines agreed that the roots of mental health
were found in early childhood. Attention turned to the need to understand how
children develop and what conditions are necessary to promote mental health.
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The theories and practices of progressive education, the child study movement and the mental hygiene movement converged to influence emerging kindergarten and nursery school programs in both Canada and the United States.
A grant from the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Fund established the St. George’s
School for Child Study at the University of Toronto in 1925. The St. George’s
School later became the Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study at Ontario
Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto, a site of extensive
child studies, as well as a working model of early childhood education practice.
William Blatz, a physician who graduated from the University of Toronto
and then pursued a PhD in psychology at the University of Chicago, is recognized as the founder of Canada’s child study movement. In 1926, he opened a
nursery school at St. George’s School for Child Study. Because he did not have
direct experience with either kindergarten or nursery school settings, he worked
with the school staff to develop the program. Della Dingle, who had studied at
the College of Home Economics at Cornell University in New York, was the first
nursery school director. From the beginning, in addition to the nursery school,
parent education, early educator training and child development research were
major components of the St. George’s School for Child Study.
Blatz’s studies in psychology had introduced him to the theory of behaviourism,
progressive education and psychoanalytical ideas about mental hygiene. Although
he and his team did not have a cohesive understanding of young children or a
theoretical framework to guide their practice, they were eager to explore new
ideas about child development and took a “let’s watch the children and find out”
approach (Raymond, 1991). The nursery school was a laboratory.
Blatz encouraged a smooth-running routine that promoted the habit of regularity in the lives of young children. He experimented with precise organization of children’s time and daily routines. He believed this approach helped to
develop regular habits and a strong sense of security for the young child. Within
the parameters of daily routines (such as eating, washing hands, using the toilet
and napping), children were encouraged to explore environments designed for
open-ended play activity. Blatz created a program of guidance and education for
children from two to five years of age that influenced practices and regulations
in early childhood education across Canada for decades.
Courtesy Thomas Fisher Rare Book
Room, University of Toronto
Children follow their lunch
routine at St. George’s
Nursery School, circa 1930.
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PARENT CO-OPERATIVE
Early childhood education
programs that include parent
participants in the program and
in the management and administration of the program.
Blatz and others also explored environmental influences on child development and the importance of adult–child relationships in developing emotional
security. The focus of the St. George’s School for Child Study was not just
child oriented; parent education was championed from the start. Blatz began an
infant–mother drop-in program and promoted parent training in his frequent
lectures broadcast on CBC radio (Raymond, 1991). Parents whose children
attended the nursery school program at St. George’s School for Child Study
participated in parent education classes (Wright, 2000) and were encouraged to
read Blatz’s publications for parents.
In 1938, the St. George’s School for Child Study became the Institute of
Child Study, and within a year began to offer courses to kindergarten teachers.
During the next two decades, it remained a leader in the development of early
childhood care and education programs. Today, the Eric Jackman Institute of
Child Study continues to offer a lab school from nursery through grade 6. The
lab school offers an enriched curriculum and opportunities for applied research
and field placements.
Other nursery schools followed the lead of the St. George’s Nursery School
and began to open in the late 1920s. They joined private kindergarten programs
(operated outside the public school system) in offering educational programs to
young children. For example, by 1928, there were several private nursery school/
kindergarten programs operating in Calgary. Most were half-day programs for
middle-class children from age two to five years, and they relied on parent fees.
Many were unable to survive the economic depression of the 1930s.
Parent co-operative preschool programs, which had surfaced in Canada as
part of the nursery school movement, expanded during this period. In 1950,
Vaughan Road Nursery School was established in Toronto. Daisy Dotsch was the
teacher in charge, and she became a leader in the development of preschool
philosophy in Canada (Stevenson, 1990).
The Nursery Education Association of Ontario (which later became the
Association for Early Childhood Education, Ontario) started up in 1950. An
organization for nursery school and daycare teachers, it offered extension courses
and began a voluntary system of certification for early childhood education staff.
The preschool curriculum during the 1950s reflected an emphasis on the
personality development of young children. Blatz’s theory of security guided
the focus on the interaction between adults and children in preschool settings. The development of children’s emotionally healthy relationships dominated preschool programs, and skill development was a less dominant goal
(Millichamp, 1974).
MID–20TH CENTURY THEORIES AND EARLY
CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
By the middle of the 20th century, the study of child development theories
including psychosocial theory, social learning theory and cognitive development
theory had grown into a respected academic field in North America, Europe, Britain,
Australia and New Zealand. This collection of theories influenced early childhood
education practices and continued the debate about the nature of childhood put
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forward in the earlier philosophies from Locke and Rousseau. While these theories
are no longer primary influencers, current early childhood education still reflects
their contributions.
Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erikson (1902–1994), a developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst, modified Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and modified it as a psychosocial theory of
development. Erikson emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to
development by mastering attitudes, ideas and skills at each stage of development.
Erikson (1950) accepted Freud’s view of the importance of the unconscious and of early childhood, but he shifted the focus from psychosexual
stages to psychosocial stages of development. Erickson proposed eight developmental stages from birth to death. Each stage is defined by a particular challenge, or developmental crisis, that is central to that particular stage of the life
cycle and must be resolved. The resolution of each stage is the product of the
interaction of the individual’s characteristics and the support provided by the
social environment.
Erikson’s first five stages align with Freud’s stages. But there is a significant difference in their emphasis on the individual’s relationship to the social
environment. Erikson’s psychosocial theory of human development emphasized
cultural and social influences while Freud’s theory emphasized basic needs and
biological forces. Freud argued that an individual’s personality is shaped during
the first five years of life, while Erikson emphasized change throughout the
human life cycle.
PSYCHOSOCIAL
Interrelationship of social and
psychological factors.
TABLE 2.1 ● COMPARING FREUD’S AND ERIKSON’S THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Stages of Development
Age
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of
Development
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of
Development
0–1 year
Oral Stage—Children derive pleasure from
oral activities like sucking, tasting and putting things in their mouths.
Trust versus Mistrust—Children develop a
sense of trust from responsive care or mistrust if care is harsh or neglectful.
1–2 years
Anal Stage—Children begin toilet training
and focus on bowel movements.
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt—
Children use new skills to make decisions
themselves when encouraged, or children
are not confident to act when shamed or
forced to comply.
3–5 years
Phallic Stage—Genital stimulation, attraction to opposite-sex parent and imitation of
same-sex parent.
Initiative versus Guilt—Children develop
sense of purpose with adult support
or a sense of guilt if demands for self-­
control dominate.
(continued)
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Stages of Development
6–12 years
Latency Period—Interest in
same-sex friends.
Industry versus Inferiority—Children cooperate and work with others or feel incompetent due to negative experiences.
13–19 years
Genital Stage—Sexual maturity
post-puberty.
Identity versus Role Confusion—
Adolescents form personal identity based
on values and goals or are confused about
life goals.
Young Adulthood
Intimacy versus Isolation—Young adults
establish intimate relationships or remain
isolated due to earlier disappointments.
Middle Adulthood
Generativity versus Stagnation—Adults
contribute to the next generation or fail
making a meaningful accomplishment.
Late Adulthood
Integrity versus Despair—Older adults
feel life was worth living or experience an
absence of meaningful accomplishment
and a fear of death.
Source: Berk & Meyers, 2016; McLeod, 2019; Slee & Shute, 2003.
LO 2.3
Social Learning
SOCIAL LEARNING
Learning behaviours and
skills by watching and imitating others.
SCHEMA
Activity pattern that children
repeat in their play.
ACCOMMODATION
Using an existing schema to
explore and understand a new
object or experience.
Social learning theory evolved from behaviourism as an explanation of children’s
social behaviour. American psychologist Albert Bandura (b. 1925) is recognized as
the main architect of social learning theory. Bandura believes that cognitive processes are important mediators of environment–behaviour connections. His
research focuses on observational learning or learning that occurs through watching
what others do. Observational learning is sometimes referred to as “imitation” or
“modelling.” Bandura proposes that people cognitively represent the behaviour of
others and then try to adopt this behaviour for themselves.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The accommodation of existing
schemas to most situations
that a child encounters.
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist and genetic epistemologist (1896–1980), developed a theory of cognitive development that stressed children actively construct
new knowledge as they manipulate, experiment with and explore their world, and
that their cognitive development takes place in stages. He believed that children
adapt their thinking to include new ideas and that the additional information furthers understanding.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development were not central to his understanding of child development, but they were championed by educators and
child development academics in North America in the mid-20th century. More
important to Piaget were his concepts of schemas and adaptation through
accommodation, assimilation and equilibrium.
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ASSIMILATION
Changing a schema because it
does not work for a new object
or situation.
EQUILIBRIUM
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TABLE 2.2 ● PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Sensorimotor (Birth–2 years)
Learning happens by acting on the world through the senses.
Preoperational (2–7 years)
Children use symbols to represent the world in their pretend play.
Concrete operational (7–11 years)
Thinking and reasoning become more logical and children start to
use hierarchies to organize things.
Formal operational (11 years on)
Capacity for abstract and systematic thinking.
LO 2.3
Between the 1960s and the 1990s, Piaget’s theories dominated developmental child psychology research and educational practices. They provided
a framework of understanding that matched North Americans’ attention to
improving environments and intellectual achievement of all children. Perhaps
his greatest insight was that studying the development of human children was
one way to integrate philosophical speculation with the scientific approach
(Gopnik, Meltzoff & Kuhl, 1999). Preschool education began to emphasize early
academic skills, often based on Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
Piagetian theory introduced an understanding of how children explore
their world. Children often do the same actions over and over again as they
explore the world around them (Curtis & Carter, 2015). Toddlers will repeatedly fill and dump pails or other containers with blocks or other small items;
young children will sort and connect things repeatedly. Jean Piaget called these
actions schemas and he viewed these repeated patterns as concepts that help
children organize and interpret information (Piaget & Cook, 1952). Common
schemas include transporting items, transforming materials, exploring trajectories, rotating and circulating objects (e.g., balls), enclosing objects, and connecting and disconnecting pieces (Curtis & Carter, 2015). Piaget described
schemas as a thread of thought and suggested that these repeated patterns
in children’s play reflect deeper internal thoughts (Curtis & Jaboneta, 2020).
Children’s explorations of schemas in their play build their understandings of
abstract ideas and concepts.
Educators can use children’s schemas to identify what interests them
because children’s schemas, in their play and exploration, reveal their developing ideas. When educators observe children’s schemas, they can provide
meaningful opportunities to extend children’s explorations and learning.
When a child or group of children are repeatedly moving things, educators can
make toy strollers, wagons and carts available. When children are interested in
enclosing objects with other objects, educators may provide different sizes of
cardboard boxes.
Compensatory Preschool Programs
During the 1960s and 1970s, child development research studying the importance
of early experiences on later abilities, as well as the growing movements to end
racial segregation and poverty in the United States, pointed to early childhood
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COMPENSATORY
­PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS
Designed for children up to six
years old who have developmental delays, or who are at
risk of developmental delays,
because of environmental
conditions, including disadvantaged communities.
RESEARCH
INTO
PRACTICE
education solutions. A research study of the era, published by Benjamin Bloom
(1964) at the University of Chicago, concluded that more than one half of a child’s
lifetime intellectual capacity is formed by five years of age. In the United States the
civil rights movement and war on poverty focused attention on the crucial role of
compensatory preschool programs if children from low-income circumstances,
including disproportionately large numbers of minority-group members, were to
escape the cycle of poverty.
Head Start and Sesame Street were two broad education policies in the
United States that recognized that special efforts to stimulate the educational progress of children from low-income backgrounds should include
an emphasis on school-readiness skills starting at a very early (preschool)
age. Two ambitious compensatory preschool programs, the Perry Preschool
Project in a small city outside Detroit, Michigan, and Abecedarian in North
Carolina, were launched by researchers to track and study the long-term
impact of early childhood education on lifelong learning, behaviour and
health outcomes.
Sesame Street
Sesame Street, the best-known children’s educational show in North America,
began in 1969 and aimed to foster intellectual and social development. The initial program proposal stated that Sesame Street would respond to “the national
demand that we give the disadvantaged a fair chance in the beginning” (Liebert
& Sprafkin, 1988, p. 219). The creators drew on both ideology and research to
design a show that would bring stimulation and opportunities for learning into
disadvantaged children’s homes through television to compensate for resources
presumed to be available to only affluent families.
Sesame Street relies on the insight that “if you can hold the attention of children, you can educate them” (Gladwell, 2002, p. 100). It uses strategies from
social learning approaches that combine specific learning objectives, carefully
sequenced images and matching dialogue into episodes designed to focus the
child’s attention and master specific content. The high production values and
the combination of stable components of the environment (e.g., characters such
as Big Bird), isolation and repetition of key concepts in each show (such as the
number “6” or the letter “c”) and novel or unexpected events are used judiciously
to instruct young children.
Sesame Street focuses on improving the social and academic skills of disadvantaged children and helping them succeed at school. The educational or
instructional design of Sesame Street is based on the premise that learning is a
process that takes place from the outside in and moves from simple to complex.
Learning-readiness is related to mastering simple patterns, skills and concepts in
(continued)
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preparation for more complex concepts. The plan also sets out to model prosocial
skills and introduce specific information and concepts related to language and
number skills.
CONSIDER:
How did Sesame Street use social learning strategies to offer a compensatory preschool program to disadvantaged children?
Sources: Liebert & Sprafkin, 1988; Ladson-Billings, 2015.
HEAD START Head Start began in 1965 in the United States for children ages
three to five years and continues today. It focused on four elements:
• Early learning experiences to support children’s cognitive, social and emotional development
• Providing health services and supports such as immunizations, medical,
dental and mental health care, nutritional services and developmental
screenings
• Involving parents in workshops on child development and early learning, and
volunteering in the program and in the planning and delivery of programming through committees and councils that made administrative decisions
• Providing supports and resources to families related to job training and
housing
PERRY PRESCHOOL PROJECT The Perry Preschool Project was a carefully
designed experimental longitudinal study on the effects of compensatory
preschool education programs for children three and four years old in the 1960s.
The program was located in Ypsilanti, a small town outside Detroit, Michigan. The
findings dramatically endorsed the financial and social benefits of compensatory
preschool education as an intervention for disadvantaged, marginalized children
(Schweinhart & Weikart, 1993). The follow-up studies found that children who
attended the half-day program were more successful in school, less likely to be
involved in the criminal justice system and less likely to be on social assistance.
The cost–benefit analysis of the results illustrated a seven-dollar savings for every
dollar spent on the targeted program delivered to at-risk children and their families
(Schweinhart et al., 2005; Pascal, 2009b).
Preschool teachers worked closely with child development and educational
experts to develop a cognitive–developmental curriculum based on Piagetian
theory of cognitive development, called HighScope. The curriculum has continued to evolve and is discussed in Chapter 5.
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ABECEDARIAN STUDY The Abecedarian research study began in the early
1970s in a disadvantaged community in North Carolina with a sample of
children (from six months) from highly disadvantaged and marginalized families.
The program prioritized children’s language development from infancy to school
and embedded intentional teaching into daily routines and children’s play and
coached parents to embed language and carry out specific learning experiences
at home. The experimental longitudinal study found significant impacts—
including increased academic achievement, reduced criminal activity and better
health—that have carried forward for more than 40 years (Campbell et al.,
2012; Campbell et al., 2014). Researchers continue to follow individuals who
participated in the study.
The Abecedarian approach is discussed in Chapter 5.
Compensatory Programs in Canada
AT RISK
Term used when there are
concerns about developmental delay related to
biological, environmental or
physical conditions.
A number of smaller-scale programs based on Head Start and the Perry Preschool
Project emerged in Canada during the 1970s. Several of the programs funded by
the federal government’s youth employment program (Local Initiatives Program)
launched preschool compensatory programs for children from low-income families. The programs often adapted the cognitively oriented curriculum of the Perry
Preschool Program and a Head Start approach that combined enriched early childhood education experiences with additional family supports.
Compensatory programs are designed to support families whose children’s
development is delayed or at risk because of environmental conditions, particularly those related to economic disadvantage and poverty. The term “at risk”
refers to concerns about developmental delays, learning abilities or challenging
behaviours. Compensatory programs provide specific interventions to families
to reduce the child’s vulnerabilities and to increase the likelihood of success in
formal schooling. While this intervention may include a high-quality early childhood education and care program that stimulates and supports preschool children’s development, it also offers specific supports and services to other family
members. Compensatory programs focus on improving parents’ and other family
members’ abilities to nurture and stimulate their children.
MONCTON HEADSTART Moncton Headstart Inc. began in 1974 as a free
daycare for a few children whose parents could not afford outside care and were
having difficulties in their parenting role (Bradshaw, 1997). It quickly adapted
the Perry Preschool Program’s curriculum and included programs to support
families. Parent participation in the children’s program and in parent sessions
was required. Adjunct programs that met families’ basic physical needs (food,
shelter and safety) and adult education activities were also offered.
UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO PRESCHOOL PROJECT The University
of Western Ontario Preschool Project, begun in 1973, was another experiment to
assess the impact of compensatory preschool education on low-income children
(Howe, Jacobs & Fiorentino, 2000). Mary J. Wright, who headed the project,
developed a curriculum with an emphasis on cognitive development (similar
to the HighScope curriculum) as well as a focus on the development of social
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competence and emotional control (derived from her work with William Blatz
at the Institute for Child Studies). The findings revealed long-term beneficial
outcomes for disadvantaged children who attended for two years (Wright, 2000).
CURRENT THEORIES INFORMING EARLY
CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development did not pay much attention to the context of culture and
its impact on children’s emerging skills. These theories assumed that the child’s
social and physical environment influenced the emergence of language, cognition and social-emotional skills but that the influence was modest. The role of
the environment was to maximize a universal pattern of development, innate
to humans.
The socio-cultural perspectives of Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, and
the ecological theory of human development proposed by American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner in the late 20th century acknowledged that early
human development happens in a variety of contexts that are shaped by culture.
Thus, human development is seen to be a dynamic dance between biology and
environment, with culture playing a lead role in shaping the environment.
Moving into the 21st century, the focus shifted to more integrated perspectives on early childhood education, perspectives that recognize the complex
interactions between individuals and their environments. Psychological theories,
particularly those of Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner, continue to inform early
childhood education. Neuroscience and understanding of early brain development, and attention to the rights of young children, bring new influences to
early childhood education. Information processing theory and self-regulation
build on social learning theory and emerging findings from neuroscience.
Information Processing Theory
Information processing theory is interested in mental activities that involve
noticing, mentally manipulating, storing, combining, retrieving or acting on information. Like computers, humans must store large amounts of information, access
that information when it is needed and analyze problems to develop correct solutions. Information processing theorists believe that human cognitive development, including early childhood cognitive development, is a continuous process of
learning to take in and understand information.
Socio-cultural Theory
The socio-cultural theory of Lev Vygotsky recognized that children’s cognitive and
language development do not happen in isolation. Vygotsky’s ideas and theories
did not gain much prominence in North America until toward the end of the 20th
century. Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory of human development focuses on how
culture (the values, beliefs, customs, skills and tools of a social group) is transmitted or passed on to the next generation. Vygotsky’s short life (he died at 38
years of age) and his isolation within the young Communist world in Russia both
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ZONE OF PROXIMAL
DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)
Difference between what an
individual can do on their
own and what they can do
with guidance.
SCAFFOLDING
A process that enables a child
or adult to solve a problem,
complete a task or achieve a
goal that is just beyond their
skills and abilities.
GUIDED PARTICIPATION
Ways in which adults help
­children negotiate everyday life.
contributed to the delay before his theories became of interest to North American
researchers and practitioners. The current attention to cross-cultural studies brings
Vygotsky’s theories and ideas into focus for many ECEs.
Vygotsky introduced the concept of the zone of proximal development
(ZPD) that refers to the distance between what a child can do without help and
what they can do with guidance or assistance from a skilled partner. The term
“proximal” refers to skills that a learner is close to mastering. Vygotsky defined
the ZPD as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined
by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration
with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). This is often referred to as
scaffolding, but Vygotsky never used that term. Wood et al. (1976, p. 90) define
scaffolding as a process “that enables a child or novice to solve a task or achieve
a goal that would be beyond his unassisted efforts.”
Cultural psychologist Barbara Rogoff builds on Vygotsky’s theory and proposes that all learning is social and negotiated with others. She introduced the
concept of guided participation, which is similar to Vygotsky’s zone of proximal
development concept.
Ecological Theory of Human Development
Ecology is the study of the relationship between organisms and their environment.
One of the most influential theories of human development emphasizes how the
environment influences a child’s development and how the developing child influences their environment. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s (1917–2005) ecological theory of
human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) has received considerable attention
over 50 years.
Bronfenbrenner proposed a framework for organizing sets of environmental
systems. He conceived that the child’s world is organized “as a set of nested
structures, each inside the next, like a set of Russian dolls” (1979, p. 22). These
environmental systems range from the most immediate setting, the family, to
more remote contexts that do not directly involve the child, such as society’s
legal system or beliefs.
Self-Regulation
SELF-REGULATION
Capacity to monitor, modify
and adapt behaviour, emotions
and attention.
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Self-regulation is the capacity to monitor, modify and adapt behaviour, emotions
and attention to the demands of the situation (Keating & Miller, 1999; Blair &
Diamond, 2008) as shown in Figure 2.1. It is a broad theory that has evolved from
social learning theory (Bandura, 1991), understanding of stress (Seyle, 1956; Shanker,
2013) and neuroscience (Shanker, 2013). A child’s increasing ability to regulate
emotion, behaviour and attention characterizes the growth from the helplessness of
a newborn to competence in the social, emotional, language, cognitive and physical
domains of development. Self-regulation skills cut across social, emotional, cognitive
and physical development and are the building blocks of early learning.
The ability to self-regulate allows a child to respond to stressors in their
environment. Self-regulation shapes the quality of thinking abilities and skills
that are essential in learning to get along and cooperate with others, cope with
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FIGURE 2.1 ● SELF-REGULATION
Emotion
SELF–
REGULATION
Attention
Behaviour
Self-regulation is about managing, modifying and adapting behaviour, emotions
and attention.
stressors and acquire emerging academic skills. The ability to attend to what
others are thinking, believing and feeling, can be used to interpret behaviour and
manage social interactions. The regulation of attention is also essential to children’s learning dispositions or habits of mind and action, including persistence,
curiosity and approaching new experiences with confidence. Children’s ability
to regulate attention, behaviour and emotion shapes their learning style, including
how they are able to focus and shift attention, inhibit distractions, resolve competing demands for attention, delay gratification and tolerate frustration.
Self-regulation is a process of how we respond to the world around us: “how
we become engaged and excited and how we respond to new ideas, challenges,
opportunities and frustrations is grounded in our biology [arousal and recovery
continuum]” (McCain, Mustard & McCuaig, 2011, p. 35). Table 2.3 shows
how the arousal/recovery continuum extends from flooded and unable to cope
to sleep.
LEARNING DISPOSITIONS
Children’s characteristics or
attitudes to learning that are
valuable for supporting lifelong learning.
HABITS OF MIND
Strategies to successfully solve
complex problems and overcome challenges.
TABLE 2.3 ● THE AROUSAL/RECOVERY CONTINUUM
Fight, flight or flooded
Overwhelmed, unable to cope, crying. Highest arousal state.
A child may have a tantrum or may withdraw to shut out the
stress stimulus.
Hyper-alert
On high alert. Useful for short periods of time if in danger or in situation
that requires top performance. Over longer periods of time, being on high
alert has a negative impact on our bodies.
Calmly focused and alert
Aroused enough to be alert and take in new information.
Hypo-alert
Relaxed and mellow state that can refreshes brains and bodies
for learning.
Drowsy
Low arousal state, shutting out incoming stimulus.
Asleep
Lowest arousal state.
Source: McCain, Mustard & Shanker, 2007; Shanker, 2013.
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EXECUTIVE FUNCTION
Inhibitory control, working
memory and cognitive flexibility skills.
Educators can learn to recognize children’s states of arousal and up-­regulate
or down-regulate to maintain optimal regulation. Many children, especially
young ones, find it very difficult to “monitor, evaluate, and modify” their emotions. Being regulated by others as an infant and young child, one comes to learn
to regulate responses to stress and regulate emotions, behaviour and attention.
Educators can read children’s cues and gestures to understand what children are
thinking and feeling and respond to their needs.
Executive function is a suite of skills that includes inhibitory control, working
memory and cognitive flexibility. These skills are linked to self-­regulation and
impact one’s ability to regulate attention, emotions and behaviour. Inhibitory
control, sometimes called self-control, is the ability to resist distractions and to
think before acting. Working memory is the ability to retain and use pieces
of information in the short term. Cognitive flexibility is about sustaining or
shifting attention as needed. Executive function enables planning, problem
solving, focusing attention, remembering instructions and juggling multiple
tasks. Self-regulation of attention, emotions and behaviour underlies executive
function.
Support for self-regulation is a central focus of early childhood education,
because self-regulation skills lead to physical, social, emotional, behavioural and
cognitive competence. The brain’s capacity for higher-level human functions,
such as the ability to attend, interact with others, signal emotions and use symbols to think, build on this platform. Chapter 7 discusses how educators can
support children’s abilities to self-regulate.
Post-Foundation Theories in Early Childhood
Education
POST-FOUNDATION
THEORY
Challenges traditional systems
of knowledge and encourages
a critical consideration of
­taken-for-granted assumptions
about power, equality, equity
and fairness.
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The post-foundation theory of early learning recognizes that early childhood
experiences have multiple meanings and are subject to multiple interpretations
(Dahlberg, Moss & Pence, 1999). It is a way of seeing things from multiple perspectives. Educators are challenged to consider assumptions about children,
learning and ECE principles and practices. A post-foundational perspective proposes that children’s play with each other actively explores identity and power
relationships (MacNaughton, 2005). Post-foundation perspectives of early childhood education consider issues of power, equality, equity and fairness as critical
influences on how and what children learn in the context of their daily experiences with social relationships, culture, history and economics. These issues challenge educators to acknowledge diverse, complex contexts and cultures in their
pedagogy.
Post-foundation theory challenges other early childhood theories that
impose predetermined structures on young children. Rather than passing on
knowledge or facilitating learning, in post-foundation theory educators are
viewed as researchers who co-construct knowledge, engage in conversations and
make new meanings with children (Moss, 2007). Educators continuously revisit
learning to create richer understandings.
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CHILD CARE CENTRE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN
CANADA
Canada’s earliest early childhood education programs began in the 1830s and
were followed by early child care centres, kindergarten, nursery schools and
related teacher preparation, day nurseries during World War II. After that in
the 1960s was an explosion of early childhood education in child care centres, before- and after-school programs and family resource programs that continues today.
1830s to 1940—Child Care Centres
As discussed earlier in this chapter, kindergarten programs in public schools began
in the 1880s, and nursery schools emerged in Toronto in the 1920s. Though very
few child care programs for preschool children existed in Canada before World
War II, their beginnings can be traced back to the 1830s.
In the early 19th century, Robert Owen, a factory owner in Scotland, wanted
to increase the number of workers available in the local community to work in
his factory. His strong commitment to the education of young children led him
to establish infant schools to educate very young children and to provide supplemental care while parents worked (Pence, 1990).
The infant schools were popular, and the early experiment in early childhood education and care tied to labour participation spread to North America
(Pence, 1990; Prochner, 2000). Infant schools were introduced to Canada in the
1830s by factory owners in Halifax who wanted to attract women and older
children to work in their factories. These infant schools and others located in
Canadian urban centres were based on the models developed in Scotland. The
philosophy of infant schools promoted the notion that these early education
settings were beneficial to all children—particularly in North America. By the
middle of the 19th century, however, Victorian attitudes and beliefs about the
sanctity of motherhood brought about the demise of infant schools in Britain
and the United States (Pence, 1990), although in Canada some infant schools
continued to operate into the 1870s (Prochner, 2000).
In the mid-19th century, industrialization grew in Canada. Women and children, as well as men, were sought by employers to work outside the home in
factories. For many women who were poor, widowed or deserted, work was necessary to survive. In response, the first child care centre was opened in Montreal
in the 1850s by Roman Catholic nuns. It was called a crèche. Over the next
50 years a few other centres were opened in Toronto, Winnipeg, Ottawa and
Halifax. Typically, these early centres were established by wealthy women as
charities and were often sponsored by churches, missions and settlement houses.
They were intended to encourage the poor to help themselves through their
own labour (Prochner, 2000). The primary stated purpose was “to enable struggling and deserving women to help themselves, by taking care of their children
by the day, or the week, and by so doing make it easier for the parent to earn
the necessary means of support for her family” (Schulz, 1978, p. 140). At times,
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CUSTODIAL CARE
Care for a child that provides
basic safety and nutrition but
does not intentionally offer
learning experiences.
MAKING IT
HAPPEN
LO 2.1
LO 2.3
the charitable act was accompanied by a more self-interested one. Wealthy families needed domestic servants and the crèches were often run as a sideline to
employment agencies for domestic services (Schulz, 1978).
Children experienced custodial care at most crèches and day nurseries at
the turn of the century. Physical space was often limited to a couple of rooms.
The staff included untrained nannies and housekeepers, usually supervised by a
matron. In one report, a matron, a nanny and a cook were responsible for 45
infants and children (Schultz, 1978). For school-age children, care usually
included a hot lunch and loose supervision by a housekeeper after school (Young,
1994). Hygienic practices and routines to encourage obedience and moral development kept children physically safe, clean and behaved. This kind of care was
often thought to address the dangerous side effects of poverty and neglect faced
by many of the children living in urban poverty (Schultz, 1978).
The Crèche, Toronto
Hester How taught grade 4 in downtown Toronto in the 1880s at Elizabeth Street
Public School. She became concerned that many of her students, particularly the
girls, were frequently staying home to look after younger siblings, so she allowed
them to bring the young brothers and sisters to class. Once the problem became
more visible and unmanageable, How convinced the school trustees to support
the establishment of the Crèche in 1891. The Crèche was operated by a group of
women volunteers as a charitable service. It cared for preschool children and for
school-age children outside school hours.
Courtesy Archives and Museum, Toronto Board of Education
Hester How taught in her grade 4 classroom with her students’ young siblings in attendance.
(continued)
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CONSIDER:
Why do you think Hester How allowed the younger children to attend their
older siblings’ classes?
In 1910, the Infants Hospital in Vancouver opened a crèche for infants and
preschool children of working mothers, and the Associated Charities and the
City of Vancouver jointly organized another crèche. In 1916, both programs
were put under the jurisdiction of the Health Department of British Columbia
and were the first child care centres to win government recognition and support
(Schulz, 1978).
The suffrage movement for the rights of women to vote on equal terms
to men was led by middle-class women. However, it never took issue with the
notion that a woman’s place was in the home. The movement did not demand
the right of women to work or the right of children to high-quality child care.
Suffragettes’ campaign for support to single, widowed and deserted women did,
however, result in the introduction of Mother’s Allowance (social assistance or
welfare) in the 1920s. Once women had gained some support for their children without having to enter the workforce, the need for crèches and day nurseries decreased.
By 1933 there were about 20 child care centres in Canada serving about
2,500 to 2,600 children.
World War II to 1960
With men called up to fight in World War II in 1939, Canada experienced an
acute labour shortage, and the government began to recruit women to work in
industry. The government first recruited single women then married women,
and finally married women with children. As women were recruited for work
in war-related industries, the image of the perfect Canadian woman changed
from being the foundation of hearth and home to the industrious beauty on the
assembly line. The recruitment drive made it necessary to consider alternative
care for children. In 1942, the federal government passed the Dominion-Provincial
Wartime Day Nurseries Agreement, authorizing the Ministry of Labour to enter
into cost-sharing agreements with any provincial government willing to establish
day nursery services.
Quebec and Ontario were the only provinces to take advantage of the
scheme—the other provinces maintained that the need did not exist. The federal government stipulated that at least 75 percent of day nursery spaces had to
be given to children whose mothers worked in essential wartime industries. In
both provinces, day nursery operating standards were established. In Ontario,
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BABY BOOM
Significant increase in births
following World War II and
­continuing to mid 1960s
the St. George’s School of Child Study provided a model for a rapidly expanding
system and established short training courses for staff.
By the end of the war, there were 28 nurseries for preschoolers and 42 programs for school-age children in Ontario; Quebec had five community-based
centres. The Ontario centres were located in Toronto, Ottawa, Hamilton and
Windsor. The cost was $1.05 per day, shared roughly equally between parents and
the federal and provincial governments. There was no provision for infant care.
After the war, attention turned to maintaining a prosperous economy in
peaceful times, and social policies were introduced to ensure basic protection for families from the economic devastation of the Depression era. The
consumption of goods and services, combined with the baby boom, created
the conditions for economic expansion and the expansion of government
social programs.
Governments also undertook a campaign to get women back to hearth and
home and introduced Family Allowance (“baby bonus”) benefits. In Quebec, the
government closed all five centres, despite enrolment to capacity and long waiting
lists. In Ontario, all three governments (federal, provincial and municipal) tried
to close the centres, but they met strong resistance through the Day Nursery and
Day Care Parents Association. Federal funding ceased, but the Ontario government then passed the Day Nurseries Act, which included provisions for licensing
day nursery and nursery school programs and 50 percent provincial cost-sharing
of fee subsidies to municipalities. The regulations were based on routines and
practices in place at the Institute of Child Study (formerly called St. George’s)
nursery school. Sixteen of the 28 preschool centres survived, but all 42 school-age
programs closed due to lack of funding and political support (Schulz, 1978).
The campaign for women to remain at home to care for their children continued throughout the 1950s and early 1960s. To the extent that day nurseries
existed in Canada, they continued to operate mostly as charitable institutions for
women in need. However, with increased numbers of births and growing numbers of young children, nursery schools offering part-time enrichment programs
for children (and breaks for full-time mothers) were popular throughout Canada.
1960s to 21st Century
The 1960s and 1970s saw enormous changes in Canadian society, as shown in Table
2.4. Women were attaining higher levels of education and had greater employment
opportunities. At the same time, lone-parent families, the need for more than one
income to sustain family standards of living and the consciousness-raising efforts of
the women’s movement led many women with young children into the workforce.
A growing awareness of poverty and the importance of the early years led
to increased attention to early childhood education research and curriculum
methodology. The booming economy created thousands of new jobs in the service sector, and the participation of women began to increase rapidly. Several
provincial/territorial governments introduced legislation to regulate daycare and
nursery school programs and to improve quality. Federal legislation was introduced to provide fee subsidies for licensed child care centres to low-income
Canadians under the terms of the Canada Assistance Plan in 1966. By 1977, all
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provinces had passed legislation enabling their governments to take advantage
of the federal funding.
Throughout the 1970s, daycare activists across the country continued to
TABLE 2.4 ● WORKING MOTHERS AND CHILD CARE
Mothers Working (youngest
Canada child < 6 years)
Full-Day Child Care Spaces
(0 to 5 years)
1982
125,000
48%
719,000
1973
30 %
28,000
500,000
1967
16.7%
< 10,000
275,000
Source: The Day Care Research Group, 1982.
campaign for more and higher-quality daycare, pointing to the enormous gap
between demand and supply (Shulz, 1978).
The 1980s saw rapid growth in related early childhood education programs.
Day Care Centres on University
Campuses
MAKING IT
HAPPEN
Several university campuses across Canada established daycare centres for
infants, toddlers and preschool children, often as outgrowths of students’ or women’s organizations. Typically, these programs involved parents as participants, set
up collective decision-making structures and attempted to provide an environment
free of gender stereotypes. University child care centres were often operated at
odds with the prevailing licensing and professional standards and guidelines that
were designed for half-day ECE programs for preschool children not for full-day
programs that also included infants and toddlers. Many of the campus child care
centres are still in existence because they changed ECE post-secondary education programs and government regulations by illustrating support for full-day child
care for very young children as a viable choice for families, not just for those in
social and financial need.
CONSIDER:
How do you think the campus child care centres in the late 1960s and early
1970s reflected changing roles of women?
Source: Cameron, 1972.
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Several provinces introduced regulations for family care, and kindergarten
within the school system expanded. Family support programs, such as toylending libraries, family resource programs and parent–child drop-in programs
expanded in many parts of the country (Beach & Bertrand, 2000). Some of these
programs were aimed at high-risk families and focused on enhancing parenting
skills. Others offered opportunities for informal child care providers to get
together with each other, and to take part in training activities. Others offered
group play activities for the children. Some were provided to more advantaged
at-home parents.
Over the past three decades, early childhood education public policies and
investment have increased through various federal-provincial-territorial agreements (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018). Also, the federal government has worked
with Indigenous communities to establish separate First Nations, Métis and Inuit
agreements. Several provincial and territorial governments have expanded early
childhood education for children before five-year-old kindergarten and have
combined responsibility for all ECE programs into departments or ministries
of education. Current public policies to support early childhood education are
discussed in Chapter 11.
SUMMARY
• The history of the multiple perspectives from
education and psychology and social and economic events that have formed today’s early
childhood education programs explain the
diversity of Canadian early childhood education programs.
• Early contributors to Canadian beliefs about
early education and childrearing include philosophers John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau; educator leaders Friedrich Froebel, John
Dewey and William Blatz; psychologists Ivan
Pavlov and John Watson; and psychiatrist Sigmund Freud.
• Mid-20th-century psychologists including
Erik Erikson, Albert Bandura, Jean Piaget, Len
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Vygotsky and Urie Bronfenbrenner contributed
to the practices of early childhood education
today in Canada.
• Today’s early childhood education programs
are influenced by information processing,
social-cultural, ecological, self-regulation and
post-foundational theories in additional to
influences from earlier theories.
• Today’s early childhood education programs,
including child care centres and kindergarten
in Canada, have their roots in the 19th- and
20th-century programs and increasing public
policies and funding.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the similarities between Indigenous
and Western perspectives related to early childhood education? LO 2.2
2. Are the theories of John Dewey relevant in
today’s early childhood education programs?
4. How did World War II influence ECE programs
in Canada? LO 2.4
5. What is self-regulation and why does it
matter to children’s well-being and learning?
LO 2.6
LO 2.1
3. What are the key elements of Vygotsky’s social
constructivist theory and Bronfenbrenner’s
­ecological theory of development? LO 2.3
STUDY ACTIVITIES
1. Read one of the articles or books listed in the
Suggested Readings to learn more about one of
the individuals in this chapter. Prepare a presentation for your class. LO 2.3
2. Prepare a timeline that outlines the history of
an early childhood education program in your
community. LO 2.5
3. Look for some older early childhood education
texts in your college’s library. Create a table
that compares and contrasts the early childhood
education programs and practices in the older
texts to the programs and practices in today’s
texts. LO 2.1
4. Review the 20th-century theories that have
shaped early childhood education. For each
theory, explain what you think is the underlying
image of the child. Summarize the information
in a chart. LO 2.1
5. Observe a group of children between age three
and five years in a full-day early childhood education and care program. Identify examples of children’s ability to regulate their emotions. LO 2.6
KEY TERMS
Accommodation (p. 32)
Assimilation (p. 32)
At risk (p. 36)
Baby boom (p. 44)
Behaviourism (p. 28)
Classical conditioning (p. 28)
Compensatory preschool
program (p. 34)
Custodial care (p. 42)
Equilibrium (p. 32)
Executive function (p. 40)
Guided participation (p. 38)
Habits of mind (p. 39)
Learning disposition (p. 39)
Operant conditioning (p. 28)
Parent co-operative (p. 30)
Post-foundation theory (p. 40)
Psychoanalytic theory (p. 27)
Psychosexual (p. 27)
Psychosocial (p. 31)
Scaffolding (p. 38)
Schema (p. 32)
Self-regulation (p. 38)
Social learning (p. 32)
Western understanding (p. 24)
Zone of proximal development (p. 38)
CHAPTER 2 History of Early Childhood Education in Canada
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SUGGESTED READINGS
For additional resources,
visit MindTap.
NAEYC. Head Start. Retrieved September 3, 2020, at https://www.naeyc.org/
our-work/public-policy-advocacy/head-start#What%20is%20Head%20
Start?
Prentice, S. (2001). Changing child care: Five decades of child care advocacy and
policy in Canada. Halifax, NS: Fernwood Publishing.
Prochner, L. & Howe, N. (2000). Early childhood care and education in Canada.
Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.
Strong-Boag, V. (1982). Intruders in the nursery: Childcare professionals
reshape the years one to five, 1920–1940. In J. Parr (Ed.), Childhood and
family in Canadian history. Toronto, ON: McClelland & Stewart.
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SECTION 1 Early Childhood Education Defined
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Courtesy of Jane Bertrand
Section
Play-Based
Learning
The play of children is central to early childhood education. Play excites, engages
and delights young children and encourages exploration, investigations and problem
solving. Play launches children on learning trajectories that carry forward into later
school years and beyond. Perhaps, most important, play with other children is central to happy and healthy childhoods. Children share their own experiences and
vocabulary during their conversations with each other while they play. They work
together to figure things out and learn to take care of each other while they play
together. ECE programs provide spaces and places that nurture and expand children’s play opportunities.
Chapter 3 describes different types of play and how early educators can
facilitate and provoke play-based learning and the learning opportunities that
play offers. Chapter 4 focuses on the scope of children’s outdoor play. Chapter
5 explores early childhood education curriculum approaches currently used in
Canadian programs. Chapter 6 turns to early learning frameworks that guide
early childhood education programs in Canada and internationally.
2
CHAPTER
THREE
Early Childhood
Education Is
Play-Based
Learning 49
CHAPTER
FOUR
Outdoor Play
73
CHAPTER
FIVE
Early Childhood
Education
Curriculum
Approaches 90
CHAPTER SIX
Early Learning
Frameworks 108
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ECE LEADERS
Christine Alden
Christine Alden is an Early Learning PhD Candidate at OISE, University of Toronto.
The lens of the competent and capable child allows
us to appreciate the evolving capacities of children. It is a strength-based lens that invites adults
to think about how they support children. In my
area of interest in outdoor pedagogy [discussed in
Chapter 4], we can see that children are capable
of taking on risks and developing competencies
around risk from a very early age. If we see children
as competent and capable, we trust them to take
risks and we orient ourselves as adults around how
to support them.
Children are always playing. And children are
always learning. Play-based learning means an
intentional approach by educators to maximize
children’s natural inclinations to play. Educators use
these opportunities to explicitly support and extend
learning. That’s the difference between play-based
learning and play where learning happens.
Emergent curriculum depends on understanding children’s interests and their natural
instincts in play. Educators begin by observing children and looking at what they’re interested in. Then
it becomes complex—almost an art. Educators
make choices about when and how to engage or
not to engage with what children are doing. Those
choices are particular to each educator and part
of the richness and the beauty of what comes out
of individual educators engaging in a play-based
emergent curriculum.
The nuances of how educators make choices
are dependent on their experience. In ECE
post-secondary education programs, a lot of
observation is probably the best place to start. New
educators can simply observe to understand children and reflect on their interests and behaviour.
Some ECE students will have inclinations as to how
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to support pedagogy, but most need experience
and guidance.
Reflective practice has to be at the core of
­everything early childhood educators do. Theory and
practice are often separated as ECE students go
from classroom to placement and then come back
to the classroom. Students then need opportunities
to discuss their placement experiences with their
instructors. The continuum of play-based learning
[discussed in Chapter 3] offers a reflective opportunity to educators. Most educators move along
that continuum of play-based learning, but they are
not always aware that is the case. The emphasis
on “child-led” emergent curriculum sometimes confuses educators about what their role is. Educators
may try to see everything through the lens of how
the child leads and how the child directs. Dr. Pyle’s
work focuses reflection on being “child centred,”
and helps an educator see that sometimes they will
be more engaged or less engaged and provide different options to different children.
Outdoor play is taking on prominence now
because of multiple drivers. From the health side of
the equation, we know that children aren’t physically
active enough. On the environmental side of things,
we know that children are lacking in a connection to
nature and connecting to nature is a stepping stone
to future environmental stewardship. We are concerned about the overuse of children’s screen time.
Another driver is the idea that children do not have
enough freedom or enough choice in their lives.
Children are scheduled daily through a series of
programs imposed upon them that are usually led
by adults. Peter Gray has argued there is a connection between this evolution and children’s declining
mental health and happiness.
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We are realizing that spending time in nature is
a provocative catalyst for emergent curriculum. The
outdoors provokes curiosity in a different way than
when educators are setting up indoor playrooms.
When inside, more onus is on educators to create
the environment and catalyze each discovery
whereas outdoors there is more spontaneity and
nature catalyzes so much. Outdoors children are
starting with what they see, and they have so many
options to explore. Early learning frameworks are
increasingly focused on driving and nurturing children’s curiosity and building on children’s interests.
I see the move outdoors as an evolution of
emergent curriculum in Canada. There was a time
in which the focus was on how to bring nature
indoors. Now we have had an “a-ha!” moment
and said, “Well, if nature is so important, why don’t
we go out there?” When we bring nature inside,
we only bring pieces of it. We lose the wholeness.
We lose the connection. And we lose the sensory
part of experiencing nature, which is the wind on
your face and the rain on your nose, and your feet
sloshing through mud or snow. We know that sensory development is incredibly important to children
and it is much more vivid outdoors in nature. When
we bring pieces of nature inside, we disconnect
ourselves from the land. We remove the opportunity
for relationship and the opportunity that early childhood education programs have to foster relationships between children, educators and the land,
which are at the core of Indigenous land-based
approaches to early childhood education.
Different sectors have different views on outdoor play and each sector calls play in the outdoors
something different. In my research, the physical
activity sector called it “active outdoor play.” The
environmental sector called it “nature play.” Those
who were looking at risk called parts of it “risky
play.” I was interested in what the various sectors
had in common when I interviewed sector leaders
in Canada around the concepts behind the terminology. To my surprise, they all named the same
three ingredients. For everyone, “outdoor play,” to
use the most generic broadly used term, was about
play-rich environments, child agency and adult support. The child’s ability to have agency in play also
relates to what the educator is doing. The educator
may simply set up the play environment with rich
materials and step back. The educator also gives
children permission to behave in certain ways in
that environment. It gets more complex when the
educator intervenes and interacts directly with children in that environment: child agency and educator behaviours are interrelated.
Many outdoor environments for play are not very
interesting for children. Close your eyes and imagine a
school playground in Canada. You probably imagine
a piece of green field, a piece of tarmac, maybe
a basketball hoop and soccer posts, and maybe a
climbing structure. In a child care centre, there might
be a sandbox, some trikes and a fixed play structure.
Those are not rich play environments if you compare
them to a forest that has rocks to climb, and trees and
plants to explore, and animals living there.
In early childhood education, I see two fundamental types of environments that we can provide
for children. One is a fenced, defined space where
we can control the materials and much of what is
going to happen. The second type is accessing
community spaces and landscapes and moving
through those spaces, such as forests, where we
don’t control what is going on in that environment.
When you’re moving through space and exploring,
provocations are coming up naturally all the time
because the environment is always changing—and
that provides a different kind of stimulation for children’s play than within static, fenced spaces.
There is a trend now toward incredibly rich,
fenced play spaces to provide many choices for
children. One of the interesting questions that came
up in my doctoral research was the question of how
much stuff do you need? Quantity is a really interesting question. A lot of materials may not be as
helpful as we think because children may just be
overwhelmed and may not ever get into a focused
kind of play. Yet too few affordances might mean
children do not have enough options for rich play.
The role of the educator is incredibly important in
making decisions around what that environment
looks like and what kinds of materials are provided.
Source: Courtesy of Christine Alden.
SECTION 2 Play-Based Learning
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Chapter
3
Early Childhood
Education Is
­Play-Based Learning
Learning Objectives
3.1 Describe the central role of play in early
childhood education.
3.4 Review the continuum of
play-based learning.
3.2 Define different types of play.
3.5 Explain continuity of learning.
3.3 Describe child-directed, educator-guided
and educator-directed play.
3.6 Recognize the role of play in supporting
self-regulation.
An understanding of play is a central to the study of early childhood educatation.
Play can be difficult to define because it is viewed differently in different cultural contexts and different ECE approaches. Early childhood educators build
their own understanding about what play is and how to create and sustain ECE
environments for children’s play.
The first Early Years Study, introduced in the Preface, recommended environments for young children that “offer children an array of opportunities to
explore, discover and create. … Play-based, problem-solving with other children and an adult is an early learning strategy” (McCain & Mustard, 1999,
pp. 159–160). Play-based learning captures and engages children in their quest
to understand the world.
This chapter considers the types of play that engage children and a continuum of play-based learning that points to specific strategies that educators
can use to maximize the learning opportunities that play offers. It also considers
play’s contribution to children’s holistic development and continuity of learning.
Play Matters
Educators in ECE settings are attentive to children’s family and community experiences, and they recognize that each child has a unique identity. A play-based
learning approach encourages educators to nurture this identity. It also allows educators to be flexible in recognizing and responding to children’s individual thoughts,
behaviours and values.
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Play is the predominant feature of ECE, from programs for infants to programs for school-age children. And play is what matters most to children.
Increasingly, educators in public school, particularly in the primary grades,
are recognizing the role of play in supporting academic learning (ETFO, 2011).
Beyond primary grades, experiential, problem-based learning is finding growing
support among education leaders (Schleicher, 2019). The focus on STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) and STEAM (science, technology, engineering, arts and mathematics) points to problem-based learning
approaches—which is an extension of play-based learning and discussed in
Chapter 8.
Children’s Voices: “I Like to Play
with My Friends”
For more than 25 years, Dr. Janette Pelletier at the Jackman Institute of Child
Study at OISE, University of Toronto, has designed unique ways to study the experiences of three-, four- and five-year-old children in early childhood settings. Using
finger puppets, the researcher interviews children about their daily experiences
asking the question, “Tell me about your day from when you leave home until you
go home.” Pelletier and her colleagues also ask children to draw a picture about
what they like to do in the program. While drawing, children portray themselves at
play more than any other activity or daily routine. The findings point to the salience
of play and play with friends for children attending ECE programs.
Research
Into
Practice
LO 3.1
Consider:
Think back to your earliest childhood memories of playing. Where are you?
Who are you with? Are you using any play materials? How? What were you
feeling? What do you think about the role of play in early childhood education programs?
Source: Pelletier, 1999; Heagle, Timmons, Hargreaves & Pelletier, 2017; Pelletier, 2017.
Types of Play
Children’s play has been the focus of considerable study throughout the 20th and
into the 21st centuries. Two categorizations of play influenced ECE in Canada
and elsewhere in the 20th century: Mildred Parten’s social stages of play (Parten,
1932) and Sara Smilansky’s cognitive stages of play (Smilansky, 1968). Both align
stages of play with children’s developmental trajectories from infancy into middle
childhood. See Table 3.1.
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TABLE 3.1 ● Traditional Social and Cognitive Stages of Play
Infant
Social Stages of Play
(Parten, 1932)
Cognitive Stages of Play
(Smilansky, 1968)
Unoccupied
Functional Play
Children are not engaged in any activity
Children engage in sensory-motor actions to
explore their environment
Solitary Play
Children play alone
Toddler
Onlooker Play
Creative-Constructive Play
Children observe each other’s play but do
not join in
Children manipulate their environment to
create things
Parallel Play
Children play next to others without verbal
interaction
Preschool
Associative Play
Socio-dramatic Play
Children have verbal interaction with each
Children imitate real people and situations
other but make few attempts to organize the and use their imagination to create what
play situation
they are imitating
School-age
Cooperative Play
Games with Rules
Children take an active role to plan and
structure the play situation while collaborating with each other
Children play table and physical games;
they understand the idea of rules and play
by the rules
Sources: Parten, M. (1932). Social participation among preschool children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28(3): 136–147;
Smilansky, S. (1968). The effects of sociodramatic play on disadvantaged preschool children. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
LO 3.2
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Parten reported that with increasing age, children tend to participate in
more social forms of play. She concluded that younger children tend to engage
in more unoccupied behaviour, onlooker behaviour and solitary play, while older
preschoolers and school-aged children engage in more cooperative play.
Smilansky’s classification of children’s play outlined four general stages of
play. She proposes that children progress through play stages in tandem with
related stages of cognitive development from infancy to the early school years.
Smilansky’s and Parten’s classifications are frequently combined into a model of
social-cognitive stages of play (e.g., Rubin, Maoioni & Hornung, 1976).
Parten and Smilansky reflect the dominant view of social and cognitive
child development in the 20th century that is discussed in Chapter 2. However,
researchers and educators now understand that there are multiple pathways
for learning and development that are influenced by children’s experiences and
cultural context. Babies can have meaningful friendships with other babies.
Preschool and school-age children can learn complex skills by observing the
play of other children, and functional play can introduce school-age children to
complex scientific concepts.
While current theories about children’s play are not tied to stages of development or linear sequence, the categories of play that Parten and Smilansky
introduced still have much to offer when understanding types of play.
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Onlooker Play
Onlooker play occurs when children watch others at play—and may engage in
conversation or ask questions—but do not engage in the play. While it may be more
common in younger children, it happens throughout childhood and beyond.
Children can learn a great deal by watching others at play, as they may be
interested in what others are doing but are not yet ready to join. When children
watch other children play, they often absorb what they see and hear, and organize and integrate that information for future use. They learn about how children interact with each other, including positive and negative behaviour. They
notice how other children use play materials and tools. They pay attention to the
language children are using and learn new vocabulary.
Onlooker play begins in infancy and is common among toddlers. In the past,
educators considered onlooker play to be a preliminary phase that eventually
leads to more meaningful play with other children. Educators and researchers
are now aware that in many cultural contexts, careful observation of others is a
valued learning strategy throughout childhood and adolescence (Konner, 2010).
Onlooker play continues among preschool and school-age children who may
frequently observe and learn from the play of others.
Onlooker play is a form of observational learning, recognized as a powerful
learning strategy by 20th-century scientists including B.F. Skinner and Albert
Bandura as discussed in Chapter 2. Children learn a variety of behaviours
through observation of their peers, family members, educators and others.
Learning through Observation and
Pitching In (LOPI)
Researcher Barbara Rogoff points to children’s observation of a broad range of
family and community activities as a key mode of learning in many Indigenous communities of the Americas. She notes that children in Indigenous communities often
participate in adults’ social and work experiences, such as farming, hunting, meal
preparation and housekeeping. The children pay close attention observing this wide
range of family and community activities. They then “pitch-in” or participate in those
activities. They learn mostly by observing what goes on around them and then
modelling skills to carry out the activity they have observed. Adults support their
opportunities to observe, learn and participate or pitch-in, sometimes providing
pointers about the shared activity. Learning by observation and pitching in is supported by community expectations that everyone is responsible to contribute.
Onlooker play
Watching others play but not
engaging in the play.
observational
learning
Learning by observing the
behaviour of others.
Research
Into
Practice
LO 3.2
Consider:
Describe a time when you learned a new skill by carefully watching others.
Source: Correa-Chávez, Mejía-Arauz & Rogoff, 2015; Rogoff, 2003.
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Physically Active Play
Visit MindTap to learn more
about LOPI from the National
Science Foundation.
Physically active play
Physical activity with regular
bursts of moderate to vigorous movement.
perceptual–motor
Coordination of sensory and
motor skills such as eye–
hand coordination.
physical literacy
Developing, using and understanding fundamental movement skills.
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Physically active play is moderate- to vigorous-intensity play, whether structured or
unstructured. Physically active play develops endurance, control of body movements and perceptual–motor integration. Longer-term benefits are extensive and
relate to all aspects of learning, behaviour and health. Cognitive abilities, brain
function, blood pressure and lipid levels, and mental health improve with regular
physically active play.
In its 2018 Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth, the
organization Active Healthy Kids Canada reported that most three- and fouryear-olds are physically active for the recommended 84 minutes a day, but a large
percentage of school-age children (ages 5 to 11 years) are not. Only 20 percent
of 5- to 11-year-olds are active for more than two hours a day in unstructured
physical activity. Only 39 percent of 5- to 17-year-olds take part in moderate to
vigorous physical activity per day (ParticipACTION, 2018, 2020).
ECE programs offer the potential for physically active play. An Ontario
study of children’s physical activity reported that children in full-day kindergarten were more active than children in child care centres and home child care
(Vanderloo et al., 2015).
Physically active play contributes to children’s physical literacy, which, in
turn, is an essential foundation of well-being. Physical literacy is the ability to
“move with competence and confidence in a wide variety of physical activities
in multiple environments that benefit the healthy development of the whole
person” (Physical and Health Education, 2014). Children require regular, frequent opportunities for physical movement and physically active play to develop
physical literacy.
Around age five, children are often ready to start combining physical skills—such
as running, throwing, catching and jumping—into games. Older children may seek
out structured team games such as baseball, soccer or field hockey, or they may prefer
games that involve skipping or running and chasing. At the same time, school-age
children benefit from unstructured physically active play time, particularly in programs outside the school day (Active Healthy Kids Canada, 2014; ParticipACTION,
2020). Outdoor unstructured time is often more physically active than structured
games that include waiting times and instruction and is discussed in Chapter 4.
Educators can plan physically active play activities that incorporate physical
movement and skill practice across the program, rather than as isolated activities. Through these activities, young children can be encouraged to work cooperatively with others and to persevere with their own physical activities. They can
also learn to assess the risk involved in a physical activity and to monitor their
own physical abilities to take risks.
Opportunities for physically active play, including play-fighting, help children manage aggressive reactions. In a game of chase, children are physically
active and maintain the game by negotiating the rules and agreeing to abide by
them. Yet what they value is the thrill of the chase. The rules provide a framework within which the players know that “this is play.” The framework provides
a safe place where emotions can be experienced without the consequences they
might bring in the real world.
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Organized Sports and Recreation Many children in before- and after-
school programs want various physical sports facilities (Kangas, 2010). If asked,
they may name swimming pools, soccer fields, gyms, tennis courts, golf courses
and climbing walls and trampolines as examples of sports facilities they want to
see in their schools and after-school program. While many of these facilities are
beyond the capacity of most programs, educators can consider what might be
accessed in the local school or recreation facility and what sports and recreation
options might be possible on-site.
Organized sports are games that have a set of recognized rules and can promote teamwork and cooperative play. Basketball, baseball, soccer and volleyball
may be offered to children in before- and after-school programs. Usually the rules
are interpreted and monitored by an official, for example, a baseball umpire.
School-age children learn to think critically and solve problems, develop coping
skills, and trust and respect others. Participating in team sports can improve academic performance and reduce delinquency (Lerner, Fischer & Weinberg, 2000;
Spruit et al., 2016).
In before- and after-school programs, educators can set up opportunities
for children to participate in organized sports that they choose for themselves.
Participation should be enjoyable with an emphasis on skill building and teamwork. Many children like the group atmosphere of being on a team; others may
prefer individual sports such as running, swimming or gymnastics, which build
self-reliance, patience and motor skills. These children might prefer solo sports
that they can improve at their own pace, independent of others.
Exploratory Play
Exploratory play begins with children’s curiosity about the world around them.
They investigate the properties and functions of objects, often through sensorymotor actions. Exploratory play leads children to see connections between objects,
ideas, meanings and imagination. Ideas and questions progress to in-depth investigation of a real-world topic that engages children’s attention and effort. Children
move from what they know to what is more complex. Play thus becomes a platform for exploration. Play engages children’s attention when it offers a challenge
within the child’s capacity to master (McCain & Mustard, 1999; National Research
Council, 2001).
Scientific reasoning begins early in humans. Babies notice how objects move
and behave, gather information, build patterns of expectations about the world
around them and form general categories. Toddlers experiment with tools and
learn to manipulate objects. They learn to solve simple problems they encounter
in their environment—how to retrieve an object out of reach or how to make
their desires understood. Preschool children use methods of science including
data collection, predicting, recording and talking about findings. Problems to
be solved emerge in, or can be introduced to, preschool play. Early childhood
educators may introduce problems during play to engage children’s curiosity
and provide opportunities for them to apply and reinforce their problem-solving
skills (Keating, 1998; Galinsky, 2013).
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Exploratory play
Touching, listening, smelling
and watching objects to find
out about their properties
and what happens when they
are manipulated.
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© Moment/Getty Images
Neil is learning about the
properties of sand.
Pretend Play
In [pretend] play, the child behaves beyond his average age, above his daily
behaviour; in play it is as though he were a head taller than himself. As in
the focus of a magnifying glass, play contains all developmental tendencies
in a condensed form and is itself a major source of development (Vygotsky,
1978, p. 102).
pretend play
Make-believe play where
­children act as if something or
someone is real.
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Pretend play involves make-believe play where children act as if something
or someone is real. In pretend play, children may use objects and pretend they
are something else. For example, a child may use a wooden block and pretend it
is a mobile phone. Children may attribute pretend characteristics or behaviours
to objects, such as “the teddy bear is sleeping.” In pretend play, children often
reference invisible people or objects. Pretend play is also often about playing a
particular character role and carrying out a story. For example, a child may pretend to be a dinosaur going to look for plants to eat.
Pretend play can start early in life. Before their first birthday, children may
imitate what they have observed in the world around them such as patting dolls
or stuffed animals to sleep. In pretend play, children communicate with each
other, using language and gestures to tell and retell stories. In pretend play, children use language and thinking skills to compare and plan, investigate materials,
problem solve, experiment, negotiate and evaluate.
Pretend play is the primary mode of learning during the preschool years
and continues to be important into the primary grades. Pretend play provides
practice in choosing, negotiating, planning, thinking, problem solving and taking
risks. In high-quality pretend play, the child is deeply involved and is acquiring
and practising skills.
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Nevertheless, pretend play can be hurtful and negative. When children tease,
bully or harass other children while playing a role, this is a harmful use of imagination. As well, educators have a responsibility, therefore, to intervene and redirect the play when pretend play entrenches societal inequities, cultural biases or
violence, just as they would if one child hit another child.
Socio-dramatic Play Socio-dramatic play is a mature, complex form of
pretend play. It is defined by three components: an agreed-upon pretend scenario,
roles and rules. Together children co-construct and negotiate a pretend situation.
They take on and act out defined roles and scenarios that involve joint planning,
perspective taking and mental representation. They follow a set of rules that are
shaped by the specific roles. When children take on a particular role for an
extended period of time, they have opportunities to pay attention to their
choices and not act on immediate impulses.
Socio-dramatic play is often about creating a world in which children are
in control and can seek out uncertainty in order to triumph over it. The creativity required and developed in play, the use of imagination and finding one’s
own solutions to problems, both real and imagined, all help children to develop
ways of reacting to a wide range of situations. They develop a repertoire of flexible responses to situations they create and encounter within the safety of the
make-believe world they have created.
Preschool children rely on personal experiences for socio-dramatic play and
may cooperate with other children and share space with other children. By four
or five years of age, more complex, interconnected play scenarios emerge, and
children differentiate complementary roles. Socio-dramatic play continues into
primary school years, using more fantasy and interconnected, planned scripts.
Young school-age children may shift from pretend play to dramatic productions
with a prepared script drawn from a published story or from one authored by
the children.
Socio-dramatic play requires the pretenders to relay their stories and
negotiate with each other using language, gestures and symbolic objects to
tell and retell stories. Socio-dramatic play builds a sense of narrative that
sets the foundation for moving from learning to read to reading to learn.
Children’s ability to communicate to a variety of audiences benefits from
role-play in socio-­dramatic play and then in more structured dramatic arts.
They learn to apply their speaking and listening skills for different purposes.
Children practise verbal and narrative skills that are needed for reading
comprehension.
Socio-dramatic play also helps children to develop social responsibility as
they interact and negotiate with others. Children learn to see things as others
see them and to problem solve when they role-play at the dramatic play
centre. They have the opportunity to experiment with a variety of social roles
(e.g., store clerk, bus driver, grandparent). Socio-dramatic play is about negotiation and getting along with others, often overcoming different perspectives
and backgrounds.
Socio-dramatic play helps children take the perspective of others and promotes later abstract thought; pretending involves mental representation.
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Socio-dramatic play
Pretend play that is shared
with others.
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theory of mind
Understanding that others
have beliefs, desires and intentions that are different than
one’s own.
A child’s ability for joint planning and assigning roles during pretend play with
other children is related to their level of theory of mind, or their ability to understand that others have beliefs, desires and intentions different from their own.
The understanding that what one believes and what others believe may not be
the same is a critical element in the development of theory of mind that is
acquired around four years of age (Astington, 1998). Children’s development of
mental representation is an important cognitive achievement needed for academic skills, such as reading comprehension and use of mathematical symbols.
Creative-Constructive Play
creative-constructive
play
Play in which children use
materials and tools to
make something.
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Building, painting or inventing things is creative-constructive play. As children have
increasingly complex interactions with others, their ability to represent feelings,
intentions and actions in drawings, paintings, movement, music and constructions
leaps forward. Exploratory play leads to purposeful construction of meaningful
objects, structures and representations. Combined with the exploration and discovery of the properties of different materials, children in early childhood education programs construct and represent their knowledge in a variety of ways.
Creative-constructive play is goal oriented and organized as children transform
available materials into something new.
Over time, drawing and painting evolve from scribbles to sophisticated symbols. Scribbles become lines that have meaning. When the two ends of a line
are joined, shapes emerge and children begin to use shapes as symbols. Drawing
and painting are part of children’s first attempts to print and to use symbols
to communicate meaning as fine motor control increases. Children may use
drawing and painting to record their play experiences and extend their abilities
for symbolic representation and explore their feelings. Representational drawings of constructions can expand children’s planning and the complexity of the
structures that children create.
Forms of creative-constructive play include building with blocks, making a
road for toy cars or constructing a fort out of couch pillows. Children may use unit
blocks, hollow blocks, cube blocks and interlocking blocks such as Lego. Children
can also build with found materials and loose parts. Creative-constructive play
often takes place in sand pits and art areas as well as block centres. In creative-­
constructive play children learn about manipulation, building and fitting things
together. Thinking skills are used to figure out how to address a problem, whether
it is a block tower that won’t stand up or a sandcastle that keeps collapsing.
Children’s creative-constructive play can lead to figuring out how things
are made and how they work, and to thinking about what can make them
work differently or more efficiently. Solving practical problems that emerge in
­creative-constructive play involves engineering concepts to design, build and
test solutions. In creative-constructive play, children have opportunities to experience the added value of tools. School-age children can benefit from access to
tools such as screwdrivers, hammers, saws, sewing machines, simple weaving
looms and different types of scissors.
Creative-constructive play is often combined with pretend play in the early
years as children organize spaces for play scenarios. As children develop more
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complicated dramatic narratives, creating the settings and props for the play
often becomes a more integral part of the play.
Creative-constructive play builds enthusiasm, ideas and skills for children’s
participation in visual and performance arts. Educators can extend the learning
potential of creative-constructive play by providing opportunities for older preschool and school-age children to express themselves in visual arts, music, dance
and dramatic productions. Creative-constructive play and participation in the
arts build children’s decision-making skills, develop symbolic communication,
promote sensory development and encourage creative thinking and imagination.
Creative-constructive play is an important vehicle for children to understand different cultures as well as to express their own culture. Tools and materials from various cultural backgrounds can be made available for children to
explore and use for their creations. By making things with materials and tools
from different cultures, children expand their understanding and appreciation of
different ways of living in the world.
Children experience a sense of accomplishment when they create or construct something new and unique to them. When they collaborate together to
create something new, they must share ideas and plans and then negotiate the
execution of those plans.
Games with Rules
Rule-based games are played with an external structure. Children learn to how to
take turns, share and resolve differences when they take part in rule-based games
with other children.
Simon says, guessing games, I spy with my little eye, and red light/green
light are examples of classic games that require children to pay attention and
remember the rules (working memory). The games build children’s capacity
to get along with each other. Hide and seek is a game with rules that develop
self-regulation as children must wait quietly until they are found.
Rattlers is a game often played by children in Blackfoot First Nation communities. Children form a circle around one child who is blindfolded and sits in
the middle. A ball with small rocks or beans inside is tossed around the children
forming the circle. The blindfolded child hears the rattle and tries to catch it
(High Five, n.d.).
Structured games are not limited to older preschool and school-age children. Infants frequently delight in peek-a-boo games with older children and
adults. There is a defined structure that educators can introduce and reinforce.
As children become more skilled, rules can become more complex. Children
often become interested in formal games with peers by age four or five and continue into middle childhood. Older children’s more logical and socialized ways
of thinking make it possible for them to play more complex games together.
Games with rules can be the most prominent form of play during middle childhood. Children learn about turn taking and functioning as part of a team, and
they may need guidance about dealing with both winning and losing.
Explicit rules are the main organizing element in group game play, and
they guide children’s group behaviour. Some games involve two or more sides,
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competition and agreed-upon criteria for determining a winner. Other games
require cooperation among children to be successful.
Rules-based games provide children with shared activities and goals that
build their capacity to collaborate with others. Children learn to negotiate rules
in order to create the game they wish to play, thereby shaping the external structure of the game. Children use games flexibly and accept rules to suit the group
of players. The fairness of the rules matters to young children, just as it does to
older school-age children.
Much like pretend play, play that involves games with rules allows children
to master and integrate knowledge of numbers. Through play, children can learn
how to use a number line for solving number problems that involve addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. Research (e.g., Ramani, Siegler & Hitti,
2012) has shown that number linear board games, such as snakes and ladders,
and card games (e.g., LeFevre et al., 2009) contribute to foundational math
concepts and numerical skills (Ramani & Siegler, 2011). Strategy games, like
checkers, help children to practise reasoning strategies. In such games, children
must consider both offensive alternatives and the need for defence of their positions on the game board.
The Play–Learn Continuum
Play can be initiated and guided by children themselves or play opportunities
can be guided by educators who seek opportunities to extend children’s learning.
Sometimes, educators direct children’s play through specifically designed activities
and sequenced play materials to promote specific learning goals. Contemporary
early childhood pedagogy and curriculum typically view play-based learning as the
way in which children organize and make sense of their worlds, as they actively
engage with people and objects (see chapters 5 and 6). Some current early childhood pedagogies view play-based learning as the enrichment and enhancement
of children’s ideas and explorations. Some also view play-based learning as guided
games and activities organized to promote a progression of learning outcomes.
Play-based learning is often understood to be predominately child-directed
play with some guidance from educators alongside time for direct instruction
of specific skills—often emerging academic skills related to reading, writing
and mathematics. Although educators may distinguish activities as “play” and
“work,” in fact, play-based learning approaches extend from child-directed free
play to educator-directed/educator-structured learning experiences; this range
of approaches is articulated in similar ways by several pedagogical leaders and
researchers in Australia, United States and Canada (e.g., see Fleet, 2017; Edwards,
2017; Miller & Almon 2009; Pyle, 2018). The idea of a continuum of play-based
learning shown in Figure 3.1, offers a broader and more concrete definition of
what play-based learning can be (Pyle & Danniels, 2017).
Early childhood educators participate in play to guide children’s planning,
decision making and communication, and to extend children’s explorations with
narrative, novelty and challenges. Play encourages learning through interaction
with objects, people and information. Early childhood educators establish play
that integrates social, emotional, physical, language and cognitive development
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Figure 3.1 ● Continuum of Play-based Learning
Free play
Inquiry
Co-designed
Playful
learning
Child
directed
Observe;
Facilitate in
time and
space
LO 3.4
Learning
games
Educator
directed
Extend
children’s
ideas
Negotiate
access
Design
learning
experiences
Direct
instruction
The play-based learning continuum defines five categories of play and related intentional teaching strategies.
Adapted from website figure by Angela Pyle; https://www.playlearninglab.ca/about-the-continuum;
http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/textes-experts/en/4978/negotiating-a-holistic
-view-of-play-based-learning-a-commentary.pdf.
that respect diversity and are inclusive. Play-based pedagogy includes activities
organized to facilitate movement, activity, choice, autonomy, communication
and social interaction (Bennett, 2004).
Intentional teaching is discussed in Chapter 9 and refers to making decisions
and acting purposefully. From child-directed play to educator-guided play and to
educator-directed play, educators can recognize, encourage and value a variety of
play experiences (Bertrand, 2010; Miller & Almon, 2009). The continuum of playbased learning offers concrete strategies for intentional teaching including decisions about setting up the environment, interacting with children and promoting
their learning that happens through children’s play (Pyle & Danniels, 2017).
Free Play
Free play is child-initiated and child-directed play. Free play is play in which children are actively engaged; it is freely chosen, intrinsically motivated, non-literal
and it serves the child’s needs for pleasure, emotional release, mastery or resolution (Johnson, Christie & Wardle, 2005; Hewes, 2014). Children explore and learn
through their ways of knowing, interactions with each other and various tools and
materials that are in the play space. Free play is unstructured, and children engage
with the space and equipment provided as they choose.
Educators are onlookers and observers, playing a minimal role (for safety
or hurtful behaviour) in intervening in children’s play. Educators recognize
free play as valuable opportunities to gather information about children—who
they are, how they get along in the world, their abilities and preferred ways of
learning—through careful observation. Educators ensure that the environment
offers space and play materials that children can use in their play. Intentional
teaching strategies to facilitate children’s play include organizing schedules, the
environment, the equipment and play materials to accommodate their explorations and play with each other.
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Inquiry Play
Inquiry play begins with child-initiated ideas and explorations. Educators extend children’s ideas and explorations through questions, prompts and provocations. Other
intentional teaching strategies can include providing resources, supporting children’s
explorations and reflecting on their ideas and questions. Educators reflect, explore
theories, research and plan together possible ways to support children’s learning.
Inquiry play focuses on children’s own ideas and what they have noticed.
Through it, children build communication and observation skills as well as
acquire new information and become experts in that area. As they investigate,
ask questions and expand their capacity to build bridges between ideas, children
go through a problem-solving and planning process that encourages them to
persist and find alternative solutions. An inquiry may be carried out with an
entire class or with small groups of students.
Numeracy and mathematical understanding benefits from exploratory play
that evolves into inquiry and involves measurement, space, perspective and other
mathematical ideas. Opportunities present themselves for children to record
observations in graphs that represent their findings. Literacy benefits as children
document their ideas, experimentation and findings as a group or individually.
Collaborative Play
Collaborative play begins with child-directed play and explorations. Educators
intentionally enter to introduce or reinforce a specific skill or narrate and interpret
play and respond in a way that sustains and enhances learning.
In collaborative play, educators may enter children’s play with specific learning
goals in mind. They may structure the environment with materials in such a way
that children’s play is influenced toward targeted learning goals, or they may join
a child or a group of children and introduce a skill or information themselves.
Educators may also collaborate with children to design learning experiences to
build on children’s ideas and explorations. Regardless of the collaborative approach
used, educators should be intentional in weaving in a specific learning objective
without taking over the children’s play. Children remain in the lead in guiding the
play and educators may join but only by following the children. Educators can use
these opportunities to model invitations to other children to join the play.
Often, collaborative play builds on teachable moments that are spontaneous
opportunities which arise in children’s play where educators can offer specific
insight or guidance that supports the child’s or children’s learning.
In ECE programs, the children’s play themes are repeated over several days
or even weeks. Educators can recognize the children’s play themes and include
them in setting up the environment and planning related learning experiences.
Playful Learning
Playful learning is play experiences that are designed by educators with a specific
focus on targeted skills. Educators seek to integrate specific learning outcomes into
the planned play experiences. Playful learning does involve children’s active participation and may offer opportunities for children to adapt and expand the activity.
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Extending Learning Opportunities
A group of five children have been spending time playing with marbles at kindergarten. Today they have set up a spontaneous game, using small blocks to make
pathways for their marbles. Recognizing this as an opportunity to build on children’s interests and abilities, their educator, Elmira, collects several empty shoeboxes and brings them out for the children. Nearby are markers, red, blue and
green tape, scissors, string, cardboard tubes, and small slips of paper. Elmira asks
the children, “How do you think these boxes could be part of the game?”
Learning
Together
LO 3.4
Consider:
The continuum of play-based learning. What teaching strategies is Elmira
using to extend children’s learning? Why do you think that this is an example
of collaborative or inquiry play? Could it be both? Why or why not?
While educators often build on children’s play narratives and interests, they are more
active in guiding the learning experiences and focusing the children’s attention.
Playful learning is usually planned for small groups of children, ensuring
shared conversations among the children and with the educator. Following
planned playful learning experiences, educators can observe children during free
play times and note if any of the vocabulary or concepts are incorporated.
Learning Games
Learning games are prescribed learning experiences that include direct instruction from educators and/or from specific learning materials. Educators structure
learning experiences with explicit goals for individuals or groups of children,
transmitting knowledge and skills from educator to child. Educators may demonstrate, model, show examples, provide facts and information, and transmit
knowledge and skills. Planned, structured learning experiences may be introduced to a child or group of children who have demonstrated a readiness and,
perhaps, a desire for the acquisition of a new specific skill.
Explicit direct instruction includes demonstrating and directing. These types
of strategies are useful when educators want to demonstrate a new piece of
equipment or when children are introduced to something for the first time.
Games such as obstacle courses, treasure hunts and Simon Says are opportunities to practice gross motor skills, develop spatial reasoning and sequencing
skills, and regulate attention (Bodrova & Leong, 2007). Traditional activities
that are embedded in local culture are often learning games. For example, the
Friendship Dance in Mi’kmaq communities is a simple dance (High Five, n.d.).
Participants hold hands in a circle, move in a clockwise direction, and take three
steps forward and one step back in time to the rhythm of a drum or recorded
music. Children observe and listen and then follow the steps.
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direct instruction
Specific pedagogical (teaching)
strategy to teach a specific skill.
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Learning to Skip
Learning
Together
In a playground in a small town in Manitoba, the recreation centre’s after-school
program is popular among children in grades 1 and 2. Today, three boys and a girl
play basketball. Two girls skip and two boys play “ballsies” (a made-up game that
involves throwing a rubber bouncing ball at the school wall and catching it without
any bounces on the ground as many times as possible).
Bonita, the recreation leader, scans the environment often, automatically
counting to make sure that the 20 children who were present at 3:15 pm remain
in the playground. She also takes note of who is doing what and how each child
is moving their body.
Like many other children who struggle with motor skills, third grader Alisha
hates outdoor activities during school hours or after school. Inside the classroom,
she is quietly confident about her abilities, but outdoors she is abundantly aware
that she lacks the physical skills of many of her peers. She has to wait to be
asked to play jump rope and faces embarrassment if she misses a skip, or if
nobody ends up asking her to join. But this year is different. In September, Bonita
observed Alisha struggle to join in skipping games and did some coaching to build
her skipping skills. She also assigned a grade 6 helper who was a master skipper
to practise with Alisha. Three months and many mornings of practice later, Alisha
starts mastering the skills and, as indicated by her smiling face, is enjoying her
newfound skipping mastery.
LO 3.4
Consider:
What direct instruction strategies did Bonita use to support Alisha’s skipping abilities?
© E+/Getty Images
Educators and children
join in a game of
hand signals.
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Direct instruction is adult-initiated, planned teaching. It may involve one
child, a small number of children or a large group of children; an educator or
can present the lesson. It may be used to facilitate learning of academic content,
physical skills and social skills. Direct instruction typically starts with clearly
stated learning objectives or outcomes. Materials and instructions are sequenced
to promote the child’s or children’s mastery of the content (Beretier, 1972;
National Research Council, 2001). The limitations of direct instruction are discussed in Chapters 5, 7 and 8.
In many early childhood education programs, group time or circle time is an
opportunity for direct instruction. Educators may plan specific content and take
advantage of the potential efficiency of the simultaneous attention of a group of
children (National Research Council, 2001).
The approach of using direct instruction embedded in an entertaining
format that engages children can be found in many early childhood education
programs. These are typically organized around specific themes that are relevant
to children’s daily lives and subject areas such as literacy, math, science, social
skills, art and music. Children are encouraged to master specific content such as
visual patterns or recognition of colours.
Play and Childhood
Play is an essential part of childhood and continues to be essential into adolescence
and beyond. It matters deeply to children and motivates learning. Play is a vehicle
for learning and lies at the core of innovation and creativity. It provides opportunities for learning in a context in which children are their most receptive. Play and
work are not distinct categories for young children.
Children’s play evolves as they grow. Their actions and learning are integrated across areas of development.
Continuity of Learning
Children who thrive in primary school and beyond have strong communication
skills, are able to make friends, can get along and cooperate with others, are persistent and creative in completing tasks and solving problems, and are excited to
learn. They have developed their abilities to imagine, use mental representations,
act in a deliberate, planned manner, and integrate emotions and thinking. They are
confident and see themselves as learners (Segal, 2004; Ziegler, Singer & BishopJosef, 2004). These are the same skills and dispositions that are supported in early
childhood education programs that promote play-based learning.
Play has long been a well-established feature of ECE. But the increasing
emphasis on accountability for children’s success in early academics (particularly literacy and numeracy) in the education system has led to a corresponding
decline in the general understanding of the important contribution that highquality play—especially pretend play—can make to children’s literacy, numeracy
and inquiry skills in the early years. A shift from a focus on play during preschool
years to a strong emphasis on formal instruction to learn letters and use phonics
can limit children’s literacy skills as well as their numeracy and inquiry skills
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(Barnett, Yarosz, Thomas & Hornbeck, 2006; Frede & Ackerman, 2002; Kraft
& Berk, 1998; Ziegler et al., 2004). High-quality play, mediated by adult play
partners who are able to inject judicious direct instruction into daily play, is an
effective pedagogy for emergent literacy, numeracy and science skills.
The continuum of play-based learning bridges the practices of early childhood education and primary schooling. Much attention in Canada and internationally has focused on the transition challenges children face when they leave
ECE programs and enter grade 1 (and sometimes kindergarten) classes. Recent
international reports (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council,
2015; Moser, Leseman, Melhuish, Borekhuizein & Slot, 2017; OECD, 2017)
report that children’s transition from an early learning program to primary
schools is often an abrupt shift in approach rather than a smooth change for
children. This points to missed opportunities to maximize the potential benefits
of children’s participation in early childhood education programs.
Across Canada, young children experience ECE environments that emphasize a blend of child-directed and educator-guided play approaches with little
direct instruction from their educators. When they enter grade 1 (and sometimes kindergarten) the learning environment often shifts to a greater emphasis
on educator-directed instruction for specific direct instruction of academic skills,
mostly related to early literacy and numeracy. Opportunities for more child-­
directed play may be offered during the school day but are usually viewed as
distinct from the academic content.
Primary schools can incorporate the principles and practices of play-based
learning and promote critical thinking, creativity, collaboration and problem-solving alongside literacy, mathematical understanding, science and technology. Out-of-school programs for elementary school children can promote
children’s play with each other and provide the materials and space to explore
their ideas and practise emerging skills.
Rather than getting children ready for a transition from ECE settings to
school classrooms, play-based learning can be carried through into school settings. Play-based learning embeds continuity of learning rather than learning
transitions in children’s education journey. Play-based learning is really a type
of problem-based learning (PBL) that is recognized as an effective pedagogical
approach from early childhood to post-secondary education and beyond.
Making It
Happen
LO 3.4
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Problem-Based Learning
In 1969, the new medical school at McMaster University introduced a unique
approach to learning medicine called problem-based learning. Led by Dr. Fraser
Mustard, students were assigned case studies of patients with a variety of symptoms and test results. The case study problems were used to identify the students’
own learning needs as they try to understand the problem and review, synthesize
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and apply information to the problem. Students with tutors worked together to
both learn from each other and solve the case study problems (Packham, 2010).
Problem-based learning included small group learning, faculty facilitation, use of
patient-based cases and a well-defined set of learning objectives.
Thirty years later, in 1999 Mustard had turned his attention to early child
development. He was joined by the Hon. Margaret Norrie McCain to prepare the
Early Years Study: Reversing the Real Brain Drain (1999) for the Ontario government. They identified the value of problem-based play learning for lifelong learning,
behaviour and health. McCain and Mustard defined problem- based play as children choosing their learning focus and collaborating with peers, guided by educators and environments designed to include problems to be solved. Mustard
viewed children’s play as a downward extension of the problem-based learning he
had pioneered 30 years earlier for medical students.
Consider:
What problem could you present to a small group of preschool children that
would encourage play-based learning?
Source: McCain, M., & Mustard, F. (1999). Early years study: Reversing the real brain drain. Toronto,
ON: Government of Ontario.
Play and Self-Regulation
Children’s play with each other (from infancy on) in early childhood education settings offers multiple opportunities for educators to support children’s self-­regulation
and for children to practise emerging self-regulation skills. Chapter 2 introduced
self-regulation as a cornerstone of children’s early learning and well-being.
Children’s Experiences: Play and
Self-Regulation
Dr. Carl Corter and his colleagues at Dr. Jackman Institute of Child Study and the
Atkinson Centre at OISE, University of Toronto, studied play and self-­regulation
of four- and five-year-olds attending full-day kindergarten in Toronto (Corter,
Janmohamed & Pelletier, 2012). The researchers based their study on findings that
play-based learning programs support children’s self-regulation. The kindergarten
programs were staffed with an early childhood educator and a primary teacher
who were implementing a play-based learning approach.
To examine children’s play and self-regulation, Corter and his team created
the Child Observation Framework (COF) to analyze running-record observations
Research
Into
Practice
LO 3.6
(continued)
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of children. The COF included a list of items related to self-regulation and a list
of items related to play behaviour. The researchers found opportunities or situational demands for the exercise of self-regulation every three minutes. The selfregulated behaviours that all children had opportunities to use included focusing
and shifting attentions as required, interacting well with peers, following directions
and expectations, and appearing comfortable and confident in the learning environment. Opportunities to practise self-regulation appeared during both structured
and unstructured play.
Consider:
Can you identify specific examples of children’s play that are opportunities to
practise self-regulation skills?
Source: Corter, Janmohamed & Pelletier, 2012.
Visit MindTap for more
­information on the Child
Observation Network and
its studies.
During play, children practise the skills that support strengthened self-­
regulation. They build their abilities to imagine; act in a deliberate, planned
manner; and integrate emotions and thinking. For example, building with blocks
as a shared experience supports children’s regulation of behaviour and attention
as well as the coordination of roles. Children must plan together, using language
to discuss the construction. Pretend play increases how often children practise
self-regulation. Children’s private speech—speech that helps them regulate their
own attention, behaviour or emotions—occurs more often in pretend play than in
less complex play settings, or settings with tasks having predetermined goals and
greater educator direction. Socio-dramatic play calibrates emotional responses
to the unexpected events that are introduced during play. The ability to regulate
emotional responses to disturbance, and to reduce stress levels, enhances the
ability to cope with uncertainty and allows for the development of a suite of
motor (physical), cognitive and social skills to manage stress and arousal.
Summary
• Children’s play and play-based learning is cen-
• The continuum of play-based learning offers
tral to early childhood education.
• From infancy through age 12 years, play types
include onlooker play, physically active play,
exploratory play, creative-constructive play and
games with rules.
• Intentional teaching in early childhood
education includes strategies to support
child-directed play, educator-guided play and
educator-directed play.
a framework for continuity of learning from
early childhood education into the formal
school system.
• Play can boost children’s optimal self-­regulation
and support children’s developmental and
learning trajectories.
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Review Questions
1. What are the benefits of young children’s
play? LO 3.1
2. Describe intentional teaching strategies to
­support child-directed, educator-guided and
educator-directed play. LO 3.3
3. What is the continuum of play-based
learning? LO 3.4
4. How does the continuum of play-based learning
support continuity of learning? LO 3.5
5. Provide three examples of how children’s free
play supports early literacy. LO 3.6
Study Activities
1. Observe a child at play for 30 minutes. Identify
specific types of play the child is engaged in.
Does the child engage with other children?
What toys or materials does the child use? Use
your observations to identify the specific types
of play in which the child is engaged. LO 3.2
2. Observe two children at play. Consider the
conversations the children have with each other
when they are playing together. What information do they exchange? Do they respond
to each other? Are they sharing a pretend scenario? Prepare a description of the children’s
use of language using examples of their conversation with each other. LO 3.2
3. Visit an early childhood education program and
identify the intentional teaching strategies that
educators use to support children to support
and/or extend children’s play. LO 3.3
4. Explore the online resources at MindUP
designed to teach school-age children skills
and knowledge related to self-regulation and
mindfulness. Choose one of the resources
and prepare a description of how it might be
introduced in an ECE program. LO 3.6 https://
mindup.org
5. View information about play-based learning
designed to inform families about the value
of play. How might you use this pamphlet in
discussion with families? LO 3.1 http://www.
child-encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/docs/
coups-oeil/play-based-learning-info.pdf
6. Poet Michael Rosen explains how play is vital to
creativity. View this video, which was produced
for the British Psychological Society’s Division
of Educational and Child How Play Changes the
World—Michael Rosen: https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=9lLRytYN0io
Prepare a short presentation for other ECE students about how Michael Rosen uses word play
to create poetry. LO 3.1
Key Terms
Creative-constructive play (p. 60)
Direct instruction (p. 65)
Exploratory play (p. 57)
Observational learning (p. 55)
Onlooker play (p. 55)
Perceptual-motor (p. 56)
Physical literacy (p. 56)
Physically active play (p. 56)
Pretend play (p. 58)
Socio-dramatic play (p. 59)
Theory of mind (p. 60)
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Suggested Readings
For additional resources,
visit MindTap.
Hassinger-Das, B., Hirsh-Pasek, K. & Golinkoff, R.M. (2017). The case of
brain science and guided play: A developing story. Young Children 72 (2):
45–50. Retrieved September 3, 2020, at www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/
yc/may2017/case-brain-science-guided-play
High Five. (n.d.). Indigenous games for children. Retrieved September 3,
2020, at https://www.nscrd.com/uploads/document/files/­indigenous
-games-for-children-en.pdf
McAuliffe, K., Blake, P. R. & Warneken, F. (2017, August). Do kids have a
­fundamental sense of fairness? Scientific American. Retrieved September 3,
2020, at https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/
do-kids-have-a-fundamental-sense-of-fairness
Parker, R. & Stjerne, B. (2019). Learning through play at school. The LEGO
Foundation. Retrieved September 3, 2020, at https://www.legofoundation.
com/media/1687/learning-through-play-school.pdf
Play: Synthesis. In Tremblay, R. E., Boivin, M., Peters, R. DeV, eds. Smith P.K.,
Encyclopedia on early childhood development. Retrieved September 3, 2020,
at http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/play/synthesis
The ParticipACTION Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth.
(2018). Retrieved September 3, 2020, at https://www.activehealthykids.
org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/canada-report-card-short-form-2018.pdf
Weisberg, D. S., & Zosh, J. M. (2018). How guided play promotes early childhood
learning. In Tremblay, R. E., Boivin, M., Peters, R. DeV, eds. Pyle, A., topic ed.
Encyclopedia on early childhood development. Retrieved September 3,
2020, at http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/play-based-learning/
according-experts/how-guided-play-promotes-early-childhood-learning
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Chapter
4
Outdoor Play
Learning Objectives
4.1 Examine increased attention to the value of
outdoor play.
4.3 Identify how to promote children’s positive
relationship with the natural environment.
4.2 Describe a pedagogy of outdoor play.
4.4 Analyze the issues related to the risky play.
Outdoor play is an essential component of ECE programs and play-based learning.
This chapter considers how ECE programs can expand their vision of what is ­possible
in outdoor environments for infants, toddlers and preschool and school-age children.
Other countries have robust outdoor play environments that are s­upported by a
pedagogy of outdoor play, while Canada’s ECE programs lag behind. This chapter
reviews recent events and initiatives that highlight the ­possibilities of increased
physically active play, closer connections to the natural world, opportunities for
outdoor play-based learning in ECE programs in Canada and elsewhere, and the
benefits and challenges of risky play
Focus on Outdoor Play
Researchers who study the impact of outdoor play on children’s health, physical
abilities, social-emotional well-being and cognitive skills agree that outdoor play
benefits children in multiple ways. Time outside and outdoor play are linked to
higher vitamin D levels, improved mental well-being, improved attention and
self-regulation, and improved spatial memory.
Outdoor Play and Thinking Skills
Studies of outdoor play suggest physically active play is more likely to happen in
outdoor play and usually involves aerobic exercise that supports physical wellbeing. When aerobic exercise involves complexity, novelty and diversity, executive
(continued)
Research
Into
Practice
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functions such as memory, self-control and social skills are also improved (Hillman
et al., 2014). These skills are linked to improved academic progress and social and
emotional well-being (Wyver, 2019; Whitebread, 2017).
Outdoor play can happen in the changing conditions found in nature that
encourage children to adapt and be flexible.
Studies also find that indoor pretend play can benefit children’s executive
function (e.g., Carlson, White & Davis-Uger, 2015). However, outdoor pretend play
is likely to be more physically active and can offer expanded opportunities for
complex use of objects and elements such as sand and water. In outdoor pretend
play, children can draw on a larger number of natural materials and toys to incorporate into the play, opening up new opportunities to explore and discover. Natural
spaces and elements outdoors often encourage more complex and imaginative
play than indoor spaces (Dowdell, Gray & Malone, 2011). Outdoor play involves
changing conditions that children’s play must accommodate.
Consider:
How do you think the continuum of play-based learning can be supported in
outdoor environments?
Courtesy of Penny Bertrand
Visit MindTap for more on
outdoor play and social and
cognitive development.
Winter is an ever-changing
outdoor environment for
young children.
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Despite the benefits, outdoor environments in ECE programs are often an
afterthought in ECE policies and practices (including provincial/territorial child
care legislation and curriculum guides) in Canada. Many educators consider outdoor play simply as a time for children to run around and burn off some energy
and then return to the indoor learning environment. Also, parental and societal
concerns for children’s safety dominate current perspectives on outdoor play
(Brussoni et al., 2015). These concerns encourage limitations to outdoor environments that allow children to test their physical abilities.
The Early Childhood Education and Care review team for the Starting
Strong II study (OECD, 2006) reported that opportunities and environments
for outdoor play in Canadian licensed early learning and child care centres were
generally poor. The team noted that licensed child care centres overemphasized safety at the expense of developmental opportunities, independence and
autonomy. Typically, the team found a lack of adequate and available outdoor
space. Children spent little time outdoors with few opportunities to move freely
between the indoors and outdoors.
A recent review of references to outdoor play in provincial curriculum frameworks for ECE programs reported how outdoor play is referenced (McCuaig &
Bertrand, 2019). The findings reveal that outdoor play remains a low priority
in Canadian ECE programs although there are variations across provinces and
territories. Kindergarten curriculum guides in Ontario and Manitoba highlight
outdoor play over 70 times while there is no mention in British Columbia,
New Brunswick, Yukon and Nunavut. Early learning curriculum frameworks
­(discussed in Chapter 6) also vary in references to outdoor play. There is no
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mention in Prince Edward Island’s curriculum framework but 24 and 25 mentions in Quebec and Alberta, respectively.
Provincial and territorial regulations for licensed child care centres focus on
safety requirements for play in outdoor spaces. Five provinces require a minimum time for outdoor play. New Brunswick requires 60 minutes for every
four hours of program time. British Columbia requires 60 minutes and Ontario
requires 120 minutes of outdoor time. Quebec, Nunavut, Northwest Territories
and Yukon require daily outdoor time but do not state a specific amount of time.
In Canada, since the 1970s, time for outdoor play is declining in ECE programs and schools (Dietze & Kashin, 2019). By contrast, children in Denmark,
Sweden, Finland and Norway spend up to half the school day outdoors in all
seasons, regardless of the weather (Barfod & Bentsen, 2018). A familiar response
to the question about cold weather in those countries is “There is no such thing
as bad weather, only bad clothing.”
Since the 2006 report, attention to outdoor play in ECE programs is growing.
Several agendas have landed on outdoor play as beneficial for children’s wellbeing and early learning and resulted in calls to do the following:
• Increase physical activity (Tremblay, Gray, Babcock, et al., 2015)
• Nurture connections to nature and attention to care for the environment
(Elliot, 2018)
• Find an antidote to increasingly adult-structured and technology-based
environments for young children (Forse, 2019).
The Lawson Foundation and Outdoor Play
In 2013 the Lawson Foundation, a Canadian philanthropic foundation, began to
explore outdoor play in response to children’s inactivity and as essential to support
healthy child development. It contributed to academic papers on risky play, outdoor time and active outdoor play. The Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play
(Herrington & Pickett, 2015) was released in 2015 via the Report Card on Physical
Activity for Children and Youth. The statement was based on a review of the evidence related to outdoor play experiences for children 3 to 12 years,
The Lawson Foundation launched an Outdoor Play Strategy in 2016,
announcing funding for 14 outdoor play projects and an evaluation to document
the learning. The Outdoor Play Strategy was designed to increase opportunities
for children’s play in outdoor environments and to better understand how to support Canadian communities in providing those outdoor opportunities. The projects included community action models, practitioner capacity building and public
policy initiatives.
In November 2018, the Lawson Foundation hosted the Outdoor Play and
Early Learning Policy Research Symposium, which brought together outdoor
play and early childhood leaders and experts from multiple sectors, including
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recreation, early childhood education and education. The symposium explored
how to advance outdoor play and early childhood education policy, practice
and research. A discussion paper summarized the central themes that emerged
from the symposium’s conversations and presentations (Lawson Foundation,
2019, p. iii):
1. The importance of adopting a multi-sector ecosystem lens to address
outdoor play
2. Approaches to integrating Indigenous curriculum and ways of knowing about
outdoor play into Western early childhood education
3. Building support for, and enabling, risk in outdoor play
4. The need to make outdoor play pedagogy explicit in post-secondary early
childhood education training and to support ongoing professional learning
needs
5. The multiple gaps and barriers to outdoor play in policies and standards, and
the inconsistent implementation of such policies by stakeholders
6. The need to develop a robust Canadian research and knowledge mobilization strategy to support evidence-informed policy and practice
Consider:
What examples of outdoor play do you see in ECE programs?
Source: Lawson Foundation. Advancing outdoor play and early childhood education: A discussion
paper. May 2019. Available at http://lawson.ca/advancing-op-ece.pdf. Used with permission.
multi-sector
­ecosystem lens
Outdoor Physically Active Play
An approach that includes professional learning, policy and
standards from multiple sectors
(e.g., licensed child care, public
schools, recreation) and play
opportunities for children that
interconnect with each other
within physical environments.
Physically active play is more likely to happen outdoors. Regular physical activity
is associated with better health and well-being for children and adults, and
increased childhood physical activity reduces obesity, which is associated with lifelong chronic illness. The amount of time that children are physically active across
Canada continues to decrease while obesity and screen time increase (Tremblay,
2018). Canadian preschool children in ECE programs are not getting enough moderate to vigorous intensity activity (Vanderloo et al., 2015).
A diverse, cross-sectorial group of partners, stakeholders and researchers collaborated to develop the Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play for children. “Access to active play in nature and outdoors—with its risks—is essential
for healthy child development. We recommend increasing children’s opportunities for self-directed play outdoors in all settings—at home, at school, in child
care, the community and nature" (Herrington & Pickett, 2015, p. 8). In June
2018, the Council of Chief Medical Officers of Health (CCMOH) released a
Statement that supports and endorses the Position Statement.
Visit MindTap to learn more
about the Lawson Foundation.
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Outdoor Play Canada
Making It
Happen
Outdoor Play Canada is a network of researchers, practitioners, advocates and
organizations that promotes outdoor play and play in nature across Canada.
The network provides leadership to growing Canada’s outdoor play movement and to promote the health and wellness of Canadians and their environments. Outdoor Play Canada compiles evidence-based resources and tools to
support educators and others who design and lead play experiences in outdoor environments.
LO 4.1
Consider:
How can a network of educators, researchers, advocates and organizations
provide support for outdoor play in ECE programs?
Learning in Natural Settings
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Visit MindTap to learn more
about Outdoor Play Canada.
© The Image Bank/Getty Images
Outdoor play in natural settings offers expanded opportunities to explore
ideas, investigate theories and interact with peers. Direct experience with
nature is linked to children’s social-emotional, spiritual and physical health
(Louv, 2008). Regular time to play outside and experience the environment
connects children to the natural world and to the physical and social communities they live in. They develop a sense of place as well as relationships
with plants, animals, water, land and weather (Anderson, Comay & Chiarotto,
2017). Regular interactions within nature help children develop respect and a
caring attitude for the environment. Educators can use outdoor time to provide children access to the natural environments and opportunities to develop
a relationship with nature.
Natural environments become a place of learning and support children’s thinking skills as described earlier in the Research Into Practice feature, “Outdoor Play and Thinking Skills.” When educators model enjoying,
caring for, and respecting nature, children learn early about being stewards
of the environment. They can also learn about natural processes and cycles.
Planting seeds in the spring that grow into flowers and vegetables in the
summer, then produce new seeds and die in the fall help children experience
and understand life cycles. Repeated experiences in the same location offer
children the opportunity to become aware of what changes and what stays
the same over time. Natural environments also support children’s imaginative play and the development of positive relationships (Dowdell, Gray &
Malone, 2011).
Max is finding out how a
worm moves.
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Making It
Happen
Nature Kindergarten, Sooke, Vancouver
Island, BC
LO 4.3
Nature Kindergarten is a program in Sooke, British Columbia (near the city of
Victoria on Vancouver Island), that began in 2012 (Elliott, 2018). The program
model was inspired by traditional Scandinavian forest schools, nature kindergartens and local Indigenous knowledges.
The local outdoor environment informs a different kind of pedagogy, providing
space for the children to engage in learning opportunities that would not be possible in a classroom. The children learn new ways of feeling capable and competent. They explore and engage with the plants, animals and natural materials
(rocks, sand, shells, tree branches) in the natural environment. Children in the class
become not only a community among themselves but also with the natural world
they now have access to.
The Nature Kindergarten program continues as a successful option within
public education (Sooke District, 2020) at two schools in Sooke: Sangster
Elementary Public School and Saseenos Elementary School. The Sangster Nature
Kindergarten uses the property of nearby Royal Roads University and the Saseenos
program takes place on T’Souke Nation lands. Children in both programs spend
every morning outside regardless of the weather; rain is a frequent feature. They
return to the indoor school classrooms for lunch and the afternoon program.
Consider:
What do you think children learn by engaging with outdoor life and natural materials?
Elements of the natural world are present in all outdoor environments—
including concrete playgrounds, urban settings, rooftops, etc. Outdoor play can
offer children examples of nature’s power even in built environments, including
fenced-in asphalt surfaces. For example, plants and weeds often push through
asphalt and insects crawl across concrete surfaces.
Visit MindTap to learn more
about nature kindergarten in
Sooke, British Columbia.
Learning
Together
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Gardening
Six-year-olds Sasha and Veronica are at their before- and after-school program
located in their school building. They are outside in the garden that borders the
school’s playground with Bobby, an early childhood educator. It is late spring and
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the green leaves on trees are coming out. Tulips are up and almost blooming in
the garden.
It rained earlier in the day, and the ground and cement path are still wet. “Look,
Bobby!” shouts Sasha while pointing to the path. “There are worms everywhere. At
school, we put worms into our big pot of dirt when we planted bean seeds. Worms
are good for growing green things.”
Veronica suggests that they pick up the worms and put them in the garden.
Both girls race to gather up worms and place them in the soil.
Bobby asks, “Why do you think the worms will help things grow in the garden?”
“Maybe they have magic powers!” suggested Sasha.
“Or maybe they have special spit that comes out and makes plants grow,”
adds Veronica.
Consider:
How would you respond to Sasha and Veronica to encourage their interest
and understanding of the role of worms in a garden?
Nature is an essential element of
Indigenous systems that can be found across Canada. These systems include
languages, politics, governance, education, early childhood education and
childrearing (James, Dragon-Smith & Lahey, 2019). Differing Euro-Western
and Indigenous (First Nation, Inuit and Métis) worldviews that inform culture,
values and practices also inform perspectives on outdoor play. Time spent
outside, particularly in natural settings, provides an opportunity to respect
and learn from Indigenous philosophies and approaches related to the land.
Euro-Western perspectives typically focus on the concept of outdoor play
while Indigenous perspectives focus on land as teacher (James, Dragon-Smith
& Lahey, 2019).
Local Elders and Indigenous communities can teach Indigenous cultures’
many ways of approaching outdoor play. Most place humans as part of nature
and ecosystems that include other animals, plants, water and rocks, so ­indigenizing
outdoor play would entail sharing this perspective.
Many traditional Indigenous settings for outdoor experiences have been displaced by Western perspectives embedded in ECE programs and public schools
(James et al., 2019). Playgrounds with fixed play structures and artificial ground
coverings with an emphasis on health and safety have often replaced natural
settings filled with mud, trees, insects and wildflowers.
As ECE programs turn their attention to increasing the quality and quantity of outdoor play, educators can consider how to incorporate Indigenous
approaches that have a long and rich history.
Indigenizing Outdoor Play
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Visit MindTap to learn more
about the relationship
of Indigenous culture to
­outdoor learning.
indigenizing
Process of making Indigenous
ways of knowing, being,
doing and relating part of
organizations, culture and
daily practices.
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Making It
Happen
LO 4.3
Willows Forest Nature Program
Willows Forest Nature Program is a land-based ECE program at Humber College
in the Humber Valley, in northwest Toronto. It is a partnership between the college’s
Department of Early Childhood Education and the Humber Child Development
Centre. Willows takes place in the Humber Arboretum in Adobiigok which means
“Place of the Black Alders” in Anishinaabemowin, the Anishinaabe language. It
includes forests, meadows, wetlands and ponds (Zimanyi, 2019), and it is part of
the traditional territory of the Anishinaabe people, although several First Nations
communities are located in this territory (Humber College, n.d.). The Humber
Arboretum is situated on 105 hectares alongside the Humber River watershed.
Willows draws on local Indigenous knowledge keepers and storytellers, who
regularly walk with children on the land. Willows aims to incorporate Indigenous
knowledges and perspectives (Zimanyi, Keeshig & Short, 2020). When the group
walks together, the land is viewed as a teacher. Children and educators learn
about the forests, ponds, wetlands, plant life and animals. They learn about biodiversity and Indigenous traditional teachings including four directions teaching,
elements of life and natural life cycles (Humber College, n.d.).
Some of the learning that children have experienced at Willows
include discovering:
• Rain-soaked Wiingashk (sweetgrass) has a calming scent (Zimanyi, Keeshig
& Short, 2020)
• Dandelions are the first food for wild bees in the spring and that it is
important not to pick them (Zimanyi, 2018)
• Signs of the changing seasons in the forest (Zimanyi, 2019)
• Mitigomin (red oak acorns) not buried by squirrels will grow into trees
(Zimanyi, 2019)
Willows collaborates with Indigenous communities “in the hope of braiding
Indigenous wisdom with scientific knowledge through story-telling” (Zimanyi,
2018, p. 3).
Consider:
How does Willows encourage children’s “wonder and wisdom’?
four ­directions
teaching
A Pedagogy of Outdoor Play
Life-giving elements—air, fire,
earth and water.
Outdoor play had a central place in earlier early childhood education programs
including Fredrich Froebel’s kindergarten (child’s garden) discussed in Chapter
2 and Margaret McMillan’s open air nursery schools in 19th Century England
(Beatty, 1995). As discussed earlier, today’s ECE programs tend to marginalize outdoor play (Alden & Pyle, 2019) as educators focus on indoor play as the central
learning environment. Outdoor play is often viewed as time for children to run
around and engage in their play with each other while educators supervise and
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Holistic notion of heart, mind,
spirit and body or north, south,
east and west.
elements of life
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ensure children’s safety. Or outdoor play may primarily be promoted as a way to
increase physical activity or to connect children to nature (Alden & Pyle, 2019).
However, outdoor play can be considered as a complete or holistic learning
environment that is grounded in a shared view of children as capable and competent. A framework for a pedagogy of outdoor play proposed by Alden and
Pyle (2019) includes three core elements: child agency, play-rich environments
and adult support. Outdoor play that is central to pedagogical approaches in
Scotland and other European countries also offers examples of how ECE programs in Canada could expand learning experiences in outdoor play.
ECE Outdoor Play in Scotland
The Scottish government is doubling the entitlement to free ECE programs for
three- and four-year-old children (Lawson Foundation, 2019; Government of
Scotland, 2017). The expanded access plan includes a significant focus on outdoor play, in response to advocates’ calls for more outdoor play to reduce screen
time and obesity, improve social and emotional well-being, and increase children’s
connection to the environment. It is also a practical plan that makes it possible to
accommodate more children in ECE programs. Children in these ECE programs
will be required to spend a significant block of time outdoors. The definition of what
a significant portion of time is may vary among ECE programs, and the range of
required outdoor time is to be determined.
Scotland’s expanded preschool program is finding a balance between time
spent indoors versus outdoors. It also intends to offer children play-based learning
experiences indoors that are guided and sometimes directed by educators.
Existing demonstration outdoor early childhood education programs in Scotland
informed plans for the expanded time outdoors in preschool programs (Perlman &
Bergeron, 2018). The demonstration sites allowed people, including media and politicians, to see and experience what extended outdoor plans in ECE programs look like.
The Government of Scotland has committed to providing guidance and
resources to support quality outdoor plans. A practical guide provides concrete
strategies for ECE programs, including how to access outdoor spaces beyond
playgrounds, including open land and forests (Government of Scotland, 2018).
Also, guidelines outline how to create and use outdoor space in centre playgrounds and in natural environments. Staff might not be familiar or comfortable
with working outdoors and will need learning opportunities to acquire a broad
understanding of outdoor play and their role in extended time with young children
in outdoor environments. The guide identifies numerous resources from the early
childhood sector in Scotland and in other countries.
Visit MindTap to learn more
about the Willows forest
and nature program at
Humber College.
Making It
Happen
LO 4.2
CONSIDER:
How would you plan for expanded outdoor play to four hours daily for preschool children in a full-day preschool program?
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In Canada a few examples of extensive outdoor natural environments offer
inspiration of what is possible. Two examples described earlier in this chapter are
Willows Forest Nature Program in Toronto and Nature Kindergarten in Sooke,
British Columbia.
Visit MindTap to learn more
about the Government of
Scotland’s Out to Play guide.
Child agency
A child’s ability to make
choices and decisions that
impact on activities and on
their life.
Child Agency
Child agency is characterized as “freedom and independence to play; ability to
make choices about play; and that play is self-directed or child-led” (Alden & Pyle,
2019, pp. 7–8). Children are able to choose who to play with, how long the play
continues and what the play is about. They lead their own adventures, including
taking risks and facing challenges.
When there are older children involved in outdoor play—particularly with
older children as partners—learning opportunities are created for both groups.
Play-Rich Environments
Play-based learning in outdoor environments offers young children unique early
learning experiences. Two types of outdoor environments can be considered: built
environments and natural environments. Built environments are playgrounds
attached to early learning and child care centres and schools or located in parks.
Natural environments are spaces in the local community that include mostly natural elements and materials such as trees and plants. They are not designed specifically for children’s outdoor play but offer an ever-changing array of opportunity.
Built Play Environments Playgrounds attached to ECE programs are
outdoor built play spaces that include resources and equipment as well as
natural elements. The outdoor space extends the indoor play environments
by offering more room for sustained physically active play such as running,
jumping, rolling, bouncing and climbing. There is also room for various wheeled
and riding vehicles to be pushed and pulled. In outdoor spaces, children find
challenges such as running as fast as possible; climbing stairs, ladders and ropes;
and jumping from heights.
Built play environments also offer opportunities for direct contact with
nature. Besides providing fresh air, even playgrounds with marginal green spaces
can offer growing plants, sand, rocks and water that capture young children’s
curiosity and urge to explore. Educators can consider sources of water and what
natural elements can be introduced, such as sand in a sandpit. Activities can
include digging soil to plant trees, and planting and caring for a flower, vegetable and/or herb garden. When choosing plants, educators can consider which
natural plantings are likely to be successful. For example, green bean seeds are
much larger than carrot seeds and more likely to germinate and grow.
In locating and designing outdoor areas, educators can consider micro-­
climate conditions, such as degrees of sun and shadow. As mentioned in Chapter
7, ECE programs can make access to the outdoor environment as seamless as
possible. For instance, if the entrance to the outdoor play area is adjacent to
indoor space, children may easily go back and forth. Pathways can define areas
of activity and have different textures that offer sensory interest for children.
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© iStock/Getty Images
Outside, opportunities for
learning to happen abound.
The outdoor space can provide opportunities to expand learning opportunities. including projects, pretend play, art, planting, water play and active play.
Outdoor environments that include natural elements can contribute to more
complex and imaginative child-led problem-based play than indoor environments. Even playgrounds with marginal green spaces can offer growing plants,
sand and water and capture young children’s curiosity and urge to explore.
Natural elements often encourage more complex and imaginative play outdoors
than they do when placed indoors.
Loose Parts
loose parts
Items that can be manipulated
(e.g., moved, carried, combined, lined up, taken a part or
stacked) in multiple ways and
can be used alone or combined with other materials.
Making It
Happen
Loose parts are materials that can be moved, arranged, manipulated, stacked,
carried, dumped or combined in multiple ways. Loose parts may be found materials or commercial ones. They can serve as learning tools to help children build
their understanding and explain their thinking to others. Loose parts offer openended play opportunities where children do not use any specific set of directions or
instructions for how to interact with the materials available. Outdoor playgrounds
can exploit the possibilities of loose parts that are natural materials (rocks, sand,
shells, tree branches) as learning materials and maximize the potential of sand pits
and water. The term “loose parts” comes Simon Nicholson’s 1971 article, “The
Theory of Loose Parts: How NOT to Cheat Children.” Nicholson understood children’s drive to make and build things as well as their play with water, insects and
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other things that nudge their curiosity. He described loose parts as variables that
children like to use to experiment, discover and invent.
When children play with loose parts, they show a range of positive social
behaviours, complex verbal and nonverbal exchanges, and various types of risk
taking in their play (Flannigan & Dietze, 2017).
Educators can take children on nature walks and collect loose materials such
as rocks and pinecones that can be used in playgrounds. Large loose parts such
as logs, planks, barrels or cable spools offer opportunities for children to create an
obstacle course.
When educators select items for loose parts, they should consider the safety
and suitability of the items, which should be in good shape and not contain
toxic substances.
Consider:
Why are loose parts a valuable component of outdoor play pedagogy?
Natural Environments Children benefit from experiences in local
natural environments. Educators report that difficulties in accessing natural
environments is the biggest barrier they face (Ernst, 2014). A review of provincial
and territorial licensing and policy requirements for licensed early learning and
child care centres and primary schools reports that licensing and safety standards
are often not a barrier to accessing natural spaces (McCuaig & Bertrand, 2019).
Educators may experience logistical difficulties in reaching outdoor spaces that
include natural environments.
Educators can consider possible natural environments that could be accessed
for outdoor play and exploration in order to provide children with these experiences. Forests and fields offer natural environments that may be a primary
space used by some ECE programs. But what about most ECE programs that
are located in buildings in urban settings with attached playgrounds? Educators
can identify possible local natural spaces that are suitable for regular visits. Parks
and parkettes that have bushes, trees, grasses, birds and insects are possibilities.
Rather than planning three field trips to different places, educators can plan
three trips to the same natural space at different times of the year. Even spaces
covered in mostly concrete can offer opportunities to consider changing seasons,
by noticing emerging ants in the spring, and monitoring and documenting rapid
growth of weed trees such as sumac trees.
Educator Support
Educators can best promote children’s outdoor play when they understand the
distinct value of learning and playing outside (Waters & Reckers, 2019). Then they
can use and adapt outdoor environments to leverage the many opportunities for
play-based learning in built and natural spaces.
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The continuum of play-based learning discussed in Chapter 3 describes educator
strategies for children’s free play, guided play and directed play. The same strategies
apply to outdoor play. Children benefit from opportunities in a variety of spaces and
from educators who respond to children’s interests but do not control their activities.
Outdoor exploratory play often includes opportunities for children to interact
with each other. Responsive educators who are keen observers of children’s play
can encourage sharing of ideas and objects and can offer observations that support
children’s inquiry skills, connections with nature and overall physical abilities.
RISKY PLAY
Risky play is “thrilling and exciting forms of play that involve a risk of physical injury.
The risk can be real or perceived” (Brussoni et al., 2015, p. 1). While risky play can
take place indoors, it is mostly related to outdoor play. Studies from Norway and
Australia find that risky play is considered an essential component of outdoor play
(Little, Sandseter & Wyver, 2012; Sandseter, Wyver & Little, 2012). The unstructured,
flexible, open-ended and dynamic nature of outdoor play is a context for challenging
play. The unpredictability of outdoor play environments and children’s engagement
with those environments include a certain element of risk or uncertainty.
Eight categories of risky play are:
Risky play
Situations in which children
recognize and assess an
exciting physical challenge and
decide on a course of action
to manage the challenge to
avoid injury.
• Great heights that risk injury from falling; examples include climbing/
jumping from surfaces, balancing/playing on high objects (e.g., playground
equipment) and hanging/swinging at great heights
• High speed that could lead to collision with something or someone; an
example is swinging at high speeds
• Dangerous tools that can lead to injuries and wounds; examples include
cutting tools—knives, saws or axes—and strangling tools such as ropes
• Dangerous elements where children can fall into, or from something;
examples include cliffs, water, fire pits, trees
• Rough and tumble play where children can be harmed; examples include
wrestling or play fighting with other children or parents; rough and tumble
play can evolve into organized games and sports (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003).
• Disappear or get lost where children can disappear from the supervision of
adults or get lost alone; examples include exploring alone, playing alone in
unfamiliar environments, general independent mobility or unsupervised play
• Play with impact
• Vicarious play
Source: Sandseter, E. B. H., & Kleppe, R. (2019). Outdoor risky play. In Tremblay, R. E.,
Boivin, M., & Peters, R. DeV., eds., Encyclopedia on early childhood development. http://www
.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/according-experts/outdoor-risky-play
In ECE programs there are often few opportunities for risky outdoor play.
In fact, support for risky play opportunities in ECE programs is often missing
(Little, 2010; Little, Wyver & Gibson, 2011). Educators can rethink how outdoor play is offered to young children and how opportunities for risky play can
be encouraged (Brussoni et al., 2015). Educators can design environments and
experiences outdoors that encourage children to explore the world around them
and challenge themselves physically.
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rough-and-tumble play
Physically vigorous behaviours
such as play fighting, wrestling and chasing games that
are accompanied by positive behaviours.
Research
Into
Practice
LO 4.4
Educators can avoid overt and limiting surveillance that limits children’s
opportunities to negotiate risk and gain physical competence. Outdoor play
environments need to be as safe as necessary but that does not mean eliminating
all risks. Educators can take a few moments to see how a child is reacting to a
potentially risky situation before reacting. Educators then learn what children
are actually capable of doing. Sometimes educators are best able to support children’s learning by getting out of the way.
Taking Risks
Studies report that risky outdoor play has multiple benefits for children including
health, social and behaviour outcomes (Brussoni et al., 2015). Risky outdoor play
increases children’s physical activity and social well-being, reduces injuries and
aggression (Brussoni, 2017), and supports children’s physical fitness and motor
skills (Little & Sweller, 2015).
In regard to health, risky play increases children’s physical activity. Injury prevention studies have shown that children have reduced injuries when they are
engaged in risky outdoor play compared to more typical outdoor play in spaces
with climbing structures and limited space for movement (Brussoni, 2019).
The benefits of risky play seem to be enhanced when educators pay attention
to children’s enquiries and interests, recognize and support children’s managed
risk taking and mastery of physical challenges, and feel confident enough to not
restrict children’s activity unless their safety is genuinely threatened.
Studies of risky play among children between the age of one and six years found
that all children engage in risky play in some way (Brussoni et al., 2015). Children find a
level of risky play that is comfortable for their individual abilities and courage, and their
emotional experiences range from exhilaration and fear at the same time to pure fear.
Rough-and-tumble play, including play fighting, is often discouraged in playgrounds and schoolyards because of the perceived risks of accidental injury or
opportunities for abusive contact. But opportunities for play fighting can help children manage aggressive reactions and allow children to practise self-regulating
their behaviour under moderately stressful conditions. Rough-and-tumble play that
includes chasing and wrestling offers children opportunities to adapt their behaviour
and contributes to empathy and self-control skills and can be an expression of
caring and friendship (Pellis & Pellis, 2012). Animal play fighting studies suggest that
active play produces subtle and nuanced responses to novel and unpredictable
environments, which builds resilience and the ability to deal with disturbance (Pellis
& Pellis, 2009). Play fighting in both humans and animals shows the relationship
between social competence and frequent engagement in rough-and-tumble play.
Consider:
What is your disposition toward young children’s risk-taking during active
play? Why?
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Children can engage in exhilarating play with a manageable amount of risk
that is not too scary. When educators give them the mental and physical space,
children can figure out for themselves what is a safe level of risk (Brussoni,
2017). Educators often find that when children understand risks as real, even
impulsive children show considerable care and responsibility. For example, in a
game of chase, children are physically active and maintain the game by negotiating and agreeing to abide by the rules. Yet what they value is the thrill of the
chase and running as fast as possible. There is a challenge, and the rules provide
a framework by which the players know that “this is play.”
A risky play situation for one child is different to a risky situation for another
child. Educators who know a child’s abilities can guide and support them to take
reasonable risks in their play. Educators can offer appropriate levels of challenge
in the outdoor play environment. They can carefully observe children during
play to know when to step in to provide physical or verbal support and when to
stand back and allow the children to continue on their own.
Through risky play children explore and become familiar with the possibilities and boundaries of their environments as well as their own capabilities. From
the time babies become mobile, children are often drawn to play that challenges
them to move out of their comfort zone to extend their skills. Risky play often
attempts something never done before—feeling on the borderline of being out
of control through play involving great heights and speed or rough-and-tumble
play (Sandseter, 2007). When children take risks in their play, they practise new
skills and eventually master fundamental motor skills.
Outdoor play in ECE programs can invite risk-taking. The unstructured,
flexible, open-ended and dynamic nature of outdoor play is a context for
challenging play. The unpredictability of outdoor play environments and children’s engagement with those environments includes a certain element of risk
or uncertainty.
Summary
• Outdoor play is increasingly recognized as valuable and an essential central component of ECE
programs rather than a minor support to indoor
play and learning experiences. Benefits include
physical activity, connecting to nature and
expanded opportunities for active exploration
and in-person social interactions.
• Time to observe, explore and discover in
natural outdoor environments launches
children’s relationship with the natural environment that carries forward into adolescence
and beyond.
• A pedagogy of outdoor play includes a
grounding in child agency, play-rich environments and educators who have a suite of
teaching strategies.
• Risky play benefits children but is often a
­challenge for educators.
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Review Questions
1. How does outdoor play benefit young children’s early learning and social, emotional,
physical and cognitive development? LO 4.1
2. Describe three components of a pedagogy of
outdoors play. LO 4.2
3. What is the difference between outdoor
built play environments and natural play
environments? LO 4.2
4. How can Indigenous perspectives and ways of
knowing guide outdoor play in natural environments? LO 4.3
5. How can risky play be encouraged in ECE programs? LO 4.4
Study Activities
1. Ask five adult friends or family members
to describe their earliest memory of play.
How many described outdoor play episodes?
Compare the results from other students and
prepare a graph showing how many adults
described outdoor play. LO 4.1
2. Design a plan for an outdoor playground that
is attached to an ECE program for infants, toddlers and preschool children. LO 4.2
3. Find and view a video of the Willows Nature
Program online. Prepare a short summary report
that describes the Willows Nature Program that
could be shared with ECE students. LO 4.3
4. What natural spaces can you find if you walk
for 15 minutes in your community? Choose one
of the spaces and prepare a poster that shows
how the space could provide opportunities
for outdoor play. You may want to search the
CCCF Resource Sheet “Exploring Nature with
Children” online. LO 4.3
5. Prepare a short slide presentation with speaking
notes for parents that makes the case for risky
play in preschool groups. LO 4.4
6. Search and watch the CBC documentary The
Power of Play. Prepare a short (250-word)
review of the documentary for a family newsletter from an ECE program that highlights the
messages related to risky play. LO 4.4
Key Terms
Child agency (p. 82)
Elements of life (p. 80)
Four directions teaching (p. 80)
Indigenizing (p. 79)
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Loose parts (p. 83)
Multi-sector ecosystem lens (p. 76)
Risky play (p. 85)
Rough-and-tumble play (p. 86)
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Suggested Readings
Anderson, D., Comay, J., & Chiarotto, L. (2018). Natural curiosity, 2nd Edition.
A resource for educators: the importance of indigenous perspectives in children’s
environmental inquiry. Retrieved September 4, 2020, at https://wordpress.
oise.utoronto.ca/naturalcuriosity/nc2
Brussoni, M. Outdoor play. Encyclopedia on early childhood development.
Retrieved September 4, 2020, at http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/
sites/default/files/dossiers-complets/en/outdoor-play.pdf
Casey, T. & Robertson, J. (2019). Loose parts play: Inspiring Scotland.
Retrieved September 4, 2020, at https://www.inspiringscotland.org.uk/
wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Loose-Parts-Play-Toolkit-2019-web.pdf
Outdoor play: Hard-wired for nature. (2019). Retrieved September 4, 2020,
at http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/docs/coups-oeil/
outdoor-play-info.pdf
For additional resources,
visit MindTap.
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Chapter
5
Early Childhood
Education Curriculum
Approaches
Learning Objectives
5.1 Identify key characteristics of a variety of
curriculum approaches.
5.4 Identify curriculum strategies that support
children’s self-regulation.
5.2 Examine the role of cultural values and
beliefs about childhood in designing
­curriculum and pedagogy.
5.5 Debate the value of differing approaches to
early childhood education.
5.3 Compare how educators put specific
­curriculum approaches into practice.
This chapter explores several curriculum approaches, sometimes called curriculum models, that are currently found in ECE programs across Canada. You will
learn about the key elements of each approach and consider how they relate
to the continuum of play-based learning. You will explore specific curriculum
approaches that support children’s self-regulation and well-being. Examples
of Indigenous curriculum approaches are included in the chapter. You will be
introduced to current curriculum issues that educators consider and debate. In
addition, you will begin to identify which curriculum approaches best suit your
own image of the child and your understanding about the multiple ways that
children develop and learn.
Curriculum Approaches
curriculum approach
Organized system of intentions, interactions and plans
designed to promote learning
and well-being.
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A curriculum approach is an organized system of intentions and plans to promote
children’s development and learning. It is the sum of experiences, interactions,
experiences, and events that occur within an early childhood program. A curriculum approach blends pedagogy and curriculum content into a seamless understanding of what is offered in children’s learning environments and how it is offered.
An explicit curriculum approach serves other purposes in addition to the child’s
early learning: promotion of an even level of quality across programs, guidance and
support for educators in their daily practice, and facilitation of communication
Curriculum approaches begin with our values and beliefs about children
and our image of children and childhood. Cultural values and beliefs shape our
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understanding of what is worth knowing. Theories about childhood and image
of the child build on values and beliefs and shape a program’s philosophy, curriculum and pedagogy. This approach is in contrast to a philosophy that concentrates only on intellectual development for academic achievement.
The definition of early childhood education in Chapter 1 takes into account
what children actually do while taking part in a program. An ECE program’s organization, or its curriculum and pedagogy, includes all that a child experiences. As
discussed in Chapter 1, curriculum is what educators include in the environment
and embed in children’s learning and daily care experiences. Pedagogy refers
to how we deliberately cultivate children’s development and learning (National
Research Council, 2001). Curriculum and pedagogy are education in its broadest
sense (Moss, 2004). Curriculum and pedagogy include daily schedules and routines; the physical environment; play materials; learning experiences; and, most
importantly, the people who are part of the early child development setting.
In early childhood education, a curriculum approach includes the “what” and
“how” and is a blend of curriculum and pedagogy. Curriculum approaches are
based in a belief system about early childhood education that informs educators’
work with children.
Children benefit from a planned curriculum approach; having specific goals
for children’s learning guides decisions about what to include in the environment and embed in children’s experiences (Institute of Medicine & National
Research Council, 2015; Ginsburg, Lee & Boyd, 2008; Kagan & Kauerz, 2012).
Holistic curriculum approaches support emotional maturity, social competence,
cognition, language development and physical well-being.
Preschool Programs
In Canada and other countries preschool programs help children acquire social
and learning-related skills before they enter grade 1. These are structured programs with recurrent activities. Preschool programs are central to supporting and
strengthening young children’s learning and development. The curricula of these
programs form the “front line” of children’s experiences—what is taught and what
is learned (Tremblay et al., 2012; Kagan & Kauerz, 2012).
Research
Into
Practice
LO 5.1
Consider:
How is the curriculum central to what children experience in preschool (or
ECE) programs? What does it mean to say that the curriculum is the “front
line” of children’s experiences?
Early childhood educators intentionally guide and construct opportunities to extend children’s learning. This is the “how” or the pedagogy that is
part of a curriculum approach. Pedagogical strategies across the continuum
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Courtesy of Jane Bertrand
Visit MindTap to learn more
about curriculum planning
for preschool.
Akira lives in an apartment
building. She often talks to
her family about who lives
in the other units.
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from child-directed to educator-guided approaches provide structure and
direction for educators who support the development of capacities and skills
while respecting a child’s interests and choices (Bennett, 2005; Bertrand &
Riehl, 2009; Miller & Almon, 2009). The repertoire of strategies that educators use includes investigation and exploration; modelling and demonstrating;
open questioning, speculating, and explaining; shared thinking and guided
learning; and explicit or direct instruction. Curriculum approaches for early
childhood programs include pedagogy that offers both intentional and spontaneous opportunities for learning that may be child directed or adult guided.
Most early childhood programs have elements of both child-directed play and
adult-guided instruction, but the balance between the two varies from program to program.
The practical application of a curriculum approach may include guidelines
on how to set up the physical environment, structure the activities, interact with
children and their families, and support staff members in their initial training
and ongoing implementation of the program. The daily schedule and routines
define the use of time that sets the architecture of children’s daily lives in early
childhood programs. Indoor and outdoor physical environments are set up to
provide opportunities for children’s play, independent problem solving and
inquiry. Children can learn to make choices and demonstrate responsibility. The
available resources and experiences nurture and extend children’s learning. Early
childhood educators plan opportunities that allow children to explore language
and communicate their thinking and learning in meaningful ways in a variety
of contexts.
Early childhood education programs are social settings that guide children in learning about the world around them. The social context is a critical
element to take into account in considering how children learn and
develop. Early childhood education curriculum approaches reflect
differences in culture. Family structure, social and economic characteristics, community influences, and ethnic and linguistic backgrounds are also part of the social environment and part of learning
and development.
Several defined curriculum approaches found today in early
childhood education programs have their roots in earlier times. For
example, Montessori is over 100 years old and continues to thrive as a
distinct curriculum model that extends from the early years through
secondary education. The Abecedarian approach, HighScope and
developmentally appropriate practice are three curriculum approaches
that evolved from the interpretation of Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development in the 20th century and continue to thrive in many early
childhood education programs. Reggio Emilia curriculum evolved in
Italy following World War II and became an international inspiration
to early childhood education. Informed by Reggio Emilia and its alignment with Vygotsky’s theory of early development, the emergent curriculum approach is frequently adopted by early childhood education
programs today.
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Montessori Education
Montessori education is grounded in hands-on experiential learning and self-­
directed learning with educator guidance. Montessori classrooms are set up to
encourage children to maximize opportunities to explore, create and investigate
with the learning materials and with other children.
This curriculum approach was developed by Dr. Maria Montessori in Italy in
the early 1900s. It is based on her observations and experiments while educating
young children with special needs and disadvantaged children (Lillard, 2016).
Montessori took her cue from children. She observed them in the classroom and
set out to design an early education system. Her vision was a transformation of
the rote learning typical of public schools in Europe and North America in the
late 1800s and early 1900s to learning that recognized i­ ndividual learning paths.
rote learning
The memorization of information through repetition.
My vision of the future is no longer people taking exams and proceeding
then on that certification … but of individuals passing from one stage of
independence to a higher [one], by means of their own activity through
their own effort of will, which constitutes the inner evolution of the
individual. (Montessori, 2007, p. 1)
Montessori proposed a developmental continuum of successive levels of
education from the early years (0–7 years), to the middle years (8–12 years), and
then to adolescence (Montessori, 2007). She compared the changes from one
level to another to the metamorphosis of an insect from an egg, to a caterpillar,
and then to a butterfly.
The core elements of the Montessori approach recognize the roles and
interconnections of the educator, child and environment (Montessori & Foteva,
2007). The prepared environment and the structured learning materials are
considered the “third teacher.” The specific learning materials and the prepared environment are central. Learning materials are designed to support
self-­correction. They alert children to mistakes and allow self-correction with
minimal support from educators. For example, a set of 10 wooden cylinders
ranging in size from smallest to largest are inserted into a wooden block with
matched spaces for each cylinder. When the cylinder is placed in the correct
place, it fits. If a child places it in a place that is too large or too small, it does not
fit and, therefore, is self-correcting. The materials are designed to move from
concrete to abstract concepts; for example, from learning materials with objects
to materials with objects and numerals to, finally, materials with only numerals.
The Montessori classrooms or groups consist of multi-age children.
Children in preschool groups range from three to six years of age and include
kindergarten-aged children. Transitions from one age group to another are
­
reduced. Children progress is based on their individual abilities rather than more
narrow age groupings that can limit expectations about what children know and
can do. Younger children learn by watching and listening to older children while
older children learn by demonstrating concepts and skills to younger children.
The mixed-age groupings encourage positive social interactions among children
(Lillard, 2016).
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The Abecedarian Approach
The Abecedarian approach (introduced in Chapter 2) continues to be adopted in
early childhood education programs in Canada, the United States and Australia. It
views early language development as the pathway to social competence, emotional
maturity, language skills and cognition (Campbell et al., 2001, 2008).
The Abecedarian approach has the following four core elements.
caregiving
Looking after physical and
emotional needs for safety and
well-being.
1. Language priority: involves making the children’s experience an opportunity for listening, talking and learning vocabulary.
2. Conversational reading: involves reading to one or two children a few
times a day and encouraging their dialogue and interactions.
3. LearningGames: consists of more than 200 structured learning experiences
or games that educators can play with one or two children (Sparling &
Lewis, 2008).
4. Enriched caregiving: involves using daily, repeated care routines to make
emotional connections and to integrate educational content into those routines (Sparling & Meunier, 2019).
Source: Sparling, J., & Lewis, I. (2008). The Creative Curriculum® LearningGames®
(5-book set). Washington, DC: Teaching Strategies LLC. Sparling, J., & Meunier, K.
(2019). Abecedarian: An early childhood education approach that has a rich history and
a vibrant present. IJEC, 51, 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-019-00247-2.
Visit MindTap to learn more
about LearningGames.
The core elements guide quality educator–child interactions. They are carried
out intentionally, frequently (multiple times a day) and individually. Educators
are expected to match interactions with a child’s individual interests and abilities. These strategies are shared with families so they can be reinforced at home.
HighScope
HighScope, like the Abecedarian approach, was designed as part of a research study
in the 1960s and was influenced by Piaget’s theory of cognitive child development.
Children are viewed as active learners who construct their own knowledge through
exploration and experimentation. They are guided by educators who plan the daily
routines, learning experiences and environment. Educators aim to offer activities
that provide children with key experiences that are developmental challenges they
can meet with educator scaffolding.
A central element of the daily routine is a plan-do-review sequence (Epstein,
2012). During a short (10- to 15-minute) group time, children plan what they
will do during a block of time. They identify the play area, learning materials and
friends they will play with. The children make decisions about what they choose
to do based on the learning experiences educators have set up. Children then
carry out their ideas and participate in the activities they have identified during
a block of time that is usually between 45 and 60 minutes. Then, with each
other and an educator, children recall what they have done and reflect on what
they have learned. The plan-do-review sequence supports children’s growing
executive function as they learn to be learners.
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In a HighScope program, educators create a predictable learning environment with open-ended materials that reflect children’s family life, culture
and language. Play areas are organized and labelled to promote independence.
Educators plan learning experiences through eight content areas:
1. Approaches to learning
2. Social and emotional learning
3. Physical development and health
4. Language, literacy and communication
5. Mathematics
6. Creative arts
7. Science and technology
8. Social studies (Epstein, 2012)
Source: Epstein, A. (2012). Approaches to learning. Ypsilanti, MI: HighScope Press.
HighScope curriculum recognizes that the pace of children’s development
and learning varies across the eight content areas. Each content area includes key
developmental indicators (KDIs) that guide specific learning experiences that
are part of the HighScope curriculum. (The KDIs were formally called “key
experiences.”) An example of a KDI for creative arts is “Movement: Children
express and represent what they observe, think, imagine and feel through twoand three-dimensional art.” In total there are 58 KDIs that identify learning
goals for children.
KDIs help educators understand what children do and say along a continuum of development. KDIs also help educators maintain reasonable expectations. They focus educators’ observations and interpretations of children’s
activity. Together with the curriculum content, HighScope offers educators a
child development “filter” for observing and making appropriate curriculum
decisions (Epstein, 2012).
Today, HighScope curriculum is adapted and used in many different countries
around the world. However, some educators have raised concerns about examples of rigid implementation of HighScope curriculum without enough consideration of who the children are and what their cultural context is (e.g., Curtis
& Carter, 2015). At the same time, critics recognize that HighScope and developmentally appropriate practice (discussed in the following section) helped to
make early childhood education environments and routines more child-centred.
key developmental
indicators (KDIs)
Descriptions of observable
child behaviours that indicate a
child’s knowledge and skills in
HighScope content areas.
Visit MindTap to access a list
of available KDIs.
Developmentally Appropriate Practice
Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) is a curriculum approach based on
knowledge of the development of children’s abilities and observation of individual
differences, including abilities, interests and culture (Gestwicki, 2011). It can be
applied in settings with children from infancy through middle childhood. The
approach considers that all areas of development—physical, social, emotional and
cognitive—are important and that it is the early childhood educator’s responsibility to plan an environment and support experiences to enhance all areas of
development.
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Developmentally
appropriate practice
(DAP)
Early childhood education
practices that are grounded in
child development concepts
and knowledge, and observations of and interactions with
young children, their families
and their cultural context.
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Programs designed on developmentally appropriate practice contain a
number of common characteristics that can be incorporated into related
curriculum approaches. Typically, educators, in a developmentally appropriate program:
• Support the whole child; that is, all areas of the child’s development;
• Use observations of children’s individual interests and developmental progress to plan the curriculum;
• Promote children’s active exploration and interactions with others;
• Use learning materials and activities that are concrete and part of the lives
of young children;
• Provide for a wide range of developmental interests that meet the children’s individual needs and skills;
• Offer increased challenges as children’s abilities and skills progress; and
• Provide materials and allow time so children can choose activities
(Bredekamp, 1987).
The Reggio Emilia Approach
Reggio Emilia
A curriculum approach in
an Italian town by the same
name that is child-centred and
focused on children’s exploration and inquiry.
After World War II, preschools opened in the northern Italian town of Reggio
Emilia and they continue to operate today. The municipal government of Reggio
Emilia supports 35 schools, serving children aged 3 to 6, and infants and toddlers
up to age 3. About 73 percent of the town’s children, from zero to five years in the
town attend a Reggio Emilia infant–toddler centre or preschool (Reggio Approach,
2020). This city-run early child development program has captured the attention
and imagination of early childhood practitioners in Canada and around the world
for several reasons. First, it enjoys a high degree of community support and is
viewed as an essential part of a cohesive, healthy and productive community.
Second, the schools’ physical beauty and attention to detail are evident to all who
visit the program. Third, the program philosophy and curriculum build on Lev
Vygotsky’s concept of the social construction of knowledge and skillfully integrate
other theoretical concepts, including Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, John Dewey’s concept of progressive education and Urie Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological environment theory (Berk & Winsler, 1995).
Loris Malaguzzi was the founder and leader of the Reggio Emilia approach
and programs. He based his system of early childhood education on a few
key principles:
1. Child-centred programs, which respect children and emphasize the reciprocal adult–child relationship;
2. An “environment as teacher” approach, which organizes space to promote
relationships, creates aesthetically pleasing surroundings; promotes choices
and activities; stimulates all areas of learning; and reflects children’s ideas,
values, and culture;
3. A curriculum centred on children’s interests, reflected in projects that are
undertaken in considerable depth and detail;
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4. A spirit of collaboration between early childhood practitioners and young
children in facilitating intellectual discovery through social process; and
5. The participation of families as an integral part of the educational experience (Gestwicki, 2011).
Emergent Curriculum
Across Canada many ECE programs are adopting an emergent curriculum
approach that allows them to incorporate some of the principles found in Reggio
Emilia programs. However, the Reggio Emilia approach is not a curriculum
approach that can be transported from its roots in northern Italy to Canadian settings. It is a way of thinking and interpreting the immediate surroundings (natural
environment and social community) and following the lead of children and their
families to create a unique early childhood setting. Emergent curriculum is an
approach that encourages educators to respond to their immediate surroundings—
physical place and people—and guide children’s natural curiosity about their environment to encourage learning.
Emergent curriculum first appeared in the 1970s, and Elizabeth Jones
coined the term in the introduction to a curriculum book (Jones & Nimmo,
1994). Many North American ECEs are finding emergent curriculum a
useful framework that integrates knowledge about child development and
an approach to planning that allows the child’s interests to take the lead
(Goulet, 2001).
Daily Preschool Curriculum in Action
Mohamed works in a preschool program located in a downtown school in a large
city. The children are following the construction of a high-rise office building next
door with great interest. During outdoor times children line up at the fence and
watch the comings and goings of excavators, front-end loaders and cranes.
One day, Mohamed moves tricycles, wagons, and some large empty boxes
down by the fence. He notices that Carla has sat down on one of the tricycles and
is moving it back and forth making a vrrrooom sound. Before long, Carla is joined
by three other children and they are orchestrating tricycles and wagons around an
area they name “the building site.” Mohamed takes an active role in the children’s
play. He joins the children and asks if they would like to put a large fence up around
the building site. Carla says, “Yes, and we will need to make big signs that say
‘Danger’ and ‘Workers Only.’”
A week later, the building site is still a popular area of the playground and now
includes a digging area in the sandbox; structures made out of blocks, tubes, and
boxes; and numerous picture and word signs giving directions for construction
emergent curriculum
Early learning environments
that are responsive to children’s interests, questions and
explorations to create meaningful learning experiences.
Learning
Together
LO5.3
(continued)
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vehicles and warning of dangers. The children are asking more and more questions
about how the construction vehicles work and debating about what the proper
names for each of them are. Mohamed does not know the answers to many of
their questions, so he has brought in several picture books about construction
vehicles. The children’s keen interest is the starting point, and Mohamed builds on
the children’s pretend play to elaborate learning and literacy opportunities.
Consider:
Why is this an example of emergent curriculum? How is it different from other
curriculum approaches discussed in this chapter?
Educators set up materials and physical play spaces that invite children to
explore and revisit. By following and responding to children’s interests, questions and ideas, educators challenge children to try new combinations and figure
out how the world work. Educators ask questions such as “What can you do
with this” or “What do you think would happen if …?”
Emergent curriculum often includes projects that are the in-depth study of
a particular topic that is undertaken by a group of children and emerged from
their questions and interests. The focus of projects is usually drawn from what is
familiar to children in their daily lives. Projects involve children seeking answers
to questions that they have formulated by themselves, in collaboration with
educators or that arose during the course of their investigations. Projects are
© Westend61/Getty Images
Educators Veronicka and
Marc are puzzling with
the ­children about what
fruit to use and how to
slice it.
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based on what children know or what they want to know. Many projects evolve
from, and contribute to, socio-dramatic play. Projects include many opportunities for representation that permit children to return to what they knew, rethink
and then integrate new knowledge.
The “Best” Curriculum Approach?
Many practices—what kinds of materials to make available to children, observing
children’s interactions with each other, and displaying representations that children have created, for example—are common to a number of approaches. Most
early childhood educators find themselves more comfortable in one curriculum
approach than another.
Early childhood curriculum approaches exist along the same continuum of
child-directed to educator-guided and educator-directed as the continuum of
play-based learning discussed in Chapter 3 (Bennett, 2005; Miller & Almon,
2009; Pyle & Danniels, 2017).
In educator-guided and -directed approaches, educators set up the environment and select activities related to a set of learning outcomes or expectations. The Montessori or HighScope approaches are considered mostly educator
guided and directed. Developmentally appropriate practice in child-directed/
educator-guided curriculum follows children’s interests, and emerging skills and
aptitudes drive curriculum. The Reggio Emilia approach and emergent curriculum are child directed and educator guided.
Provincial kindergarten curricula have followed an educator-guided
approach and are organized to encourage children’s attainment of identified
learning expectations. However, as noted in Chapter 5, play-based learning is
influencing kindergarten programs and several provinces are adopting emergent
curriculum approaches and pedagogy.
So, what is the best curriculum approach—what benefits children most?
The answer is … it depends. It depends on you, the children, the families
and the community. There is no one best curriculum approach. Researchers are
Table 5.1 ● Curriculum Approaches and PLAY-BASED
LEARNING Continuum
Child-DirectedEducator-GuidedEducator-Directed
Free Play
Inquiry Play
Collaborative Play
Playful Learning
Learning Games
Montessori
Abecedarian Approach
HighScope
Developmentally
Appropriate Practice
Reggio Emilia
Emergent Curriculum
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not able to isolate the benefits of using any one specific approach in comparison to another within the child-directed/educator-guided continuum (OECD,
2018). Fifty years of research reveals that having a coherent curriculum direction is much more important than what that direction is—within some broad
boundaries that we will discuss shortly.
Educators can use a variety of pedagogical approaches that combine
educator-directed, educator-guided, and child-directed strategies (Siraj­
Blatchford et al., 2003; National Research Council 2001). An effective planned
curriculum approach with goals for children’s learning:
• Guides decisions about what to include in the environment and embed in
children’s experiences;
• Often uses strategies from across the continuum of play-based learning
approaches; and
• Provides structure and direction for educators who support the development of capacities and skills while respecting a child’s interests and choices
(Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015; Bennett,
2005; Miller & Almon, 2009; Ginsburg, Lee & Boyd, 2008; OECD, 2012;
Sylva et al., 2004).
didactic
Educator-directed approach
to teaching specific skills
or information.
schoolification
Process of focusing on academic subjects, particularly
literacy and numeracy, to
prepare children for entry to
public education.
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An effective curriculum can be custom designed for each early childhood
program. Although implementing ready-made program models might be easier
at first, having a clear program direction and specific learning goals for children
and families is more important than what program model is adopted.
Research does tell us that some curricula do not support children’s early
learning. Laissez-faire approaches (sometimes labelled “free play without any
structure”) do not work well. Educators are often hesitant to enter or support
the play or nudge children’s ideas as they fear they are hijacking children’s
play (Pyle & Danniels, 2017). However, children usually run out of ideas,
and chaos ensues. Early childhood programs that promote only child-directed
play may be referred to as a laissez-faire approach to curriculum (Miller &
Almon, 2009).
Didactic approaches such as direct instruction have drawbacks too. They are
based on very specific learning goals to be mastered, and isolated specific skills
are often introduced outside the context of children’s lives. In these approaches,
learning goals or expectations—rather than the children’s interests, ideas or abilities—drive curriculum. Curriculum that is dominated by direct instruction, a
scripted curriculum, and a focus on specific learning goals for academic achievements related to literacy and numeracy is sometimes referred to as the “schoolification” of the early years (OECD, 2006).
Early learning happens when educators’ expectations of what children can
know and do matches the child’s own interests and abilities in meeting those
expectations (Miller & Almon, 2009). The impact of an individual educator can
outweigh the effect of a particular curriculum approach (National Research
Council, 2001; Whelan, 2009). The quality of pedagogy in implementing and
adapting a curriculum to a specific group of children is more important than
the specific curricular approach (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000; Sylva et al., 2009,
Whelan, 2009).
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Curriculum Approaches to Support
Self-Regulation
Chapter 2 introduced self-regulation as a process about monitoring, managing and
adapting behaviour, emotions and attention. Self-regulation is about responding
to positive and negative stress and is related and interconnected with early childhood education curriculum designed to support mindfulness, growth mindset,
social-emotional learning, executive function and trauma-informed practice. The
curriculum strategies highlighted here aim to build children’s ability to be calm,
alert and learning (Shanker, 2013) and to figure out how to calm themselves when
they are upset or faced with challenges.
Mindfulness
Mindfulness or mindful awareness is the intentional awareness of being present in
the moment. It is a strategy to reduce stress and arousal: to down-regulate.
Mindfulness can improve children’s self-regulation and ability to stay focused.
Mindfulness games, simple breathing exercises, and practising yoga can be integrated into children’s play and the daily schedule in ECE programs.
Mindfulness
Intentional awareness of being
present in the moment.
Growth Mindset
Growth mindset describes the underlying beliefs people have about learning and
intelligence. “A growth mindset is when students understand that their abilities can
be developed” (Dweck, 2014). When children believe they can get smarter and be
successful, they also understand that effort will make a difference. They put in
extra effort that leads to higher achievement. Dweck describes the opposite of a
growth mindset as a fixed mindset when people believe their abilities are fixed
traits that cannot be changed.
In preschool early childhood education programs, educators can nurture a
growth mindset by encouraging children to recognize themselves as learners,
encourage problem-solving, and accept mistakes and failures as part of the process. In school-age programs, educators can encourage children to celebrate successes and achievements and value lessons learned when things do not work
out as planned. Children who might struggle with academic expectations in the
elementary grades benefit when they see themselves as learners and successful
in out-of-school programs.
Self-regulation is integral to a growth mindset; in turn, a growth mindset
strengthens self-regulation. The capacity to manage challenges and frustrations
that emerge in play contributes to a growth mindset. Successful new learning
happens when challenges are present but are not too difficult or overwhelming.
A peer or educator can scaffold learning and contribute to regulating attention.
Children’s play with each other in early childhood programs can provide
multiple opportunities to promote a growth mindset. Educators can be explicit
about children’s learning. For example, “Look at the tower you built. It is very
tall and not falling over.” Such comments are beneficial when they are authentic
and relate to new evidence of learning. Bland generalities such as “that’s a nice
tower,” on the other hand, are not beneficial.
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Growth mindset
Underlying belief that one’s
qualities can be changed and
improved through one’s effort.
fixed mindset
Underlying belief that one’s
qualities are fixed and cannot
be changed.
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Social-Emotional Learning
Social-emotional
competence
Ability to regulate one’s own
emotions, behaviour and attention; to interact and get along
with others, solve problems
and communicate effectively.
Social-emotional
learning (SEL)
Social and emotional abilities
that support learning and
well-being.
Visit MindTap to learn more
about CASEL.
Social-emotional competence is recognized as an essential skill for life in the
21st century. A child’s lack of ability to regulate and modify emotions, shift attention, tolerate frustration and co-regulate with others interferes with children’s later
academic achievement (Shanker, 2013).
Social-emotional learning (SEL) is about a suite of competencies that
underpin children’s ability to learn, get along with others and be happy. Selfregulation of attention, emotions and behaviour is interconnected with SEL.
There are several different frameworks that define SEL for preschool
and school-age children. One of the most dominant frameworks comes from
the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), a
research, policy and practice centre based in the United States that supports
educators and policy leaders in ECE programs and in schools from kindergarten
to grade 12. CASEL defines SEL as “the process through which children and
adults understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel
and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and
make responsible decisions” (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
Learning [CASEL], 2012). CASEL identifies five SEL competencies: self-­
awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills and responsible
decision making. The same framework is used by several Canadian initiatives
that focus on SEL (e.g., Shanker, 2013). Educators can introduce preschool and
school-age children to SEL and self-regulation strategies.
Source: CASEL, https://casel.org.
Executive Function
Executive function, which is interconnected with self-regulation of attention and
behaviour. Yoga, music, aerobics, martial arts, storytelling, dancing, and games such as
Simon says support preschool and school-age children to acquire executive function
skills (Morton, 2013). Also, educators can encourage children to take part in dramatic
and socio-dramatic play where they learn to take on roles and follow an evolving plot.
Researchers report that activities that challenge children to solve problems,
such as doing a puzzle or finding hidden treasures in the playground, contribute
to executive function skills.
Trauma-Informed Practice
Trauma-informed
practice
Understanding, recognizing
and responding to the impact
of trauma.
Trauma-informed practice is a framework that involves understanding, recognizing
and responding to the impact of all types of trauma. Childhood trauma is defined
as “an actual or perceived danger that undermines a child’s sense of physical or
emotional safety or poses a threat to safety of that child’s parents or caregivers” that
then “overwhelms their coping ability and impacts their functioning and development” (Nicolson, Perez & Kurtz, 2018, p. viii). Trauma disrupts children’s ability to
regulate their emotions, behaviour and attention.
Source: Nicolson, J., Perez, L., & Kurtz, J. (2018). Trauma-informed practices for early
childhood educators: Relationship-based approaches that support healing and build resilience
in young children (1st ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
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Many young children who attend early childhood education programs
have experienced trauma such as abuse, neglect, violence or challenging family
circumstances. These experiences can have impacts that extend beyond childhood including higher risks for health problems, reduced academic achievement and difficulties in forming positive relationships (McCain, Mustard &
McCuaig, 2011).
Educators can support children experiencing trauma by supporting their
ability to self-regulate while they are playing, particularly their ability to self-­
regulate emotions. Educators can also consider how to reduce stressors in the
environment. Reducing noise levels and bright lights can reduce sensory stimulation that may be stressful. Soft places to sit, quiet places to be alone, and
soothing water play are examples of how the environment can support children.
Loud Noises
Three-year-old Fatima is in the playground sandbox at her preschool program.
She is humming to herself while she fills up a pail and dumps it onto a big pile of
sand she is making. A firetruck and police car with sirens blaring come down the
street outside the playground. Fatima immediately bursts into tears and screams
“Stop! Stop! Stop!”
Bronwyn, the preschool early childhood educator, quickly walks over and
crouches down beside Fatima. Bronwyn is at eye level with Fatima and says, “You
are safe here at preschool. The sirens are from the police car and firetruck that
are heading to help some people, but we are fine here at preschool. Let’s take a
deep breath together.” Bronwyn gently hugs Fatima and together they take several
deep breaths.
Fatima then sits close to Bronwyn and resumes filling up the pail with sand
and dumping it on the pile. Bronwyn comments “Fatima, your pile of sand is getting very high.”
Fatima is a recent newcomer in Canada. Her family fled the recent conflict in
Syria. Fatima was a toddler when they left their home in the middle of the night
amidst sirens, bombs, and other loud noises.
Learning
Together
LO 5.4
Consider:
How is Bronwyn supporting Fatima’s self-regulation?
Indigenous Curriculum Approaches
Effective Indigenous early childhood programs are generated by First Nations, Inuit,
Métis and non-status Indigenous communities. Indigenous and non-­Indigenous
early childhood settings require programming that values Indigenous languages
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and culture and is generated from the community rather than imposed on it.
Many approaches to measuring successful learning for Indigenous children have
focused on the classroom and have not sufficiently reflected knowledge acquired
through experiential learning, including learning from Elders, traditions, ceremonies, family and the workplace (Ball, 2008; Canadian Council on Learning, 2007;
Fearn 2006).
Indigenizing Practices
Chapter 4 introduced Indigenizing ECE practices in outdoor play that can
also be applied to curriculum approaches. Educators can respectfully include
Indigenous perspectives, cultures, languages and ways of knowing into the
early learning environments by seeking out the knowledge and advice of local
Indigenous communities.
ECE programs should obtain permission to use cultural materials or practices
by consulting first with Indigenous individuals, families and other Indigenous
community members. Educators should respect the unique community protocol; to obtain permission before using any Indigenous educational plans or
resources, educators should contact Indigenous education co-­ordinators, educators’ support workers or counsellors in their communities to identify local
resources and contacts such as Elders, chiefs, First Nations tribal or band councils, Aboriginal cultural centres, Aboriginal Friendship Centres, and Métis or
Inuit organizations.
Language Nests
Language nest
An immersion approach to
revitalize Indigenous languages
in early childhood education programs.
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In Canada, the legacy of residential schools includes the loss of Indigenous ­language
speakers because Indigenous children were forbidden to speak their language.
Today, knowledge of Indigenous languages varies widely across First Nations,
Inuit and Métis children (Halseth & Greenwood, 2019). Inuit children often have
more exposure to their culture and language than off-reserve First Nations and
Métis children.
Indigenous languages are primarily oral—the sound, meaning and relationships conveyed in the spoken word relate the essence of Indigenous
knowledges in a way that the written word cannot (Greenwood, 2016).
Indigenous languages acknowledge and respect the constantly changing
energy of the land.
Across Canada, Indigenous families are reclaiming their language and culture through a number of organizations and institutions. Language nests, a
curriculum approach that aims to promote Indigenous language learning for
young children, are being offered by several of these institutions. Language nest
programs are Indigenous cultural early childhood language immersion programs. Young children learn their Indigenous language through meaningful
interaction with proficient speakers, often community Elders. The language
nest approach uses only an Indigenous language without any English in the
early childhood program. This full immersion creates the “nest.” The approach
supports a natural way to learn a language rather than direct language
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instruction or specific times of the day or week for an Elder to take part in a
group time with the children. Language nest pedagogy is anchored in the ways
of the community and is grounded in sharing a specific local language and culture (Greenwood, 2016).
The concept of the language nest originated in New Zealand in the early
1980s as a part of Maori language revitalization and has served as a model for
other countries, including Canada. Some First Nations communities in British
Columbia and elsewhere in Canada have been working toward creating language nests (Greenwood, 2016). Language immersion programs are considered
to be the most successful way of reviving languages (McIvor, 2006; McIvor &
Parker, 2015).
Adapting Curriculum Approaches in Indigenous
Communities
Indigenous communities may indigenize curriculum approaches to reflect their
culture. In Australia, researchers and educators worked with Families as First
Teachers play groups located in schools in two remote Indigenous communities to
adapt the Abecedarian Approach. To date, they have found that the regular use of
the Conversational Reading and LearningGames components has increased children’s language and overall learning skills (Page et al., 2019). For the Conversational
Reading element, a simple see (notice what the child is looking at) show (child
points to parts of the picture or acts out an answer to a question about the book)
and say (child answers questions about the book) strategy guides adults’ interactions with children as they read picture books together. Parents and other family
members take part in the playgroup and are encouraged to use the same strategy
at home.
The Manidoo ECD Hub Centre at Lord
Selkirk Park—A Promising Initiative
Visit MindTap to learn more
about the literacy project
at Manidoo.
Making It
Happen
LO 5.3
The Abecedarian Approach began in a disadvantaged community in North Carolina
more than 50 years ago (Campbell et al., 2001; Campbell et al., 2008; Campbell
et al., 2014) where it was found to provide long-term benefits. It is now replicated
in what was once one of Canada’s most disadvantaged urban neighbourhoods—
Lord Selkirk Park, a public housing complex in Winnipeg’s North End. The enriched
early childhood education curriculum is offered to children aged 6 months to five
years in a child care centre attached to a family resource centre.
The centre started in February 2012 and is a collaboration of Red River College
(RRC), Healthy Child Manitoba, and a community organization, Manidoo Gi-Miini
Gonaan (The Great Spirit of Giving). Most of the children and several educators
are Indigenous.
(continued)
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Red River College provides professional learning and staff mentoring that
emphasizes consistent, intentional use of the Abecedarian approach with a focus
on language and literacy. Learning in the child care centre is enhanced by a home
visitor from the centre who can establish and maintain a connection with the family.
A recent study showed that early language development has increased after
two years in this program compared to a slight decline in control group children
(Stevens et al., 2019).
Consider:
Why do you think that the Abecedarian approach has been successful at
Manidoo ECD Hub Centre?
Summary
• Several curriculum approaches that include
• Educators can identify which curriculum
distinctive theories and practices are found in
today’s ECE programs across Canada.
• Curriculum approaches found in ECE programs
are based on theories and knowledge about how
children learn, values and beliefs about what
children know and can do, and children’s cultural context.
• Curriculum approaches can be considered
in the context of the continuum of playbased learning.
approaches best suit their own image of the
child and understanding about children’s
learning and well-being.
• Specific curriculum strategies support children’s
self-regulation.
• Curriculum approaches can reflect Indigenous
perspectives, knowledge and culture.
Review Questions
1. Describe the key elements of the following curriculum approaches: Montessori, developmentally appropriate practice, HighScope, Reggio
Emelia and emergent curriculum. LO 5.1
2. What does indigenizing practices mean? LO 5.2
3. How do the curriculum approaches described
in the chapter relate to the continuum of playbased learning? LO 5.3
4. Describe five curriculum strategies that support
children’s self-regulation. LO 5.4
Study Activities
1. Search online for information about the Reggio
Emilia approach. Prepare a presentation for
families to explain Reggio Emilia. LO 5.1
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2. Review Indigenous perspectives about childhood outlined in Chapter 2. How can educators
incorporate Indigenous values and beliefs about
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childhood in the design of ECE curriculum and
pedagogy? Prepare a short oral presentation for
educators. LO 5.2
3. Visit an early childhood program that is
implementing a specific curriculum approach.
Interview an educator about how their practice
implements the curriculum approach. If possible, record the interview with the educator’s
permission and share with your classmates.
LO 5.3
4. Explore the resources at MindUP (https://
mindup.org) designed to teach school-age
children skills and knowledge related to self-­
regulation and mindfulness. LO 5.4
5. Identify which curriculum approach(es) align
with your image of the child. LO 5.5
Key Terms
Caregiving (p. 94)
Curriculum approach (p. 90)
Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) (p. 95)
Didactic (p. 100)
Emergent curriculum (p. 97)
Fixed mindset (p. 101)
Growth mindset (p. 101)
Key developmental indicators (KDIs) (p. 95)
Language nest (p. 104)
Mindfulness (p. 101)
Reggio Emilia (p. 96)
Rote learning (p. 93)
Schoolification (p. 100)
Social-emotional competence (p. 102)
Social-emotional learning (SEL) (p. 102)
Trauma-informed practice (p. 102)
Suggested Readings
Conversational Reading. (2015). Abecedarian Approach Australia. Retrieved
September 9, 2020, at https://3a.education.unimelb.edu.au/assets/3a
-public/downloads/3A-Conversational-Reading-Booklet.pdf
Enriched Caregiving. (2015). Abecedarian Approach Australia. Retrieved
September 9, 2020, at https://3a.education.unimelb.edu.au/assets/3a
-public/downloads/3A-Enriched-Care-Booklet.pdf
Language Priority. (2015). Abecedarian Approach Australia. Retrieved
September 9, 2020, at https://3a.education.unimelb.edu.au/assets/3a
-public/downloads/3A-Language-Priority-Booklet.pdf
Pirurvik Preschool. (n.d.). Early childhood education: Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit &
Montessori, Pond Inlet, Nunavut. Retrieved September 9, 2020, at https://
www.pirurvikpreschool.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/IQ-Mont
-Pirurvik-GUIDE-English.pdf
For additional resources,
visit MindTap.
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Chapter
6
Early Learning
Frameworks
Learning Objectives
6.1 Identify key characteristics of early learning
frameworks in Canada and internationally.
6.3 Describe early learning frameworks in
Australia, New Zealand and Ireland.
6.2 Analyze the similarities and differences
among provincial and territorial early learning
frameworks in Canada.
6.4 Describe how early learning frameworks
inform practice and practice informs early
learning frameworks.
Early learning frameworks describe the purpose, goals and approaches in deciding
what is offered (curriculum) and how (pedagogy) in early childhood education
settings (Bertrand, 2012). They can bridge the ideas and practices considered in
the continuum of play-based learning, outdoor play pedagogy and across a range
of curriculum models. This chapter describes early learning frameworks across
Canada and in a select number of other countries.
The Purposes of Early Learning
Frameworks
Early learning
framework
Learning areas in ECE settings.
Early learning frameworks aim to “to encourage a shared sense of purpose between
parents and early childhood centres; to promote social and cultural values important
for society; to ensure a certain unity of standards and to inform and facilitate communication between staff, parents, and children” (Bennett, 2004, p. 1).
Early learning frameworks describe the purpose, goals and approaches in
deciding what is offered (curriculum) and how (pedagogy) in early childhood
education settings (Bertrand, 2012). They can bridge the ideas and practices
considered in the continuum of play-based learning (Chapter 3), in outdoor play
pedagogy (Chapter 4) and across a range of curriculum models (Chapter 5).
Early learning frameworks stimulate conversations among early childhood
educators and family members on values and beliefs about early learning. They
offer educators tools to plan and carry out early learning experiences that reflect
a framework’s vision and principles (Langford, 2012). They also build a common
understanding of quality practices across different types of settings, providing
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a common professional language and way of thinking about environments for
young children in a variety of programs. If early learning frameworks cover a
broad age range—for example, from infancy to age eight—they can contribute
to continuity of learning.
Early learning frameworks also serve to engage educators to reflect on their
own practice and to consider children’s families, communities and cultural background. The framework documents guide planning without enforcing a particular curriculum approach. Children’s daily experiences are recognized as part of
an integrated curriculum.
Early learning frameworks are holistic and typically differ from curriculum
guides for kindergarten to grade 12 education that are organized around subject
areas and specific learning outcomes. The early learning frameworks focus on
broad holistic goals such as social-emotional well-being, thinking and language
for learning instead of specific outcomes for subject areas.
Early Learning Frameworks in Canada
© Warren Goldswain/Shutterstock
Early learning frameworks are relatively recent additions to the practice of early
childhood education. Over the past 25 years Canadian and international jurisdictions developed early learning frameworks to support programming in early
childhood education settings (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018; Langford 2012; McCuaig,
2014). They were influenced by Te Wharki (Ministry of Education, New Zealand,
1996), an early learning framework developed in New Zealand that is described
later in this chapter. Te Wharki introduced a vision of young children as capable
learners and the notion of curriculum encompassing all that children experience
in an ECE environment. Echoes of Te Wharki are found across Canada’s early
learning framework.
Early childhood education policy reports from the Organisation
of Economic and Co-operative Development also influenced the initiation of Canadian early learning frameworks. Starting Strong (OECD,
2001) stated, “Developing appropriate pedagogical frameworks—­
general goals and guidelines—for work with young children is fundamental to raising and maintaining quality across ECEC [early childhood
education and care] systems across an ECEC system” (p. 109). The
report notes that pedagogical (or early learning) frameworks provide
values and pedagogical orientations for early childhood centres but
do not provide specific directions on how to achieve goals. Starting
Strong II (OECD, 2006) expanded the attention of policy makers and
ECE leaders to the use of pedagogical frameworks, noting the trend
toward early learning frameworks that guide the practice of educators.
In 2004, an OECD review of early childhood education and care
in Canada recommended a national quality framework:
Small children become confident learners
one small step at a time.
A statement of the values and goals that should guide early
childhood centres … to facilitate development and learning,
an outline of the knowledge, skills, dispositions and values
that children at different ages can be expected to master
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across broad developmental areas; and … pedagogical guidelines outlining the processes through which children achieve these goals, and
how educators should support them. (OECD, 2004, p. 11)
In Canada, the 2005 federal/provincial/territorial child care agreements
committed provinces and territories to develop detailed action plans to develop
early learning and child care (McCuaig, 2014). Provincial early learning frameworks that included statements of principles, approaches and tools to guide
practice in ECE settings began to appear across Canada.
Since 2004, provinces and territories have created individual early learning
frameworks to guide curriculum and pedagogy in early childhood education settings. In some jurisdictions the frameworks are intended for children from birth
to age five; in other jurisdictions the range extends to age eight years. While
each provincial and territorial framework is unique, all share common principles
and practices. The frameworks emphasize children’s play as the foundation of
early childhood education and recognize child-directed, educator-guided and
­educator-directed play. The frameworks are a guide for making decisions about
early childhood education practices.
Table 6.1 highlights the visions for children in early learning frameworks
across Canada. They are underpinned by an image of the child as competent and
capable and having a right to environments that allow for a happy childhood.
Table 6.1 ● Canadian Early Learning Frameworks
Early Learning Framework
Vision
Newfoundland and Labrador
“Children living in this province are respected, 0–8 years
valued, nurtured and supported to grow,
learn, and develop” (2019, p. 6).
Navigating the Early Years: An Early
Childhood Learning Framework
Nova Scotia
Capable, Confident and Curious: Nova
Scotia’s Early Learning Curriculum
Framework
Prince Edward Island
Early Learning Framework: Relationships,
Environments, Experiences
New Brunswick
New Brunswick Curriculum Framework for
Early Learning and Child Care
Quebec
Meeting Early Childhood Needs: Québec’s
Educational Program for Childcare Services
Update
Ontario
Early Learning for Every Child Today (ELECT)
How Does Learning Happen? Ontario’s
Pedagogy for the Early Years
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Age Range
“An image of a child who is curious, creative,
full of potential, capable and confident …”
(2018, p. 3).
0–5 years
“Children in PEI are healthy, happy, curious
and creative, playful and joyous” (2012,
p. 17).
0–5 years
“All children will grow to their fullest potential
with dignity, a sense of self-worth, and a zest
for living and learning” (2008, p. 1).
0–5 years
“… the child as being the primary architect of 0–5 years
his or her development and play as being the
privileged activity …” (Ministère de la Famille
et des Aînés, n.d., p. 71).
“Children are competent, capable of complex thinking, curious and rich in potential”
(Ontario Best Start Early Learning Panel,
2007, p. 6).
0–8 years
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Early Learning Framework
Vision
Age Range
Manitoba
“Early childhood and child care programs
demonstrate quality and foster social, emotional, physical and cognitive development of
children” (2011, p. 1).
0–5 years
“Early learning programs are holistic, responsive and developmentally appropriate” (p. 4).
0–5 years
“Potential of strong, active and energetic
early childhood communities grounded in the
rights of children and reflective of Alberta’s
diverse families” (Makovichuk et al., p. 6).
0–5 years
“Respectfully living and learning together”
(p. 44).
0–8 years
Early Returns: Manitoba’s Early Learning
and Child Care Curriculum Framework for
Preschool Centres and Nursery Schools;
Early Returns: Manitoba’s Early Learning and
Child Care Curriculum Framework for Infant
Programs
Saskatchewan
Play and Exploration: Early Learning Program
Guide
Alberta
Flight: Alberta’s Early Learning and Care
Framework
British Columbia
British Columbia Early Learning Framework
Northwest Territories
Northwest Territories Early
Learning Framework—
Nurturing Capable People from Birth to
School Entry
“Young children from birth to school entry
experience quality, nurturing and responsive early learning environments as they
grow and develop to live fulfilled lives as
Capable People and contribute to strong
healthy communities”
(p. 8).
Council of Ministers of Education,
Canada (CMEC)
CMEC Early Learning and Development
Framework
“Critical skills for the 21st Century include
creativity and imagination, problem-solving
and critical thinking, communication and
collaboration. … personal/social awareness,
ethics and responsibility, as well as awareness of one’s positive personal, cultural and
linguistic identities” (p. 7).
0–8 years
1 Early learning frameworks are in development in Yukon and Nunavut.
LO 6.2
Newfoundland and Labrador—Navigating the Early Years:
An Early Childhood Learning Framework A sense of belonging is
fostered when children feel they are loved, valued, and included both within
their own family unit and in society as a whole. Children feel they belong when
they are accepted and understood in the contexts of their cultures. Children
experience belonging when they are free to express themselves in ways that
are meaningful to them (Government of Newfoundland & Labrador [NL
Department of Education and Early Child Development], 2019, p. 32).
A fisher’s knot, which represents Newfoundland and Labrador culture, is
used as a symbol of the province’s early childhood learning framework. Each of
the four coloured strands in the fisher’s knot represents one of the framework’s
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early learning goals: well-being and belonging, communication, play and exploration, and social contribution.
Each goal impacts the overall development of a child and draws strength
from the others. If one strand is frayed, the strength of the knot is compromised.
The framework encourages a holistic approach to the development of
children. Like the interwoven strands of the Fisher’s Knot, the framework
respects the strength of the whole during the critical period of early childhood
(Government of Newfoundland & Labrador [NL Department of Education and
Early Child Development], 2019, p. xiii).
Newfoundland and Labrador’s early learning framework is designed for
early childhood settings for children from birth to eight years old. It is organized
into seven sections:
1. Overview of the research findings related to early learning and child
development and discussion of how a framework supports young
­children’s learning.
2. Introduction and description of the framework’s purpose, vision
and scope.
3. Principles of early learning comprise three broad categories: who we are,
our connections and how we learn. The principles are written from the
perspective of a child to emphasize the child’s perspective. Each category includes several elements. “Who we are” includes individuality,
diversity and citizenship; “Our connections” includes parents, caregivers,
families, friends, community of care, and growing up in Newfoundland
and Labrador. “How we learn” includes learning environments, play and
­inquiry-based learning, and effective communication.
4. Goals for early childhood learning based on evidence-based practices to
promote the role of educators and to bring consistency and cohesion to
their work. The goals include well-being and belonging, communication,
play and exploration, and social contribution.
5. Connections that educators share with other adults who care for children
to strengthen children’s optimal learning and development. The section
emphasizes connections between educators and families.
6. Glossary of early terms used in the framework.
7. Bibliography of references and resources used to develop
the framework.
Nova Scotia—Capable, Confident and Curious: Nova Scotia’s
Early Learning Curriculum Framework Everyone’s Image of the
Child shapes their decisions and beliefs about how children learn. The image
influences the types of early learning environments that are provided for
children, the role of the educators in preparing early learning environments, and
relationships with children and families. If an educator believes that children are
capable human beings, that their ideas and interests matter, and that their natural
curiosity and love of learning inspires them to explore their environments—
then the early childhood environment will be designed and structured to allow
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Table 6.2 ● CAPABLE, CONFIDENT and CURIOUS: Nova Scotia’s Early Learning
Curriculum Framework—Principles and Practices
Principles
Practices
1. Play-based learning
2. Relationships
3. Inclusion, diversity and equity
4. The learning environment
5. Reflective practice
1. Adopting holistic approaches that recognize the integrated nature of
children’s learning and development
2. Being responsive to children
3. Teaching intentionally
4. Valuing the cultural and social contexts of children, their families and
communities
5. Providing for continuity in experiences and enabling children to have
successful transitions throughout early childhood
6. Using authentic assessment to monitor and support children’s
learning and development
Source: https://www.ednet.ns.ca/docs/nselcurriculumframework.pdf.
LO 6.1
children to explore, use their senses, and confidently express their own ideas
and opinions (Nova Scotia Department of Education and Early Childhood
Development, 2018, p. 9).
Nova Scotia’s Early Learning Curriculum Framework is based on a set of five
principles and six practices summarized in Table 6.2.
CAPABLE, CONFIDENT and CURIOUS: Nova Scotia’s Early Learning
Curriculum Framework also has broad learning goals: well-being, discovery and
invention, language and communication, and personal and social responsibility.
Together they guide educators’ reflection and critical thinking. They form the
basis for assessment of children’s learning and holistic development. Each of the
learning goals is supported by learning objectives as listed below.
Prince Edward Island—Early Learning Framework: Relation­
ships, Environments, Experiences Children’s play is rich in its
complexity. When children are engaged in play, and especially in socio-dramatic
play, they are creating their own meaningful fantasy worlds. During this type
of play, children are able to reconstruct and test out theories or concepts in a secure,
safe manner where the child is in control of the situation. By assuming various roles
and responsibilities in the play activity, the child is able to integrate the learning
that comes from reviewing and re-thinking the experience (Flanagan, 2012, p. 17).
In Prince Edward Island, Early Learning Framework: Relationships, Environ­
ments, Experiences is the curriculum framework of the Preschool Excellence
Initiative. It outlines four broad goals for early learning:
1. well-being;
2. play and playfulness;
3. communication and literacies; and
4. diversity and social responsibility.
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Table 6.3 ● CAPABLE, CONFIDENT AND CURIOUS: Nova Scotia’s Early Learning
Curriculum Framework—Learning Goals and Objectives
Learning Goals
Learning Objectives
Well-being
Children feel safe, secure and supported.
Children become strong in their social and emotional well-being.
Children take increasing responsibility for their own health and physical
well-being.
Children develop knowledge and confident self-identities (p. 49).
Discovery and Invention
Children develop dispositions for learning such as curiosity, cooperation, confidence, creativity, commitment, enthusiasm, persistence,
and imagination.
Children develop a range of skills and processes such as problem-solving,
inquiry, experimentation, hypothesizing, researching, and investigating
(p. 51).
Language and Communication
Children interact verbally and non-verbally with others for a range
of purposes.
Children engage with a range of texts and gain meaning from these texts.
Children express ideas and make meaning using a range of media.
Children begin to understand how symbols and patterns systems work
Children use information and communication technologies to access information, investigate ideas and represent their thinking.
Acadian and Francophone children in French minority language communities develop a strong foundation in French (p. 52).
Personal and Social Responsibility
Children learn to interact in relation to others with care, empathy
and respect.
Children develop a sense of belonging to groups and communities and an
understanding of the reciprocal rights and responsibilities necessary for
active community participation.
Children respond to diversity with respect.
Children become aware of fairness.
Children become socially responsible and show respect for the environment (p. 54).
Source: Nova Scotia Department of Education and Early Child Development, 2018.
New Brunswick—Curriculum Framework for Early Learning
and Child Care The uniqueness of each child is implicitly integrated into
the philosophy of early learning and child care that underlines the framework.
By design, the curriculum will not merely accommodate, but actively honour
the diversity of New Brunswick’s children and their languages and heritages.
This is a challenging and daunting task, one that requires a clear vision and a
resourceful, collaborative, and creative approach to providing for our youngest
citizens’ full participation in the social and cultural life of their communities
(Early Childhood Research and Development Team, 2008, p. 2).
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The New Brunswick Curriculum Framework for Early Learning and Child
Care provides a foundation for an emergent curriculum for children from birth to
five years. It aims to “encourage optimum development in an atmosphere of trust,
security and respect” (Early Childhood Research and Development Team, 2008,
p. 3). Play is viewed as integral to children’s learning and richly formative in their
capacity for relationships, based on the belief that play must be accorded a key
place in the lives of young children. Research and theory support the long-held
contention that play is essential to quality of life in childhood and a primary means
of understanding the world. Consequently, this curriculum framework articulates
ways educators can maximize the potential of play for children’s care and learning.
Quebec—Meeting Early Childhood Needs: Québec’s Educa­
tional Program for Childcare Services Update and Quebec
Education Program: Preschool Education
A child learns by exploring, interacting, observing, imitating and listening:
the child’s thoughts are structured on the basis of what the child sees,
hears, touches or feels and on the basis of the relationships that the child
has with the adults and the children around him or her. This is active
learning: it is by acting that the child learns about him or herself, about
others and about his or her environment. Engaging in a gesture, an action
or an activity, with help at first, then without, enables a child to develop
self-confidence and autonomy. (Meeting Early Childhood Needs, n.d., p. 18)
Meeting Early Childhood Needs: Quebec’s Educational Program for Childcare
Services Update outlines the educational program for child care programs in
Quebec. It identifies five principles:
1. Each child is unique.
2. Children are the primary agents of their development.
3. Child development is a comprehensive, integrated process.
4. Children learn through play.
5. Cooperation between child care personnel or home child care providers
and parents is essential for the harmonious development of the child.
The framework stipulates that the educational program should be organized to foster children’s overall development, particularly their emotional,
social, moral, cognitive, language, physical and motor development. Also, the
program should help children to adapt gradually to life in society and to integrate harmoniously.
The Quebec Education Program: Preschool Education is the guide for curriculum in Quebec’s four-year-old kindergarten programs. This document promotes play and spontaneous activities, with a view to getting children to express
themselves, experiment, construct their learnings, structure their thoughts and
develop their worldview. They learn to be themselves, to interact with others and
to solve problems. They develop their imagination and creativity. Spontaneous
activity and play are their way of mastering reality; this justifies giving play a
central place in preschool education and organizing the space and time accordingly. At the time of publication of this text, revised curriculum frameworks for
Quebec ECE programs were not translated from French to English.
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Ontario—Early Learning for Every Child Today (ELECT) and
How Does Learning Happen? Ontario’s Pedagogy for the Early
Learning Years Early Learning for Every Child Today brings together
established research findings and diverse perspectives, beliefs and recommended
practices. It recognizes that families, communities and cultures hold distinct
values about how young children should experience and interact with the world
around them.
“Values are complemented by detailed attention to the early child development research in the fields of early childhood education, family studies, developmental psychology, neurosciences, anthropology, sociology, pediatrics and
epidemiology” (Ontario Best Start Panel on Early Learning, 2007, p. 7).
Setting out and acting on a strong image of children, families, and educators has a profound impact on what happens in early years settings.
Reflecting on a shared understanding and working towards greater
consistency between what we say and what we do provides a means
to strengthen and transform early years programs across the province
(Government of Ontario, 2014, p. 6).
In Ontario, Early Learning for Every Child Today (ELECT) (Ontario Best
Start Panel on Early Learning, 2007) and How Does Learning Happen? Ontario’s
Pedagogy for the Early Years (Government of Ontario, 2014) accommodate a
variety of curriculum models and pedagogical methods that are consistent with
six guiding principles:
1. Early child development sets the foundation for lifelong learning,
behaviour and health.
2. Partnerships with families and communities strengthen the ability of early
childhood settings to meet the needs of young children.
3. Respect for diversity, equity and inclusion are prerequisites for honouring
children’s rights, optimal development and learning.
4. A planned curriculum supports early learning.
5. Play is a means to early learning that capitalizes on children’s natural curiosity and exuberance.
6. Knowledgeable, responsive early childhood professionals are essential.
Source: © Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 2014. Reproduced with permission.
Manitoba—Early Returns: Manitoba’s Early Learning and
Child Care Curriculum Framework for Preschool Centres
and Nursery Schools and Early Returns: Manitoba’s Early
Learning and Child Care Curriculum Framework for Infant
Programs The child-centred approach to curriculum is focused on meeting
the needs of each child and built around the idea that children create their
own knowledge and learn through active involvement in play. As children grow
and develop, play changes, so their interactions, relationships, environments
and experiences must evolve with them. Observe children during play. Watch
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for play experiences that engage other children and transform the children’s
space and materials. Write notes and reflect on what you see and hear to
discover children’s interests and abilities, and share these notes with co-workers
(Government of Manitoba, 2011, p. 7).
In Manitoba, Early Returns: Manitoba’s Early Learning and Child Care Curriculum
Framework for Preschool Centres and Nursery Schools is used to develop, describe
and enhance curriculum in preschool/child care centres and nursery schools. It
identifies four key principles: holistic child development, learning through play,
inclusion and diversity.
Manitoba’s framework promotes fostering the social, emotional, physical
and cognitive development of children, and the design of play-based, developmentally appropriate interactions, relationships and environments, as well as
planned and spontaneous experiences that provide opportunities for all children
in the program to develop to their fullest potential.
Early Returns: Manitoba’s Early Learning and Child Care Curriculum
Framework for Infant Programs (Government of Manitoba, 2014) supports
curriculum design in programs for infants. “How staff plan for and respond to
infants is based on goals for children’s social, emotional, physical and cognitive
development. Staff must understand and respond to the abilities, interests and
needs of each child. The infant is the centre of curriculum” (Government of
Manitoba, 2014, p. 2). The infant framework notes that the caregiving routines,
exploration and play create learning opportunities and provide opportunities for
responsive interactions.
Saskatchewan—Play and Exploration: Early Learning Program
Guide The educator creates an environment that reflects children’s strengths
and interests, and which supports the child’s holistic growth. When children
are viewed as capable, competent and full of ideas, adults begin to observe and
listen to the ideas children contribute, fostering a shared learning opportunity
between adults and children. (Government of Saskatchewan, 2013, p. 9).
In Saskatchewan, the Play and Exploration: Early Learning Program Guide aims to
encourage stimulating and dynamic regulated child care environments that facilitate and guide play in regulated early childhood education programs. Exploration
and discovery are viewed as important processes in enhancing children’s holistic
development. Early childhood educators are encouraged to support children’s
learning in an environment that stimulates exploration, curiosity and interactions
with others.
Saskatchewan’s pre-kindergarten programs for three- and four-year-old children use Better Beginnings, Better Futures: Effective Practices Policy and Guidelines
for Prekindergarten in Saskatchewan, 2008, a document that serves as a guide to
holistic, developmentally appropriate and caring learning programs. It focuses on
the healthy development of the whole child—social-emotional, physical, intellectual and spiritual. It includes an extensive list of developmental benchmarks
for each of these domains. Family engagement and community partnerships are
also foundational components.
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Alberta—Flight: Alberta’s Early Learning and Care Framework
An early learning and child care curriculum framework is different than
a traditional curriculum. In early childhood, curriculum is focused on broad
holistic goals rather than specific outcomes for each subject area. Early learning
and child care curriculum frameworks embrace children’s everyday experiences
as the sources of curriculum meaning making. Early childhood educators use the
goals in the curriculum framework to describe and interpret children’s everyday
experiences (Makovichuk et al., 2014, p. 4).
The principles and learning goals outlined in Alberta’s early learning framework
are informed by the one created in New Brunswick in 2008. Also, principles adapt
those of the Alberta Education Kindergarten Program Statement to encourage continuity between the ECE programs and formal schooling for children and families
in Alberta.
The principles are:
• Children’s life-long health, well-being, learning and behaviour are strongly
connected to their early childhood experience.
• Childhoods differ depending on social, cultural and e­ conomic
circumstances.
• Children interact and learn in multiple learning communities and their
learning is profoundly influenced by the relationships within and between
these communities and, specifically, with respect to the relationship with
the family.
• Children thrive when they are nurtured in close, consistent relationships,
and their families benefit from these close caring relationships as well.
• Children are active co-constructors of knowledge through first-hand
experiences in reciprocal relationships with people and things in
their environment.
• Children are unique learners who construct and represent knowledge using
multimodal literacies for exploration and expression.
• Children are citizens and active participants in society (Makovichuk
et al., 2014).
The four learning goals are well-being, play and playfulness, communication
and literacies, and diversity and social responsibility.
British Columbia—British Columbia Early Learning Framework
“The Early Learning Framework is an invitation to re-envision early care and
learning spaces, education systems, and society. It is intended to promote dialogue
about understandings of childhood, knowledge, education, and learning” (British
Columbia Ministry of Education, 2019, p. 11).
The revised early learning framework was launched in 2019 and acknowledges changing perspectives. The age focus expanded from birth to five years
to birth to grade 3, and there are explicit links to BC’s Core Competencies for
children from kindergarten to grade 3. The revisions acknowledge the impact of
colonization of Indigenous people and aim to contribute to reconciliation. There
is a shift in language. For example, the terms “living inquiries” and “pathways”
replace “areas of learning” and “learning goals,” respectively.
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The principles in the revised framework are:
• Children are strong, capable and full of potential.
• Families have the most important role in contributing to children’s wellbeing and learning.
• Early years spaces are inclusive.
• People build connection and reconnection to the land, culture, community
and place.
• Environments are integral to well-being and learning.
• Play is integral to well-being and learning.
• Relationships are the context for well-being and learning.
• Learning is holistic.
• The living inquiries are:
–– Well-being and belonging
–– Engagement with others, materials, and the world
–– Communications and literacies
–– Identities, social responsibility, and diversity (British Columbia Ministry
of Education, 2019, p. 15).
The BC Early Learning Framework has extensive information on, and input
from, Indigenous communities. The framework incorporates the First Peoples
Principles of Learning (First Nations Education Steering Committee, 2012), which
is described as “an expression of the shared wisdom of Elders from Indigenous communities throughout British Columbia” (British Columbia Ministry of Education,
2019, p. 14). The First Peoples Principles of Learning are that learning:
• Ultimately supports the well-being of the self, the family, the community,
the land, the spirits and the ancestors
• Is holistic, reflexive, reflective, experiential and relational
• Involves recognizing the consequences of one’s actions
• Involves generational roles and responsibilities
• Recognizes the role of Indigenous knowledge
• Is embedded in memory, history and story
• Involves patience and time
• Requires exploration of one’s identity
• Involves recognizing that some knowledge is sacred and only shared with
permission and/or in certain situations
The BC Early Learning Framework recognizes Indigenous context in
Canada and the Truth and Reconciliation report (National Centre for Truth and
Reconciliation, 2015). The report calls for culturally appropriate ECE programs
for Indigenous children and articulates the rights of Indigenous families and
communities to share responsibility for the education and well-being of their
children (British Columbia Ministry of Education, 2019).
Federal—CMEC Early Learning and Development Framework
As children explore with their senses, bodies and minds, investigating their
questions and ideas, developing and testing theories about the world around
them, they are building capacities for critical thinking and reasoning, creativity,
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and imagination. These skills are essential for school success across subject areas
from science to the arts. It is the role of the early learning and development
educator to observe and document the learning from children’s play as well as
to serve as facilitator and provocateur of their learning (CMEC Early Childhood
Learning and Development Working Group, 2014).
The Early Childhood Learning and Development Working Group of the
Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC) developed the CMEC Early
Learning and Development Framework. It builds on provincial and territorial
objectives and attempts to offer a pan-Canadian approach to early learning and
development to inform the development of provincial and territorial frameworks.
Learning
Together
LO 6.4
ECE Program in an
Indigenous Community
George is an Elder who shares his Cree community’s language and culture through
his participation in the ECE program located in the local community centre. He
tells stories of the four seasons and of how ancestors lived and honoured Mother
Earth. Sometimes he retells stories about hunting with his family when he was a
young boy. He introduces Cree vocabulary and asks children to repeat the words
with him.
One day after a story about hunting, four of the children acted out the story,
pretending to take on roles as hunters. The children often tell their own stories
about family life and community feasts. One of the educators records George’s
stories so that they can be reheard and posted online for families. The centre
plans to print the stories with English and Cree text with pictures created by the
children. The printed stories can be available at the centre and children can take
a copy home.
Consider:
How does this experience illustrate practices that support the principle of
belonging that is included in most of the early learning frameworks?
Similarities and Differences Among Canadian Early
Learning Frameworks
Early learning frameworks across Canada have many similarities (McCuaig, 2014).
Families and communities are understood to be partners who have a role in the
program’s ability to meet the needs of young children. Respect for diversity,
equity and inclusion are embraced as essential for optimal well-being. A planned,
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play-based curriculum is recognized as optimal to leverage children’s natural curiosity and exuberance to learn. Jurisdictions continue to add to their frameworks
with resources to enrich programming.
However, there are also differences among Canadian early learning frameworks. These can be connected to differing theoretical perspectives and
understanding of childhood. One area with different perspectives is child development theory.
Ontario’s Early Learning for Every Child Today (Ontario Best Start Panel on
Early Learning, 2007) includes a continuum of development for overlapping age
groups—infants from birth to 24 months; toddlers from 14 months to 3 years;
preschool/kindergarten from 2.6 to 6 years, and school-age from 5 to 6 years. It
is organized into five broad developmental domains: social; emotional; communication, language and literacy; cognition; and physical. Root skills and related
indicators are identified within each of the domains.
The continuum of development is not intended to be a rigid checklist of
developmental milestones but a guide for educators to better understand what
they are observing and what to expect might come next. It describes predictable
sequences of development but states that it is not a “lock step, universal pattern
of skills that should be achieved according to a specific timetable” (Ontario Best
Start Panel on Early Learning, 2007, p. 22). It provides a reference point that is
one contribution to interpreting observations of children in ECE programs and
to focus planning of learning experiences. Other contributions such as culture,
context and families are also highlighted.
Including developmental domains and trajectories in early learning frameworks is criticized by other recent initiatives. The British Columbia Early
Learning Framework (BC Government, 2019) challenges the dominance of the
mid–20th century developmental theories (described in Chapter 2) that set out
age-related stages of development. The British Columbia framework recommends avoiding a tool such as the continuum of development that is included
in Ontario’s framework.
International Early Learning Frameworks
Just as the developers of Canadian early learning frameworks have learned from
each other, the exchange of ECE ideas extends across countries. In this section,
early learning frameworks from New Zealand, Australia and Ireland are described.
– riki, New Zealand
Te Wha
Early childhood curriculum framework Te Wha–riki launched in 1996 and is based
on the concept of a wha–riki, an Indigenous Maori word for woven mat. The term
highlights the idea of how different strands are interconnected to build the curriculum framework. The strands comprise four guiding principles—empowerment,
holistic way, family and community, and relationships— and five aims for children:
well-being, belonging, contribution, communication and exploration.
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learning stories
Narrative descriptions about a
child or a group of children’s
learning that is prepared by
educators from the perspective
of the child and may include
contributions from children
and/or families.
In Te Wha–riki, the curriculum is described as “the sum total of the experiences, activities, and events, whether direct or indirect, which occur within an
environment designed to foster children’s learning and development” (Ministry
of Education, New Zealand, 1996, p. 10). Its overarching aspiration for children is “to grow up as competent and confident learners and communicators,
healthy in mind, body, and spirit, secure in their sense of belonging and in the
knowledge that they make a valued contribution to society” (p. 9). Te Wha–riki
highlights the need for educators in each ECE program to adapt the curriculum
in response to the development and changing capabilities of the children at
the program.
Te Wha–riki influenced early learning frameworks in many countries, particularly Australia and Canada. It aligns with the growing interest over the past
two decades in emergent and Reggio Emilia curriculum approaches, which were
described in Chapter 5. It also championed and continues to champion a playbased learning approach, in contrast to a school readiness approach that focuses
on literacy and numeracy achievements.
Te Wha–riki introduced the use of narratives called learning stories, rather
than testing to assess children’s learning.
An extensive review of Te Wha–riki led to an update in 2017 comprising
two documents: Te Wha–rikiHe wha–riki ma–tauranga mo– nga– mokopuna o Aotearoa
Early childhood curriculum and Te Wha–riki a te Ko–hanga Reo. The two documents
are in one book that shows the unique Indigenous curriculum pathway for children in Ko–hanga Reo and a bicultural pathway for children in early childhood
education. However, the principles, strands and goals of Te Wha–riki remain the
same. There are far fewer learning outcomes and there are clear links to the
learning that happens at school/kura.
Te Wha–riki is online at http://tewhariki.tki.org.nz. The website includes
information and many resources. More information is available at www.
ero.govt.nz/publications/working-with-te-whariki/appendix-4-prescribedcurriculum-framework.
Australia
Belonging, Being and Becoming Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) (DEEWR,
2009), is Australia’s mandated framework for educators in ECE programs. It
offers guidance in designing quality programs for children and outlines early
childhood principles and practices that benefit young children’s learning from
birth to five years of age as they transition to school. The Early Years Learning
Framework identifies broad learning outcomes that early childhood teachers
and educators can use to describe and interpret children’s experiences and
to assess and communicate children’s progress. It also describes pedagogical
practices for the ongoing cycle of planning, documenting and evaluating children’s learning.
EYLF was a collaborative initiative led by the Government of Australia with
input from educators and early childhood teachers, early childhood academics
and all levels of government.
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Internationally it is aligned with pedagogical directions from Italy’s Reggio
Emilia and New Zealand’s Te Whariki. It is grounded in a play-based learning
approach that values child-directed experiences and inquiry. Play-based learning
is described in the EYLF as “a context for learning through which children organise and make sense of their social worlds, as they actively engage with people,
objects and representations” (DEEWR, 2009, p. 46).
My Time, Our Place: Framework for School Age Care in Australia (DEEWR,
2011) is a national framework for school-age care for children from 5 to 12 years.
It was created to assist educators to plan before- and after-school programs that
would extend children’s learning and well-being beyond their school time. My
Time, Our Place is coordinated with Australia’s early learning framework for
younger children in ECE programs. The principles, practices and outcomes
extend to the full range of before- and after-school programs.
My Time, Our Place (DEEWR, 2009) promotes opportunities for leisure
and play-based experiences that meet the interests of school-age children. It
embraces the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which
includes the right to relax and play and join in a wide range of cultural, artistic
and other recreation experiences.
The educators guide for My Time, Our Place reports what school-age children want in a before- and after-school program:
Visit MindTap to learn more
about educational ­frameworks
from Australia and New
Zealand, including Te Whariki.
• A space to hang out that is different or separate from younger children in a
related ECE program
• Control about how they spend their recreation and leisure time
• Privacy and spaces to chill out and relax (DEEWR, 2012)
My Time, Our Time recognizes that before- and after-school programs are in
a unique position. School-age children are able to articulate what they want and
need in more detail than younger children; their thinking skills are more complex.
Their capacity to collaborate with each other is more extensive. Before- and afterschool programs can make it possible for children to be in the lead in program
planning. When this happens, educators can join in and can provide resources.
Ireland
In 2009 Ireland introduced Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Aistear
(NCCA, 2009) for ECE programs for children from birth to age six. Aistear is
the Irish word for “journey.” It references the idea that young children are on
their journey as lifelong learners. The framework is organized around four areas
of early learning: well-being, identity and belonging, communication, exploring
and thinking. It celebrates early childhood as a time of being and of enjoying and
learning from experiences as they happen.
Aistear was inspired and informed by Te Wharki and extensive consultation
with educators, children, parents, post-secondary education institutions and professional learning leaders, researchers and policy makers. Four research papers
gathered evidence about the relationship of education and care perspectives,
how children learn and develop, how play benefits children’s learning, and how
formative assessment supports early learning.
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formative assessment
Using observations to assess
or take stock of what a child
knows and can do for the
purpose of planning future
learning opportunities.
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Research
Into
Practice
LO 6.4
The Voices of Children
Aistear included children’s views and input from a study, Listening for Children’s
Stories: Children as Partners in the Framework for Early Learning (NCCA, 2007),
which gave children the opportunity to voice their experiences in ECE programs.
Researchers listened to 12 children ranging in age from nine months to six years
in 11 ECE settings. The researchers also joined them in their routines and activities. A narrative description was shaped by the verbal and nonverbal interactions
between the researcher and a child. The descriptions told the story about what
children actually experienced and what they thought about their experiences.
The researchers learned that what mattered to children were many of the
same things that are revealed in other types of research. Play was important to
children—particularly outdoor play. Other themes included the role of relationships, connection to family, the power of communication through multiple movements (such as dancing, gesturing, jumping, running, etc.), belonging, culture and
diversity, and the importance of observing and listening to children.
Consider:
Why is this type of a study valuable for understanding early learning environments in ECE programs?
Source: NCCA, 2007.
Shared Focus
Visit MindTap to learn more
about Aistear.
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The Canadian and international early learning frameworks discussed in this chapter
reveal many common themes such as image of the child, relationships, well-being,
and diversity and inclusion. The theme of play-based learning in ECE programs is
a central approach to curriculum and pedagogical practices in Canadian and the
majority of international early learning frameworks. The continuum of play-based
learning described in Chapter 3 includes a range of strategies and experiences from
free play to learning games. The same range is found in the examples of curriculum
approaches in Chapter 5.
The presence of play in early learning frameworks—and the research described
in Chapter 3—recognizes that play is what matters most to young children.
Learning is the other half of play-based learning and is also central in the
early learning frameworks and curriculum approaches. Specific pedagogical
strategies to support learning vary from free play to learning games but they
share a common emphasis on intentional teaching—a key professional practice discussed in Chapter 9. It includes observation, documentation, planning and assessment, which are the components of the cycle discussed in
Chapter 9.
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Good Education Cares; Good Care Educates
Education and care components are recognized in the current language used to
describe licensed or regulated ECE programs, such as child care centres, nursery
schools and preschools, which are usually not part of public education. In Canada,
the current federal government initiatives introduced in 2015 uses the term “early
learning and child care.” Internationally, the term “early childhood education and
care” is common.
Recall the history of ECE programs in Canada outlined in Chapter 2. The
development of the “care” and “education” sectors over the past 150 years presents challenges in creating coherent ECE programs and systems in Canada and
elsewhere. Early Years Study 4 (McCain, 2020) recognizes the relationship
between care and education and notes that quality care provides learning opportunities, while early learning environments provide care for children.
The early learning frameworks emphasize the role of educators in ECE
programs in ensuring that learning takes place in daily routines and that
learning opportunities are offered in a caring manner. One of the research
papers for Ireland’s early learning framework describes the care and education as inseparable (Hayes, 2007). The framework proposes “a ‘nurturing
pedagogy’ which emphasises children’s feelings and dispositions such as motivation, confidence, perseverance, and how they see themselves as learners.
It promotes communication, thinking and problem-solving skills” (NCCS,
2007 p. 1).
The early learning frameworks included in this chapter agree with a nurturing pedagogy. Educators are encouraged to talk with and listen to children,
and to learn and explore alongside children. Educators are also encouraged to
observe, reflect and interpret what children say and do as they plan for future
learning experiences.
© Paffy69/istock.com
Children are curious
and explore the world
around them.
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What Is the Impact of Early Learning Frameworks?
Canada’s provinces and territories and other countries have invested and continue
to invest considerable time and financial resources in the development and distribution of their respective early learning frameworks. Also, many have created
resources and professional learning opportunities to assist with the implementation
of the frameworks in early childhood education programs. Post-secondary ECE
programs have revised course content to accommodate including their province’s
or country’s framework in the preparation of educators. So, have the early learning
frameworks made a difference?
To date, there is an absence of studies about how the effects early learning
frameworks and related guidelines and resources have had on educators’ practices
or children’s experiences in ECE programs. A group of Australian researchers
point to the need to build a cumulative knowledge base from across countries
that could track the impact of early learning frameworks (Sumsion, Harrison &
Bradley, 2018).
Summary
• Early learning frameworks are designed to
• Early learning frameworks from Australia, New
use children’s everyday experiences as the
starting point for curriculum and pedagogy in
ECE programs.
• Early learning frameworks are grounded in a
shared vision or principle of an image of the
child as competent and an active learner.
• In Canada, each province has developed an
early learning framework to guide professional
practice in ECE programs. The territories have
frameworks in development.
Zealand and Ireland have many similarities
with those in Canada. Australia has developed
a framework to guide practice in before- and
after-school programs.
• All of the frameworks emphasize play-based
learning as central to ECE programs. The frameworks differ in how child development pathways or trajectories are presented.
Review Questions
1. Describe the common characteristics of early
learning frameworks in Canada. LO 6.1
2. What are the unique features in the early
learning framework in your province? LO 6.2
3. Describe early learning frameworks in Australia,
New Zealand and Ireland. LO 6.3
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4. Describe how early learning frameworks inform
practice and practice informs early learning
frameworks. LO 6.4
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Study Activities
1. Visit a local ECE program and observe one of
the play areas. Notice what is posted on display
boards at the centre’s entrance and in the play
area. What evidence do you see that relates
to the principles and practices outlined in the
early learning framework in your province or
territory? LO 6.4
2. Compare your provincial or territorial early
learning framework with one for another jurisdiction. Prepare a graphic that illustrates what is
similar and what is different. LO 6.2
3. Visit the websites listed in Table 6.1 on
pages 110–111 for provincial early learning
frameworks and check for new messages on the
home page or landing page for each one. Create
a PowerPoint presentation or a large poster with
the updated messages you have found on the
websites. LO 6.1
4. Review an online overview of Norway’s Early
Childhood Education and Care Curriculum
Framework for Kindergartens (the term used
for ECE programs for children from 0 to
5 years). Identify similarities with Canadian and
international early learning frameworks that are
described in this chapter. Prepare a short oral
report that highlights the similarities you have
found and present to your peers or record it for
a short podcast. LO 6.3
Key Terms
Early learning framework (p. 108)
Formative assessment (p. 123)
Learning stories (p. 122)
Suggested Readings
Australian Government Department of Education, Employment and
Workplace Relations. My time, our place: Educators guide to school-age child
care in Australia. https://www.ecrh.edu.au/docs/default-source/resources/
educators’-guide-to-the-framework-for-school-age-care/educators-39
-guide-to-the-framework-for-school-age-care.pdf?sfvrsn=6
Early Learning and Child Care Branch. (2010). Play and exploration for infants
and toddlers, a companion booklet to play and exploration: Early learning pro­
gram guide, fall 2010. Regina, SK: Government of Saskatchewan.
Early Learning and Child Care Branch Essential. (n.d.). Children first: A
resource for kindergarten. Regina, SK: Government of Saskatchewan.
https://www.edonline.sk.ca/bbcswebdav/library/Curriculum%20Website/
Kindergarten/Resources/Core/Children%20First%20A%20Resource%20
for%20Kindergarten.pdf
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For additional resources,
visit MindTap.
Early Learning and Child Care Branch Essential. (n.d.). Learning experiences:
For three, four and five year olds. Regina, SK: Government of Saskatchewan.
https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=Essential+
Learning+Experiences:+For+Three,+Four+and+Five+Year+Olds+
Regina&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8
Government of Manitoba. (2017). Starting early, starting strong. Retrieved
September 9, 2020, at https://www.gov.mb.ca/healthychild/ecd/ecd_
birthto6_playbased.pdf
Government of Ontario. (2014). An introduction to How does learning happen
for educators. Retrieved September 9, 2020, at http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/
childcare/EducatorsEn.pdf
Ontario Best Start Early Learning Panel. (2007). Early learning for every child
today (ELECT) Toronto, ON: Government of Ontario. Retrieved October
9, 2020, at http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/childcare/ExcerptsFromELECT.pdf
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© Bloomberg/Getty Images
Section
Early Learning
Environments
The previous section considered play-based learning from several perspectives
including outdoor play, curriculum models and early learning frameworks. This
section explains the essential elements for early childhood education programs
for infants, toddlers, preschool, kindergarten and school-age children. Chapter 7
sets out how to organize the use of time (schedules and routines) and the physical environments. It expands on the interactions and relationships between
educators and children, among children, and between educators and families.
Chapter 8 considers the design of a variety of early learning experiences for
young children. Chapter 9 considers how best to plan and assess learning experiences. Chapter 10 reviews what we know about quality early childhood education and how to evaluate quality. The design and implementation of early
learning environments discussed in this section expands on professional principles and practices for early childhood educators outlined in Chapter 1.
3
CHAPTER
SEVEN
Time, Space and
People 133
CHAPTER
EIGHT
Learning
Experiences
153
CHAPTER
NINE
Intentional
Teaching 182
CHAPTER TEN
Quality
Matters
201
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Ece Leaders
Dr. Christine McLean
Dr. Christine McLean is currently Assistant Professor, Child and Youth Study, Mount Saint
­Vincent University, Halifax, Nova Scotia. Christine is an ECE advocate and researcher who has
worked in Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and across Canada to champion early childhood education and a professional early childhood workforce. She completed her PhD in Early Learning at
OISE, University of Toronto.
In thinking about what is essential for early learning
environments, strong pedagogical leadership is the
first thing that comes to mind. Pedagogical leaders
promote reflective practice in an atmosphere where
educators can learn from each other, try new things
and learn from their mistakes. Early Childhood
Education post-secondary programs now introduce reflective practice in their curriculum, and the
ability to be reflective is a vital part of the practicum
feedback process. Recent ECE graduates and
even those who have been in the field for a while
comment that they miss having a practicum supervisor who notices their practice, provides feedback
and asks questions. Recent graduates are really
apprentices who benefit from ongoing mentoring
and coaching. Instilling reflective practice as part of
the culture of an ECE program involves everyone,
and these types of reflective programs provide the
best type of early learning environments for new
ECE graduates. This type of pedagogical leadership
can come from the centre supervisor or director or
from another designated position, but it is vital that
it is supported at all levels within the program.
Educators need dedicated and protected time
to meet, discuss, reflect, plan and learn together.
Strong pedagogical leadership recognizes that protected time is an important component of good
practice. Educators are expected to take on professional learning to understand new directions
such as early learning frameworks and reflective
practice and so they require time, encouragement
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and support to do that. Protected time can be a
regular opportunity for pedagogical leaders to guide
or support the reflective process. To be reflective
practitioners, educators need to know what types
of questions to ask each other and ideas about
how to engage in these conversations. These are
learned skills that pedagogical leaders can support.
Early learning environments need engaged
educators who are fascinated with children and the
early years. Qualifications are not enough. You can
have ECE qualifications, but if you’re not curious
yourself, the early learning environment suffers. To
be engaged, educators need to be in a program
that delights them and the children. If you are not
having fun and you are not excited with what’s happening around you, it can be a really hard job.
The staff morale and wanting to come to work
in the morning are measures of quality. Staff turnover is a big measure of quality. We chose to go into
this profession and we knew what we were getting
into, for the most part, but if we’re in a workplace
that sucks the energy out of us or where we don’t
feel like we’re making any headway, then we’re
not enjoying our work and, consequently, we are
not engaged.
A well-designed early learning environment
responds to where the children are, where they
want to go and where educators want them to go.
The daily schedule is responsive to the children’s
growing and evolving interests that includes childand adult-initiated activities and a predictable but
SECTION 3 Early Learning Environments
1/16/21 4:10 AM
flexible schedule. Families are welcomed and considered part of the team, and they feel that reflected
in the learning environment.
But it’s more than just being responsive—it’s
also being provocative. We can get stuck if we rely
on children to come up with all the ideas. Some
of my students who are learning about emergent
curriculum often ask, “How do I know what they
are interested in?” or “I can’t figure out if they’re
interested in anything.” This might mean that the
environment hasn’t provided enough interest to the
child—it hasn’t provided the provocations necessary to engage the children. The environment needs
to be responsive but also provocative to help children discover new experiences. It is about creating
experiences that children can recall and build on.
Educators invite children to discover new things.
To plan for learning experiences that respect the
image of the child as capable and curious, educators need to hold those views themselves. Viewing
children in this way is different from viewing children
as innocent, naïve, and in need of help and support. When I view children as capable and curious,
I am thinking more carefully about the power relationships between children and adults. I don’t “call
the shots” if I truly believe children are capable. I
need to consider how I put my image of the child
into practice,
When I respect the image of a child as capable
and curious, I trust their abilities to handle daily routines and make decisions. I can help children to see
each other’s competence. Rather than preserving
the old power dynamic where the child comes to
an educator looking for help or advice, the educator
refers the child to another one of the children who
has demonstrated competence in a particular area;
for example, block building or cutting paper. The
children start to see each other’s skills and they,
themselves, feel competent in certain areas that the
adult has noted and mentioned in the presence of
the other children. It’s just creating that atmosphere
of, “I trust you, I trust your abilities, I see you as
being competent and capable and I want you to
see yourself and your peers in the same way.”
Pedagogical documentation is tangible evidence of activities that happen in a play-based
program. Educators and parents can find it difficult
in play-based programs to not have tangible evidence that something actually happened today, for
example, a completed worksheet or a hand-made
craft to take home. Viewing pedagogical documentation provides parents with insight into what
their children are doing and why it is important.
Educators can find validation of their practice in their
documentation. It can be rewarding for early childhood educators to see not only their own practice
documented but the practice of their colleagues as
well, knowing that others can see and appreciate
what they have done.
Pedagogical documentation can be a catalyst
for discussion between early childhood educators
and parents, between early childhood educators
and children, between parents and children, and
also among children themselves. These conversations build relationships and give early childhood
educators something authentic to talk about with
the children. The children see the value that the
early childhood educators are placing on them and
what they do.
Pedagogical documentation allows educators
to hear about children’s own learning epiphanies.
Having an authentic conversation with children is
not always easy. When educators do have quiet
time together with a child, documentation can
springboard into some deeper conversations.
Educators have authentic and reflective conversations with children about their experiences when
they ask questions like “how did you know what
to do there?” or “do you remember how you figured that out?” “Tell me about that.” “It looks like
you used the red and blue paint together to make
that shade of purple.” Those types of questions and
comments don’t always come naturally and educators can benefit from being coached on developing
a repertoire of responses to children’s experiences.
Conversations, of course, do not have to focus
only on documentation. They happen in real life, in
real time, as educators and children talk about the
(continued)
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process and the problem solving that is occurring
in the children’s play. Commenting on these processes helps both the educator and the child tune
into the learning process. When educators are purposefully looking for ways to comment on the process of learning—not “that’s a lovely picture,” but
“look what happened when …,”—when they are
talking about the process like that, they are creating an atmosphere where children are learning
to reflect on their own learning. Then children may
start to draw the educator’s attention to what they
figured out.
Quality measurement tools such as rating
scales like ECERS [Early Childhood Environment
Rating Scale] can be useful as long as we are aware
of their limitations. These tools can point out areas
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for improvement in our programs that we had not
noticed but yet we can easily change. Feedback
gained through the process of assessment can be
a catalyst for change and a useful way to begin a
conversation about what quality looks like without
getting too hung up on the scores. It is a starting
point to look at your physical environment and materials. It is hard, however, to measure intentionality,
responsiveness, provocation, respect and inclusiveness. Educators need to have a way to think
and talk about those softer process types of quality,
too. This brings us back to pedagogical leadership
and an understanding that the work of early childhood education needs to be taken seriously.
Courtesy of Christine McLean
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Time, Space and
People
Chapter
7
Learning Objectives
7.1 Design the physical environment to support
children’s ongoing well-being and learning.
7.2 Consider how daily schedules, routines and
transitions shape the learning environment
that children experience.
7.4 Organize time, space and people to create
environments that support children’s
active learning.
7.3 Recognize how daily interactions build relationships among and between children, educators and families.
This chapter shows how environments in ECE programs are created by the organization of time and space that lays the foundation for how people interact. The
learning environment’s space, schedule, and routines shape a community for
educators, children, and their families. Educators cultivate a sense of belonging
to the shared community. Daily interactions between and among children, educators and families forge caring relationships that provoke thinking and nurture
well-being and learning.
Time
The organization of time is the backbone of ECE programs. A lack of routine creates an unpredictable environment that can be unsettling for young children, while
a rigid, prescribed schedule limits young children’s opportunities for learning.
Ideally, routines and schedules set the flow of the day and provide predictability
for children.
Children of all ages need time to investigate their ideas and environment.
They need time to become absorbed in discoveries about how things work
and how to create new things. When the daily schedule is chopped up into
short, defined times for routines and specific types of learning activities, children’s ability to become deeply absorbed and concentrate on their explorations
is diminished.
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Learning
Together
LO7.2
Playing and Learning Together
Josie and Petr are four-year old friends. They attend the full-day kindergarten program at Lawrenceville Public School in rural Ontario. The daily schedule is organized around a two-hour block of time in the morning and a two-hour block of
time in the afternoon. During these time blocks children can play with each other
and take part in guided learning opportunities without interruptions for transitions
or daily routines.
At 9 a.m., the educators gather the children together, and sing a good-morning
song of welcome. Special events such as new siblings and birthdays are noted. At
about 9:10, educators point out indoor and outdoor learning experiences that are
available. Children choose where they want to go.
Josie and Petr run over to the block centre. “Okay, today we are going to build
a bigger castle than yesterday,” says Josie as she pulls the wooden blocks from
the shelf. Petr is pulling out a bucket of rocks, a box of sticks, and the basket with
pieces of ribbon and shiny squares of fabric.
Ashraf joins the block area and sits down beside Josie and Petr. “Hey, I have
a good idea,” says Ashraf, “let’s build a really, really tall tower. With sparkles on the
roof.” Asraf is holding up two glittery fabric squares.
Consider:
How does the morning schedule support children’s learning?
Daily Schedules
Daily schedules that are child-centred begin with blocks of time for children’s play
and exploration with each other. Schedules must accommodate opportunities for a
variety of play-based learning experiences and daily care routines. Daily schedules
determine how children are grouped together in ECE programs.
The Power of Small Groups Opportunities for small-group play-based
learning experiences are essential. Studies find that focused small groups best
support children’s language and thinking skills (Mitchell, Wylie & Carr, 2008;
Schweinhart, Weikart & Larner, 1986; Siraj-Blatchford, 2010). Many of the
curriculum approaches discussed in Chapter 5 prioritize learning experiences in
small groups.
In infant and toddler groups, educators can set up materials and activities
for two or three children. Small-group play experiences in infant and toddler
settings are often short periods of time that are focused as well as flexible. Small
groups of four to eight preschoolers encourage children to meet together to
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explore materials and solve problems guided by educators. Educators can make
small group times a priority and allow the daily schedule to include extended
periods (60 to 90 minutes) uninterrupted blocks of time. Small groups in beforeand after-school programs offer children opportunities to take on projects and
games that may extend over several days or weeks.
Children can be active participants who form small groups in indoor or
outdoor areas and initiate play with each other, drawing on available materials and resources. Educators can observe and may join the group to nudge
children’s thinking or offer ideas to extend the activity. Sometimes children
benefit from a small amount of direct instruction about a technique, concept
or process that can expand the children’s learning potential of their play with
each other.
In other instances, educators plan learning experiences to emphasize a
learning goal for a small group of children. Guided-learning experiences are
structured while engaging children’s active participation and interests. In other
words, planned small group learning experiences can be child centred.
Large Group Experiences Large group times in early childhood education
programs for preschoolers and toddlers are usually initiated by educators and often
include singing, movement or storytelling. “Circle time” is a long-standing staple of
early childhood education programs. Recall the Froebel kindergartens discussed in
Chapter 2.
Current practice in early childhood education has mostly moved away from
extended time in large group or circle time, particularly for direct instruction.
However, large groups can be an opportunity to build a sense of community.
Music and movement activities and storytelling can be valuable share experiences. Social interactions are promoted, and what children are asked to do is
not beyond what children already know and are able to do. Also, a welcoming
group time can introduce events of the day, new play materials and learning
experiences, as well as recognize special events such the arrival of a new sibling
or a child’s birthday.
Educators can avoid large group activities that require preschool children to take individual turns that require wait times because these activities
may be uncomfortable for some children. Instead, when planning and carrying out large group experiences, educators can pay attention to children’s
attention spans, variation in individual abilities and interests, the length of
time they have attended ECE programs, the dynamics of the group, and the
time of day.
Large group times in before- and after-school programs can be meetings for
children to plan activities and discuss issues about the schedule, snacks, conflicts
between children, rules for using popular spaces, and equipment and choices for
field trips. Children may take turns being the chair rather than having the time
led by an educator. An agenda, perhaps generated by the group, can be posted
on a large sheet of paper, whiteboard or chalk board. Decisions that the children
make can be written down and posted in the play space.
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Making It
Happen
LO7.2
Waiting for the Bathroom
Before lunch at 11:15 a.m. the two- and three-year-old children at Maryville
Preschool come in from the playground and sit in a circle. There are 16 children
in the group. One educator picks up a picture book and asks the children to be
quiet so she can read the story. The other educator takes two children at a time
into the bathroom to wash hands before lunch. Some of the children also use
the toilets.
It is now 11:25. Six children have washed their hands and rejoined the group
listening to the stories. Two more children are tapped on the shoulder to leave the
group to head to the bathroom.
“Wait,” says four-year-old Sydney, “I want to hear the end of the story.” She is
told that it is her turn and she must head to the bathroom. Sydney is not happy.
Three-year-old Alex is fidgeting and gives the child behind him a poke. The
educator asks, “Alex, listen to the story and find out how the squirrel finds her
mother.” Just then, Alex is tapped on the shoulder to go to the bathroom.
A few minutes later, everyone has washed hands. The story reading ends
abruptly halfway through the book and the children head to the tables set up
for lunch.
Consider:
Why is this large group time not engaging the children?
Routines and Transitions Daily routines, including mealtimes, sleep
times for younger children, toileting, and transitions between indoor and outdoor
play spaces are a necessary part of the daily life in ECE programs. Children make
a transition when they arrive from home and when they are picked up at the
end of the session or day. Predictable routines can be organized to offer learning
opportunities, create a sense of security and contribute to children’s autonomy and
agency. Poorly organized routines create stress and can be unpleasant for children
and educators.
Routines that offer positive experiences:
• Consider children’s abilities and growing autonomy and encourage children to carry out routines with minimal adult assistance
• Build in learning experiences, particularly those that strengthen children’s
self-regulation and language
• Minimize wait times
• Provide visual cues such as photos and graphics that help children understand what comes next
Routines can nurture young children by providing a predictable environment and helping them develop the abilities to take care of themselves and to
contribute to their community in the ECE program.
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Mealtimes Mealtimes, typically lunch, are an opportunity for children to
meet in small groups in a social setting. The table can be set with cutlery and
dishes. The addition of a tablecloth or placemats and flowers promotes a relaxed
atmosphere. Involve children, including older infants and young toddlers,
in setting the table. If heat-proof dishes are used, young children can serve
themselves. Educators can encourage children to make decisions about what
they eat and where to sit.
Educators should join children at the table and take part in the meal
and in conversations. This is an essential practice to maximize opportunities
for children’s learning and well-being. Children are more likely to eat and
try new foods when educators are part of the experience and not standing
over the children and supervising behaviour. Mealtime conversation is also
an opportunity to review the morning’s events. Educators can encourage
children to talk about their experiences and contribute their ideas. As well,
educators can respond to topics of conversation that children initiate and
encourage them to respond to each other. Clean-up can be organized to so
that ­children—including toddlers—can scrape their own plates and clear the
table after meals.
Morning and afternoon snack times may be organized as part of a large
group experience, in small groups or in a flexible routine where children can
help themselves when they are hungry.
Mealtime in the Infant Room
Making It
Happen
Rose Ave Early Learning Centre is located in southern Ontario. It includes an infant
room for 10 babies, currently ranging in age from 6 months to 17 months. The
lunch meal is served at a long, low table. The infants sit around the table in low
chairs with sides. Educators also sit at the table on low seats with the children. The
infants are on individual schedules for sleeping, bottles and food, but most of the
older babies (from around 12 months) sit together at the lunch meal. Today, seven
babies are sitting at the table with two of the educators. Two babies are sleeping
and one educator is giving the youngest infant a bottle.
Educators pass around the lunch meal serving dishes to each infant and
encourage them to choose what they want. Educators offer spoons that have
easy-to-hold handles and encourage the infants to feed themselves.
One educator, Surfra, comments, “We used to feed the babies in high chairs,
making decisions for them. We did not give them a chance to try for themselves.
When we changed the lunch routine to eating together at a table, we were surprised by how much the babies can do for themselves. Also, when they are sitting beside each other and we are at the table eating the lunch, they seem to be
more likely to try new foods. Of course, we need to offer assistance and take
note of what they are eating. Overall, though, lunch time is more relaxed and a
happier time.”
LO7.2
(continued)
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Consider:
Are you surprised that infants can be this independent? What kinds of
concerns do you think parents might have about this kind of lunch routine
for infants?
Rest Time Rest time is typical in ECE programs for infants, toddlers and young
preschoolers. It is a time for sleep or quiet, solidary activities. Young infants are on
individual schedules for sleep that follow the infant’s needs and family preferences.
Older babies, toddlers and preschool children typically have a rest-time routine
following lunch.
Educators encourage children to relax during rest time, and most children will have a nap. Educators can tune into children’s activity and relaxation
rhythms and support them in having a period of quiet relaxation. Children can
learn to determine, if, when and for how long they actually sleep.
Relaxing rest times can respect children’s agency when educators:
• Encourage children, including toddlers, to help set out beds or cots for
sleeping and put on sheets and blankets
• Play restful music to encourage relaxation
• Consider reducing light while avoiding very dark sleep spaces that might
frighten children
• Are available to provide comfort and cuddles for children when they wake
up from sleep
Toileting Infant and toddler diapering routines are opportunities for
nurturing and stimulating one-on-one interactions between educators and
individual children. It is a prime time for using language, introducing new
vocabulary and reciting favourite rhymes and songs. As children are ready to
learn how to use the toilet, educators who are attuned to children’s feelings
and abilities are able to guide the process, without pressuring and making the
experience a negative one.
Third Space of Childhood
Much of children’s lives are spent at home and in ECE programs or schools. For
school-age children the “third space of childhood” apart from home and school has
shifted from unstructured time spent with peers to time spent in scheduled, structured activities (Collins, 2018).
The third space of childhood is a time for exploring and creating a culture
of childhood that is not dominated by adults. It is a social space that is owned
by the children. It can be a valuable bridge between home and school contexts
(Yahya & Wood, 2017) that supports school-age children’s understanding of
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differing cultures and values. The third space of childhood brings together what
children know into their play and makes the transitions between home and
school easier (Alcock, 2017).
Before- and after-school programs can be structured to be a third space for
school-aged children. The programs can offer children recreational space that
is unstructured and dominated by playing with friends. Many decisions about
what activities are available can be made by the children. They can make choices
about how to use their time. Indoor and outdoor spaces can be designed and
organized by children. Educators can be resources who are on call to children
and who ensure basic safety. They are attuned to the needs of children who
want to pursue friendships and activities without educator involvement. They
do remain aware of, and responsive to, children who want them to play games or
facilitate recreational or creative experiences.
During the school day, recess is another opportunity time for unstructured
play chosen by children and is a complement to, not a substitute for, physical education, with multiple social and cognitive benefits (Council on School
Health, 2013). Recess is an essential, planned respite from academic tasks. It is
a time to socialize with friends, to play, move and imagine. It is time that is not
planned by adults.
The Recess Project at Ryerson University promotes children’s need for,
and right to, recess that is unstructured and is dominated by social interactions and friendships (McNamara, 2020). The initiative is supported by the
National Advisory Committee on Recess. Studies reveal that school children
see recess as a social space in their day rather than as a time to increase physical activity or have a break from class (McNamara, Lodewyk & Franklin,
2018). For some children it may be the only time for unstructured time
with friends.
Recess and before- and after-school programs provide the regular opportunities children need to play, socialize, rest and re-energize. These opportunities
improve mood, well-being, school engagement, behaviour, learning, attendance
and overall school climate (McNamara, Lodewyk & Franklin, 2018).
Visit MindTap to learn more
about The Recess Project
Space
The physical environment in early childhood education programs can create spaces
that benefit children’s learning, development, and well-being, and encourage
family engagement. Space can be organized to reflect a vision of active, competent children that offers challenges and opportunities for exploration while providing safe and healthy environments. Early childhood education offers places
for learning while meeting requirements for daily living routines for eating, toileting and sleeping. Space and materials can be organized to allow and encourage
young children to fully participate in daily life, including food preparation and
clean-up tasks.
Educators can plan for spaces that connect children across age groupings, including meeting places indoors and outdoors. Design features can offer
glimpses from one area to another.
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Learning
Together
LO7.4
Inside an ECE Centre
ABC Early Learning Centre has infant, toddler, preschool and before- and afterschool programs. The centre is located in a wing of a large public elementary
school in an urban centre in Ontario. The entrance to the centre’s wing is adjacent
to the main entrance to the school and its reception office. It is a welcoming space
with comfortable chairs and shelves filled with children’s picture books and information sheets for families. Children’s art is featured on the walls in simple, visually
appealing displays. The infant, toddler, preschool and school-age spaces open up
from the centre’s entrance.
The infant room is a bright space with cozy corners, soft textures and spaces for
babies to crawl, walk, climb and jump. Play materials are within reach. They are displayed on shelves that are not cluttered. Six of the infants are seated in very low chairs
around a table with two educators. They are having snack—yogurt and bananas.
The toddler room is adjacent to the infant room and has a door with a large glass
insert—babies and toddlers delight in looking in on each other. The toddler space is
also bright and uncluttered with opportunities for movement and exploration. Today
a large, low water table is attracting children. An educator is kneeling beside the
children and joining in the exploration of sponges and recycled small plastic containers that are in the water. Ella, an educator, comments to two-year-old Arnold,
“Wow you are pouring lots of water on the sponge. What happens to the sponge?”
The preschool room is next door and is another attractive, bright space. Most
of the children are sitting together with two of the educators who are pointing out
what is on offer today, including a visitor from the neighbourhood veterinarian. The
morning snack is set up on a nearby table where children can help themselves.
In one corner of the room is a large space that includes a collection of blocks, a
large cardboard refrigerator box, and several containers of various items including
rocks, pinecones and fabric squares.
The before- and after-school space is a resource room with organized storage
space for materials and supplies and planning space for educators. The programs
for children who are attending school take place in their classrooms. Educators at
ABC Early Learning Centre collaborate with school teachers to share the space
before and after school hours and on professional learning days and school holidays. Also, the school gym and music room can be used outside school hours.
Each of the playrooms has access to outdoor space that includes natural
elements—grass, plants, trees, large planters, large rocks, sand and access to
a water tap (when warm enough so the water does not freeze). There is a large
storage shed with tricycles, scooters, small wheelbarrows and gardening tools
that are shortened for smaller people to use.
Consider:
What do you think are the essential elements of this early learning environment?
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Child Care Space Regulations
All provinces and territories have minimum indoor space requirements for licensed
child care programs (Akbari et al., 2021). Requirements range from less than three
square metres per child in Nova Scotia, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Quebec
and Ontario, to four square metres in Yukon.
All provinces and territories have some specification for children’s bathroom
facilities. Although Saskatchewan requires access to kitchen facilities, most provinces/territories do not require a licensed child care centre to have a kitchen.
At minimum, Quebec requires a kitchenette that contains a fridge and range or
hot plate. Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Yukon require designated spaces for children to eat. All provinces/territories except Newfoundland and Labrador have
specific outdoor space requirements. Newfoundland and Labrador is the only
jurisdiction that requires the outdoor play space to be on site. Ontario requires
it to be adjacent to the premises.
School-operated programs are governed by education legislation that has
few space requirements.
Play Zones and Pathways
Play spaces can be designed for maximum flexibility for learning experiences and
groupings of children. Indoor and outdoor play spaces can be organized to ensure
play zones for children and accommodate spaces for daily routines. Play zones include
spaces for quiet play and spaces for noisy play. They could also include wet zones for
water, paints, clay and other messy materials, and dry zones for other types of play.
Educators can make the access to the outdoor environment as seamless as possible from the indoor environment and consider the transitional spaces between
the indoors and outdoors. The layout of indoor and outdoor spaces includes pathways that people use to get from one area to another. Educators can think about
the flow of activities from the child’s perspective and design pathways to allow
children to move freely between areas and have a clear view of what is available.
Aesthetics
A centre’s aesthetics recognize children’s sensory experience, much of which is
determined by windows, lighting, acoustics, furniture and equipment. The placement and organization of materials and objects are also part of the aesthetics.
Objects can be positioned on shelves so that they contrast or they repeat patterns.
Natural light and natural materials increase the aesthetics of the play spaces in ECE
settings. The clutter of space with too many materials, too much equipment, broken
equipment and furnishings, and/or too many images and colours can lead to visual
overload that takes away from the aesthetics.
aesthetics
Inclusive Spaces
Universal design
Ensuring indoor and outdoor environments are accessible to all children, including
those with disabilities, is an essential requirement for inclusive ECE programs.
Universal design is “the design of products and environments to be usable by all
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Overall attractiveness of an
object or environment.
Organization of physical
environment including space
and things to be usable
by everyone without further adaptation.
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people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design” (Ostroff, 2001, p. 1.3).
Creating Spaces to Welcome Families
Convenient, well-designed early childhood program facilities accommodate
young children and their families. ECE programs can organize spaces that
encourage interactions among siblings, offer room for documentation of learning
that keeps families engaged and informed, and offer adult-size places for gatherings and private discussions.
The organization and design of the physical space can encourage utilization
and family involvement (Beach & Friendly, 2005). To encourage wide utilization, facilities need to appeal to parents who want their children to attend safe,
physically attractive and well-maintained environments. Programs should be
located where parents will use the services: near homes, workplaces and commuting routes (Susman & Gillman, 2007).
People
The use of time and the organization of the physical space set the stage for the
early learning environment. People and their interactions with each other are
the active ingredients that bring the stage to life. Interactions occur between
educators and children, and amongst children, who live together in the ECE
environment for several hours a week. They also occur between children and
their families, who generally care deeply about their well-being.
Educators and Children
“We need reflective and well-informed practitioners, who do not assume there is
one best practice which suits all, but who are able to recognize, explore, and discuss
the arc of human possibilities” (Penn, 1999, p. 4).
Early childhood educators are critical to the provision of high-quality ECE
programs. Above all else, early childhood educators recognize their professional
roles and responsibilities in supporting optimal learning and well-being and
respecting family relationships.
As caregivers, ECEs meet children’s physical needs for safety, nutrition,
health care and hygiene. Caregiving means ensuring that children eat healthy
foods, get enough rest, and are in safe, secure physical environments. Ensuring
children are safe means protecting children from harm. Safety must be a priority
for all ECE programs. Educators have an obligation to be aware of situations that
put children at risk of harm and an obligation to take action if they suspect any
form of child maltreatment.
Interactions with
parents and other adults are central in a child’s early life and evidence shows that
these relationships actually shape brain circuits and lay the foundation for later
learning, behaviour and health (McCain, Mustard & McCuaig, 2011; National
Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2004). Children begin life ready
Responding to How Children Feel and Think
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for the relationships that drive early brain development (Greenspan & Shanker,
2004). Primary caregivers mediate experiences that encourage the baby’s
brain to become highly attuned to the quality of those early experiences. As
discussed in Chapter 2, the abilities of children to regulate their own emotions,
behaviours and attention increase over time with maturation, experience and
responsive relationships.
Children’s most important relationships, of course, are with their parents
and other family members. The parent–child relationship is the most powerful
influence on children’s early development, particularly in the first two years.
Learning to respond to and stimulate children from birth builds core abilities to
cope and be competent and capable.
Researchers and early childhood education leaders agree—optimal early
learning environments pay attention to children’s emotional, social and cognitive development and well-being. Neuroscience research highlights the role of
responsive back-and-forth interactions with young children. Adults who are
responsive to how children think and feel create an emotional climate that
­supports how children use the learning environment (Curtis & Carter, 2015).
Responsive educators are aware of children’s cues, responsive to what
children are feeling, and communicate clearly with children. They respond to
­children and wait for children to respond. Their guidance adapts to what a child
is expressing verbally and non-verbally and doing.
Infants and toddlers are investigators who are intent on making sense of
the world around them. They are looking and listening, and they investigate
people, places and things. Their growing abilities to understand and communicate through gestures and then words expand their abilities to learn and interact
with others (McCain, 2020).
By three years of age, children are able to build bridges between ideas,
an ability that supports problem-solving and planning abilities (Greenspan &
Shanker, 2004). Educators can support children through the problem-solving
process and encourage them to try new things, persist and find alternative solutions. Educators can challenge children to use their observations to predict and
draw conclusions, to think about how things work and to think about why something happened. This process encourages them to reflect on what they could do
differently or change the next time.
School age children who participate in before- and after-school programs
are negotiating at least three daily environments (home, school, and before- and
after- school program). Some are living in two homes through joint custody
arrangements. They are refining their abilities and learning new skills. Educators
can create environments that challenge while offering comfort and safe spaces.
emotional climate
How the environment is organized to support emotional
stability and nurture children’s emotional and social
well-being.
Pedagogical Strategies
Table 7.1 describes four similar pedagogical strategies for educators to use to
interact with children to support their learning and thinking skills. All of the strategies share a focus on two-way or back-and-forth conversations and interactions.
Children are recognized as people with ideas and preferences that educators listen
and respond to as well as respect.
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Table 7.1 ● Interactions to Support Children’s Thinking
Intentional teaching
Purposeful design and organization of the learning environment is introduced as
a professional practice in early childhood education. Educators are deliberate and
thoughtful in their [daily] decisions and actions (DEEWR, 2009).
Scaffolding
Conversations, decisions and actions that build on what children already know
and can do. ECEs match their interactions and responses to what is required to
best assist a child’s learning. Educators help children to stretch their abilities in
their learning through scaffolding. To help a child take the next step, the adult provides a bridge.
Shared sustained thinking
An episode in which two or more individuals “work together” in an intellectual way
to solve a problem, clarify a concept, evaluate activities or extend a narrative. . . . .
both parties must contribute to the thinking and it must develop and extend the
understanding (Siraj-Blatchford, 2010, p. 157).
Cognitive sensitivity
The ability of an educator to get inside a child’s ideas and find out what they are
thinking underpins the ability to respond to a child’s interactions. Cognitive sensitivity involves a positive back-and-forth interaction; clarity in how the educator
is able to offer clear instructions that are understandable; and the ability to pick
up on non-verbal cues to understand a child’s emotional state and to spark the
child’s interest. Interactions becomes an opportunity for educators to expand
what a child knows and create an environment that stimulates thinking (Pauker,
Perlman, Prime & Jenkins, 2018).
invitation
An encouragement from an
educator to a child or group of
children to do something.
provocation
Deliberate decisions to provide
unique materials, objects or
environments with learning
potential that challenge or
intrigue children to engage
and explore.
positive guidance
Variety of strategies including
understanding, nudging,
encouraging, supporting,
problem solving and goal setting used to guide children’s
behaviours rather than punishing or rewarding strategies.
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Children ask a lot of questions. Even before they can talk, infants point to
things and want to find out more. Children’s questions are excellent opportunities for educators to engage in conversations that go back and forth and build
opportunities for learning. Questions open the door for investigation and
thoughtful discussion. Educators can find out more about children’s ideas and
thinking by listening and paying attention to questions. Back-and-forth interactions and conversations respond to and build on what children are thinking
and feeling.
Researchers at the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University use
the term “serve and return” to describe back-and-forth interactions between children, particularly infants, and adults (Center on the Developing Child, Harvard
University, n.d.). Think about a game of ping pong or tennis. When an infant or
young child makes a gesture to or smiles at an adult, they are making a serve and
looking for a response or return. Educators can notice the serve and share the
child’s focus of attention. Keeping up a chain of serve-and-return interactions is
similar to sustained shared thinking that builds on children’s ideas and questions.
Educators often use invitations and embed provocations in the learning
environment to extend children’s ideas and their learning. They may think about
questions to pose to children that will encourage sustained shared thinking
Positive Guidance Educators use positive guidance in their relationships
with young children. Building positive relationships with children means both
directly and indirectly guiding children’s behaviour, based on an understanding
of children’s emerging self-regulation abilities. Direct positive guidance includes
Section 3 Early Learning Environments
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Cognitive Sensitivity
A research team at the University of Toronto is studying how best to promote
preschool children’s language and cognitive skills (Browne et al, 2019). They have
focused on the idea of bridging minds or the ability to figure out what the other
person knows, what interests them and what their ideas are. Educators who
bridge minds with children are, in the words of the researchers, displaying cognitive sensitivity. Educators can better understand what children know and can do
and respond accordingly to encourage learning. Cognitive sensitivity is positively
related to children’s language, executive functioning, and social and emotional
well-being (Pauker, Perlman, Prime, & Jenkins, 2018).
In the study, trained researchers used simple checklists to evaluate interactions of children with siblings, parents or early-childhood educators—based on
live or video-recorded interactions of pairs or groups. They now want to create
practical tools supporting educators and parents to use the “bridging minds”
approach more often in their interactions with children (Sokolovic, Jenkins &
Perlman 2018).
Research
Into
Practice
LO7.3
Consider:
How is the concept of bridging minds similar to serve and return, scaffolding
and sustained shared thinking?
Joining the Conversation
The educator created a clearly defined entrance to the house centre. Sitting
by the entrance, the educator notices three-year-old Daniel hesitating by the
entrance. The educator comments to Daniel about the play she is observing,
noting that the children in the house centre seem to be pretending to be fairies
and dragons.
Daniel nods and enters the house centre. He says to the group of children
“Dragons make big noises when they are hungry.”
Learning
Together
LO7.4
Consider:
How did the educator take advantage of the opportunity to encourage Daniel
to join the conversation?
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re-directing children’s behaviour; for example, “The scissors can stay at the
table.” Indirect guidance includes setting includes establishing routines that
respect children’s autonomy.
Positive relationships do not include harsh or punitive measures or the withdrawal of warmth and affection. Besides undermining both the adult–child relationship and the child’s self-esteem, these actions are ineffective in either changing
behaviours or supporting children’s abilities to regulate their own behaviour.
Children Together
Children as young as one year spend most of their time interacting with other
children in ECE settings. Interactions between and among children are the starting
points for making friends, getting along with peers and sharing experiences.
Children learn about friendships while playing with each other and those friendships are important to them. When children are asked about play, children often
refer to play with friends (Pelletier, 2017).
Two of the big tasks for early childhood education programs are to help
children make friends and to become a part of the group. Educators can support
children’s interactions and friendships with each other in a number of ways:
1. Introduce learning opportunities that encourage children to work together
to plan, exchange, and generate ideas. For example, ask a group of children
in a before- and after-school program to plan an upcoming event, such as a
costume day.
2. Support children to initiate and sustain relationships to be part of a group
of peers. For example, suggest asking children at a water table what additional materials might be added to the play.
3. Identify children’s cultural traditions and first languages as strengths they
can share with other children. For example, learn and use a few words in a
child’s first language.
4. Assist children who are having difficulties joining in play episodes with
other children. For example, model how to enter a dramatic play scenario.
“hello, can my baby play with your baby?”
Getting along with each other is often a challenge for young children, and
children’s play with each other is not always positive. Conflicts may emerge
between and among children. Often, preschool and school age children can find
solutions and resolve conflicts with each other without guidance from educators. Other times, it can be difficult for young children to manage their emotions
and understand the emotions of others. Educators can become involved to assist
children to find and negotiate solutions.
Unfortunately, children’s play with each other can include teasing, bullying
and discrimination of others. Sometimes play mirrors social inequities and discrimination that children have experienced or witnessed in their family and
communities. When young children are excluded, bullied or teased on the basis
of gender, ethnicity, race or agility differences, educators need to take an active
role. Just as educators would intervene when one child hits another, it is essential
to intervene in situations and communicate that the behaviour is not acceptable.
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Courtesy of Jane Bertrand
I play with my friends
at preschool.
Give It to Me!
Three-year-olds Emma and Thomas are in dispute over a truck in the block
area. Emma shouts, “Give it to me!” as she holds her hand up high, ready to hit
Thomas hard.
Educator: “What happened?” and then pauses.
Emma: “He took my truck!”
Educator: “How do you feel?”
Emma: “I’m mad—very mad.”
Thomas: “But I really want the truck.”
Educator: “What could we do to solve the problem?”
Emma: “Thomas could find another truck.”
Emma goes to the shelf and pulls out a truck that is similar to the one she is
playing with.
Learning
Together
LO7.3
Consider:
Do you think that the educator should have been more pro-active in solving
the dispute? Why or why not? How did this approach support Emma?
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Mixed-Age Groupings Children in early childhood programs are not
always organized into groups of the same age and stage of development. In
home-based programs, for example, it is more common to find children from
different ages together in the same setting—similar to a family with siblings of
various ages or a neighbourhood where children of different ages play together.
A mixed-age grouping combines children across at least two or three chronological years. Usually, the grouping remains together for much of the time, with
the oldest children moving on each year and new children joining as the youngest
in the group. This means that children are in a group for two or three years, and
remain with the same early childhood practitioner over this time. In child care
centres, multi-age groupings “refers to the placement of children of different
ages together in activity and learning areas for substantial portions of the daily
schedule” (Bernhard, et al., 2000, p. 80).
Rethinking the concept of mixed-age groupings allows early childhood educators to capitalize on the differences in the experience, knowledge and abilities of children (Corson, 2005). Children in mixed-age groupings benefit from
relationships with one another. Older children have opportunities to assume
responsibility and to exhibit leadership skills with younger children (Gray, 2011).
Younger children learn from the more complex vocabulary of older children.
Older children are able to introduce younger children to experiences that are just
beyond their abilities to do on their own. Older children have the opportunity to
be models and reinforce their learning while younger children learn from them.
Educator and Family Interactions
One study of morning arrival time revealed that early childhood educators spent,
on average, 67 seconds with each parent (Perlman & Fletcher, 2012. This might
not be considered adequate time either to build parental involvement in the
ongoing environment of the program or to exchange meaningful information to
support parents’ involvement in their child’s learning and development. However,
exchanges at arrival and departure times that are grounded in ongoing communication such as phone calls, emails and text messages can be brief and still effective
in forming deeper connections with families.
Learning
Together
Monday Morning at Roseview
Child Care Centre
LO7.3
“Good morning, Vivian,” says educator Helena as three-year-old Vivian is entering
the preschool room with her mother. Helena is smiling, squatting down and eye
to eye with Vivian. She stands up and looks directly at Vivian’s mother and says,
“Good morning, Christine. How goes it today?”
Christine smiles and says “Okay. But I have an early-morning meeting at work.
We were rushed at home and I am afraid Vivian did not eat much at breakfast.”
(continued)
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Helena smiles and responds, “No problem.” She looks directly at Vivian and
says, “How about you and I get the morning snack set up so you and the other
children can help yourself? I think today would be a good day for some granola
and blueberries. What do think?”
Christine says thank you to Helena and bends to quickly hug Vivian and tell
her to have a good day. Helena takes Vivian’s hand and heads toward the food
preparation counter. Vivian pulls up the nearby step-up stool and together they
wash their hands at the sink.
The total time of interaction between educator (Helena) and parent (Christine)
is 59 seconds.
Consider:
Why does this brief interaction between the educator and parent reflect a
supportive and caring relationship? What is the educator communicating to
the parent about the ECE program her daughter attends?
The benefits of family involvement are greatest when:
• Activities are planned for children and their families
• Relationships between schools and families are based on mutual trust and
respect
• Schools are sensitive to family culture, values, language and composition
(Bernhard, Freire & Mulligan, 2004; Gonzalez-Mena, 2005; BulotskyShearer et al., 2012)
To include everyone, early childhood settings must encourage healthy dialogue about the principles and shared beliefs that relate to inclusion, diversity and equity (Moss, 2007; Bernhard, et al., 2006; McKenzie, 2019) and
expand communication. When educators offer a wider range of communication opportunities, including translation of newsletters and emails, to parents of
­linguistic-minority children who are experiencing difficulties with verbal skills,
the parents are more likely to become engaged than other linguistic-minority
parents. For example, educators can try communicating through emails that are
clearly written and use accessible language. Parents are then able to take their
time in responding and may find it easier talking with educators.
Involving families in early childhood programs needs to go beyond whether
parents are involved to focus on how they are involved and what happens as
a result. Family involvement in school settings includes parenting workshops,
communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making and collaborating with the community. The same strategies can be useful in organizing
family involvement in early childhood settings (Epstein & Sanders, 2002; Corter,
Janmohamed & Pelletier, 2012).
Effective strategies begin by identifying the early childhood program needs of
families in their communities, and by taking this information into account when
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planning the curriculum and pedagogy of the program (Ali, 2005; Bernhard,
2003). To turn belief statements and principles into practice in early childhood
programs requires an infrastructure that actively promotes the engagement of
all children and their families (Bernhard, Lero & Greenberg, 2006; Centre for
Community Child Health, 2008).
Research
Into
Practice
LO7.1
Chicago Longitudinal Study
The Chicago Longitudinal Study studied the long-term impact of the Chicago
Parent–Child Preschools (Reynolds, Ou & Temple, 2018). The centre-based ECE
programs provide comprehensive early learning experiences to economically disadvantaged children from preschool to early elementary school in central Chicago.
At the same time, the program actively engages families in their children’s early
learning and provides family support services. The overall goal of the program is
to promote children’s academic success and to facilitate parent involvement in
children’s education It is based on four principles:
• Parent involvement in the early years of school
• Instructional approaches tailored to children’s learning styles and designed to
develop their speaking and listening skills
• Small class sizes to provide for individual attention
• Attention to health and nutritional services (Reynolds, Temple, Robertson &
Mann, 2002; Reynolds, Wang & Walberg, 2003; Graue, Clements, Reynolds
& Niles, 2004)
The program is based on the idea that development is optimized in rich, stable
learning environments and when parents are involved in the process of learning.
Four components make up the program: early intervention, parent involvement,
a structured language/basic skills learning approach, and program continuity
between preschool and elementary school.
The centres involve parents in the education of their children, requiring at
least one-half day per week of parent involvement in the program. The parent
component includes participating in parent room activities, reinforcing learning at
home, volunteering in the classroom, attending school events and field trips, participating in vocational and educational training, and receiving home visits from
the school–community representative. A unique feature of the CPC is the parent
resource room, which is located in the centre adjacent to the classrooms. The
full-time parent-resource educator organizes the parent room in order to implement parent educational activities, initiate interactions among parents and foster
parent–child interactions.
Children who have participated longer, with greater family involvement, have
better outcomes. Instructional approaches that blend an educator-directed focus
with child-initiated activities and parental school involvement are the origins of
the positive long-term effects of participation in the CPC (Temple, Robertson &
Mann, 2002; Reynolds, Wang & Walberg, 2003; Graue, Clements, Reynolds &
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Niles, 2004). Researchers have followed almost 1,400 children for 35 years after
they attended CPC (Reynolds, Ou & Temple, 2018). They found higher rates of
post-secondary education completion among children who attended CPC compared to children who did not.
Consider:
How could strategies to directly involve families be used in other early childhood education programs?
Sources: Reynolds, Temple, Robertson & Mann, 2002; Reynolds, Wang & Walberg, 2003; Graue,
Clements, Reynolds & Niles, 2004; Reynolds, Ou & Temple, 2018
Summary
• The use of time, the organization of space and
• The physical environment is designed to
the daily interactions of people that build relationships are critical elements of early learning
environments in ECE programs.
• The needs and abilities of children are the
starting point for daily schedules and routines
that are the backbone of ECE.
a­ ccommodate children’s feelings and thoughts.
It signals what is on offer for children.
• When time and space are set up to accommodate the care and learning of children, the
daily interactions between and among children,
­educators and families can take centre stage.
Review Questions
1. Why should educators consider play zones
and pathways rather than specific, structured
learning centres in thinking about how to organize the physical space, furnishings and equipment? LO 7.1
2. What is the starting point for developing a
schedule for an ECE program for a group of
children? LO 7.2
3. What does it mean to respond to how children
feel and how they think? LO 7.3
4. How do you respond to a parent who is concerned about whether or not his four-year-old
son is actually learning anything at his preschool? When he asks his son about what he
did at preschool, he always answers “I played.”
LO 7.4
Study Activities
1. Visit two ECE settings and evaluate the aesthetics of the interior space. Describe the visual
and auditory sensory elements. LO 7.1
2. With permission of the parent or guardian,
observe a school-age child who is attending
grade 1, 2 or 3 and is also attending a
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before- and after-school program. Record how
many people (adults and children) the child
interacts with. Also note the number of transitions (from one activity to another) the child
experiences throughout the day. Prepare a timeline graph to illustrate the child’s interactions
and transitions. LO 7.2
3. With permission of the parent or guardian, have a
conversation with a preschool child and record it.
Try to keep the conversation going as long as possible. Now listen to the recording and count how
many back-and-forth exchanges are in one communication chain. Compare your results with
other students and discuss what you have learned
about back-and-forth conversations. LO 7.3
4. Compare your early childhood to that of a child
that you know who attends an ECE program.
What are the similarities and differences? LO 7.4
5. Visit an early childhood education setting in
your community that includes young children
with disabilities. Discuss with the early childhood educators the advantages and disadvantages of inclusion for the children and adults
involved. Describe any obvious modifications
that have been made in the physical environment to meet the needs of the children and
explain why these alterations were made. List
any other specialists involved in planning for
the children. LO 7.1
Key Terms
Aesthetics (p. 141)
Emotional climate (p. 143)
Invitation (p. 144)
Positive guidance (p. 144)
Provocation (p. 144)
Universal design (p. 141)
Suggested Readings
For additional resources,
visit MindTap.
College of Early Childhood Educators. (2017). Practice guidelines: Supporting
positive interactions with children. Retrieved September 11, 2020,
at https://www.college-ece.ca/en/Documents/Practice_Guideline_
Supporting_Positive_Interactions_with_Children.pdf
College of Early Childhood Educators. (2019). Practice guidelines: Inclusion of
children with disabilities. Retrieved September 11, 2020, at https://www
.college-ece.ca/en/Documents/Practice_Guideline_Inclusion.pdf
Curtis, D. & Carter, M. (2015). Designs for living and learning: Transforming
early childhood environments, 2nd edition. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf.
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Learning
Experiences
Chapter
8
Learning Objectives
8.1 Examine learning pathways.
8.2 Design play-based learning experiences in
six broad curriculum areas.
8.3 Recognize learning pathways that reflect
children’s daily lived experiences.
8.4 Describe how to incorporate children’s
­stories and culture into learning opportunities.
Learning experiences offer children a wide range of learning opportunities. The
power of play-based learning experiences, introduced in Chapter 3, drives young
children’s language, well-being and growing thinking skills. Understanding how
learning pathways unfold for children and how educators can maximize learning
experiences is the focus of this chapter. It considers learning experiences and
pathways in six curriculum areas:
• Social emotional learning
• Physically active play
• Dramatic and constructive play
• Creative arts
• Language and literacy
• STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics)
Learning experiences may be organized to align with a particular curriculum approach, such as those discussed in Chapter 5, but many are similar
across numerous approaches.
Learning Pathways
Learning pathways can assist educators to understand, engage with and be responsive to what young children know and can do. Learning pathways suggest possible
ways to challenge children to extend their learning. Early learning research shows
that children actively construct knowledge as they interact with the people and
things around them. Constructing knowledge is facilitated when new information
is connected to what was learned before and what comes next (Institute of Medicine
and National Research Council, 2015).
Learning pathways
Description of children’s
thinking and learning that
emerges and evolves in a
variety of curriculum areas.
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A note of caution about learning pathways. The age at which children
acquire knowledge and skills varies. The sequence varies, and the pathways are
not linear. Multiple factors are involved including culture, home life, opportunities available in ECE programs, and peers and siblings. Children’s knowledge and
skills can vary if minor changes are made in their environment.
An essential consideration is the child’s cultural background (Ball, 2010a).
Open-ended engagement with local communities can inform educators about
how children’s learning pathways are influenced by their cultural context. This
is particularly important for Indigenous children who are attending ECE programs. (Greenwood, 2016).
It is also essential to recognize disabilities that children may have and adapt
to accommodate their needs and specific learning pathways so that they can
fully participate in ECE programs. The essential focus is on what children can
do, rather than what they cannot do.
Still, understanding learning pathways can guide how educators introduce
new ideas and experiences to children through direct instruction and indirect
guidance This knowledge helps educators identify what might be the next step
so that they can target learning experiences to just beyond children’s current
understanding, in what Vygotsky (1978) called the “zone of proximal development,” which is discussed in Chapter 2.
In each of the following curriculum areas, learning pathways are outlined
that are related to the area of learning experiences. They include skills and abilities that are encouraged by the learning experiences. They can be related to the
broad learning outcomes in provincial and territorial early learning frameworks
that are discussed in Chapter 6.
Play-based learning is child centred—that is, it is meaningful to the child,
encourages the child’s agency and views the child as a competent learner. At the
same time, educators can introduce learning experiences according to children’s
expected patterns of learning that proceed along pathways. Children are then
better able to connect with, and build on, previous learning. Of course, educators can be surprised by a child’s response that takes the learning in a different
direction than expected.
Typical learning pathways are not prescriptions or checklists. They offer educators a framework to connect concepts and skills that children are ready to
explore further and take advantage of learning opportunities. Also, educators
can use learning pathways to intentionally provide children opportunities to
practise and apply skills in new contexts and to broaden their understanding of
new concepts.
Learning pathways are messy. While the learning pathways are a general
pattern and guide to how children acquire specific skills and abilities, each
child is on their own learning path that is influenced by family, community and culture. A child’s disposition and knowledge influence how skills
are acquired, and skills may emerge in a different pattern but still reflect
the overall learning trajectory. Educators and teachers use learning pathways
to guide planning for learning for assessing children’s learning. They do so
based on their knowledge of individual children and the individual context
of their lives.
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The use of learning pathways is guided by three questions:
• What does the child know and can do?
• What has the child not yet had the opportunity to learn?
• What are the opportunities for learning in the child’s home and community environments?
Curriculum Areas
While presented separately, the six areas of learning experiences overlap with each
other and are interrelated, outlined in Table 8.1. For example, dramatic play contributes to learning to read, write and use numbers. When the environment is designed
deliberately to include literacy props and materials—such as having newspapers
and pamphlets in the dramatic play area that children can pretend to read—the
children’s literacy-­related play significantly increases. Educators can encourage children’s interactions with these props during play through modelling, role-playing or
conversation. By using and creating environmental print in their dramatic play, children learn what reading is and how print works. Pretend play helps children develop
schemas and scripts as organized mental structures that are used to understand print.
In all curriculum areas, didactic instruction of isolated skills is less effective than
other strategies. For example, early childhood educators recognize that literacy and
mathematics are important skill areas. Individual Canadians need these skills to be
successful in almost any workplace and to participate fully in a democratic society.
Therefore, ECEs can understand that families are often anxious that their children
acquire the skills necessary for learning to read and compute numbers when they
enter formal schooling. Educators should be concerned too. However, direct instruction in isolated skills such as letter recognition or matching things that are the same
and different are often not as effective as other curriculum strategies that embed
direct instruction of specific skills into the context of children’s play. In the sections
that follow, alternative strategies are offered, including embedding print materials and
opportunities to recognize patterns and shapes for children to discover and explore.
Social-Emotional Learning
Social-emotional learning (SEL) helps children develop the capacity to integrate
skills, attitudes and behaviours to manage daily challenges and succeed at daily
tasks (Housman, 2017). It includes the skills young children need to engage and
get along with others, understand and express emotions with respect for others,
manage emotions and challenges, handle stress, set goals and make responsible
decisions. SEL includes emerging social competence and emotional maturity
and underpins all areas of learning experiences in ECE programs. Chapter 5
describes specific curriculum approaches to encourage social-emotional learning
that use similar learning experiences.
Children in ECE programs bring the social skills they have acquired to date
at home and in their communities. Making friends with peers is important to
young children and skills such as understanding how to resolve conflicts and enter
into play with others help children form friendships with their peers. Learning
empathy and cooperation skills strengthen children’s social competence.
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Table 8.1 ● Learning Pathways: Social Competence and Emotional Maturity
Social Competence Learning Pathways
Emotional Maturity Learning Pathways
Prefer human faces to inanimate objects or animals
Express comfort and discomfort
Smile at an adult
Become calm when comforted by familiar adults
Return gaze of an adult
Observe peers
Express pleasure, displeasure, anger, fear, joy and
excitement
Imitate adult behaviour
Show preference for familiar people
Simple back and forth turn-taking games (e.g.,
peek-a-boo)
Frequently check in (social reference) with familiar
people
Take part in simple pretend play
Increase awareness of opportunities to make things
happen
Seek out and invite other children to play
Identify consequences
Use gestures and vocalizations to keep connected
with others
Imitate peers and offer toys to peers
Seek out others to play with
View adults as resources in exploration and problem
solving
Exchange ideas and materials with other children
Respect other children’s belongings and work
Take turns in activities and discussions
See an injustice and take action to change it
Notice and respond to distress of others and offer
comfort
Express aggressive feelings and behaviours
Express self-conscious emotions (shame, embarrassment, guilt, pride)
Express feelings in words and play
Approach adults as sources of security and support
Share emotions, communicate and express feelings
with adults and peers
Respond appropriately to the feelings of others
Identify the emotions of others
Attend and listen to peers
Accept that the ideas and emotions of others may be
different from their own
Adapt behaviour to take other people’s points of view
into consideration
Manage emotions in order to solve conflicts
Identify solutions to conflict
Engage the exchange of ideas and points of view with
others
Use language to regulate own behaviour and attention
Use ability to take another’s point of view to regulate
own behaviour
Identify solutions to conflict
Demonstrate empathy for the rights of others
LO 8.1
Educators can support social-emotional learning pathways by:
• Responding to and imitating facial expressions, gestures and sounds that
infants use
• Taking turns to imitate in back-and-forth exchanges
• Planning learning experiences that focus on specific social-emotional skills
• Reducing stressors in the environment including too much noise, waiting
times or visual stimulation
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• Encouraging children to listen to each other
• Encouraging children to share feelings and ideas with each other and with
educators
• Planning learning experiences and routines that require children to negotiate and collaborate with each other
• Recognizing children’s efforts to regulate their own emotions and
behaviour
Physically Active Play
As discussed in Chapter 3, opportunities for physically active play support children’s gross and fine motor skills as well as regulate behaviour and emotions and
contribute to overall well-being. Large-muscle control allows for the coordination
of more complex movements. Infants and toddlers become increasingly mobile.
Preschool and kindergarten children are ready to start combining skills such as
running, throwing, catching and jumping into games.
Early childhood educators’ observations and assessment as well as children’s
own assessments of their progress in physical development inform planning;
educators can also use opportunities for movement experiences within other
areas of children’s learning. Educators support children in achieving movement
goals by reflecting with children on their activity and providing physical proximity and verbal guidance to foster children’s problem solving when they are
attempting challenging activities. Talking to children and providing feedback
about their physical development, as well as the feelings and emotions attached
to them, supports children in assessing their own capabilities and encourages
them to try new skills and activities (Archer & Siraj, 2015).
Table 8.2 ● Physically Active Play Learning Pathways
Sitting, rolling, crawling, walking
Explore large outdoor equipment
Run, climb and jump
Hop and balance
Use open-ended materials to move about, build and construct
Practise bouncing, catching and kicking balls
Gain the ability to control their own movements
Increase the distance they are able to walk
Increase skill in group games
Awareness of body in space and movement
LO 8.1
Educators can support physically active play pathways by:
• Planning interactions that incorporate physical movement and skill practice
throughout the day rather than as isolated activities
• Facilitating indoor and outdoor active play to support overall gross motor
skills along with other areas of development
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• Introducing structured games that focus on specific physical skills children
are ready to acquire
• Planning for and participating in energetic physical activity with children
• Using transitions as a context for movement activities
• Building opportunities for movement into literature and numeracy experiences (e.g., have children suggest movements associated with characters;
have children jump onto numbered carpet tiles)
• Drawing children’s attention to their body’s response to physical activity
(e.g., how fast their heart beats; sweat on their body; the feel of different
ground surfaces on their bare feet); how they feel when trying something
new (e.g., scared, thrilled); how they feel when accomplishing something
new or have persevered with a difficult activity (i.e., proud)
Dramatic and Constructive Play
Dramatic play and creative-constructive play are introduced in Chapter 3. Young
children’s play with each other often involves pretending and constructing.
Educators design the time and space, and children often (but not always) take the
lead in directing the play. When the learning environment is organized to encourage
children’s deep engagement in their play, they display what they know and can do.
Educators may engage with children to extend the play and embed a variety of
learning opportunities.
Dramatic and creative-constructive play have a long tradition in ECE programs. Frequently children merge them as their pretend play becomes more
complex and incorporates creating environments to accommodate their roles
and play narratives.
Dramatic Play Children demonstrate a number of skills, dispositions
and abilities during dramatic play as discussed in Chapter 3. Dramatic play
contributes to children’s literacy and numeracy acquisition, problem-solving
and social skills. Socio-dramatic play expands children’s theory of mind, joint
planning, perspective taking and mental representation.
Table 8.3 ● Dramatic Play Learning Pathways
Pretend to be someone or something else
Observe before entering play
Enter play by assuming available roles
Take on and maintain a role in socio-dramatic play, cooperating and negotiating
roles with others
Take part in setting and following rules and invite others to join them in play
Combine reality and fantasy
Sustain and extend socio-dramatic play with language, additional ideas and props
Take on a role and plot for an extended period of time
LO 8.1
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Educators can support dramatic and constructive play by:
• Providing rich and varied materials, props and toys that are easily available
to children
• Sharing ideas that extend children’s play experiences and enrich the play
• Entering the play to encourage more complex themes and roles
• Monitoring the progress of play and coaching children who need support
to stay part of the shared play scenario
• Intervening and redirecting when children tease, bully or harass other children while playing a role
• Observing children’s socio-dramatic play to assess a wide range of skills
and dispositions
• Identifying children who have difficulty entering play and might
need more guidance from educators in entering play with other
children
• Entering children’s pretend play and modeling play strategies to support
children who find engaging in socio-dramatic play challenging
As discussed in Chapter 3, constructive play includes
building using a variety of materials. Building with blocks or other materials
may be a shared experience in which children plan together and use language to
discuss the building. Constructive play can lead to figuring out how things are
constructed and work and thinking about what can make them work differently
or more efficiently. Solving practical problems that emerge in constructive play
involves concepts to design, build and test solutions. Children then deepen their
understanding of concepts such as gravity, balance and stability. Children have
opportunities to experience the added value of tools.
Constructive Play
Table 8.4 ● Constructive Play Learning Pathways
Explore new materials before beginning construction
Build three-dimensional structures using a variety of materials
Experiment with building a variety of structures
Begin to recognize the three-dimensional figures that the structure contains
Investigate the relationship between two-dimensional shapes and three-­
dimensional figures in objects that they have made
Demonstrate an understanding of basic spatial relationships and movements
LO 8.1
Educators can support constructive play learning pathways by:
• Providing an abundance of natural and manufactured materials for building
structures; keep in mind it is more helpful to have a large amount of a few
types of blocks and loose parts rather than only a few of many types
• Ensuring adequate time and space for constructive play to expand over a
number of days and sometimes weeks
• Asking questions that provoke children to solve difficulties they might
encounter while constructing and consider “what if” scenarios
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• Designing the space so that children’s connections with visual arts and
socio-dramatic play are possible
• Engaging in conversations with children that encourage them to describe
the process of construction, the problems encountered and the solutions
developed
• Identifying children who find it difficult to get started or remain engaged
in constructive play in order to provide more support and guidance
Creative Arts
Creative arts offer children multiple ways to express themselves and represent their
understanding of the world around them. Children’s sense of self finds expression
in creative arts. Different ways of thinking, exploring and learning are expressed
through drawing, painting, sculpturing, music, dance and movement. Children
investigate material properties and potential. Creative arts offer ways of connecting
sometimes quite different ideas and are often are a bridge between child-directed
socio-dramatic and constructive play and educator-guided literacy, mathematics
and science learning experiences. The arts are a vehicle for children to understand
different cultures as well as to express their own culture.
Visual Arts Children experiment with the possibilities to transform the
two dimensional such as a drawing into the three dimensional and vice versa,
as well as transforming a large world to a small scale. The physical manipulation
of two- and three-dimensional materials and pencils, markers, crayons and paint
Ingram Publishing/Thinkstock
Children experiment with
paints and brushes.
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brushes build children’s capacity for planning, remembering and representing
their experiences and understandings. Drawings, collages, paintings and sculptures
can be incorporated into socio-dramatic and constructive play. Children often
combine writing and drawing, and educators can capitalize by using drawing to
make the link to literacy.
Music The human voice is the central instrument that children use to make
music. Songs are part of the rituals that evolve in early learning environments.
Singing offers opportunities to explore sound, tempo (speed) and pitch. Learning
a song requires attention to the words and the melody. Percussion musical
instruments, such as shakers, tambourines and drums, offer opportunities for
children to explore musical patterns (rhythms). Simple, high quality xylophones
and keyboards support children’s understanding of melody.
Young children move and react to music. Dance
and movement involve strength, body awareness, energy, emotion, control
and communication. Children can experience the contrasts of being tightly
controlled and relaxed and become more aware of their bodies. Sometimes
bodies are in one place (bending, twisting, swaying and stretching). Other times
bodies travel in space and children may hop, jump or walk. Children can express
themselves through dance and movement. Dance incorporates speed (tempo),
rhythm, duration, phrases (a series of movements that can be repeated or varied)
and keeping the beat.
Dance and Movement
Table 8.5 ● Creative Arts Learning Pathways
Visual Arts
Discover that scribbles can become lines that have meaning
Find that shapes emerge as two ends of a line are joined
Realize that shapes can become symbols to communicate meaning
Draw and paint to record play experiences
Extend abilities for symbolic representation and explore feelings
Relate models, pictures and photographs to real objects and places
Use variety of materials to express ideas and create 2- and 3-dimensional visual art forms
Explore a variety of tools, materials and processes of their own choice to create visual
arts forms in familiar and new ways
Music
Identify sources of musical sounds
Show enjoyment when listening to music
Make choices and demonstrate preferences in music
Identify musical sounds
Use a singing voice and singing songs
Develop distinct melody
Play a simple musical instrument
Use musical instruments to move from exploration to producing patterns to reproducing patterns
(continued)
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Dance and Movement Use rhymes, stories, legends and folk tales from various cultures for dance and
movement
Isolate individual body movements
Move to music
Move to a steady beat
Move in sequences to a common beat
Communicate understanding of something (e.g., a familiar story, and experience,
a song, a play) by representing their own ideas and feelings through dance and
movement
LO 8.1
Educators can support creative arts learning pathways by:
• Acknowledging children’s process and problem solving involved in a
drawing, painting, collage or sculpture
• Recognizing that some materials and learning experiences may trigger children’s sensory likes and dislikes
• Encouraging children to revisit visual art pieces
• Encouraging children to explain their process
• Introducing musical instruments, including simple percussion instruments,
string instruments and keyboards
• Introducing songs that have a simple melody, a call and response, repetitive phrases, an action or a strong beat and can be easily adapted (adding
new words)
• Introducing, naming and exploring body movements
Language and Literacy
literacy
Ability to use written language
(reading and writing).
emergent literacy
Awareness of the meaning of
print that develops before early
reading and writing.
early literacy
A collection of skills needed
before learning to read.
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Language and literacy experiences in ECE programs build on opportunities
embedded in children’s play and introduce learning experiences that focus on skills
children are ready to acquire as they move from oral language to making sense of
print. Educators provide environments that prepare children for learning to read.
ECE programs can be structured in a number of ways that support oral language,
emergent literacy and then early literacy abilities as they develop.
Oral Language Early oral language and vocabulary matter to later
achievement (Rvachew, 2018; Hart & Risely, 1995). Infants understand what
is said to them before they express themselves. From birth, babies respond to
familiar human voices. First, children utter single words and then two-word
sentences, followed by more complex statements. The size and variety of
vocabulary by age two years is connected to the conversations children have
heard and that have been directed at them.
Oral language is critical to the success of literacy development. Literacy learning
experiences build on children’s transition from oral language into an understanding
of print as a way to represent experiences, ideas and knowledge. Children develop
a sense of narrative and the ability to make symbolic representation and actions.
They begin to acquire reading strategies, including letter knowledge and lettersound phonetics (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015).
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How children use oral language is specific to their cultural and linguistic contexts. While oral language is innate to the human species, its depth and breadth
is shaped by early experiences and environments. Children who are English language learners benefit when their home language is valued by educators so that
they can maintain and enrich their first language while they are learning English
(Chumak-Horbatsch, R. 2012). Their engagement also increases when their first
language is recognized in learning environments.
A variety of specific strategies, called linguistically appropriate practice
(LAP) (Chumak-Horbatsch, 2019), can support English or French language
learners and educators working with multiple home languages. Using LAP, educators can raise the comfort level of the children who are English or French
language learners and develop their capacity to become engaged learners.
Educators cultivate relationships when they respond to children’s multiple languages as strengths and gifts brought to the group (Chumak-Horbatsch, 2012,
2019). Children learning English or French as an additional language benefit
when their home language is valued (Ball, 2010b; Chumak-Horbatsch, 2012,
2019; Tabors & Snow, 2001). Children learning an additional language benefit
when they continue to learn vocabulary and conceptual skills in their home
language at home (Chumak-Horbatsch, 2019; NAEYC, 2016). Educators can
encourage families to use their home language with their child while they are
learning English or French when at the ECE program.
Language nests, described in Chapter 5, are effective in respecting Indigenous
children’s culture and revitalizing languages that are disappearing. Indigenous
ways of knowing are reflected in language and influence language learning pathways (Greenwood, 2016).
home language
Language learning in a child’s
home environment.
linguistically
­appropriate practice
Guidance for educators in ECE
programs that includes children who are learning English
or French.
Visit MindTap to learn more
about supporting students who
are learning English or French
as a additional language.
Table 8.6 ● ORAL LANGUAGE Learning Pathways
Verbal and
Non-verbal
Communication
Use gestures and signs to communicate
Listen and respond to others for a variety of purposes
Listen to and respond appropriately to non-verbal
­communications of others
Express ideas and describe experiences with increasingly
­complex sentences
Describe personal experiences, using vocabulary and details
appropriate to the situation
Use language in various contexts to connect new experiences
with what they already know
Ask questions for a variety of purposes
Use the language of mathematics, enquiry and reasoning as
they play and during group discussions
Ask questions to extend their understanding of words
Use specialized vocabulary for a variety of purposes
Define words by function (e.g., a ball is something you bounce)
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Educators can support oral language learning pathways by:
• Listening attentively to and observing children’s verbal and non-verbal
responses and interactions
• Learning and using a few words (such as simple greetings, common
objects and family members) of a children’s first languages as part of daily
conversation
• Modeling richer responses to guide children’s thinking
• Introducing new and specialized vocabulary
• Prompting children for more detail to increase the length of conversations
and often extend the range of vocabulary used
Emergent Literacy Literacy is related to oral language but is a separate
ability; literacy is the symbolic representation of oral language. Emergent literacy
is the development of children’s ability to use print forms of language and
includes making marks, scribbling, reciting stories from memory and printing
letters. Children show an understanding of pictures and events in a book, such
as imitating an action seen in a picture or talking about the events in a story.
Writing and reading become meaningful, and young children understand their
purpose even when they cannot read and write themselves.
Emergent literacy develops in close relationship to oral language.
Conversations with children about their ideas and things that interest them
builds vocabulary. Conversations help children express thoughts, learn what
words mean, and gain new information about the world.
As discussed in Chapter 3, all children learn how to express themselves when
they play. They discover the meaning of words that they will later recognize in
print, and they learn how to tell stories, which builds reading comprehension.
© E+/Getty Images
The educator invites
­children’s questions and
ideas about the story
she is reading.
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Rosie’s Walk
Yesterday, Salma read Rosie’s Walk to the three-year-old children in Applegrove
Early Years Centre’s preschool room. Today Salma and her colleague, Becka, are
heading out with the children for a community walk.
Along the way, Salma asks the children if they see any of the same flowers that
were in Rosie’s Walk.
Learning
Together
LO 8.2
Consider:
How does connecting stories from books with what children are experiencing
bring literature into children’s lives and reinforce comprehension about what
has been read?
Reading books builds children’s vocabulary and sense of narrative. Songs
also teach new vocabulary. The language in many children’s books and songs
introduces vocabulary that we do not use every day and expands the words children hear and come to know. Young children who enjoy books are more likely
to want to learn to read when they are older, and to keep trying even when it
is challenging.
Children learn about print from observing educators use print and enriching
the environment with print such as labels for different play materials, children’s
names with photos on cubbies, a daily sign-in system that includes names and
photos of each child, and lunch time placemats. For younger children, photographs of people and objects can be introduced on labels. Children’s scribbling
and drawing help them learn that marks on paper can carry meaning. Children
also learn about writing when they see educators writing and reading notes to
families or each other.
Educators can plan learning experiences that encourage children to explore
language and communicate their thinking in meaningful ways in a variety of
contexts, such as in conversations with individual children, recording children’s descriptions of drawings and paintings and pointing out new words
when reading books aloud to a group of children, Rich and varied materials
promote emergent literacy skills. Literacy experiences can be embedded in
children’s play and routines in meaningful ways that reflect the continuum
from educator-directed to child-initiated activities, as discussed in Chapter 3.
These experiences include activities to develop visual discrimination which
supports recognizing letters and fine motor control that supports mark making
and printing.
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Table 8.7 ● Emergent Literacy Learning Pathways
Pathway
Characteristic
Sense of Narrative
Expect to find meaning in pictures and text
Choose to look at reading materials
Respond to texts read by the educator
Request specific stories, poems and songs
Identify personal preferences in reading materials
Reread familiar text; confidently make attempts at reading
Make connections from books in their daily lives
Make predictions regarding an unfamiliar text that is read
with and by the educator
Retell stories in proper sequence that have been read by
and with the educator
Discuss and make connections between books and stories
in their play
Use prior knowledge to make connections
Create stories orally and use a variety of media
Dictate ideas and stories
Refer to print in the physical environment for meaning, rules
and directions
Retell stories in pretend play and art activities
Understanding Print Hold books the right way up and turn pages from the front
to the back
Associate spoken words with written words by pointing or
talking about connections
Use illustrations to support comprehension
Recognize that spoken words can be written down, read
and understood by others
Pretend to read
Dictate stories
Recognize familiar signs (e.g., stop signs, logos)
Recognize own name
LO 8.1
Read labels and names
Educators can support emergent literacy by:
• Selecting books and storytelling narratives to extend children’s imaginations and vocabulary
• Pointing out new vocabulary that comes up in books and use it in other
learning experiences, relating the words back to the book
• Asking questions that extend and challenge children’s thinking; that is,
­predicting, identifying the character’s point of view, asking how a character
might solve a problem
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• Making connections with what children learn from books and how this
print motivation
relates to other learning experiences
• Distributing meaningful and inclusive literacy materials throughout the
learning environment (e.g., books at the book display; group lists; dual-­
language books, writing materials, shopping lists and newspaper flyers
in the housekeeping centre; labels at the block centre; sign-up sheets for
­outdoor riding toys)
Children’s interest and enjoyment of books and reading and
recognition of symbols that
carry meaning.
Early Literacy Listening, speaking, reading and writing are interrelated,
and development in one area supports development in all. Early literacy skills
that include vocabulary, a sense of narrative and print motivation develop early
in life. These skills are part of emergent literacy and continue to be refined
during the preschool and early school years.
Early literacy also incudes a collection of alphabetic principle skills that
complement vocabulary and a sense of narrative as children learn to read and
write. Alphabetic principle includes print motivation, print awareness, letter
knowledge and phonological awareness, including phonemic awareness.
Print awareness builds on word awareness developed through oral language.
Letter knowledge and phonological awareness contribute to the skills necessary
for learning to read and can be embedded in children’s play or projects or can be
presented in regular, short, isolated activities. Singing helps children hear how
words can be broken down into smaller parts, which will help them sound out
words when they start reading on their own.
Languages are made up of phonemes, which are the distinct sounds in each
language, such as “d” in “dog” and “dig” or “th” in “things” and “the.” Young children begin to understand how the 44 phonemes in the English language translate into letters and letter clusters.
Early literacy is not about teaching young children how to read. It is about
helping children develop the skills they will need to become successful readers.
This helps children make sense of printed words when they start reading.
Learning experiences designed to support specific early literacy skills are beneficial to preschool children if they emerge out of a child’s interests and satisfy the
child’s needs.
alphabetic principle
A group of skills that connect
letters with sounds to read
and write.
print awareness
Children’s understanding that
print carries meaning and
that books contain letters
and words.
letter knowledge
Ability to recognize and
name uppercase and lowercase letters.
phonological
awareness
Ability to hear and manipulate
the sounds of words, including
rhymes and syllables and phoneme awareness.
phonemic awareness
Ability to hear and identify
phonemes, the smallest unit of
distinct sound in speech.
phonemes
Smallest distinct sounds in
a language.
Table 8.8 ● Early Literacy Learning Pathways
Alphabetic Principle Recite nursery rhymes, poems or sing songs
Identify sounds in their environment, such as animal sounds,
traffic noises, music and human speech
Fill in rhyming words in familiar poems, songs and books
Identify the letter that begins their names and its sound
Pick out other words that begin with the same letter or
sound as their own names
Identify a few consonant letter-sound correspondences in
words in familiar rhymes
(continued)
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Recognize that words can rhyme, can begin or end with the
same sound, and are composed of phonemes that can be
manipulated to create new words
Identify specific letter sounds and syllables
Isolate sound combinations
Demonstrate knowledge of most sounds and letters of the
alphabet in different contexts
Know that printed letters and words represent the sounds
and words of oral language
Writing
Pretend to print letters and words
Write own name
Write many uppercase and lowercase letters
Write most letters and some words when dictated
Write high-frequency words
Write simple messages using a combination of pictures and
symbols
LO 8.1
Experiment with a variety of simple writing forms for different
purposes and in a variety of contexts
Educators can support early literacy learning pathways by:
• Introducing games that are based on alphabetic skills
• Monitoring to determine children’s strengths in early literacy
• Identifying children who might need more explicit, intentional, individual
teaching to acquire basic understanding of print
STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering
and Mathematics)
Grounding science, technology, engineering and mathematics in early learning
helps young children to question, explore and reflect on the world around them
and how it works. The use of tools expands young children’s abilities to create,
construct and represent. Digital technology offers interactive environments that
extend children’s immediate, day-to-day physical environments. Children can use
digital technology to document their own learning experiences.
Research shows that children engage in STEM learning, even in the earliest years of life. Very young children are much more capable of learning about
STEM concepts and practices than previously thought. Early experiences with
STEM activities are related to later success in those subjects or in school generally (McClure et al., 2017).
Educators can facilitate children’s emerging understanding of STEM concepts, skills and processes while harnessing their natural curiosity and encouraging STEM ideas in their play. As educators encourage young children to
question, explore and reflect on their ideas about the world and how it works,
they are expanding their foundational understanding of science, technology,
engineering and mathematics concepts and processes.
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While key STEM learning experiences and learning pathways are considered
separately to understand key concepts, they are typically interconnected with
each other and with other key learning experiences.
Making and tinkering are constructive play and central to STEM learning
experiences in early childhood. Making emphasizes learning by doing and
creating something, typically in a social environment. Tinkering is repairing
or making small changes in something, figuring out how something works by
taking it apart and putting it back together. Children improve their understanding of technology when they tinker (or pull apart) tools and simple household machines (Vossoughi & Bevan, 2014).
and Discovery Children’s early explorations and
discoveries are the beginnings of STEM. Infants and toddlers are active explorers
who like to make things happen in their environments. (Gopnik, 2016). They
investigate, test hypotheses and innovate. They rely on their senses to explore
and pay attention to patterns. Toddlers experiment with tools and manipulate
materials and objects. They solve simple problems, such as getting something
out of reach, often through trial and error. Preschool and school-age children
carry forward exploration and discovery forward into STEM activities.
Exploration
Table 8.9 ● Exploration and Discovery Learning
Pathways
Cause and Effect
Repeat actions that produce an outcome
Use objects as tools to solve problems
Explore functions of objects
Make sounds by shaking and banging objects
Explore the functions of objects
Exploring Space
Track moving objects with eyes
Touch, rub and squeeze materials and objects
Drop objects into containers and dump them out
Crawl in, by and through various objects
Put objects in containers and dump them out
Put things together and take them out
Problem Solving
Search for hidden toy or other object
Move around or through barriers
Coordinate sensory and motor skills
Solve problems by trial and error
Use objects to solve problems
LO 8.1
Educators can support exploration and discovery learning pathways by:
• Playing peek-a-boo games and hiding objects
• Introducing objects with a variety of shapes and features
• Providing objects and materials that can be moved around
• Providing objects that can be stacked
• Making tools available that can manipulate objects
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Science is a way of knowing the physical and natural world. From
infancy, children acquire knowledge about the natural and physical world. In
preschool, kindergarten and early school years, children can use the principles
of the inquiry or scientific process such as asking questions, observing,
investigating and proposing theories. Children’s ideas or theories about why
and how the world works are theories for scientific investigation. Children
form questions and seek to answer their questions. Their investigations
often involve representation that describes what they are finding out. These
representations can be for themselves or to communicate descriptions and
ideas to others. Inevitably, children’s scientific investigations are connected
to skills and concepts associated with other areas of learning experiences. For
example, when children share their findings with each other through their
descriptions and representations, they are reinforcing emerging literacy skills.
Science
Table 8.10 ● Science Learning Pathways
Questioning
Ask “why” questions
Ask questions that can be answered through observation
Ask questions to solve problems
Ask questions that lead to explorations and investigations
Ask questions to clarify understanding
Make predictions before and during investigations
Collecting and
Select and use materials to carry out their own
Organizing Information explorations
Carry out simple experiments
Collect data
Describe the materials and tools used
Describe and compare data on graphs or other types of
representation
Name and describe the things that they have observed
Use specialized sources (online and books) as a means
of extending their observations
Describe some natural occurrences, using their own
observations and representations (e.g., patterns and
cycles in the natural world)
Describe similarities and cause and effect in recurring events
Investigate various materials that have different properties
Share Findings
Begin to draw conclusions about cause and effect
Identify patterns of events
Describe connections between different objects, events
and experiences
Communicate results and findings from individual and
group investigations
LO 8.1
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Listen to their peers and offer suggestions
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Educators can support science learning pathways by:
• Planning learning experiences that encourage children to think about and
work with a science concept (e.g., change through growth, form and function) for many weeks or months
• Encouraging children to hypothesize and then test out their hypotheses
• Designing learning experiences that offer specific opportunities to extend
scientific inquiry
• Making appropriate scientific equipment (e.g., magnifying glass or balance
scales) available
• Providing a rich variety of materials and resources
• Observing children and strategically asking questions to clarify, expand or
discover children’s thinking and theories
• Making suggestions to support children’s further planning, investigation
and systematic observations as well as gathering information
• Encouraging children to share findings with each other through discussions
and representations
When educators listen to children’s questions with respect and answer them
seriously, children feel free to express their ideas. Children learn to ask questions
when adults model curiosity and pose questions. If you don’t know the answer
to a question, say, “I don’t know, but we can find out together. What else do you
see?” This invites children to observe more closely and to generate more than
one observation.
Technology Technology in ECE is about the design and use of tools,
materials, energy and machines (including computers) to solve problems, often
extending play and learning opportunities. Technology in preschool/kindergarten
is intertwined with construction play, socio-dramatic play, creative arts and
science learning experiences. The use of tools—from crayons and pencils, scissors,
screwdrivers, and gears to tablets and laptops—are opportunities to learn and
master a variety of motor and thinking skills.
Digital technology—whether televisions, computers, mobile phones, videos
or games on interactive tablets: is a regular presence in the lives of young children. Some of the content is specifically designed to appeal to babies and toddlers, and a myriad of content is targeted to preschoolers and school-age children.
While television used to dominate children’s media technology, the past two
decades have witnessed a plethora of digital media geared to children, including
video games, apps, and learning activities on computers, tablets, and mobile
phones (Donohue & Schomburg, 2017).
What about the impact of screen time, time children spend with television, videos, electronic games and other digital technology? Parents, educators
and researchers are divided in their opinions about the potential benefits and
harm of digital technology on children’s learning and well-being. A central
concern of parents and educators is what children are not doing—not being
physically active and not interacting with friends—when they are spending
so many hours on screens. A report from the Canadian Paediatric Society
(2017) points to some risks of digital media including potential exposure
to violence, inequitable access to digital technologies, lack of supervision at
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Digital technology
Electronic tools, systems,
devices and resources that
generate, store or process
data. Includes computers,
online games, social media,
mobile phones and tablets.
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home, multi-tasking on two or more devices at once, and potential reduction of physical activity. The report recommends no screen time for children
younger than 2 years, no more than 1 hour for children 2 to 4 years old, and
no more than 2 hours of screen time for children over 5 years (Canadian
Paediatric Society, 2017).
What about having computers or tablets in early childhood education programs? Observers note that children are quite comfortable with computers and
tablets, exhibiting curiosity rather than fear when given a new software program.
Research
Into
Practice
LO 8.3
Digital Technology as a Learning
Tool for Young Children
Digital technology can be a tool to support learning experiences. Interactive
screens such as learning activities on tablets and other digital games are different
than television (Woolridge, 2016). For example, when children, even very young
ones, are offered interactive screens, they are not passive. They are responsive to
what is happening on the screen and they take initiative. Games can be designed
to offer opportunities to practise emerging literacy and numeracy skills, to improve
attention and to reduce impulsive responses (Woolridge, 2016).
Young children learn more from digital media when they watch or play with
adults who talk to them about what they are seeing and playing. Children’s literacy
skills benefit when adults talk and engage with children around themes, concepts
or new vocabulary brought forth by the media, similar to the well-established benefits of interactive book reading (Linebarger & Vaala, 2010).
Children older than 24 months who watch on their own do learn new vocabulary
words and skills such as problem solving and self-regulation from videos developed
with an intentional pedagogical approach or curriculum (Linebarger & Vaala, 2010) or
through interactive touch screens. Games can be designed to offer opportunities to
practise emerging literacy and numeracy skills, to improve attention, and to reduce
impulsive responses Some computer programs integrated with a research-based
curriculum are associated with gains in math and reading skills among children in
preschool and above (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015).
Children often prefer to work with one or two partners rather than alone and
will more often request help from peers than from an educator. Interactive screens
can be used as a social activity that invites two children to work together to take
turns or experiment or solve a problem.
In 2019, a Canadian Paediatric Society statement recognized a number of
potential benefits of digital technology for school-aged children (and adolescents).
These included the following:
• Online programs can be informative and co-viewed with parents and other
family members
• Online screen media can improve academic performance in literacy and
mathematics, and encourage collaborative learning and enquiry
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• Video games can support children’s skills in getting along with others
• Digital technology can help children’s friendships that may be more diverse
than their friendships offline.
Consider:
What are the benefits of including digital technology in ECE programs?
Source: https://www.cps.ca/en/documents/position/digital-media.
Table 8.11 ● Technology Learning Pathways
Experiment with simple machines and common objects
Investigate and use familiar technologies
Solve problems while designing and constructing things, using a range of tools,
materials and techniques
Investigate and discuss how familiar objects are designed to meet a human need
Investigate in various ways how different forces make things move
Mix and transform materials
Predict the outcomes of transformations
Demonstrate an awareness of the safe use of all materials and tools used in class
Investigate and talk about the characteristics and functions of some common
materials, and use these materials safely
Recognize the use of cameras to record learning experiences
Use a camera (including those on a phone or tablet) to record something
meaningful
Use digital technology for communication (e.g., Zoom)
Use digital technology to retrieve information
Use digital technology to create a story or record information
LO 8.1
Educators can support technology learning pathways by:
• Introducing tools, objects and machines into children’s constructive play
and science experiences
• Asking questions to figure out children’s thinking when they are inventing
and investigating
• Finding digital technology applications that can accommodate children
with learning challenges and/or developmental delays and disorders
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© XiXinXing/iStock/Thinkstock
A child’s own interests are
a starting point for a
new project.
Engineering Engineering is “a systematic and often iterative approach to
designing objects, processes, and systems to meet human needs and wants”
(Katehi et al., 2009, p. 49). Children are natural engineers, wanting to build
things and design solutions, and this type of play can have beneficial effects in
the long term. Constructive play experiences described earlier in this chapter
and in Chapter 3 comprise early engineering.
Engineering relies on design thinking as an approach to problem solving.
Design thinking challenges young children to move beyond exploration and
identify and systematically solve the problems they encounter as they navigate the learning environment. The design process is defined as the engineer’s approach to identifying and solving a problem. This approach is
iterative; open to the possibility of multiple solutions; a context for rich
mathematical, scientific, and technological conceptual development; and an
inspiration for systems thinking, modeling and analysis (Katehi et al., 2009).
Design thinking influences how a child responds to new learning situations
and encourages persistence, curiosity, creativity, inventiveness, engagement
and initiative.
Problem solving is central to design thinking. Children become highly
engaged in solving the problems they encounter as they construct, create
and explore. Young children can think of solutions, test their solutions, revise
their solutions and test them again until they achieve the results they want.
Educators can use problems that arise within the learning environment to design
a system solution. Figuring out how to transport water from the sink to plants
that need water, how every child can have a turn using a valued tool or how to
repair a broken toy can involve defining the problem, evaluating, testing and
revising solutions.
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Table 8.12 ● Problem solving/Design Thinking
Learning Pathways
Shift attention
Track objects with eyes
Look for dropped toys
Use trial and error
Repeat actions that produce outcomes
Search for things that move out of sight
Use objects as tools and to remove barriers
Put things together and take them apart
Identify problems
Begin to plan ahead
Collect and organize information
Brainstorm solutions and outcomes
Connect consequences to actions
Evaluate the outcomes of their problem solving
Use art media and tools to express their ideas, feelings and experiences
Use a variety of materials to build with and express ideas
Plan ahead
Connect actions and outcomes
Generate alternative ideas
Use art media and tools to express ideas, feelings and experiences
Collect and organize information
Plan to achieve goals
Use problem-solving strategies both individually and with others when experimenting with the skills, materials, processes and techniques used in the arts
Present their ideas to others (e.g., through demonstrations, drawings, tellings,
music and movement)
LO 8.1
Educators can support problem solving and design thinking learning pathways by:
• Being aware of how children are already solving problems and highlight
their efforts
• Avoiding immediately solving problems for children and assessing how the
problem can be solved with only a small amount of adult support
• Ensuring the daily schedule allows blocks of time that allow children to
engage with problems
• Providing opportunities for problem solving that continues to engage children and evolve, to extend over days, weeks and sometimes months
• Keeping an ample supply of loose parts available to children indoors and
outdoors that lend themselves to “figuring out”
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• Planning learning experiences that consider “what is there for children to
figure out?”
• Making decisions about what materials could be added or taken away,
or how the physical space might be reorganized to encourage children’s
problem solving
• Considering specific questions and comments to extend children’s problem
solving
Emergent numeracy
Awareness of the meaning
of numbers that precedes
ability to use numbers in
simple computations.
Learning
Together
LO 8.3
Mathematics Emergent numeracy is the understanding of numbers and what
they represent. It involves both an understanding of quantity (two comes before
three, ten can be made up of two sets of five or a set of three plus a set of seven) and
quality (big and little, more and less, a little bit, and a lot). Understanding of quantity
and numbers begins very early as children explore objects and their properties.
Very young children have an intuitive knowledge of mathematics that
is acquired through curiosity about their physical world and real-life experiences. In preschool, educators can capitalize on this prior knowledge as a
starting point in developing a foundational learning of mathematical principles and concepts. Early math is more than simply learning discrete skills
such as naming numerals—it is about reasoning and discovery. Preschool
children develop an informal understanding of numbers. Opportunities to
be introduced to other early mathematic concepts are more likely to succeed in formal mathematics in primary school and beyond (Ginsburg, Lee &
Boyd, 2008).
Four-year-old Ellie is at the outdoor water table. Beside the water table is a small
table with several plastic boats and a half dozen balls of play dough about three
centimetres in diameter. Ellie is dropping the play dough balls into the water,
watching them sink to the bottom and then pulling them out and starting over
again. Sasha joins her. He begins to place the boats in the water and pushes them
around. Ellie places a play dough ball on the smallest boat and it sinks. Sasha then
places a ball on the largest boat and it does not sink.
Ellie says, “Hey, how come that boat keeps floating?”
Sasha says, “Because it is the biggest boat and big boats don’t sink, just
little ones.”
Ellie puts three balls on the biggest boat and it does sink.
The educator who has been quietly observing the interaction joins Sasha and
Ellie. She says, “That’s interesting. Why do you think one ball sinks a small boat,
but it takes three balls to sink a big boat?”
Consider:
How does the educator’s question provoke the children’s problem-solving
skills?
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Pretend play contributes significantly to a child’s emergent numeracy. The
language of numbers is the ability to see relations about quantity and builds
on understandings about amount (e.g., more and less) early in life (Griffin &
Case, 1998). Rich pretend play opportunities with other children and adults
provide counting systems, including counting words, mathematical relationships, one-to-one correspondence, order, and numbers for the size of a set of
objects (National Research Council 2001). For example, children pretending
to be shopping for groceries or eating at a restaurant will often introduce and
count pretend money. Typically, children bring together an understanding about
quality differences between objects (e.g., big and little, large and small) and a
continuum of values in between.
Counting bridges a child’s innate capacity for informal mathematics to more
formal mathematics systems that are cultural inventions (Page & Tayler, 2016).
Educators can capitalize on young children’s informal understanding of quantity
and rote counting and introduce them to the concept of numbers using concrete
materials and loose parts to explore counting, quantity and number relationships.
Mathematics is more than numeracy. Spatial awarenesss, also known as
geometry, is an essential mathematic skill that supports number skills. It begins
with an understanding of two-dimensional and three-dimensional shapes,
matching and patterns. Puzzles, shape games, building blocks and obstacle
courses are examples of learning experiences that promote children’s spatial
awareness skills. Froebel, outlined in Chapter 2, and Montessori curriculum
approaches, outlined in Chapter 5, promote specific activities to build children’s
spatial awareness skills. Children learn to notice and understand patterns; this is
related to spatial awareness. They can start to visualize how to mentally move,
rotate, stretch or bend objects in space (Moss et al., 2016).
Young children also develop abilities for the measurement of time, temperature, length and mass. Measurement includes comparing and ordering
objects and incorporating units of measurement into their play with objects.
Data ­management involves sorting and classifying objects or ideas as well as
representing and describing data. For example, children may create graphs such
as ones that show how many children have birthdays in each month or how
many children are wearing red clothes and how many are wearing blue clothes.
Spatial awarenesss
Includes knowing about
shapes, positions, directions
and movements.
Data management
Collecting, keeping and using
information that helps children
sort, organize, count, compare
and understand information.
Table 8.13 ● Mathematics Learning Pathways
Number
Make more-or-less comparisons when using materials
Move objects to align them when comparing quantities
Count to compare quantities
Count to determine quantity using one-to-one correspondence
Match numbers to sets of objects
Recognize quantity is greater when counting forward and less when counting backward
Use counters to represent objects
Investigate some concepts of quantity through identifying and comparing sets with more,
fewer or the same number of objects
(continued)
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Recognize some quantities without having to count
Identify position of events in a sequence
Identify more than, less than, or same as when working with concrete objects or events
Perform simple operations of adding to and taking away when working with concrete
objects or events
Separate a set into two equal groups
Share objects equally among more than two groups
Count, order, add and subtract numbers when solving problems involving up to 10
objects
Measurement
Use different measurement tools for measuring different things
Use vocabulary of measurement such as “heavier” or “lighter” and “taller” and “shorter”
Use non-standard measuring tools, such as feet, hands, fingers or a piece of string to
measure
Use non-standard units of the same size (e.g., paper clips, straws)
Measure length, weight or capacity with standard measuring tools
Use the vocabulary of standard units of measure
Recognize relationships between attributes (e.g., weight and size, size and capacity)
Geometry/Spatial
Awareness
Recognize and name simple shapes
Count sides and corners of shapes
Identify common attributes of shapes
Recognize and name cubes, rectangular prisms, cylinders and spheres
Identify and use common geometric terms, two-dimensional shapes and three-­
dimensional figures through investigations with concrete materials
Use spatial terms in context (“forward,” “backward,” “inside,” “next,” “behind,” etc.)
Follow and identify directions
Use simple maps to find a location
Make a map
Demonstrate an understanding of basic spatial relationships and movements
Patterns
Recognize patterns in their environment
Create patterns with blocks and art materials
Describe patterns such as “plaid,” “checked,” “striped”
Represent patterns with movements and with symbols
Identify, create, copy and extend a variety of patterns (e.g., sound, colour, shape,
number)
Identify, create, copy and extending patterns
Compose pictures and build designs, shapes and patterns in two-dimensional shapes
and decompose two-dimensional shapes, using various tools and strategies
Describe relationships such as “smaller than,” “bigger than,” “different than”
Describe relative position: “before,” “after,” “between,” “front,” “back,” “next,” “last,” “first
to sixth”
Place objects, pictures and objects in order along a continuum
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Data Management
Represent numbers in different ways (tallies, numbers, graphs)
Recognize numbers in print
Write numbers
Use a graph to compare numbers
Describe and compare data on graphs and surveys
Respond to and pose questions about data collection and graphs
Classification
Sort, classify and compare objects and describe the attributes used to sort, classify and
compare
Move from random classification to classifying by one property and then two or more properties
Collect objects or data and make representations of their observations
Use math language in informal discussions to describe probability in everyday contexts
Educators can support mathematics learning pathways by:
LO 8.1
• Valuing children’s existing conceptual understanding of mathematics
• Monitoring how children’s understanding of qualitative and quantitative
relationships deepens
• Providing children with opportunities to reason and talk about their mathematical thinking
• Exploring mathematical ideas about spatial sense, structure and pattern,
number, measurement and data comparisons
• Introducing games that use a simple number line, one-one correspondence
and counting (e.g., simplified variations of snakes and ladders)
• Introducing games that focus on grouping items into categories
• Being explicit about patterns and numbers
Andrea’s Towers
Sonya, an educator in a nursery school program, observes three-year-old Andrea
building with construction materials. Sonya moves away and comes back a few
minutes later to observe Andrea again.
Andrea says, “Look how many towers I have now.” She has several block
towers all over the table. “I have so many. See how many I have?”
Sonya responds, “I wonder how many there are?”
Andrea begins counting as she touches each one. She counts accurately to
18. She says, “See, I have a lot.”
Sonya says, “You do have a lot. I noticed that you did something interesting.
You touched each tower when you were counting.”
Andrea responds, “Yes, that’s how I keep track of how many.”
Sonya says, “That is a great strategy.”
Learning
Together
LO 8.3
Consider:
What skill is Sonya reinforcing?
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Summary
• Learning pathways describe how children’s
thinking and learning emerges and evolves in a
variety of curriculum areas.
• Curriculum areas in ECE programs include
social-emotional learning, physically active
play, dramatic and creative-constructive play,
l­anguage and literacy, and STEM.
• Educators design inclusive learning experiences that reflect children’s culture, abilities
and communities.
Review Questions
1. What are learning pathways for curriculum
areas in ECE programs? LO 8.1
2. Summarize the learning pathways for each of
the curriculum areas in a chart. LO 8.2
3. How can educators use learning pathways to
design learning opportunities that reflect children’s daily lived experiences? LO 8.3
4. How can curriculum areas reflect Indigenous
ways of knowing? LO 8.4
Study Activities
1. What are three examples of learning experiences
you have experienced in an ECE program or
observed in a video for three of the six curriculum areas? Identify one for infants or toddlers,
one for preschool children and one for school-age
children. Prepare a short description. LO 8.1
2. Consider the continuum of play-based learning
in Chapter 3. For one curriculum area, design
three learning experiences: one that is child
directed, one that is educator guided and one
that is educator directed. LO 8.2
3. Consider a child you know and design a
learning experience in one of the curriculum
areas that reflects their culture, abilities and
community. LO 8.3
4. Go to CBC’s “Original Voices” website (https://
www.cbc.ca/originalvoices) and identify the
Indigenous languages in your region. How can
you learn more about local Indigenous voices?
LO 8.4
Key Terms
Alphabetic principle (p. 167)
Data management (p. 177)
Digital technology (p. 171)
Early literacy (p. 162)
Emergent literacy (p. 162)
Emergent numeracy (p. 176)
Home language (p. 163)
Learning pathways (p. 153)
Letter knowledge (p. 167)
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Linguistically appropriate practice (p. 163)
Literacy (p. 162)
Phonological awareness (p. 167)
Phonemes (p. 167)
Phonemic awareness (p. 167)
Print awareness (p. 167)
Print motivation (p. 167)
Spatial awareness (p. 177)
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Suggested Readings
Curtis, D. & Carter, M. (2015). Designs for living and learning. St. Paul, MN:
Redleaf Press.
Hansel, R. (2017). Creative block play: A comprehensive guide to learning through
building St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Moomaw, S. (2013). Teaching STEM in the early years: Activities for integrating
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
NAEYC. (2016, August/September). Welcoming dual language learners.
Teaching Young Children, 9(5). Retrieved September 14, 2020, at https://
www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/tyc
Shanker, S. (2013). Calm, focused and learning. Toronto, ON: Pearson.
Wright, S. (2010). Understanding creativity in early childhood: Meaning-making
and children’s drawings. London, UK: Sage.
For additional resources,
visit MindTap.
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Chapter
9
Intentional Teaching
Learning Objectives
9.1 Examine a variety of observation methods
used in ECE programs.
9.2 Describe how documentation records
observations of children’s interactions,
learning and perspectives.
9.3 Describe how pedagogical documentation
reveals children’s early learning pathways
and development.
9.4 Examine planning in ECE programs.
9.5 Explain how to use assessment for learning,
assessment of learning and assessment
as learning.
9.6 Analyze the role of reflective practice in
supporting children’s early learning and
well-being.
Canadian and international early learning frameworks include the intentional
teaching practices that were introduced in Chapter 1. These practices support how
educators make purposeful curriculum decisions, including how they design the
learning environment and learning experiences discussed in Chapter 7 and Chapter 8.
Educators in ECE programs are researchers who are learning with the children and
with each other. They think about the decisions they make. They discuss their decisions and actions with each other. Educators reflect on how their own experiences
and context influence the decisions they make.
Chapter 9 explores how educators can be thoughtful and deliberate in using
intentional teaching practices to take an active role in children’s learning. While
intentional teaching may look different in different curriculum approaches, educators use variations of the same strategies including observing, documenting,
planning and assessing children’s learning reinforced by reflective practice. These
strategies shown in Figure 9.1 are powerful tools for educators working with
young children in ECE settings and work together to promote reflective practice.
Children benefit from intentional teaching that organizes the social and
physical environments in early childhood education programs. Educators are
deliberate, purposeful and thoughtful in both making decisions and their actions
in nurturing children’s learning.
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Figure 9.1 ● Intentional Teaching
LO 9.6
Observation
Assessment
Reflective
Practice
Documentation
Planning
INTENTIONAL TEACHING
Each of the elements of intentional teaching are described separately in this
chapter, but as you read, keep in mind that they overlap with each other.
Educators guide children’s learning through intentional teaching. Curriculum
decisions respond to children’s play and enrich and extend learning. Intentional
teaching is grounded in the observation, documentation, planning, assessment
and reflective practices that are discussed in this chapter.
Observation
Observation is an essential element of intentional teaching and a foundation skill
for educators. Children reveal their thinking and learning in different ways. They
demonstrate what they think, know and are able to do in the way they interact with
their world. As they play, talk and relate to one another and to adults, they provide
much for educators to observe. Observation is integral to everything that educators
do in ECE programs. It is especially important when educators are working with
children and families who need extra supports.
Educators observe children and record in as much detail as possible what
children say and do. Observation records are evidence or data that can be used
as follows:
documentation
Practice of gathering and
sharing observations,
examples and information
about children’s learning
experiences that can be
interpreted and analyzed.
• To document how children think and learn
• To gain insight into what and how children are learning
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• To gather information to inform the design of effective learning environments
that build on children’s curiosity, ideas, abilities and life experiences
• To provide information for discussion among educators, related professionals
and families
• To assemble learning profiles for individual children
• To inform pedagogical and curriculum decisions to build on children’s curiosity, ideas, abilities and experiences
Observation in ECE programs is about deliberate watching, listening and
recording children’s words and actions as they interact with other children, adults
and their surroundings. Observing children is a key professional intentional teaching
practice of educators.
Educators observe children closely with the goal of getting to know each child.
Observations of children involve educators who pay attention, look closely and
listen carefully. They note what each child is doing and saying and the vocabulary
that is used, and record an accurate and detailed description. Observing children
requires careful attention to what children do and say in context of the physical and
social environment.
The interpretation of observations moves into documentation, which is discussed
in the next section. The implications or “what next” of observations are described in
the Planning section of the chapter.
Becoming a Skilled Observer
Early learning observation practices include knowing what to observe, and where,
when and how to make the observations. Educators start observations by being present
as they watch and listen to children explore their environments and their verbal and
non-verbal interactions with each other. Educators can find out a considerable amount
of information about who the children are, what they know and what they can do
through careful observation of their free (child-directed) play. The interpretation of
observations come later.
Careful observation captures different pathways children may take to declare
their abilities and dispositions. By observing children during daily routines or learning
experiences, educators gain insights into what and how individuals learn.
Observation Records Educators choose when and how to record observations
from a number of options. Some observations are planned in advance and others
are spontaneous.
Observation records are often short, written notes that record the evidence
about what children are saying and doing. Educators notice what is happening in the
moment and jot down a short description. To make this possible, they ensure they
have a pen or pencil and small sticky notes or a notepad and make notes without
interpretation as soon as possible.
The choices of educators about what to observe and what words are chosen to
describe children’s behaviour carry bias about what is significant; therefore, the goal
is to reduce biases and interpretations as much as possible.
Educators can plan time to observe and think about what they want to find out
about a child or group of children. Observations may be short and noted throughout
the day or focused on a particular routine or learning experience. They are usually
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Barbara and Christopher
Learning
Together
Salema is an educator in an early learning and child care centre preschool room.
She observes three-year-old Barbara in the block play area. Compare the following
two observation notes:
Barbara puts a square large wooden block on top of a smaller block. As she
places the block down, Christopher runs past Barbara and knocks the large block
off the smaller block. Barbara stands up, puts her hands on her hips and screams,
“Don’t knock down my blocks. I am building a tower.”
versus
Barbara puts a square large wooden block on top of a smaller block. As she
places the block down, Christopher runs past Barbara and knocks the large block
off the smaller block. Barbara is angry and screams at Christopher.
LO 9.2
Consider:
How does the first observation note describe Barbara’s behaviour and words
while the second note summarizes and interprets Barbara’s behaviour?
planned for times when other educators are around. Educators may plan what
to look for and observe without directly engaging with a child or children, or
they may engage with children to test a hypothesis about what children will say
and do. Anecdotes may be compiled from brief observation notes jotted down
in the moment or from memory of observed episodes and may include visual
documentation such as photos or children’s drawings. Planned observations can
include event samples, time samples or running records.
Structured observations such as checklists can include a list of skills or
behaviours that can be checked off when observed. Targeted behaviours or
experiences in structured observations can provide specific information about a
child’s development and learning.
Observing for Children’s Perspectives While considering what
they want to find out about children through observation, educators can take
into account the perspectives of children. When educators apply the principle
of the image of the child introduced in Chapter 1, they look for the possibilities
where the voices of children can be heard. Educators recognize that children live
in various contexts and there is no single universal view of childhood.
In addition to observing how children interact with their environments and
each other, they can note what emotions children are expressing. Some questions educators can ask themselves to guide their observations and what they
record can be found in Table 9.1.
Educators who view children as competent and capable also respect children’s agency and right to privacy in their play with other children. Educators
must ensure that their observations are ethical and respect the rights of children
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Anecdotes
A written description that is
recorded after an event or
interaction is observed and
includes what was seen
and heard.
event sample
Observation that is recorded
while an event (specific routine
or learning experience) is
happening. The record includes
the preceding conditions, the
child’s behaviour in the event
and the conditions following
the event.
time sample
Observation record that notes
an individual child or group
of children’s behaviour at
predetermined times.
running record
Detailed observation record
written over a specific period
of time while a behaviour
is happening.
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Table 9.1 ● Observing from the Perspective of
Children: Questions to Consider to Guide Observations
How are children using the physical space?
How are they using their time?
What are children saying about what they are doing and thinking?
How are children expressing their emotions about their experiences and
each other?
How motivated are the children?
How are the children playing with each other?
Are any children playing alone, with a partner or in a group?
Do they show any joy and delight in their play?
Is the play continuous and intense?
What adults are involved?
How are children moving their bodies?
LO 9.1
What objects and materials are children using? How are they using objects
and materials?
in the process. Observations should be recorded in ways that represent children
fairly and equitably. Educators can ask older preschool and school-age children
for their permission to observe and record play episodes.
Documentation
Documentation can make learning visible by revealing what has been unfolding
in the learning process (Curtis & Carter, 2015). Documentation often begins by
observing and recording evidence of children’s efforts and learning. Observations of
children’s ideas and experiences can be captured through notes (as described in the
previous section), pictures and videos, and supplemented by the child’s own representations. Educators’ decisions about what they are choosing to document, and
why, may guide what they choose to observe and record. Or their observations of
children may guide what they choose to document. Other considerations include
what form of documentation is best and how the documentation will be shared.
Children’s representations can be collected through samples or outcomes
of their activities. The representations can be dated and collected along with
description information that provides details about the context—what the children were doing, what was set up in the environment and what materials were
available. Documentation can include records of children’s words and conversations, children’s constructions and written observations.
Using Photographs and Videos for Documentation
Early childhood educators often use digital technology to record their observations
of children’s learning. User-friendly and affordable tablets and computers allow
young children to become active participants in the process, documenting their
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Courtesy of Jane Bertrand
Traces of children’s learning
are found in their
drawings.
own learning (Lee & Carr, 2002). Using digital technology including photos and
video to record what children are saying and doing can allow educators to capture
more information than is possible in written notes. This might uncover more about
the context and children’s non-verbal cues.
At the same time, educators consider children’s safety, right to privacy
and confidentiality as digital records can be widely distributed. Possible power
dynamics and bias may exist when recording children’s experiences through
electronic technology. Young children often have ideas about documentation
and what they want to share and not share with others.
I Made a “J”
Learning
Together
Dr. Christine McLean, the early childhood education leader who introduced this
section recalls the following story:
There is a story from when I was in a centre in Newfoundland where everyone
was worried about this little boy. He was five years old and getting ready to go to
school, but he had never written his name. His parents were really concerned that
he didn’t know his letters and that he didn’t know his name, but he was good at
all kinds of other things.
One day this boy was playing with the Play-Doh, rolling it in his hands back
and forth and it made a snake. As he was rolling it, the snake turned up on one
end as kind of a hook. It just so happened that this little boy’s name started with
LO 9.2
(continued)
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the letter “J.” He put it on the table and he called Mary, the educator over, and he
said, “Look Mary, I made a “J.” And she said, “Yes, you did!” And he said, “I think
you should document it.” Mary said, “I think you’re right.”
Mary got the camera and she took a picture of the “J.” Now, he wanted to
make all the other letters of his name, Jordan. Mary was taking pictures and the
other children came over and they started making letters with their bodies and she
took pictures of that, too. Mary made a great display—there were no words on it.
She was just beginning to understand documentation and put all these pictures
together of Jordan who made the “J.” He brought the playdough “J” over to the
alphabet that was on the wall and he showed where the “J” was. The documentation was able to provide comfort to his parents—to show that he was tuning into
his letters. It also made him feel that he was competent—a competent writer who
was able to make these letters.
The fact that Jordan was able to say “this is something that needs to be
documented” points to the fact that children can be aware of these important
learning processes that are happening with them. It’s about opening the door to
have those types of conversations and support children learning to be learners
(McLean, 2020).
Consider:
How did Mary’s response to Jordan support his self-image as a learner?
Courtesy of Christine McLean
Pedagogical Documentation
pedagogical
documentation
Interpretation and analysis
of documented records
of children’s learning that
influences planning for the
learning environment and
learning experiences.
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In ECE programs documentation might become pedagogical documentation.
Observing and recording what children do in ECE programs through the variety of
methods outlined above is the first step in pedagogical documentation. The next
step is analyzing and interpreting this evidence of children’s learning to understand
and extend learning.
Pedagogical documentation makes children’s learning visible so educators
can reflect on the evidence of learning with other educators, families and children. Pedagogical documentation invites educators to collaborate with each other
in order to design future context for learning. Their planning can be informed by
children’s ideas, questions, skills and abilities. Families can contribute by sharing
their understanding of learning that happens at home. Pedagogical documentation also allows children to see their own learning.
The interpretation and analysis of documentation allow educators to think
about children’s progress and make connections that recognize and expand
children’s learning. If children are struggling—such as by having difficulty
entering play with other children or following a story—educators can identify specific strategies or other resources to help them. An understanding of
the learning pathways discussed in Chapter 8 allows educators to monitor and
analyze each child’s progress through observation and documentation, make
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curriculum decisions specific to individual children and have conversations with
families. The provincial and territorial early learning frameworks described in
Chapter 6 include broad learning goals that can be used to interpret children’s
daily experiences.
The B.C. Early Learning Framework describes pedagogical narration (often
called documentation) this way:
The process of noticing and collecting moments from daily practice
and sharing these with colleagues, children, and families to make children’s learning processes and inquiries, as well as educators’ pedagogical
choices, visible and open to interpretation and reflection. Engaging with
pedagogical narration is central to the vision of this framework. (British
Columbia Ministry of Education, 2019 p. 104).
Pedagogical documentation or narration begins with observation of children’s play, then gathers data such as photographs, notes, children’s artwork or
videos and then reflects on this information (Stacey, 2015). When educators
examine the data, they can intentionally make decisions about how to respond
to a child or group of children or what play opportunities might be offered.
Co-constructed pedagogical documentation is generated with children and
for children. The children are the creators as well as the primary audience who
are able to review, reflect on, and revisit their experiences. This type of documentation differs from a more traditional approach to documenting children’s
experiences—one in which an educator creates the documentation with an
adult audience in mind, using adult interpretations of the event in order to make
children’s learning visible (McLean, 2018).
The Mystery That Is My Child’s Day
One study (McLean, 2018) considered the co-construction of pedagogical documentation by educators and children. The process of co-construction took place
with the children rather than in dedicated time for reflection and planning.
The factors involved in this co-construction process were complex and varied.
Practical considerations of time, setting, materials and technical support influenced the process. Factors included:
Co-constructed
pedagogical
documentation
Pedagogical documentation
that is led by a child or children
who participated in an activity
with the support of educators
who listen to and record
children’s ideas.
Research
Into
Practice
LO 9.2
• Educators’ values, attitudes and beliefs about the involvement of children in
the documentation process
• The educator–child relationship
• The educator’s perception of children’s abilities to reflect and recall their
experiences
• The inclusion of children’s voices as an element of intentional program
planning
• The parents’ understanding of how and what their child learns in a playbased setting
(continued)
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In the study, parents were asked for their thoughts on the documentation
provided to them by early childhood educators which focused on their young children’s learning experiences in early learning settings. The feedback from parents
was positive. They stated that pedagogical documentation contributed to their
understanding of how their children learned through play. It helped shed light on
what one parent referred to as “the mystery that is my child’s day.”
Consider:
What are the benefits of pedagogical documentation for families?
Sources: McLean, 2018; Stacey 2015; British Columbia Ministry of Education, 2019
Sharing Documentation
portfolio
A collection of pedagogical
documentation of an individual
over time.
documentation panel
A mounted display of
pedagogical documentation
that may include text, photos,
and children’s representations
and focus on a specific
process or project for an
individual child or a group
of children.
When documentation is part of daily practice, educators can easily communicate
with families, respond to individual children’s learning and development, and plan
what comes next. Documentation allows educators to answer parents’ questions
about how a child is doing.
Documentation, including pedagogical documentation, can be shared in
numerous ways so that it can be viewed and discussed by children, their families
and educators. When documentation is displayed at children’s level to view, they
are able to remember and revisit their experiences. Often children will then
share their experiences with their families.
Educators in an ECE program can select a framework to organize and share
pedagogical documentation. Also, an organizing framework can support planning and other areas of intentional teaching. Table 9.2 summarizes some examples of how documentation can be organized.
Recordkeeping Versus Pedagogical Documentation All of the
following are records or documentation of a moment in time but none are
pedagogical documentation.
• A checklist of outcomes
• A photo record of the day’s activities
• A scrapbook of a child’s drawings and emerging printing
• A record of skills or content taught to children
• Posting photographs and samples of children’s mark-making and creative
arts on the wall or posting videos online with a description such as “Adul
and Emis are making a mud pie.”
Visit MindTap to learn more
about learning stories.
The learning becomes visible only when the documentation is joined by an
interpretative analysis of the play or interaction and what children are learning.
Then the documentation has pedagogical value.
Not all documentation needs to be pedagogical documentation. A record of
a moment in time in an ECE program still has value for children, educators and
parents. It may lead to discussions with children about the learning or it may
lead to further explorations and discoveries.
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Table 9.2 ● Pedagogical Documentation Records
Daily Diaries
A narrative compiled for families and displayed to show aspects of learning and
educators’ reflection and analysis of learning that may include photos or children’s drawings.
Learning Note
A brief one-page analysis of a child’s or group of children’s participation in a learning
experience that
• Summarizes a child’s involvement in a learning experience
• Identifies the demonstrated learning in the description, possibly making specific
references to learning goals
• Records ideas for future related learning experiences that could be incorporated
into planning
Learning Stories
A narrative about what a child can do and what they are learning.
Learning stories represent learning as an evolving dynamic and ongoing process.
They begin with educators’ observations of children that could be learning anecdotes.
Educators then compose a narrative that is based on the child’s understanding about
what they have learned.
Learning stories are written as stories for children; they speak directly to children.
Families and other children may add additional comments.
Portfolio
An individual child’s online and/or paper portfolio can include dated anecdotal observation notes from educators’ observations, photographs, videos, drawings, audio
recording of conversations, feedback from children, input from family members,
learning notes and learning stories put together in a coherent linked collection that
offers an overview of a child’s learning over time.
Documentation
Panel
Documentation panels are a display of a project or a process that includes text,
photos and children’s representations on a large surface such as Bristol board. The
text includes a description of the learning that is happening.
A Learning Note
Learning
Together
Five-year-old Riley and Kashen are kneeling at the table beside the main block
construction area.
Riley selected a box of tiles from the shelf. He was quickly joined by his
friend Kashen.
Riley suggested to Kashen they arrange the large tiles first. Kashen agreed
and added they could use the smaller tiles to fill in the gaps. Together they began
creating a pattern on top of the shelf, moving different sized tiles around as needed
to fill in space, discussing placement as they went.
They discussed various attributes of the tiles such as the size, texture and
colours, and decided on their favourites. Kashen kept his favourite tile aside, telling
Riley he was going to put that one on last. Riley found many favourites that he
used throughout his pattern.
LO 9.3
(continued)
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Once their work was complete, the children asked if they could leave it set up
so they could show their families.
The ultimate goal was to fill the shelf with tiles without leaving any blank
spaces. Kashen and Riley are knowledgeable about the various attributes of the
tiles and aware of how to fit them together.
Consider:
What might educators plan for a learning experience to follow this experience?
Learning
Together
LO 9.2
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Spring Is Coming
One spring morning when the preschool group of children entered the playground,
three-year-olds Sasha and Tryee noticed a robin in the grass as they entered
the playground.
“Look,” said Sasha excitedly pointing to the robin, “Spring is coming.”
Bronwyn, the preschool educator, quickly took out a small notepad and pencil
from her coat pocket and made a brief note. She then pulled out her mobile phone
and took a photo of Sasha and Tryee pointing at the robin. She was able to also
take a photo of the robin before it flew up into a tree.
During the children’s rest time, Bronwyn printed the photos of Sasha and
Tryee pointing at the robin. The photo is a clear image of the two girls pointing
and looking toward the bird, not the camera. She adds the title “A Robin in the
Playground—Spring Is Coming.”
The title indicates to the reader that this is a record of an event but not pedagogical documentation.
The next day, there are more robins in the playground.
Four-year-old Philip asks Bronwyn if the robin is a mommy robin.
Sasha says, “I think it is a mommy robin but what is she doing?” as the robin
hops around the grass pecking its beak into the ground. More children join to
watch the robin until it flies into a nearby tree. The conversation among a group of
six children brainstormed about what the robin might eat, how it was probably has
a nest and whether it was scared of them.
Bronwyn takes notes and then joins the group. Tryee asks, “What does the
robin eat?”
Bronwyn responds, “What do you think?”
The children talked together about their theories about what the robin eats as
well as ideas about nest building. Bronwyn listened carefully, taking notes about
what the children said.
Tryee says, “I don’t know.”
Bronwyn replies, “I do not know either. How can we find out?”
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After further discussion, the children decide they will watch the bird carefully
and try to follow its movements for several minutes. The robin flew away high up
into the same tree and the children lost interest and turned to play with each other
in the sandbox and on the tricycles.
At lunch, Sasha turns to Bronwyn and says, “Do we have any books
about birds?”
Bronwyn responds, “Yes, let’s have a look after lunch.” They found a picture
book about birds. It was a book with pictures of several birds naming different
species, including one of a mother and baby robin.
Sasha asks, “What does the book say about what robins eat or how they build
nests or take care of their babies?”
Bronwyn replies, “The book has pictures and names of birds but no other
information. Let’s make a list of all of our questions. Then we can find other books
and see if we can learn more about robins and what they eat, how they make
nests and how they take care of their babies.”
A few other children joined, and together they had a list of questions that
Bronwyn noted on a large sheet of paper. Over the course of the next week,
Bronwyn and the children read several books and found a short video of robins
making nests. The children drew pictures and gathered twigs and grass to make
nests. Bronwyn continued to take notes and photos as the children investigated
more about robins. She often asked them questions about their ideas and theories.
Bronwyn then prepared a documentation panel that included notes and
photos of the children’s investigation of robins, including her earlier documentation, A Robin in the Playground—Spring Is Coming. She also included her interpretation about the children’s learning. The documentation panel was posted on the
display wall near the entrance.
One day, a week after posting the documentation panel, Sasha was intently
looking at the panel. Bronwyn approached her and discussed the potos, encouraging Sasha to remember the events and the learning that happened.
Consider:
What is the difference between the first documentation a learning note, and
the documentation panel?
Planning
Educators are guided by their observations, documentation and the broad learning
goals in provincial and territorial early learning frameworks. Though specific planning tools and strategies for different curriculum approaches vary, planning typically includes the content (the learning experience to be offered to children) and
how the content will be implemented (possible interactions, use of space and time).
Plans for learning experiences often consider how to set up indoor and outdoor
spaces and what materials and resources will be on offer to introduce a learning
experience. Educators can also consider what materials and resources may be easily
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teachable moments
Opportunities for teaching
that often arise spontaneously
during children’s play or
daily routines.
accessible. Plans also consider the time in the daily schedule that is best suited for
learning experience. Possibilities include times scheduled for small groups, large
groups or daily routines. Planning may describe an anticipated sequence for a
learning experience, while recognizing that the children’s considerations may take
it in a different direction.
Planning for inclusive early learning environments and experiences that may
be structured or unstructured is key element of intentional teaching. Planning
is the backbone to optimal ECE environments that support all children’s wellbeing and early learning.
Approaches to planning vary and are tied to the curriculum approaches that
are discussed in Chapter 5. Planning allows educators to respond immediately
when they recognize children’s learning, leveraging teachable moments.
Provocations, such as leaving unique items on display, are likely to result in
opportunities for teachable moments. Educators can also plan ahead, preparing
learning environments and experiences based on their observations and pedagogical documentation.
Pedagogical documentation is a powerful tool for planning and identifying
provocations to extend learning. Educators’ notes and photos regarding a range
of explorations or interactions suggest choices about what interests to follow
up, and what patterns might emerge later. When educators notice children’s
interest in exploring nature, people, places, and objects as well as print, stories,
numbers, shapes, and patterns, and when they name the connections between
these experiences and acknowledge children’s dispositions to learn, they are
co-constructing early learning curriculum with young children and making the
curriculum visible to others.
Understanding learning pathways and recognizing what children already
know and can do through observation and documentation allow educators to
avoid needless repetition that does not inspire or motivate young children.
© David Pereiras/Shutterstock.com
Educators meet to share their
pedagogical documentation and discuss plans
for experiences that will
respond to and extend children’s learning.
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Educators can target some learning experiences just above children’s current
skill level—a proven educational strategy for motivating children’s engagement
in learning experiences. Educators can also identify when a group of children
would benefit from more input to ensure their continued learning.
Educators may design and use a template for planning that can be shared
among educators working together with a group of children. It can also be shared
with children and their families.
Assessment
Assessment of individual children in ECE programs must be sensitive to developmental and cultural diversity, while ensuring optimal opportunities and recognition
of potential difficulties. Three approaches to assessment are used in ECE programs
in Canada and Australia (DEEWR, 2009).
• Assessment for learning involves ongoing noticing and acknowledging children’s learning.
• Assessment as learning recognizes the process of assessment as a powerful
tool for children’s learning.
• Assessment of learning confirms what children know, understand and
can do.
Assessment for Learning
Educators observe and document children and how they engage in play with each
other and how they respond to the learning environment. Educators use information from assessment to guide intentional teaching practices. Observing children in
everyday experiences, analyzing those observations and other evidence of learning
such as children’s representations, and recording the information is assessment for
learning or formative assessment. Educators’ observations of children’s play with
each other and other daily experiences are formative assessments that can be used
for extended learning experiences.
Assessment for children’s learning refers to the process of gathering and
analyzing information as evidence about what children know, can do and understand. It is part of an ongoing cycle that includes planning, documenting and
evaluating children’s learning. Assessment for learning offers a way to study the
learning experiences that children are involved in and the skills and knowledge
they are acquiring through these experiences. It includes interactions between
and among educators and children, children and each other, children and their
environment, and children and their families.
Assessment as Learning
Assessment as learning is also formative assessment. Educators help children use
evidence of learning to recognize what they have learned. Documentation that children have created becomes pedagogical or a teaching tool—children use documentation to retell past experiences and to recognize their own learning achievements.
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Children may seek out educators to document what they realize they have learned
or achieved. Through learning stories and other forms of documentation, children
extend their ability to tell stories and to use text, symbols and numbers. Children
can look back and follow their own learning pathways. They can take initiative to
have a photo of a learning episode or work product included. Paper or hard copies
of portfolios that include learning stories might have some advantages in easing
children’s access as compared to accessing electronic documentation.
Assessment of Learning
summative assessment
Evaluation of specific learning
skills or knowledge.
Early learning
standards
Expectations for young
children’s learning
and development.
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Assessment of learning is summative assessment that is intended to measure what
children know, understand and can do. Educators summarize children’s learning
based on evidence. Educators can create opportunities for children to demonstrate
their understanding of key concepts and their skills.
Educators assess the progress of children’s learning and development
against specific measures of learning outcomes. Pedagogical documentation
such as learning portfolios may provide extensive evidence about an individual
child’s progress.
Early learning standards are one example of outcome measures that describe
what children should know and be able to do (National Center on Early
Childhood Quality Assurance, 2016). These standards are used to inform curriculum and pedagogy and may include performance standards that describe how
children can demonstrate that they have met the content standards (Epstein et
al., 2004). The standards may be assessed either informally in everyday practice
or in more formal ways, including standardized testing. Nevertheless, they do
not provide a coherent framework for early childhood programs (Scott-Little,
Lesko, Marterlla & Milburn, 2007; Fromberg, 2006). When standardized assessments of early learning outcomes become the basis for early childhood curriculum and pedagogy, educators may “teach to the test” and often encourage a
focus on measurable, isolated skills (Fromberg, 2006).
Almost all US states have developed early learning standards for pre-­
kindergarten-age children, and an increasing number of states have developed
infant-toddler early learning standards and guidelines (National Center on
Early Childhood Quality Assurance, 2016; Center on Enhancing Early Learning
Outcomes & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2017). Clear and appropriate expectations for learning and development across developmental domains
is perceived as essential for optimal benefits for children and for program quality
among American and United Kingdom early childhood researchers and policy
makers (National Early Childhood Accountability Task Force, 2006; Barnett et
al., 2006; Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2007).
Standardized direct assessments of young children’s developmental skills
are prone to error when given to children under age eight (Miller & Almon,
2009; Meisels, 2007). The results of a single child assessment administered at
this age does not provide reliable information; for example, young children may
not respond although they have the skill that is being assessed. Yet such tests
may be used to assess children’s early learning skills as early as four years of age
(Ackerman et al., 2009; Sloat, Beswick & Willms, 2007; Kagan et al., 2015).
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Assessment in Full-Day Kindergarten
In Ontario, full-day kindergarten for four- and five-year-old children has two priorities:
1. A recognition of play-based learning with a developmental focus
2. An assessment of a standards-based curriculum
A study of 20 kindergarten classrooms found that teachers used a range of
strategies including assessment of learning information for report cards; collection
of assessment for learning to support planning of future activities; and assessment
as learning interactions to help children understand their own learning (DeLuca,
Pyle, Braund & Faith, 2020).
Self-regulated learning is recognized as strong predictor of later school success (Corter, Janmohamed & Pelletier, 2012). The teachers in the study used
assessment as learning to directly and indirectly foster student’s self-regulation. The
teachers who were using more assessment as learning to support self-regulation
by noticing and naming regulatory behaviours for children tended to actively play
with them. The researchers suggest that this allows teachers to provide in-the-moment feedback to children and can complement other assessment strategies.
Research
Into
Practice
LO 9.3
Consider:
How can educators balance the need to document children’s learning while
they play alongside them?
Reflective Practice
Educators can learn from daily experiences and issues that arise in ECE settings
when they think about what has happened and why. Reflective practice guides
decision making and planning as educators analyze different aspects of experiences
and consider what should be repeated, extended or changed. It often provokes new
ideas and ways of knowing and increases curiosity. The image of the child as competent, capable and connected to adults and other children guides educators as
they reflect on their actions.
Reflective practice involves thinking about curriculum decisions, examining
the philosophies and theories that underlie those decisions, and exploring how
personal experiences and biases can influence decision making. “The act of constructing pedagogical documentation as a possible entry point and a motivation
for educators to become more reflective in their practice, can, in turn, lead to a
more responsive and higher quality early learning environment” (McLean, 2019,
p. 3).
Educators can think about their own perspectives and be aware of what
captures their attention and what delights them. They can consider how their
own background and values influence their responses to what children do, daily
situations and what learning they find valuable. Reflective practice also pays
attention to seeking children’s views and to their ideas and theories.
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Reflective practice
Consideration of actions in
context of beliefs, values
and knowledge.
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© Jack Hollingsworth/Digital Vision/Thinkstock
In ECE programs, educators
observe, document, plan,
assess and reflect on their
daily interactions with
young children.
Educators make hundreds of curriculum decisions a day. Many of those
decisions, such as reminding children to wash their hands after toileting or intervening to help resolve an argument between two children, are made automatically, without thinking about why. At times, reflective practice is about looking
back at curriculum decisions.
Here are some questions that educators can ask themselves questions
whether in the midst of a situation or when looking back.
• How is the organization and use of the physical space and materials
impacting this situation?
• How could relationships be strengthened?
• How might schedules and routines be influencing this experience?
• How might the child’s culture and family background be influencing
this situation?
• What questions might we ask to get the perspective of the child’s family?
• Who else or what other perspectives should be considered?
• What child development or early learning theories should be considered in
this experience?
• What learning pathways are unfolding?
Looking forward, educators can ask other questions.
• What values, philosophy and desired outcomes should influence responses?
• What new or existing relationships could be strengthened?
• Which learning experiences could be a focus that would respond to children’s emerging pathways?
• What materials could be offered?
• What new vocabulary could be introduced?
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Critical Friend, Friendly Critic Educators who trust each other and
ask each other provocative questions that encourage reflection are critical friends
and friendly critics. They offer each other a view of practice and information
through another lens. Critical friends and friendly critics critique of each other’s
work and take time to fully understand the context of each other’s practice
(Costa & Kallick, 1993). Critical friends and friendly critics are valuable in
supporting each other’s reflective practice.
Summary
• Observation strengthens other intentional
teaching strategies including documentation,
planning, assessment and reflective thinking and
further emphasizes the professional role of the
early childhood educator.
• Documentation records evidence of children’s
learning. When educators analyze and reflect on
learning, it is pedagogical documentation.
• Educators’ plans for curriculum in ECE
programs are guided by their observations,
documentation and the broad learning
goals in provincial and territorial early
learning frameworks.
• Assessment in ECE programs includes three
approaches and recognition of developmental diversity.
• Reflective practice guides the practices of
educators in context of values, beliefs and the
image of the child.
Review Questions
1. Describe five practices that are elements of
intentional teaching. LO 9.1
2. What skills contribute to effective observation?
LO 9.2
3. What is the difference between records of
observation and pedagogical documentation?
LO 9.3
4. Describe three formats that educators can use
to create pedagogical documentation that can
be shared with children, other educators and
families. LO 9.3
5. What is the difference between formative and
summative assessment? LO 9.5
6. How does pedagogical practice contribute to
reflective practice in early childhood education?
LO 9.6
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Study Activities
1. Read the following research brief by Dr.
Carolyn Wien about pedagogical documentation. What does Dr. Wien mean when she states
that educators and children are researchers in
the process of pedagogical documentation?
Prepare a poster or PowerPoint to summarize
the key points in the brief. LO 9.3
Wien, C.A. (2013). Making learning visible
through pedagogical documentation. In Think,
feel, act: Lessons from research about young
children, pp. 27–30. Toronto, ON: Ontario
Ministry of Education. Retrieved September 17,
2020, at http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/childcare/
ResearchBriefs.pdf
2. Working in partners, find three examples of
planning templates used in local ECE programs.
Discuss the benefits and limitations of each.
Prepare a short presentation for the class. LO 9.4
3. Review the types of planned observations introduced in this chapter on page 185. Use other
textbooks and search the Internet to find out
more about event samples, time samples and
running records. Prepare a written description
about how to use each one. LO 9.1
Key Terms
Anecdotes (p. 185)
Co-constructed pedagogical documentation (p. 189)
Documentation (p. 183)
Documentation panel (p. 190)
Early learning standards (p. 196)
Event sample (p. 185)
Pedagogical documentation (p. 188)
Portfolio (p. 190)
Reflective practice (p. 197)
Running record (p. 185)
Summative assessment (p. 196)
Teachable moments (p. 194)
Time sample (p. 185)
Suggested Readings
For additional resources,
visit MindTap.
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Harwood, D., Facchini, N., Khan, F., Randle, H., Robitaille, S. & Ratilainen, C.
(2017, Fall). “Good-bye Mr. Raccoon, we’ll miss you!” Supporting children’s explorations. eceLink. Toronto, ON: Association of Early Childhood
Educators Ontario. Retrieved September 17, 2020, at https://drive.google.
com/file/d/1r-QpyHZPyKpkVVwyuV43Hw83_m3L16Ft/view
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2015). Pedagogical documentation revisited:
K- 12 capacity building series. Retrieved September 17, 2020, at http://
www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/inspire/research/CBS_
PedagogicalDocument.pdf
Wien, C.A. (2013). Making learning visible through pedagogical documentation. In Think, feel, act: Lessons from research about young children,
pp. 27–30. Toronto: Ministry of Education, Ontario. Retrieved
September 17, 2020, at http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/childcare/
ResearchBriefs.pdf
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Quality Matters
CHAPTER
10
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
10.1 Recognize various perspectives about what
makes quality early childhood education.
10.3 Identify how to measure quality in
ECE programs.
10.2 Identify structural and process components
of quality early childhood education.
10.4 Describe the process of continuous
quality improvement.
Chapter 10 discusses several specific components of quality in ECE programs. It reviews regulatory requirements and evidence-based practices that
have been introduced in earlier chapters which promote high-quality early
learning environments. This chapter introduces a variety of quality assessment tools used to measure ECE quality. The chapter concludes with a discussion of continuous quality improvement to help readers understand and
explain the process.
WHAT IS QUALITY IN ECE PROGRAMS?
As introduced in Chapter 1, ECE programs vary from child care centres
for infants to before- and after-school programs for children up to 12 years.
Kindergarten, preschool and nursery school programs may be half-day or full–
school day programs. Licensed home child care is offered in private residences.
Early Childhood Education Quality Perspectives
The quality of early childhood education can be defined from many perspectives, including the views of children, parents and other family members; early
childhood educators; researchers; public school teachers and administrators; and
the community. The values and beliefs that shape perceptions of quality vary in
different cultural contexts.
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LEARNING
TOGETHER
LO 10.1
Looking for Quality in ECE Programs
City View Preschool: Three-year-old Phoebe attends a morning preschool program located in her neighbourhood public school in a small town in southwest
Ontario. Fifteen children, ages two to four years old arrive around 8:30 am and are
greeted by two early childhood educators, Maria and Elsa.
“Hello, Phoebe,” says Maria, kneeling down to Phoebe’s level. “I see you wore
your spring jacket today.”
Maria looks up to Steve, Maria’s Dad and says, “Good morning. It really does
seem like a warm spring day is shaping up.” Phoebe takes off her jacket and takes
it to her cubby and hangs it up on the hook. Her Dad places her small backpack
on the top shelf and says “Phoebe, remember there are extra clothes here if you
need them.” Phoebe nods.
“Hey, Phoebe,” shouts her friend, Illsa. “Come and see the magic tower I
am building.”
Phoebe says a quick good-bye to her Dad and rushes over to Illsa who is in the
block area, passing by a snack table that is open for children to help themselves
to water, bananas, oranges and small bran muffins. The block structure is now a
half-metre high. The base is made up of wooden blocks. Coloured cylinders sit on
top of the wooden blocks. On top of the cylinders are small square plastic blocks.
Illsa says, “See all the new stuff” and points to a basket with small rocks and
sticks. “Let’s put the rocks on the top. They can be magic rocks that keep bad
things out.”
Aisha’s toddler child care centre: Two-year-old Aisha attends an ECE program
in the downtown area of a large city. Today the educators are taking the toddler
group to a nearby park that has a large sand play area and a nearby water pump.
They bring along pails and shovels.
Pedro’s Kindergarten: Five-year-old Pedro’s neighbourhood school is located in
a small town. He arrives by school bus at 8:30 a.m. He joins his class and educators
in the outdoor playground. Ten minute later the bell rings and he goes inside with his
friends and walks to his classroom. He looks at the sign-in sheet and finds his name
and puts a check mark beside it. Pedro then finds a spot on the big rug where all of
the children meet with their educators to talk about what is on offer today.
Sarah’s before- and after-school program Nine-year-old Sarah rushes from her
Grade 4 classroom down the hall to the gym. She is greeted by Nick and Salema,
the before- and after-school program educators. Sarah is excited because today
is volleyball practice. Sarah has signed up to be on the team. She knows that
Salema is a good volleyball player and coaches high school students at the recreation centre on Saturday. Sarah wants to learn the game and how to play it well.
CONSIDER:
Think about what you have learned about play-based learning, early learning
environments and intentional teaching practices. What evidence of quality do
you see in the descriptions of these ECE programs?
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© Courtney Hale/istock.com
Educators share their views on
what works and what irks in
their program.
EDUCATORS’ VIEWS ON QUALITY Educators should consider their own
perspectives on what is essential in a high-quality ECE program. Perspectives on
quality may be challenged or reinforced. Ideas about quality often change as an
educator’s knowledge and skills broaden.
PARENTS’ VIEWS ON QUALITY For some parents, a quality ECE program
safeguards a child’s health and safety; the child is happy, and the program
is conveniently located and affordable. Quality child care is essential to
balancing work and family for many parents. Some parents define high
quality early childhood education as a program that offers concrete school
readiness activities, such as learning to print letters and to count. Other
parents highlight social skills such as cooperation and getting along with other
children. Parents may define a quality ECE environment as one that values
and respects their child’s abilities and their families’ culture. Or parents may
define quality ECE as an environment in which their child makes friends, has
positive play experiences and is learning a variety of things about the world
around them.
CHILDREN’S VIEWS ON QUALITY For young children a quality ECE program
is a good place to be, and they have strong views about what they like. Having
fun is usually important to children. Responsive adults matter. Most important
is play with friends. As discussed in Chapter 7, from infancy on, young children
identify play and friends as what they like most about their ECE program
(Heagle et al., 2017).
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School-age children also have strong views about the kinds of environments and experiences they want to have in before- and after-school programs.
In one study, children who were 10 to 12 years old were asked to describe
their ideal school environment. The children separated their ideas about play
and learning (Kangas, 2010). They explained that they wanted to learn math in
a more “pleasant way.” They described two categories of learning experiences:
traditional learning such as reading books and learning through play such as
number games. Before- and after-school programs are not intended to replicate
school settings, and the views of children in this study suggest a focus on play,
including games and organized sports, is more appropriate than homework clubs
or remedial activities to improve academic skills.
MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES ON QUALITY Gillian Doherty (2000) reviewed
the “reality of multiple perspectives” on quality and suggests that the level of
quality in a particular early childhood education program depends on who is
making the judgment. Doherty states that it is important to recognize that there
are different perspectives and to move away from a judgment of quality that is
defined by experts only, without the input of other stakeholders. She concludes
that “there appears to be agreement that there are some values that are so critical
to the well-being of children that they should be a core part of any definition of
quality” (p. 4). These values are
• Safe care
• Healthful care
• Individualized care that promotes equal opportunity
• Care that provides developmentally appropriate stimulation
• Care that is characterized by positive interaction with adults
• Care that encourages individual emotional growth
• Care that promotes positive relationships with other children
Doherty cautions us to keep in mind that there are many ways to support
these universal values. Our responses can and should vary to reflect our own
cultural realities and those of the children and families we work with in early
childhood settings. “Understanding and ensuring quality involves a continuous
process of reconciling the perspectives of different stakeholders within the
broader context of universal values. It is not a prescriptive exercise” (Doherty,
2000, p. 5).
What Research Tells Us About ECE Quality
Visit MindTap to learn more
about research into the
benefits of quality in early
childhood education.
The value of high-quality early childhood education for improving learning
and behaviour outcomes, especially among children at risk, is well established.
Quality early childhood education promotes children’s well-being and longterm positive impacts on academic learning (National Academies of Sciences,
Engineering, and Medicine, 2019; Slot, 2018; Barnett & Frede, 2017, Yoshikawa
et al., 2013).
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Why Is High-Quality Child Care
Important for Child Development?
High-quality child care can have a positive influence on children’s development
and school readiness by providing valuable educational and social experiences.
Research shows also that only high quality provision can deliver well-being
and appropriate development to young children. As an increasing number of
mothers are in the workforce and most children ages 3 and older now attend
an ECE program on a regular basis, it has become critical that young children
from all backgrounds should have access to high-quality child care and early
education.
Find out more from the online Encyclopedia on Early Child Development (http://
www.child-encyclopedia.com/child-care-early-childhood-education-and-care/
introduction).
RESEARCH
INTO
PRACTICE
LO 10.2
CONSIDER:
What is the primary purpose of child care programs—to support parents
in the workforce or to support young children’s learning, development and
well-being?
Source: Tremblay, Boivin & Peters, 2012.
COMPONENTS OF QUALITY IN ECE PROGRAMS
The question of which specific quality components in ECE programs foster
positive outcomes for children is more complicated. Studies have identified
two types of components that contribute to ECE program quality: structural
quality and process quality (Garon-Carrier, 2019; Slot 2018) as illustrated in
Figure 10.1. Structural quality includes factors that define the social and physical environment in ECE programs: the number of children and how many
educators, the kind of physical space, the types of play materials and activities
available, and educators’ qualifications that indicate their level of knowledge
and understanding of children’s well-being and early learning. Process quality
indicates the interactions among children, between educators and children,
and between educators and children’s families.
The policies and systems that determine how ECE programs are organized,
funded and resourced influence the structural framework and process components of ECE programs.
CHAPTER 10 Quality Matters
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STRUCTURAL QUALITY
Factors such as adult–child
ratios, group size and
staff education that can
be regulated.
PROCESS QUALITY
Interactions between educators and children, among
children, and between educators and children’s families
during everyday experiences
and routines.
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FIGURE 10.1 ● STRUCTURAL AND PROCESS QUALITY
Ph
ys
LO 10.2
lE
ica
nv
nm
iro
en
Ad
ult
–C
hil
dR
at
io
t
Interactions
Educator Qualifications
Structural and Process Quality
Structural Quality in ECE Programs
ADULT-CHILD RATIO
Maximum number of children
allowed for every staff member.
The structural quality is constructed from three building blocks: low adult-child
ratio, qualified educators with specialized training and stimulating environments. Structural factors influence the quality of the process factors. The professional practice of educators can benefit or suffer depending on the framework.
Educational qualifications matter; several
studies indicate centres with educators who have post-secondary ECE diploma
or degree qualifications are linked to better outcomes for children (e.g., Melhuish
et al., 2015). ECE programs that have had significant impact on later academic
achievement of children who have significant disadvantages have educators with
four-year bachelor degrees in ECE (Barnett & Frede, 2017).
Related post-secondary education increases the likelihood that all educators
have an understanding of early learning pathways and development to guide
their work with young children. ECE qualifications increase the likelihood that
educators will offer a learning environment that is stimulating and challenging
enough to engage children while not imposing unrealistic expectations. College
and university early childhood education programs recognize the importance of
both theoretical and practical knowledge in preparing early childhood educators.
Theoretical knowledge includes information and ideas supported by research
about how children learn and acquire language, thinking skills and well-being.
Practical knowledge focuses on learning about and using varied strategies to
guide children, making decisions that take the immediate situation into account
and following appropriate day-to-day routines.
EDUCATION QUALIFICATIONS
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NUMBER OF CHILDREN Several studies reported that fewer children per
educator in a group and fewer children in a group seem to result in better
child outcomes (Karoly, Kilburn, & Cannon, 2005; Garon-Carrier, 2019, Japel,
Tremblay & Côté. 2005). Small group sizes and high adult–child ratios also
contribute to higher quality in ECE programs. Most child care provincial/
territorial regulations in Canada specify ratios that—based on the research—are
generally considered to be adequate. Some provinces/territories regulate group
size. There is also evidence that ratios and training are interrelated—having a
lot of staff with no post-secondary early childhood training is no substitute for
qualified educators.
It is common sense that the total number of children an educator is responsible for will affect the quality of care and education children receive. Can you
imagine the quality of care or child development outcomes in situations in which
one ECE is responsible for six infants? Basic safety is missing in this situation, let
alone an environment of respect, responsiveness and reciprocity.
Optimal child–staff ratios in early childhood settings allow educators to
interact frequently with each child, respond promptly to children’s needs,
and observe individual children and the group dynamics. The overall size of
the group is another important component. If the total group size becomes
too large, even when the number of children each educator is responsible for
is small, quality deteriorates. The adults must pay more attention to overall
group organization and schedules, taking away from their individualized attention and flexibility in following the lead of children’s activity. In large groups,
children’s play and daily routines must fit into a group schedule and pattern.
It becomes much more difficult to respond to individual children without
creating chaos in the group.
Research studies help us to understand the optimal adult–child ratios and
maximum group sizes for different ages of children for centre-based early
­childhood programs. Where a multi-age grouping exists, the adult–child ratio
and group size requirements can be based on the age of the majority of children
in the group. When infants are included, the ratio and group size for infants
should be maintained.
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT The physical environment is a powerful influence
on our behaviour. Think about how you change your behaviour in different spaces.
Large, open spaces encourage big movements. Cozy, small spaces encourage
quieter activity. The physical environment gives us messages about what kinds
of behaviours are expected. An early childhood education environment that is
organized to include defined spaces for big movements, quiet retreats and messy
play gives children cues about how to behave.
The elements of physical environments that contribute to quality early
learning environments are discussed in Chapter 7. Excellent ECE programs have
environments structured so that early childhood educators are able to continually observe children. Think about environmental arrangements, curriculum
methods and pedagogical practices that allow educators to continually observe
the children in their care. Specific practices include encouraging individual
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OPEN-ENDED MATERIALS
Items that have more than one
designated purpose.
exploration or small-group interaction, rather than whole-group activities led by
educators; providing open-ended materials that do not require adult instruction
or assistance; and defining observation formats and record-keeping templates as
important tasks for educators.
The physical environment is an extension of the pedagogical approach of
the program. The arrangement of furniture, objects, and materials may reinforce
a coherent approach with considerable attention to the details of colour, light
and shapes. A chaotic physical environment usually signals a lack of an intentional pedagogy and points to a more custodial type of program.
Quality early childhood education provides language-rich environments,
with stimulating materials, in which children feel included and valued. The
indoor and outdoor spaces provide safe opportunities for children’s play, independent problem solving and inquiry. The staff plans opportunities that allow
children to explore language and communicate their thoughts and learning
in meaningful ways. How the environment is set up influences how children
explore, learn, and express their understandings of the world around them. The
environment can be structured to encourage positive experiences of play, creating an interest in further learning and exploration.
Some environments may focus and calm children, while others agitate and
overstimulate them. Environments may excite and motivate or simply bore children. The arrangement of the physical environment can define or limit children’s choices and encourage or discourage the process of learning.
Process Quality in ECE Programs
A child’s daily experiences are based on the interactions that children have with
educators and other children. Process factors define the nature of the interactions and activities that educators, children and their families engage in each day.
© Ingram Publishing/Thinkstock
Building blocks are
essential in quality early
childhood programs.
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Educators’ respect, response to and reciprocity with young children is clearly
the crux of the issue of quality. Of course, an educator’s own values, attitudes
and other personal characteristics have an important role in their capacity, but so
does their underlying understanding of development. As educators become more
knowledgeable about the principles and professional practices of early childhood
education practice, their capacity to respect, respond to and reciprocate with all
children increases.
RESPONSIVENESS As discussed in Chapter 7, in high quality ECE programs,
educators are responsive to how children feel and think. Educators provide
emotional security, frequent communication, encouragement to play and
challenges to explore. A nurturing, stimulating relationship between a child and
educators extends to positive relationships and learning experiences with other
children. Effective ECE programs recognize that learning takes place in the
context of responsive relationships.
Responsive educators are able to read children’s verbal and nonverbal signals, and they react promptly to children’s needs and requests. Responsiveness
is a sensitivity to each child’s emotional state and mood, as well as attention to
their physical needs. Children’s trust emerges when adults are emotionally and
physically available and reliable in meeting their needs. Infants and young children are more likely to form positive relationships to responsive early childhood
educators than they are to less-responsive educators.
Responsive educators are pay attention to what children are thinking. They
probe to find out the ideas and theories children have about what is happening
in their world. Research evidence points to the quantity and type of interactions that educators have with children as the key ingredient in determining the
quality of ECE programs (e.g., Burchinal, 2018; Sylva et al., 2010). Responsive
interactions that encourage children’s explorations and language and recognize
what children are feeling are quality factors related to children’s outcomes
(Melhuish et al., 2015; Slot, Lerkkanen & Leseman 2015). Recent studies point
to the value of interactions that are imbedded in intentional teaching practices that respond to, and encourage, children’s thinking (Burchinal, 2018).
Educators use these strategies as outlined in Chapter 7 and 8 to design and
carry out learning environments and experiences. Children who interact with
a responsive educator are more likely to get along with their peers. In addition
to supporting children’s social skills, responsive educators support children’s
thinking and language skills.
EVALUATING QUALITY
The quality of an ECE program can be evaluated in terms of its objectives.
If learning experiences are designed to engage children and challenge their
learning, educators can consider whether children had explored the available
objects and expressed their ideas. What conversations and questions are children
sharing with each other and with educators? What words and phrases are the
children using?
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Evaluating the quality of early childhood education is important to e­ ducators,
to parents and to policymakers, who might ask the following questions:
• What is the level of quality offered by an individual program?
• What type of ECE program offers the best experience for my young child?
• What is the most effective use of public funding to promote quality
ECE programs?
• How can the impact of changes in staff qualifications, funding or daily routines be monitored?
As noted earlier in this chapter, quality can be looked at from different
perspectives. Researchers point to structural and process components of quality.
However, which of these elements is most critical in evaluating the quality of
early child childhood programs? The first step is to consider which aspect of
quality to measure. Policymakers and researchers use three different possibilities:
1. Program ingredients or characteristics, which are mostly the structural
quality factors
2. Child or parent outcomes, which include the achievements, behaviours,
and characteristics of children or parents
3. Program outcomes, which attempt to measure what children actually
experience, or the dynamics components of quality.
Researchers and early childhood educators have a variety of methods to
monitor and evaluate their learning environments including rating scales,
feedback from families through interviews or questionnaires, and interviews
with children.
Rating Scales
RATING SCALE
A measure of quality based on
observation of specific items
that are scored a number value
indicating poor to excellent.
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Rating scales identify indicators of framework and dynamic components of
quality that young children experience in early childhood education settings.
The individual items are measured through observation along a number scale.
Studies relate the results of the rating scales to children’s developmental and
learning outcomes. Researchers use rating scales as one method to study the
relationship between program quality and funding or structural elements such
as staff–child ratios or staff education levels (Bertrand & Corter, 2007).
Rating scales can be used to monitor the quality of ECE programs in a region
or across a province. In some instances, rating-scale assessments are attached to
government funding for ECE programs such as early learning and child care
programs that receive public funding. Rating scales can also be used by ECE program leaders and educators to gather information to support quality improvement. The information from the rating scale scores guide educators to design
higher quality environments sometimes with the assistance of a coach or mentor
who is from outside the ECE program and has ECE expertise.
The most commonly used rating scale to monitor quality in preschool
ECE programs in Canada is the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale
(ECERS-3) (Harms, Clifford & Cryer, 2014). The first ECERS was introduced in
1980 (Harms & Clifford, 1980) as a rating scale to assess preschool centre–based
programs. Since then, ECERS revisions have added more items on interactions
SECTION 3 Early Learning Environments
1/15/21 12:40 PM
and specific learning experiences. ECERS became the most frequently used
measure of ECE quality for research studies in Canada. In addition to the
ECERS preschool settings, there are related ECERS tools for infant and toddler
settings, school-age settings and family child care settings. The information from
ECERS supports educators in making decisions about program development
and improvements. The Environment Rating Scales Institute (ERSI) provides a
number of services and resources related to the use of the various Environment
Rating Scales, including training in the administration and interpretation of
the results.
Examples of the Environment Rating Scales and other rating scales used to
measure quality in ECE programs are summarized below in Table 10.1.
Visit MindTap for more on
Environment Rating Scales.
TABLE 10.1 ● ECE PROGRAM QUALITY RATING SCALES
The Early Childhood Environmental
Rating Scale—Revised®, (ECERS-3)
(Harms, Clifford & Cryer, 2014)
The Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS-3) assesses
quality in preschool ECE programs for children aged 2 ½ to 5 years
in centre-based settings. ECERS-3 focuses on the organization of
the environment and educator–child interactions that support cognitive, social, emotional and physical development and health and
safety. ECERS-3 also includes items to assess literacy and math
activities. The scale includes 35 items organized into six categories:
space and furnishings, personal care routines, language and literacy,
learning activities, interaction, and program structure.
Studies that directly measure the relationship of child care quality to
outcomes of child development most frequently use the ECERS-R.
Infant–Toddler Environmental Rating
Scale®, (ITERS-3)
(Harms, Cryer & Clifford, 2017).
School-Age Care Environment
Rating Scale®, Updated Edition
(SACERS-Updated)
(Harms, Cryer & Clifford, 2013)
The Infant–Toddler Environmental Rating Scale (ITERS-3) assesses
quality in ECE programs for infant and toddlers up to 36 months of
age. The scale includes individual items organized into six categories: space and furnishings, personal care routines, language and
books, activities, interaction, and program structure.
The School-Age Environment Rating Scale, Updated Edition
(SACERS-Updated) assesses quality in before- and after-school
programs for children from ages 5 to 12 years during their out-ofschool time.
The scale includes 47 items organized into seven categories: space
and furnishings, health and safety, activities, interactions, program
structure, staff development, plus six supplementary items for programs enrolling children with disabilities.
Family Child Care Environment Rating
Scale® Revised
(FCCESR-3)
(Harms, Cryer, Clifford & Yazejain, 2019)
The Family Child Care Environment Rating Scale®, Revised,
assesses quality in home child care programs for children from
infancy through school age.
The scale includes 37 items organized into seven categories: space
and furnishings, personal care routines, listening and talking, activities, interaction, program structure, and parents and providers.
(continued)
CHAPTER 10 Quality Matters
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Classroom Assessment Scoring System
(Pianta, La Paro & Hamre, 2008)
The Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) measures
the quality of the learning environment in prekindergarten to grade
5 classrooms (Pianta, La Paro & Hamre, 2008). It includes ten
items organized within three broad categories—emotional support,
organizational support, and instructional (pedagogical) support.
The tool focuses on what educators do to stimulate reasoning,
problem solving, and depth of thinking about materials or experiences. CLASS characterizes effective pedagogy in the early years
as “responsive teaching” that has demonstrated a positive impact
on young children (Hamre et al., 2014). The CLASS assessment is
used in early childhood education research in Canadian programs
and often used by early childhood education programs in the United
States and Australia (including child care centres, prekindergarten
and kindergarten).
Early Childhood Environmental Rating
Scale—Expanded (Sylva, SirajBlatchford & Taggart, 2011)
ECERS-E was designed to be used with the Early Childhood Rating
Scale-Revised (ECERS-R) and expands the scales to four educational aspects of provision: literacy, mathematics, science and environment, and diversity (i.e., planning for children’s individual learning
needs, valuing and respecting other cultures and gender diversity).
An extension to the ECERS-R (the ECERS-E), the tool is based
on findings from the United Kingdom longitudinal study, Effective
Provision of Preschool Education (EPPE), which reported the link
between intentional pedagogical practices and positive outcomes
for children that carried forward into their school years (Sylva et al.,
2010).
Sustained Shared Thinking and
Emotional Wellbeing Scale (Siraj,
Kingston & Melhuish, 2015)
The Sustained Shared Thinking and Emotional Wellbeing
Scale (SSTEW) is an observational tool for assessing practice
in ­centre-based programs for children two to five years old. It
­complements other program assessments that focus on quality of
space, resources, learning experiences and staffing. It is organized
as a rating scale that evaluates pedagogical practice that supports
children aged from two to five years to develop skills in sustained
shared thinking and emotional wellbeing. The tool balances care and
emotional development of young children with specific practices that
extend and support cognitive and language skills (Marbina et al.,
2015). It focuses on scaffolding children’s learning and development
in a progressive and consistent way (Siraj-Blatchford, 2009) and also
originated from the EPPE study in the United Kingdom.
LO 10.3
Feedback from Families
Parents and other family members who are primary caregivers often share their
opinions about the quality of ECE programs, particularly if open communication is encouraged. They may have informal conversations with educators or
centre supervisors or directors. If parents are welcomed and feel comfortable in
the program, they are more likely to spend time when they drop off and pick
up children. Conversations about the learning environment and experiences are
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Assessment for Quality Improvement
Assessment for Quality Improvement (AQI) measures and supports the quality of
infant, toddler and preschool programs in over 700 early learning and child care
centres in the City of Toronto. The centres are public and directly operated by the
City or have a service contract and receive funding from the City. The AQI outlines clear expectations, practice standards and guidelines. The results are publicly
posted on the Toronto Children’s Services website.
AQI is a rating scale with items organized into several categories for each of
the age groups. The categories include framework or structural elements as well
as dynamic or process elements. The rating scale is from 1 to 5. A score of 1 or 2
for an item indicates that the item is not meeting expectations; a score of 3 shows
an item is meeting expectations, and a score of 4 or 5 indicates items that are
exceeding expectations.
For example, here is one item from the Preschool AQI:
MAKING IT
HAPPEN
LO 10.3
TORONTO CHILDREN’S SERVICES, EARLY LEARNING AND CARE
ASSESSMENT FOR QUALITY IMPROVEMENT 2014
Item
Does Not Meet
Expectations
1–2
Meets
Expectations
3
Exceeds
Expectations
4–5
Learning
Experiences
Learning experiences offered do not
reflect the current
Program Plan
Learning experiences offered are
not developmentallyappropriate
Learning experiences do not
promote choice
for children.
There is current
documentation
which demonstrates that
observations of
children are used
in the development of learning
experiences
Learning
experiences are
adapted to meet
any child’s individual needs
Learning
experiences are
based on children’s interests.
Photo documentation of learning
experiences
available
Activity
resources accessible for families
Portfolios
regarding each
child’s development are accessible to families
Enrichment
program, in
addition to regular program, is
included monthly.
Source: Courtesy of Toronto Children's Services. Used with permission.
Centres receive one-to-one professional learning sessions if they are not
meeting expectations. Toronto Children’s Services also offer communities of practice sessions and workshops.
(continued)
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Toronto Children’s Services partnered with the Ontario Institute for Studies
in Education (OISE) to validate the AQI (Perlman, Brunsek et al., 2017). The
OISE researchers used the AQI in child care centres along with validated quality
improvement tools: Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS), Infant/
Toddler Environment Rating Scale-3 (ITERS-3) and Early Childhood Environment
Rating Scale (ECERS).
The AQI is publicly available as a self-evaluation and planning tool for early
learning and child care centres. The City provides a copy of all versions of the
AQI for use without charge to any interested party and it is available on the
City’s website.
CONSIDER:
Why do you think that the City of Toronto posts the scores that centres
receive on a public website?
Perlman, Brunsek et al., 2017; Toronto Children’s Services, 2014.
more likely to occur at this time, and educators may learn more about what
elements of quality are important to parents.
Many ECE programs are intentional in collecting information from parents
about their views on quality. Parent meetings, individual interviews and parent
surveys are options that can be used to collect that information.
Visit MindTap to learn more
about the AQI from Toronto
Children’s Services.
Children’s Views on Quality
If educators view children as capable and competent and value children’s agency,
it follows that hearing the voices of children about how they experience the
quality of ECE programs is important. Educators can learn much from observation—do children express joy at some point? Are they usually happy to arrive
and eager to join friends? Do they become fully engaged in play with other children and in learning experiences that are on offer? Of course, an individual child
may be unhappy for a variety of reasons but, overall, is the group of children
engaged and seemingly happy much of the time?
Educators can use other strategies to learn about children’s views on quality.
Chapter 7 included information about how researchers learn from children
about what they like and do not like about their ECE programs. Preschool children usually point to both play and friends as what they like most. Educators
can use the same approach to find out children’s views about the quality of the
program: either individual interviews or a group discussion with preschool children is possible.
Preschool children who are four and five years old and school-age children in
before- and after-school programs can be surveyed. Questions about what could
be changed in the program might reveal insights into their views on quality as
well as useful ideas to consider.
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Continuous Quality Improvement
High quality ECE programs never stop evaluating their learning environments
and using the results to improve what is on offer to young children and their
families. Continuous quality improvement starts with ECE program leaders and
educators who use data collected from program evaluations, feedback from families, feedback from children and their own self-assessments. Educators reflect
on program strengths and identify areas for improvement.
Educators may work together to annually update goals, objectives and strategies to guide ongoing improvements. Data collected about the quality of the
ECE program from environment rating scales, described earlier in this chapter,
may be used to inform continuous quality improvements. As well, professional
learning opportunities (discussed in Chapter 12) can be informed by collected
data and feedback from parents from educators, parents and children.
In addition, ECE programs can develop a continuous quality improvement
plan as a roadmap for improving early learning environments. The plan can be
used to guide daily practice and be a reminder of a program’s approach to continuous quality improvement and identified goals for improvement.
Continuous quality improvement also takes place through communities
of practice.
COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE Educators often participate in communities of
practice that support continuous quality improvement and reflective practice.
A group of educators deliberately come together in person or online to discuss
and think about their daily professional practice in ECE settings. The groups
are established over time and become a place and space for participants of the
community to engage in reflective practices together.
Communities of practice are more intentional than informal conversations
and networking. Dialogue is focused on a particular practice topic. Participants
are critical friends and friendly critics who challenge each other and learn
together. Participants ask questions and make connections to provoke deeper
consideration of an idea. The dialogue of the educators in the community of
practice leads to new understandings because the structure of the community
of practice has provided dedicated time for reflection (Holmes, 2015). As educators in the group learn from each other, they can take opportunities to take
new ideas and strategies into their practice and then engage with others in the
group for feedback.
Communities of practice may have a designated facilitator who keeps the
process moving forward. Facilitators can support the conversations by linking
common ideas and keeping discussions focussed. Sometimes facilitators can be
helpful in navigating difficult conversations that emerge among educators who
are passionate about their ideas. Most important, a facilitator can ensure all participants have opportunities and are supported to contribute to the conversation.
CHAPTER 10 Quality Matters
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CONTINUOUS QUALITY
IMPROVEMENT
Ongoing analysis of quality
evaluation results to understand changes needed
to improve the quality of
early learning environments
for young children and
their families.
COMMUNITIES OF
PRACTICE
A group of professionals who
share a strong interest about
a topic related to their practice
and come together to collaborate to improve their practice.
Visit MindTap to learn
more about communities
of practice.
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SUMMARY
• The structural factors of quality include edu-
• The evaluation of quality in ECE programs can
cator qualifications, pedagogical practices,
adult–child ratios and the physical environment.
• The process factors of quality centre on the
interactions between and among educators
and children.
be carried out through rating scales and feedback from parents, children and educators.
• Continuous quality improvement is an ongoing
process that uses evaluation feedback to make
changes in the program.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How is quality early childhood education
defined? LO 10.1
2. What are the differences between structural
and process components of quality? LO 10.2
3. How do rating scales measure quality in ECE
programs? LO 10.3
4. What are three rating scales that may be used
to measure ECE quality? LO 10.3
5. How can educators find out what parents and
children think about the quality of the ECE
program? LO 10.3
6. What does continuous quality improvement
mean to educators in ECE programs? LO 10.4
STUDY ACTIVITIES
1. Create a checklist of 10 items that you
consider to be the most important indicators of
quality. Explain why these items are the most
important ones to consider. LO 10.1
2. Review the items in the Early Childhood
Environment Rating Scale (ECERS-3) Observe a
preschool program and assess the environment
using ECERS-3. LO 10.3
3. Explore the OECD website for the report
Engaging young children: Lessons from research
about quality in early childhood education and
care What can you find out about different
perspectives on quality? LO 10.3
4. Think about your experiences in ECE programs
during field placements or while working.
Describe a time when you were responsible
for more children than is recommended by
the research. For example, were you able to
engage in conversations? Could you respond to
children’s nonverbal signals? Did you observe
their activity and the dynamics of the group?
LO 10.4
KEY TERMS
adult-child ratio (p. 206)
Communities of practice (p. 215)
Continuous quality improvement (p. 215)
Open-ended materials (p. 208)
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Process quality (p. 205)
Rating scale (p. 210)
Structural quality (p. 205)
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SUGGESTED READINGS
Curtis, D., Lebo, D., Cividanes, W. & Carter, M. (2013). Reflecting in communities in practice: A workbook for early childhood educators. St. Paul, MN:
Redleaf Press.
Garon-Carrier, G. (2019). Defining and measuring the quality of early learning
and child care. Ottawa, ON: Employment & Social Development
Canada. Retrieved September 18, 2020, at https://www.canada.ca/en/
employment-social-development/programs/early-learning-child-care/
reports/2019-defining-measuring-quality.html
Hodgins, D., Atkinson, K. & Wannamaker, L. (2017, Fall). (Re)imagining
and (re)engaging in relational encounters: Communities of practice for (re)vitalizing pedagogies—The peer-reviewed collection 1(1)
eceLink. Retrieved September 18, 2020, at https://drive.google.com/
file/d/1986Mmi2F0Qv54jM3aXPeR4suSxwrMHZm/view
CHAPTER 10 Quality Matters
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For additional resources,
visit MindTap.
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Section
CHAPTER
ELEVEN
Early Childhood
Education Programs
and Policies 218
CHAPTER
TWELVE
Early Childhood
Educators: Looking
Ahead 247
© E+/Getty Images
4
The Early Childhood
Education Landscape
Early childhood education graduates in Canada are entering a workforce with
unprecedented opportunities. The range and numbers of programs seeking early
childhood educators are expanding along with the recognition of their professional scope of practice. Public policies and public investment are recognizing the
essential role that early childhood education plays in creating childhood spaces
for living and learning and for supporting families’ workforce participation.
Chapter 11 outlines how early childhood education programs are organized
and the role of governments in supporting them. These programs do not include
the formal schooling that starts at grade 1. An early childhood education program is a place for children to play and learn together with other friends and
is often structured to provide the hours of care for children that allow parents
and other primary caregivers to work. The role of public education in providing
ECE programs for preschool children in addition to five-year-old kindergarten
is growing. Overall, there is little consistency in how early childhood education
programs are organized across Canada.
Chapter 12 points to the future of a career in the early childhood education profession. Opportunities are expanding for qualified educators, including
those that offer reasonable compensation and work environments. Early childhood educators are supported by the growing strength of professional organizations and the resources they offer. The economic and social benefits of ECE are
making the case for a more coherent system of early childhood education with
more public investment.
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ECE Leaders
Jamie Kass
Jamie Kass is retired National Childcare Coordinator for the Canadian Union of Postal Workers.
I am almost 70, a feminist, a professional, an early
childhood educator, a trade unionist and now retired.
I started working as a “child care worker” after
university in 1976. I worked with preschool children,
then as the centre cook, and then as the coordinator of a non-profit, community-run child care
centre in Ottawa. I returned to school at Algonquin
College to take ECE part time while I continued to
work at the centre.
At the centre I was paid $7,000 a year, with few
health benefits. By 1978, frustrations were growing.
There was a revolving door of staff. We couldn’t
afford to live on our own. We could not purchase
many of the toys and equipment we needed.
Why were our wages so low? It is a system
based on the private market—a market that is fundamentally flawed, and pits increasing user fees
from parents against higher wages for workers. The
system does not work as a user-fee service—and
we would be hard pressed to find any other education or social services operating this way.
Perhaps it was the sense of injustice that spurred
us on.
So back in 1978, we decided enough was
enough. If we wanted change, we had to do something. So we started talking UNION—what it was,
how it could help us.
We found the Canadian Union of Public
Employees (CUPE) and joined. And our understanding of what goes into a collective agreement,
making decisions about wage and benefit proposals, bargaining strategies, priority-setting, lobbying governments, and engaging all the workers in
these issues was a learning curve.
Our understanding of solidarity shifted forever.
I also realized that making gains was more than
an issue in any one centre or even all the centres in
Ottawa; we were plagued with low wages across
the province.
In 1981, I was there for the founding of the
Ontario Coalition of Better Child Care. Women’s,
anti-poverty, and social service organizations, and
public- and private-sector unions joined with child
care groups to form this new coalition. Over the
years, we focused a lot of our work provincially—
with cross-province tours, campaigns for direct
government funding for wages, increased funding,
quality enhancement and expansion, and pay
equity. We also developed many position papers
calling for the overhaul of child care in our province.
In 1982, I went to Winnipeg for a national child
care policy conference. I realized we were far from
alone—things were happening across the country.
Our issues were very similar even with different legislation and public policy in each of the provinces
and territories.
Out of that conference, we formed a national advocacy group—the Child Care Advocacy Association of
Canada [now called Child Care Now]—to push the
federal government to change. The Canadian Child
Care Federation was also born, with a focus on professional and quality workforce issues.
We wanted a universally accessible, a
­ ffordable,
not-for-profit, inclusive, publicly funded, comprehensive child care system! Imagine how many
times we had to say that! We pushed ourselves to
describe what it would look like and how a system
could be phased in.
(continued)
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And then our campaigns—this is when I realized the creativity of our movement was expressed
through our campaigns:
• Sending cookies to the government saying, “No
more crumbs for child care”
• Sign On for Child Care with a petition of over
100,000 signatures
• Numerous fights against corporate and for-profit
care
• We headed to Parliament Hill in Ottawa and to
Queen’s Park in Toronto to lobby and protest
enough to wear the rubber off our shoes!
• And more recently, the Child Care for All
campaign
We did it to make the system better for children, families, women, and the staff working in
the centres.
I started to look more at the quality of programs. What was quality? Did it look like what we
were practising? What could we do better to make
sure our programs were inclusive of all children?
I got involved with the Canadian Child Care
Federation, an organization committed to understanding quality and developing an educated and
skilled workforce. I felt an enormous weight to represent the union movement and to show that we
cared about the child care program, real inclusion
of all children, and training. I started to realize how
important education and a sound body of knowledge was for our practice.
We have a child care sector that has made
advancements in many provinces, in quality
resources and enhancements, introduction of provincial curricula and accreditation, direct government funding to increase wages, and recognition
and improvement in pre-service and in-service
training. ECE programs are expanding in public
schools and early childhood educators in those
programs are joining unions representing education workers.
Changes are taking place—in Ontario, a college
of ECEs formed; provincial-wide curriculum was
implemented; child care moved into the Ministry
of Education; full-day kindergarten for all four- and
five-years-old children was introduced with good
paying jobs for early childhood educators and more
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partnerships and recognition for ECE in the school
system. Since 2015, the federal government has
become involved again through the Early Learning
and Child Care Agreements. We have legislation—
Child Care and Early Years Act, 2014. Wages in the
ECE sector have stagnated for some, but they have
improved for ECEs in full-day kindergarten. Being
part of the public sector has made a difference,
but we can’t leave behind other ECEs doing the
same work.
So what does this mean for us as a profession? Front-line staff, supervisors, instructors, and
students need to be part of the change and part of
the solution. We have three pillars to make progress, and we must ensure that we are part of the
solutions for children, families and staff. These pillars include professional organizations, unions and
advocacy organizations for policy and action.
First off, experience shows us that any professionals that have advanced to promote themselves, such as nurses, teachers, and social service
workers, have a strong professional organization,
often are unionized, and are part of broad advocacy organizations.
Organizations who represent ECEs must be
well positioned to make a case for our professional
development needs, the needs of the sector users
(families, children), the need to link between public
policy and practice, and to fully promote the value
of ECEs to the public, the media and the government. In other words, the sector has to promote
itself. No one else is better positioned to do this
work, but it doesn’t just happen. There is a need for
a united voice.
Be open to broad policy debates. Don’t be
afraid of engaging and talking policy. Government
policy affects all our services—who has access,
who can afford it, and what are our conditions of
work. Make the links. Understand issues of training
and education and policies that promote further education.
Join, promote and fund organizations that support your goals. Recognize that professional organizations, trade unions, and broad-based advocacy
groups all can be critical vehicles for ensuring
advancement. Professionals have a key part to play.
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These organizations are not mutually exclusive, and
their goals can be complementary. There can be
endless opportunities for collective work for change.
And you can have fun and use your creativity. It
is not all hard work.
So, to finish my story, I am now retired. I had
a hugely rewarding career. I’ve made lifelong friends
and met incredible colleagues. I have learned a huge
number of skills from children and from our program
development and design. I’ve learned to appreciate
good research and policy analysis, and what it brings
to advocacy for system change. I have learned how
to organize, promote, and inspire parents, other
workers, and the ECE workforce in seeing the potential of good quality early learning and care. I have
learned how to chair meetings, facilitate conversations, and mediate differences, and to speak publicly.
I have learned how to listen. I’ve learned resiliency.
The active role I played in the child care movement is now being played by others and I continue
to support the work in every way I can. The political
landscape in Canada is always shifting and there
are always new opportunities to build the child
care system our country needs. The COVID-19
pandemic of 2020 for all its tragedy has put the
spotlight on how essential quality child care is to
the well-being of children; the economic security of
parents, especially mothers; and also the security
of the overall economy. What is not as well understood is the central role of the child care sector
workforce [, which] is to get us from what we have
now in child care to where we need to be. Now, just
as ever, the child care workforce must organize with
others, speak out and advocate so that the right
policy solutions get adopted. It is time to press for,
and win, a fully publicly funded and publicly managed universal system of early childhood education
and child care.
Courtesy of Jamie Kass
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Chapter
11
Early Childhood
Education Programs
and Policies
Learning Objectives
11.1 Describe the characteristics of early childhood education programs in Canada.
11.3 Identify early childhood education public
policy and funding approaches.
11.2 Describe programs related to early childhood education programs that provide early
learning opportunities for young children and
support families.
11.4 Identify examples of early childhood
education programs and policies outside Canada.
Chapter 11 is about the context for early childhood education. The chapter
begins with a description of ECE programs across Canada for children up to 6
years and for children 6 to 12 years outside school hours and related programs.
Government policies for funding and regulating ECE programs are highlighted.
The chapter ends with a few examples of ECE programs outside Canada.
Early Childhood Education
Programs in Canada
As discussed in earlier chapters, early childhood education programs provide playbased learning experiences that encourage children’s competence, coping skills, and
overall well-being. ECE also presents opportunities for assistance with personal
routines in safe, healthy, and nurturing environments; and, most importantly, positive relationships with other children. The joint functions of learning and caring are
essential. In addition, ECE recognizes that families have the most powerful influence
on children’s early learning and well-being. The programs care for and educate young
children, while supporting parenting, families, and communities. As introduced in­
Chapter 1, ECE programs, outlined Table 11.1, include child care centres, nursery
schools and preschools, prekindergarten, junior kindergarten and kindergarten,
Aboriginal Head Start, before- and after-school programs, and regulated home
child care.LO 11.1
There are about five million children from newborn to 12 years of age in
Canada (Statistics Canada, 2019 as shown in Table 11.1). Almost 1.8 million
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Early Childhood Education Programs
Simon lives in Calgary. He is three years old and goes to a nursery school three
mornings a week. His father works a night shift and his mother works at the shopping mall on Friday nights and all day Saturdays. One parent is at home with Simon
all of the time except for Friday nights when he stays with his grandma.
Carla is 12 months old and goes to a child care centre at the university in
Vancouver where her dad works. She is often there by 8:00 a.m. and goes home
with her dad around 5:00 p.m.
Six-year-old Josef and his eight-year-old sister, Anita, attend the local public elementary school in downtown Winnipeg. Before 8:45 a.m. and after 3:30 pm and on
school holidays, they attend a before- and after-school program located in the school.
Elisheva is a four-year-old who is severely brain damaged. She can sit only
with support, cannot speak, and needs to be fed. For a year, she has been in a
regulated home child care with two other children. The home child care is part of a
municipal home child care agency in Ontario. A trained resource teacher provides
the extra help that allows her to play with the other two children. Her mother and
father are in the labour force.
Ian’s parents are both professionals working full time. Ian is four years old and
attends kindergarten in a Toronto public school. There are 24 children ages 4 and
5 years and one educator and one primary school teacher.
Simon, Carla, Josef, Anita, Elisheva and Ian are in early childhood education
programs. They are guided by early childhood educators who have studied early
childhood education or have a combination of equivalent education and experience. The funding, management, and administration of the programs differ while
their daily activities are similar. Simon’s nursery school, Ian’s kindergarten class,
Elisheva’s home child care and Carla’s infant room have a short group time each
morning. The children interact with the same group of children in the same setting
each day. If the settings are of high quality, the children are exploring rich social and
physical environments that support their early learning and well-being.
Learning
Together
LO 11.1
Consider:
How do the organization of the ECE programs differ from each other, based
on what you know from the descriptions of each one?
Sources: Beach & Bertrand, 2000; Bertrand, 2008; Pascal, 2009a.
children under 12 years of age are enrolled in ECE programs offered in regulated
child care programs and before- and after-school programs, or in public school
(Akbari & McCuaig, 2018). More than one million are in regulated child care
programs. Over 500,000 children attend school kindergarten and prekindergarten programs. Over the past two decades children’s participation in regulated
child care including before- and after-school programs has more than doubled.
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Table 11.1 ● Early Childhood Education Programs for
Infants to 12-Year-Olds in Canada
ECE Programs
Children 0–12 Attending
1996
2019
Regulated ECE Programs*
291,000
1,050,000
Kindergarten/prekindergarten/junior kindergarten (public education)
512,900
500,000
Regulated home child care
69,400
140,000
Aboriginal Head Start
12,000
58,000
*Includes regular full-time or part-time participation in licensed ECE programs including child care centres,
nursery schools, preschool centres, home child care and before and after-school child care programs
Sources: Akbari & McCuaig, 2018; Akbari et al., 2021, adapted from Cleveland, Forer, Hyatt, Japel, &
Krashinsky, 2008; Eggleton & Keon, 2009; Fern & Friendly, 2014; McCuaig & Akbari, 2014; McCain,
Mustard, & McCuaig, 2011.
LO 11.1
Chapter 1 introduced ECE programs and this chapter expands on how they
are organized, regulated and funded.
Child Care Centres
full-day program
ECE programs that operate at
least 6 hours per day, five days
a week.
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Regulated child care centres include group or centre-based programs outside regular schooling for children from as young as three months to those up to six years
of age. Most offer full-day programs five days a week. Child care centres may offer
preschool or nursery school programs. They may also offer before- and after-school
programs as well as programming during school holidays for school-age children.
The majority of child centres in Canada offer service for preschool children two to
four years of age (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018).
Most child care centres offer regular daytime care only. Child care centres
may accept children on a part-time basis, but seasonal or emergency care or
services for parents who work shifts and irregular hours are scarce across the
country (Pasolli, 2019).
Child care centres are regulated by provincial and territorial government
legislation. Each province and territory has established its own approach to organizing and licensing. Specific requirements concern staff qualifications, maximum number of children, adult–child ratio (the maximum number of children
allowed for every staff member), physical space regulations, including the minimum amount of space necessary for each child, daily care routines, and program activities.
It is difficult to make a direct comparison of child care centres across jurisdictions. Table 11.2 provides an overview of what types of services are regulated,
how many children attend, and what child care centres are called in each province and territory. About 35 percent of Canadian children five years and younger
are enrolled in regulated child care centres, including regulated before- and
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Table 11.2 ● Regulated Child Care CENTRES in Canada
Province/Territory
Child Care Centres
Newfoundland and Labrador Child care centres (full-time and part-time)
School-age child care
Prince Edward Island
Early childhood centres (full-time and part-time, including nursery school and
child care centre)
School-age child care centres
Nova Scotia
Child care centres (full-time and part-time, including nursery schools, preschools, child development centres and school-age)
New Brunswick
Child care centres and school-age programs (full-time and part-time)
Quebec
Centres de la petite enfance (full-time and part-time educational child care)
Services de garde en milieu familial (family child care)
Garderies privées (private centres)
Services de garde pour les enfants d’âge scolaire (school-age child care)
Ontario
Child care centres (full-time and part-time, including nursery schools)
School-age child care
Manitoba
Daycare centres (full-time and part-time, including nursery schools)
School-age child care centres
Saskatchewan
Child daycare agencies (full-time)
School-age child care centres
(Nursery schools/preschools are not licensed)
Alberta
Daycare centres (full-time and part-time, including nursery schools, parent
co-ops, kindergartens in regulated centres and drop-in centres)
School-age child care centres
British Columbia
Child care centres (full-time and part-time, including preschools)
Out-of-school care
Northwest Territories
Child care centres (full-time and part-time, including nursery schools)
After-school care
(continued)
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Table 11.2 ● (continued)
Nunavut
Daycare centres
School-age child care
Yukon
Child care centres (full-time and part-time)
School-age child care
Regulated child care centres may have different names and age categories in various parts of the country, but they have commonalities in the
care and education they provide.
Sources: McCain, Mustard & McCuaig, 2011; Akbari & McCuaig, 2018.
LO 11.2
not-for-profit
Organizations that are incorporated as non-profit and governed by a board of directors.
for-profit
Organizations that are owned
by an individual or corporation
and can make a profit.
after-school programs for children in school, and ECE programs for four- and
five-year-old children (Statistics Canada, 2019).
In Canada, regulated child care centres may be operated by non-profit organizations or commercial operators, or they may be publicly operated by governments such as local municipalities, school boards or public community colleges.
Most child care centres in Canada are not-for-profit organizations and are
operated for the primary purpose of offering early childhood education to young
children. A non-profit centre might be a stand-alone organization with a volunteer board of directors, including parents, community members, and individuals
with child care centre expertise, or it might be operated by a larger agency or
institution. For instance, the YMCA in Canada operates over 600 centres. Many
community colleges and a few universities directly operate child care centres,
which also provide model sites for ECE students.
In Newfoundland, Alberta, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick, most
child care centres are for-profit organizations, whereas some other provinces or
territories, such as Manitoba, have only a few for-profit child care centres.
Public child care centres, which are directly operated by a government,
are less common in Canada. Twenty-three Ontario municipalities operate
about 135 centres (Akbari et al., 2021), as do three municipalities in Alberta
and four in Saskatchewan (Muttart Foundation, 2016). Some Alberta
municipalities operate school-age child care programs. In Quebec, the provincial
department of education administers school-age centres, which are located in
elementary schools.
Parents’ fees, which may be eligible for government subsidies, pay for the
majority of the costs of regulated child care (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018). In
most jurisdictions, provincial or territorial governments provide grants directly
to child care centres. These funds may include operating, start-up, and capital
funding for children with disabilities as well as funds to enhance wages.
Nursery Schools and Preschools
Nursery schools and preschools usually offer two- to three-hour early childhood
education for preschool children (two to six years old) during the school year
(September to June). Nursery schools and preschools are part-day programs; they
may be part of a child care centre or operate as an individual program.
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In most provincial/territorial jurisdictions, nursery schools and preschools
are regulated through the same legislation as child care centres and must meet
similar structural, funding and organizational requirements. However, nursery
schools in Saskatchewan, Yukon, and Quebec are not covered by child care legislation. Nursery schools and preschool programs may be non-profit or commercial
operations, or they may be publicly run by municipalities or school authorities.
There are no statistics available on how many children attend nursery school
programs or how many programs exist. Some provinces and territories include
nursery schools in their report of regulated child care centre spaces, whereas
others exclude them. Sometimes nursery schools are considered part-time
child care centre programs and are combined with school-age before- and afterschool programs.
Preschool children who have a parent who is not in the paid labour force
but who attend ECE programs often attend nursery school or preschool. Some
of the children whose parents participate in the paid labour force or in training
and education programs also attend nursery school programs. Families might
use nursery school services in combination with other non-parental child care
arrangements, or they might juggle their work and study responsibilities around
the nursery school hours.
Regulated Home Child Care
Regulated home child care is in the home of the provider. These programs are
regulated through provincial/territorial legislation and require a safe and healthy
environment that promotes children’s optimal development and well-being.
Government regulations, policies, and funding shape the structure and organization of regulated home child care, which varies across provinces and territories
(Akbari & McCuaig, 2018; Beach et al., 2009; Flanagan & Beach, 2010). The provincial and territorial governments either license and regulate caregivers or license
or recognize a home child care agency that supervises individual programs.
As outlined in Table 11.3, each province or territory sets out the maximum
number of children who may be cared for by an individual in a regulated or
unregulated home setting. If there are additional children, the program must
meet the province or territory’s requirements for regulated child care centres.
Regulated home child care programs can often be adapted to meet the
needs of working parents and diverse families in both isolated settings and urban
settings. It may be possible to start earlier and end later than child care centres in order to accommodate parents’ work hours. Also, these programs can
accommodate an individual child or a small mixed-age grouping from infancy
to early adolescence.
Kindergarten and Prekindergarten
Provincial and territorial public education systems offer kindergarten across
Canada. Many offer ECE programs to younger children. Provincial/territorial education legislation sets out requirements for a child’s minimum age, the number of
instructional days and hours, and teacher qualifications. There may also be specific
adult–child ratio and maximum group size requirements. At this time in Canada,
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Table 11.3 ● Regulated Home Child Care in Canada
Province/Territory
Regulated Home Child Care
Newfoundland
Regulated family child care homes may be directly licensed or supervised by a
licensed family care agency. Up to four children (including the caregiver’s own children under seven years) are permitted.
Prince Edward Island
Regulated family home centres are licensed and monitored by the provincial government. Up to six children (including the caregiver’s own, under ten years of age),
with a maximum of three children under two years of age in regulated homes.
Nova Scotia
Family home day cares are supervised by licensed family home day care agencies. Six children, including the caregiver’s own preschool children, are permitted.
If all the children, including the caregiver’s own, are school age, eight children
are allowed.
New Brunswick
Regulated community day care homes are regulated by the provincial government. Care for one of the following groups of children: a maximum of three infants,
five children between two and five years of age, nine school-age children, or a
mixed-age group of six children, including the caregiver’s own children under
twelve years.
Quebec
Regulated home child care settings are supervised by Child Care Coordinating
Offices. Up to six children including the caregiver’s own children under nine years
and no more than two children under 18 months. If another caregiver, up to a maximum of nine children including the caregiver’s own children under nine years and
no more than four children under 18 months.
Ontario
Province licenses home child care agencies (which may also offer centre-based
programs) to contract with and supervise child care homes. Up to a maximum of
five children up to 13 years of age. No more than two of the children may be under
18 months, including the caregiver’s own children under six years.
Manitoba
Regulated family child care homes are directly licensed by the province. Up to eight
children under twelve years, including caregiver’s own children under 12 years. No
more than five children may be under six years, and no more than three children
may be under two years. Group family child care provided by two or more providers
in one of their homes for up to 12 children, aged three months to 12 years.
Saskatchewan
Regulated family child care homes are licensed and monitored by the provincial
government. Up to eight children between six weeks and 12 years, including the
caregiver’s own children under 13 years. Only five of the children may be younger
than six years, and only two may be younger than thirty months. Group family child
care homes with an assistant may have up to 12 children.
Alberta
The Family Day Home Program is a contracted agency model. Provincial government contracts with family day home agencies to approve and monitor family
day homes according to provincial standards. Up to six children under 11 years,
including the caregiver’s own children under 11 years. A maximum of three children
may be under three years, and no more than two children may be under two years.
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Province/Territory
Regulated Home Child Care
British Columbia
Family child care homes are individually licensed by the provincial government. Up
to seven children birth to 12 years, including the children living in the home. No more
than three children under four years with no more than one child younger than 12
months. No more than four children under four years if no children under 24 months.
Northwest Territories
Regulated family day homes are individually licensed by the territorial government. Up
to a maximum of eight children under 12 years, including the caregiver’s own children.
Nunavut
Regulated family day homes are individually licensed by the territorial government.
Up to a maximum of eight children under age twelve, including the caregiver’s
own children.
Yukon
Regulated homes are individually licensed by the territorial government. Up to eight
children, including the caregiver’s own children under six years. If there are two
caregivers, an additional four school-age children are permitted.
Sources: Akbari & McCuaig, 2018
LO 11.2
most five-year-old children attend a full-day kindergarten program. In September
2010, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and Ontario joined New Brunswick,
Quebec, and Nova Scotia in offering full-day kindergarten. Newfoundland and
Labrador introduced full-day kindergarten in 2014.
In other jurisdictions, most kindergarten is offered on a part-time basis,
either half-days (morning or afternoon) or two to three full days (school days)
per week. In these jurisdictions, many individual schools offer full-day programs,
often targeted toward disadvantaged communities. Half-day programs are usually two to three hours in length, and full-day programs are four to five hours
long (excluding lunch programs). Kindergarten attendance is compulsory in
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. In all other jurisdictions
kindergarten attendance is voluntary. Families are not required to pay fees for
their children’s participation in publicly funded kindergarten.
Full-day kindergarten in Ontario is also offered to four-year-old children.
There are growing numbers of prekindergarten/junior kindergarten programs
for four-year-old children in Quebec, Winnipeg, Saskatchewan, Alberta and
Northwest Territories. Nova Scotia introduced the PrePrimary Program for
four-year-olds in 2016 and it is now offered across the province. Approximately
350,000 children attended public education kindergarten or senior kindergarten
programs and 150,000 children attended junior kindergarten or prekindergarten
programs in Canada (Akbari & McCuaig 2018; McCain 2020).
Age limits for attending kindergarten programs vary slightly across provincial/territorial jurisdictions, but most require children to be at least four years
and eight months old in September (five years by December 31) to attend kindergarten or senior kindergarten programs, and at least three years and eight
months old in September (four years by December 31) to attend junior kindergarten programs.
full-day kindergarten
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Full-day ECE program available
to all four- and five-year-old
children in Ontario public
schools that offers a playbased learning approach.
1/16/21 4:24 AM
Kindergarten programs often intersect other ECE programs. For example,
child care centres are often located in public school buildings. Also, like other
ECE programs, kindergarten programs are intended to provide educational and
social experiences for young children in preparation for formal schooling in
grade 1. At the same time, many Canadian families use kindergarten programs
as part of a child care package (Cleveland, 2018). Kindergarten programs and
other early childhood education programs for young children often share many
of the values and assumptions that underlie curriculum approaches. There are
a number of initiatives that have attempted to coordinate child care centres
and kindergarten, including school board policies and practices to encourage
increased collaboration, shared physical space, and common curriculum planning and professional development opportunities (Corter et al., 2006; McCain,
Mustard & McCuaig, 2011, McCain, 2020).
Before- and After-School Programs
Before- and after-school programs for school age children (up to age 12 years)
include licensed child care centres, school-operated programs, and recreation programs offered by municipalities and agencies. They may be organized to extend
the school day and offer programming during school holidays. After-school activities like sport, music, craft and dance build children’s confidence, help them make
friends and learn to get along with people (including adults), keep them fit and
healthy, and help them develop new skills and discover talents and interests (ABS,
2012; Tanner et al., 2016). Before- and after-school programs can be organized
to accommodate parents’ work schedules and to provide regular non-parental
care arrangements.
© BAZA Production/shutterstock.com
Before- and after-school
programs are opportunities for school-age
children to create their
own experiences with
their friends.
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Before- and after-school programs may offer a variety of regular sports and
recreation and music, creative arts, and STEM (science, technology, engineering
and mathematics) activities to school-age children (ABS, 2012; McClure et al.,
2017). Children who participate in visual arts and music activities at ages 7 to
12 develop better persistence and concentration and learn to work as part of a
group. Sport, recreation, and cultural activities are also important because these
types of activities help children develop non-cognitive skills, including perseverance, conscientiousness, self-control, trust, attentiveness, self-esteem, resilience
and empathy. Children who participate in sport, recreation or cultural activities
have better school attendance and fewer behaviour problems as well as achieve
more academically (Metsäpelto and Pulkkinen, 2014).
Public schools are becoming more involved in offering before- and afterschool programs (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018). In Ontario, there is now a legislated
requirement for schools to have before- and after-school programs (operated by
school boards or third parties) if required by 12 families or more. In Quebec,
before- and after-school programs are part of the public education system. The
pre-primary program for four-year-olds in Nova Scotia schools offers outdoor
before- and after-school programs.
Aboriginal Head Start
Aboriginal Head Start (AHS) is an early childhood education program for Indigenous
children. The AHS program, a learning environment that reflects Indigenous languages and cultures, is intended to prepare children for school. The federal government established the Aboriginal Head Start Urban and Northern Communities
(AHSUNC) in 1996 to meet the needs of at-risk First Nations, Métis and Inuit children living in large urban and northern communities by offering early childhood
education programs. AHSUNC provide comprehensive early learning experiences
for children and their families based on caring, creativity and pride flowing from
the knowledge of their traditional beliefs within a holistic and safe environment
(Bertrand, 2005). In 1998, Aboriginal Head Start On-Reserve (ANSON) extended
the Head Start program to First Nations communities. There are now 356 AHS
On-Reserve programs serving over 11,000 children in First Nations communities.
The 135 AHSUNP programs in urban and northern communities serve 4,700 to
4,800 Métis, First Nations and Inuit children (Halseth & Greenwood, 2019).
Indigenous children, families and communities benefit from effective early
childhood education programs (Ball, 2008; Halseth & Greenwood, 2019).
National evaluations of Aboriginal Head Start to date suggest an increased use
of Aboriginal languages and cultural practices, moderate improvements in literacy, and increased health and physical development (Public Health Agency
of Canada, 2007; Office of Audit & Evaluation, 2016). The evaluation of
AHSUNC showed significant improvements in children’s language, motor and
academic skills, social skills, communication, behaviour and attitudes, and emotional maturity (Office of Audit & Evaluation, 2017). Nearly three-quarters of
parents and other caregivers noted that their child learned Indigenous words.
Also, 71 percent of parents noted that their child was more aware of Indigenous
cultures due to attending AHS (Halseth & Greenwood, 2019).
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Programs and Services Related to Early
Childhood Education Programs
Early childhood education is often built into related programs and services for
young children and their families. Also, ECE programs may offer other child and
family resources and services.
Child and Family Centres
Child and family
centre
A family support program that
offers ECE programs to young
children and other supports
and resources to their families
and caregivers.
family support
program
A range of services aimed
at improving family and child
well-being and building their
strengths. Services can include
parenting, healthy living,
employment and housing
resources, and early childhood education.
ecological approach
Awareness of family’s
­immediate context, community
context, and broader policy
and system context.
Child and family centres benefit families and young children and can be voluntarily accessed in most neighbourhoods and communities across Canada. Child and
family centres are family support programs that complement and aim to enrich a
family’s existing strengths and resources. These programs may address existing
problems or aim to prevent potential problems. They may be offered as separate
programs or in combination with each other or with ECE programs. The category
is a broad one that includes a variety of services, strategies and activities.
Child and family centres help parents and other family members to participate fully in their young children’s early learning and development. Young
children and their mothers, fathers, grandparents, uncles, aunts, or older brothers
and sisters and other caregivers attend playgroups or drop-in centres together.
Child and family centres can be identified by common principles, functions
and types of activities. They share the following set of principles:
• An ecological approach to services for children, families, and communities
• An emphasis on prevention and wellness of families
• A recognition of the need for social networks to support families
• An emphasis on interdependence in families’ needs and abilities to give
and receive support
• A view of parenthood as an important stage of adulthood
• An acceptance of cultural diversity in approaches to childrearing
• A recognition that play is essential to optimum child development
(Kellerman, 1995)
On the basis of these principles, child and family centres offer program activities that best serve their own mandate, primary functions and community. Family
and program staff work together to determine which services will be offered.
Child and family centres are multidisciplinary; they cut across health, social
services, education, recreation, and child care service categories. Program staff
bring experience and credentials from different disciplines, and programs establish working links with other community services. Child and family centres
may direct specific services toward problems, but the overall approach is to
provide support with the realization that all families experience difficulties
from time to time and that their strengths can be used to work through the
difficulties. Support to users may include in-service training such as workshops,
drop-in programs, child care information, and referral services. Family resource
programs encourage peer support groups among mothers, fathers, other family
members and caregivers. In addition, toy-lending libraries often offered at
child and family centres promote optimal child development, provide material support, draw parents together to encourage informal social networks, and
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provide adaptive play materials and activities for children with disabilities and
their families.
Strategies to support and enrich family literacy are also often included in
child and family centres. Family literacy initiatives “recognize the influence of
the family on the literacy development of family members and try to support
families in literacy activity and in accessing literacy resources” (Thomas, 1998,
p. 6). Family literacy is about the ways families use literacy and language in their
daily lives to do everyday tasks. Specific family literacy activities include storytelling and music circles for young children and parents or caregivers, adult education using family experiences, book bags for infants and young children and
their parents, and the creation and use of play materials that encourage the
acquisition of skills necessary to support literacy.
Activities
In Canada, the most common child and family centres activities are
• Playgroups and drop-in programs
• Parent support groups
• Parenting, caregiver, and early educator courses and workshops
• Toy-lending libraries
• Special events for children and families
• Child care information and referral services
Some child and family centres provide additional programs and services, often
in partnership with other community, public health or early intervention services:
Respite care for parents and caregivers, and child care while parents/caregivers participate in other family resource program activities
“Warm-lines” (non-crisis telephone support or electronic discussion groups)
Crisis intervention and counselling (including informal and peer counselling)
Early childhood intervention services for families and their children with developmental challenges or at risk of developmental delays
Services and support programs to meet specific needs, such as prenatal and
postnatal support for teen mothers and fathers, support groups for survivors of
violence, English- or French-language learner classes, life-skills courses, and literacy programs
Community development initiatives, including planning and advocacy for children’s and family services
family literacy
How parents, children and
other family members use
literacy at home and in
the community.
Making It
Happen
LO 11.1
Consider:
Think about how a child and family centre could best support families with
young children in your community. What would be the program’s primary
function? What types of activities should be included? What is the role of staff
members who are early childhood educators?
Source: McCain, Mustard & Shanker, 2007.
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Child and family centres’ activities are found in a variety of settings and
under different sponsorship and funding across Canada. There are approximately
3,000 such programs across Canada, with representation in each province and
territory (Families Canada, 2020). Table 11.4 provides an overview.
Table 11.4 ● Child and Family Centres
British Columbia
Over 300 StrongStarts are child and family centres operated by public education in
about half of the elementary schools across the province.
Alberta
Family Resource Networks coordinate prevention and early intervention services
including child and family centres.
Saskatchewan
Early Years Family Resource Centres in 10 communities provide activities for children
and resources and supports for their families.
Manitoba
Family resource centres offer programming, supports and resources for parents/caregivers and their children, with an emphasis on culturally appropriate activities that involve
young children, parents and other caregivers.
Ontario
EarlyON Child and Family Centres are provincially funded family support programs delivered in local communities. Early learning and family support programming are offered to
parents and other caregivers of young children.
Quebec
Almost 300 centres, known as family centres, parent-child resources or centres,
Parent’aime and Parent’ailes, offer play experiences for children and their caregivers and
variety of other parenting programs.
New Brunswick
Thirteen Family Resource Centres, with 90 outreach sites, offer a variety of programs and
activities for young children from birth to six years, parents and other caregivers; include
drop-ins, parent education and support, collective kitchens, toy-lending and resource
libraries, and family literacy.
Nova Scotia
Twenty-seven Family Resource Centres provide community-based services including
child and family drop-in programs and family supports.
Prince Edward
Island
Eight Family Resource Centres offer programs and resources for children and families,
including drop-in play, toy-lending libraries, programs for young children and their parents or
other caregivers, parent education and support groups, parent resources, prenatal nutrition
programs, and outreach.
Newfoundland &
Labrador
Thirty-one Family Resource Centres offer a variety of programs and services to families
with children ages 0–6, including drop-in programs, parenting resources, book and toylending, and partnerships with related services.
Northwest Territories Child and Family Resource centres offer respite care, toy lending, library resources,
family literacy, drop-in programs for children and adults, and nutrition programs. Local
community priorities and decision making determine specific activities.
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Yukon
Community Action Program for Children Projects support child and family centres and
related family support activities.
Nunavut
Community Action Program for Children Projects support child and family centres and
related family support activities.
Sources: ECE Report 2017 (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018) & Early Years Study 2020 (Akbari et al., 2021); Atkinson Centre, OISE, University of
Toronto ­ecereport.ca.
LO 11.2
Visit MindTap to learn more
about child and family centres
in each province and territory.
StrongStart BC
Making It
Happen
StrongStart BC provides over 300 school-based drop-in centres across the province for families or caregivers and their preschool children, at no cost to families.
StrongStart BC centres are designed to fill an early childhood education niche for
preschool children who are not in a child care centre or preschool program but
may be at home with their parents or other caregivers such as grandparents, other
relatives or nannies.
StrongStart BC centres create a play-based environment that supports caregivers and children to learn together, develop skills and prepare for a transition to
school. The centres are located in schools and may be co-located with other early
childhood programs such as child care centres or preschools as part of emerging
school-based hubs.
StrongStart BC centres help:
• Parents to participate in their children’s early learning and development
• Children to establish school–family relationships before they enter
kindergarten
• Families to enhance the home learning environment
Children and caregivers benefit from the StrongStart BC centre by engaging in
program offerings that include literacy as well as physical and social experiences
modelled by a qualified early childhood educator. Programming is guided by BC’s
Early Learning Framework. The program’s aims supplement activities that can be
offered in the home and to offer parents and caregivers new ideas and skills they
can transfer to the home environment.
LO 11.2
(continued)
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Consider:
How does StrongStart BC support young children’s home learning environment?
Source: Government of BC (n.d.).
The federal Community Action Program for Children (CAP-C) is a national
community-based program launched in 1993, funded by the Public Health
Agency of Canada that provides funding support to community programs for
high-risk families with young children. Many child and family centres across
Canada are part of CAP-C projects. The initiative involves community coalitions, which deliver health and community services, including early education,
to children up to six years of age living in conditions of risk. Project initiatives
include home visits, Head Start programs, parent training, nutrition education,
counselling, collective kitchens, and traditional Aboriginal healing programs.
There are approximately 425 CAP-C initiatives in over 1500 locations across
Canada. Over 200,000 children, parents and other caregivers visit CAP-C
projects annually and as many as 28,000 visit every week (Office of Audit and
Evaluation, Health Canada; Public Health Agency of Canada, 2016).
Other programs that are related to early childhood education deliver programs to young children and families. While they may include young children
and offer play opportunities, their primary purpose is to resource, support and
strengthen families. They may or may not offer a consistent, intentional early
learning program to a group of young children.
Early Intervention Services
early intervention
services
Programs and services that
work with children whose
development is delayed or at
risk, often offering comprehensive services.
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Specific public policies, programs and activities are designed to meet the needs of
young children and their families with specialized needs in order to promote
healthy development during early childhood (Shonkoff & Meisels, 2000). These
initiatives are included under the broad term early intervention services and draw
on the knowledge and expertise of early childhood education, child and family
development, education, health, and social services. Early intervention services
include a wide range of programs and approaches offered to families with children
who have developmental challenges or who are at risk of developmental delays.
Early intervention (EI) is a systematic method of taking action based on
the child’s needs during the early years. EI programs deliver services to children
(from birth to age three or from birth to age six, depending on the province
or territory) who have developmental challenges or who are at risk because
of a disability or psychological/social factors. EI can include programming that
compensates for environmental risks and that provides therapeutic interventions that address developmental difficulties. These services typically include
a home-based component, early identification assessment, program planning
(family service plans and individual program plans), and specialized equipment.
The programs may also offer family support and early childhood services such
Section 4 The Early Childhood Education Landscape
1/16/21 4:24 AM
as family resource programs, parent/caregiver support groups, nursery schools,
and toy-lending libraries.
EI services, like regulated child care programs, lie within provincial/territorial jurisdiction. Each province and territory organizes the structure of the EI
services and determines how they are funded. Most provinces offer preschool
speech and language services to support children with language delays.
EI programs may be discrete services or integrated into other health, social
service, education or early childhood education programs. Inclusive early childhood education is “a program that includes children with disabilities in the
same programs they would attend if they did not have disabilities” (Irwin, 1995,
p. vii). Chapter 1 noted that inclusive ECE programs are accessible to all children, designed to meet the needs of each child and regularly evaluated to ensure
full participation (Underwood & Frankel, 2012). “Inclusive” means full participation of children with disabilities, not only their physical presence.
ECE programs that include all children require financial support to accommodate the requirements of children with special needs. Most provinces and territories provide additional funding to accommodate children with special needs
in regulated child care programs (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018). Most provinces and
territories do offer additional financial support for children with disabilities to
participate in ECE programs. Manitoba requires child care centres that receive
public funding to accommodate children with special needs. Alberta and Prince
Edward Island require designated programs to admit children with exceptionalities (Philpott et al., 2019).
Integrating Early Education and Child Care
Across Canada a more integrated approach to the delivery of early childhood education programs applies the recommendations coming from the Organisation for
Economic and Co-operative Development (OECD) and other policy research
(McCain, Mustard & McCuaig, 2011). The Canadian review completed in 2004
by the OECD focused attention on the problems created by the two solitudes:
education and child care. In particular, the OECD review team stressed the need to
remove the divide between kindergarten programs and child care and emphasized
the need to create “bridges between child care and kindergarten education, with
the aim of integrating ECEC [early childhood education and care] both at ground
level and at policy and management levels” (OECD, 2004, p. 7).
Toronto First Duty
Making It
Happen
Between 2000 and 2010 Toronto First Duty (TFD) transformed kindergarten, child
care, child and family centres, and early intervention services into a new delivery
model (Corter, Janmohamed & Pelletier, 2012). TFD was an early learning and care
LO 11.1
LO 11.2
(continued)
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237
1/16/21 4:24 AM
initiative for every child and it supported healthy development from conception
to entry to grade 1 at the same time as it supported parents to work or study,
and in their parenting roles. TFD’s starting point was the integration of child care
and public school through kindergarten programs for four- and five-year-old children. TFD demonstrated the strength of an educator team that includes a primary
teacher and a qualified early childhood educator. This is the staffing model that
was recommended (Pascal, 2009a) and adopted by the provincial government for
full-day kindergarten in Ontario.
Consider:
What do you think are the benefits and the challenges of combining ECE
programs including kindergarten and related programs and services?
Learning
Together
LO 11.1
LO 11.2
Practices of Integration
ABC Primary School in Victoria, BC, has two kindergarten classes. Many of the
children attend an on-site child care centre on alternate days and before and after
the kindergarten program. Anna, the kindergarten teacher, and Mercedes, the
child care program supervisor, have organized a common place for coats and
cubbies in the hallway between the kindergarten class and the child care room.
The children attending both kindergarten and child care are able to keep their
personal belongings and messages and art to take home in one place. Mercedes
and the school principal are meeting to prepare a joint professional development
session on play and early literacy for the child care staff and kindergarten teachers.
The principal invited the child care staff to participate in the teachers’ orientation
session on the new kindergarten program. Coordinating space, routines, and staff
learning and development helps reduce stress and remove barriers to learning
and communication.
Consider:
How would five-year-old children attending kindergarten benefit from these
practices? What are the advantages of a common cubby for each child who
attends the kindergarten and child care?
Recent OECD reports continue to promote the integration of care and education (Shuey et al., 2019). Some initiatives over the past two decades have
used ECE programs as a platform for related family services, early intervention
and public health services, and health care. For instance, ECE programs offered
through public education may offer extended days to accommodate parents’
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employment. Child care centres can leverage services and resources for vulnerable families and be an effective platform for delivery. Child and family centres
may include early intervention services or be in the same location and organization as a child care centre. ECE programs can be an effective platform to deliver
a host of other services as a central hub within a community or connect parents
with a network of other services and resources.
Community Early Child Development Centres
ECE programs can also be an effective platform to bring together public health,
early intervention services, parenting resources and supports (Corter, Janmohamed
& Pelletier, 2012; McKenzie, 2019). In addition to bringing together ECE programs
and schools, the range of services can include parent education, health and development screenings, nutrition programs, clothing exchanges, and pre- and postnatal
services. Integrated centres based in neighbourhood schools can serve as a central
hub. The school is an integral partner building positive relationships with families
and working toward a continuity of learning from the early years into primary
grades (McKenzie, in press; Jacobson, 2019, 2020).
The primary purpose of the integrated centres is to better support families
and their young children. Most are established to (Corter, 2019):
• Improve children’s well-being and development
• Provide support to families
• Decrease gaps in school readiness
• Reduce negative outcomes often found in low-income, disadvantaged
neighbourhoods
Toronto First Duty (described above) primarily focused on the integration of child care and public education but also included other elements of
integrated centres. In Prince Edward Island CHANCES (Caring, Helping, and
Nurturing Children Every Step) expands access to a range of integrated early
intervention and health services focused on at-risk families in addition to ECE
programs (CHANCES, 2019). CHANCES also offers child and family resources
and services, including parenting programs. “In-house” introductions and referrals support parent awareness of the full range of services CHANCES provides.
The child care centres are the anchor for CHANCES.
The integrated community early child development centres go beyond
coordinating services that are located in the same building or neighbourhood
and who have leaders who can work together. They work toward changing policies and practices to allow better integration of services. For instance, families may be asked to sign forms that allow services to share information rather
than multiple services asking for the same information. Bringing services to
one place in a community reduces the challenge families face if they must go
to different locations for early intervention services, parenting resources and
health care. Integrated centres can contribute to the family’s social and support
networks and reduce isolation and exclusion families often feel in disadvantaged communities.
Visit MindTap to learn more
about integrated early child
development centres.
chapter 11 Early Childhood Education Programs and Policies
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Early Childhood Education Public Policies
in Canada
Visit MindTap to learn
more about the Multilateral
Early Learning and Child
Care Framework.
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In Canada, kindergarten and other ECE programs offered in public schools and
licensed child care centres are governed, funded and regulated by provincial and
territorial governments. ECE programs offered within public education are universal. Children and families are able to attend based on the age of the children and
if the family lives within a school’s catchment area. Each province and territory has
its own child care legislation. Qualifications for educators, age groupings, parent fee
subsidy amounts and programming requirements vary.
Chapter 2 outlines the history of the federal government’s role in ECE programs. In 2017, the federal government negotiated agreements with provinces/
territories to transfer $7.5 billion over 10 years to expand access to child care,
particularly for underserved families (Employment and Social Development
Canada, 2017). Federal funding, which is renewed every three years, may be
used for new spaces, to lower parent fees or for staff training. It could not be
directed toward workforce compensation.
The Multilateral Early Learning and Child Care Framework commits the federal government to work with the provinces and territories to achieve five overarching principles: quality, accessibility, affordability, flexibility and inclusivity.
The Early Learning and Child Care Bilateral Agreements between the federal
government and provinces and territories, as well as well as the Canada-Québec
Asymmetrical Agreement outline plans for expanding early learning and child
care in each jurisdiction. The Assembly of First Nations (AFN), Inuit Tapiriit
Kanatami (ITK), the Métis National Council (MNC) and the Government of
Canada jointly released a co-developed Indigenous Early Learning and Child
Care (ELCC) Framework (Employment and Social Development Canada,
2018) The framework responds to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of
Canada’s Call to Action #12 to develop culturally appropriate ECE programs
for Indigenous children. The Indigenous Framework supports distinct First
Nations, Inuit and Métis frameworks that recognize their respective vision, goals
and priorities.
Child and family centres may receive federal, provincial or local funding.
Some centres are part of larger networks; others are stand-alone programs.
Participation in the centres may be limited to specific families living in at-risk
communities. Some centres have maximum numbers of children and families who may attend drop-in programs or require advance registration to specific programs.
Overall, ECE and related programs are shaped by numerous public policies
that set out what kinds of programs are available, who can attend, who can work
in the programs and how they are funded. ECE program public policies are
spread across federal, provincial and territorial governments and local municipal
departments and school authorities (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018). ECE programs
are fragmented with different regulations and funding sources across Canada
(Akbari & McCuaig, 2018; McCain, Mustard & Shanker, 2007; The Muttart
Foundation, 2010). Families must negotiate a tangled array of early childhood
Section 4 The Early Childhood Education Landscape
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education and related programs. Some are available to everyone and others are
available to only young children and families who meet specific criteria.
The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
reviewed early childhood education and care policies in 20 countries, including
Canada (OECD, 2006). It reported that Canada’s policies were provincial and
territorial responsibilities and that there was no common reporting on those
policies. In response, the Early Childhood Education Report was launched as part
of the Early Years Study 3 (McCain, Mustard & McCuaig, 2011) and is repeated
every three years. The Early Childhood Education Report is organized around the
policy indicators identified in the OECD report.
Early Childhood Education Report
The Early Childhood Education Report, released every three years, monitors public
policies and funding of provincial and territorial licensed early childhood education programs and public education kindergarten and prekindergarten. The report
is organized around five categories of indicators: governance structures, funding
levels, access, quality in early learning environments and monitoring mechanisms.
Within each category are benchmarks of quality policies. Provincial and territorial
profiles are compiled by researchers at the Atkinson Centre, Ontario Institute for
Studies in Education at the University of Toronto. Provincial and territorial government officials review the results and the benchmarks are co-determined.
The Early Childhood Education Report was launched in 2011. The Early
Childhood Education Report 2017 is the third report and shows progress in
access, funding and quality in most provinces and territories. Quebec had the
highest score in 2011; however, by 2017, Prince Edward Island had the highest
score. The percentage of two- to four-year-olds across Canada attending an ECE
program increased from 45 per cent in 2011 to 54 per cent in 2017.
Research
Into
Practice
LO11.2
Consider:
Why do you think it is helpful to compare how ECE programs in Canadian
provinces and territories are organized?
Sources: Akbari & McCuaig, 2018; Akbari et al., 2021
Early Childhood Education Program Policy Trends
ECE programs across Canada are growing and changing. As noted in Chapter 6,
across the country, early learning frameworks that highlight play-based learning
principles and practices are guiding educators and the post-secondary institutions
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Visit MindTap to learn
more about trends in early
childhood education.
that prepare them. Public investment is growing from a total of $7 billion in 2011
to over $12 billion in 2017 (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018).
The provincial and territorial early learning frameworks put a focus on the
value of ECE programs as spaces and places for young children to be together
with other children. Programs for school age children offer extended opportunities for peer games and play that are often disappearing in neighbourhoods
and communities across Canada. The loss of the “third space of childhood” apart
from school and home can be recreated.
Public education is playing a larger role in delivering ECE programs. “Public
education’s framework has adequate capacity to support such an enabling environment; with a ready-made delivery and accountability infrastructure that
could include younger children and support coherent expansion” (Bertrand
& McCuaig, 2019, p 1). In the past decade British Columbia, Ontario and
Newfoundland have expanded half-day kindergarten programs to full day. The
number of spaces for school age children in before- and after-school programs in
Ontario grew by 357 per cent in Ontario between 2010/11 and 2018/19.
Public schools are a universal platform where everyone is included. Also,
they are a community resource that belongs to the public.
Early Childhood Education Outside Canada
Many countries outside Canada have moved toward more comprehensive and
integrated approaches to the funding and delivery of early childhood education
and care programs. A more systematic approach is the norm in many countries
with a focus on public funding to support universal access (OECD, 2006). Most
European nations, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand have invested
higher levels of public resources than Canada in the development, funding, and
delivery of early childhood programs (McCain, 2020; UNICEF, 2008). In these
countries, the majority of three- and four-year-olds have access to universal, publicly funded early childhood programs (McCain, 2020).
Several OECD countries now integrate entire early childhood systems for
children from birth to age six under one government department. Many others
have integrated or aligned curriculum between ECE and primary school as
shown in Table 11.5. Early childhood programs are seen as an essential part of
Table 11.5 ● Early Childhood Education and Primary
School Curriculum in OECD Countries
22% Integrated
ECE and Primary Education Curricula
59 OECD Countries and Jurisdictions
54% Aligned
24% Not Aligned or Integrated
Toward a continuity of learning for young children.
Source: © Cengage Learning. Table created from data at http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/
publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=EDU/WKP(2019)1&docLanguage=En.
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the preparation of children for public school. These programs are also understood to be an important component of the supports for families, particularly for
those with employed parents, and they are a venue for identifying children and
families who will need special services.
Internationally, the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway and
Sweden) have the most ambitious and comprehensive approaches to the
funding and delivery of early childhood education and care (UNICEF, 2008;
OECD, 2006, 2017). In the past decade other countries have increased ECE
programs, particularly for two-, three- and four-year-old children. The public
support available to families with young children begins with extended parental
leave, with high levels of income replacement, which is followed by higher-than-­
average access to licensed child care for children at birth to three years of age
and significant public expenditures on preschool education for children four
and five years of age. In the Nordic countries (Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland
and Denmark), the public funding and delivery of early childhood education
and care represent sound economic and social expenditures of public resources.
Specific attention is paid to the planning of services, the training of staff and the
design of curricula specifically intended to promote child development.
Early Childhood Education and Care
(Kindergarten) in Norway
Making It
Happen
LO 11.4
Norway has established a universal system of early childhood education, called
“kindergarten,” for children from one to five years. Since 2009 every child from age
one year is entitled to participate in a kindergarten (Slinde, 2019). In 2019, 82 per
cent of children one and two years and 97 per cent of children three to five years
attended. Ninety-five per cent attend full time. Municipalities operate 46 per cent
of public kindergartens; the remaining 54 per cent of kindergartens are publicly
funded, private (non-profit and commercial) kindergartens. Staffing includes qualified early childhood teachers and assistants. The adult–child ratio for one- and
two-year-olds is 1:3 and for three- to six-year-olds is 1:6. Eighty-five per cent of
mothers in Norway work full- or part-time. Parents pay fees that are affordable,
including no fees for low-income families.
Norway’s kindergartens follow what is called the “Nordic Way”: the pedagogical tradition in the Nordic countries. While each country has its own history, there
are similarities in their approach to early learning and pedagogy:
• A child-centred perspective that views childhood as a phase of life with
intrinsic value.
• Structural organization of ECE programs as universal with public funding
making programs available and affordable to all.
• Curriculum frameworks emphasize children’s participation, perspectives,
experiences and interests. These frameworks view play as important in its
own right and an opportunity for children to explore, develop and learn.
(continued)
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•
Making friends and social interaction are viewed as an essential purpose of
ECE programs.
• Being outdoors and engaging in nature year-round is embedded in daily
schedules.
• Rather than evaluating children’s skills and knowledge, the ECE practice
is evaluated.
The Framework Plan for the Content and Tasks of Kindergarten, revised in
2017, shares purposes, values and learning areas with the Knowledge Promotion
Curriculum for primary schools up to 18 years (Shuey et al., 2019). The kindergarten
curriculum framework emphasizes collaboration with parents and coherence in the
transition between kindergarten and primary school. Also the primary curriculum is
under revision to facilitate alignment with the kindergarten curriculum framework.
Consider:
What are the similarities and differences between Norway’s kindergartens
and Canada’s early learning and child care?
Sources: https://ececthenordicway.no; https://ececthenordicway.no/films
Visit MindTap for more information on Norway’s approach to
early learning and care.
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Other European jurisdictions also invest significant public resources particularly in early childhood programs, with preschool education and care for
children three, four, and five years of age a key area for public investment. The
majority of European nations now guarantee three- and four-year-olds some
form of ECE program, although the number of hours of service varies (OECD,
2017). In France, all children may attend preschool programs, which are part of
the public school system, and most children attend at least three years of fulltime preschool education before entering the French equivalent of grade 1 at
age 6 years. Researchers and educators have found that children from all socioeconomic and family backgrounds are likely to be more successful in elementary
school if they have at least two years’ preschool experience (Bergmann, 1996;
Sylva et al, 2010).
In the United Kingdom, all three- and four-year-old children are entitled
to 15 hours of ECE for 38 weeks per year before entering compulsory full-day
schooling at age five. If their parents are working, they are entitled to 30 hours
over 38 weeks of free ECE. Fifteen hours of free ECE is extended to two-yearolds in low-income families (OECD, 2017).
New Zealand families have access to free, part-time, early learning programs
for three- to five-year-olds, with working families able to purchase additional
services to provide full-day support. All ECE programs are part of the education
department and have a common curriculum.
In the United States, families’ access to ECE programs for three- and fouryear-olds varies greatly from state to state (Friedman-Krauss, 2020). Overall,
33 percent of 4-year-olds and 5.7 percent of 3-year-olds were enrolled in statefunded preschool programs in 2017–2018.
Section 4 The Early Childhood Education Landscape
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Summary
• ECE programs include early learning and child
• The organization of ECE programs
care centres, regulated home child care, nursery
schools, preschools, playgroups, kindergarten,
prekindergarten, before- and after-school programs, and Aboriginal Head Start. Related programs include early intervention services and
child and family programs.
• ECE programs take place in schools, workplaces, community centres, purpose-built buildings, apartment buildings, private homes, and
other rural and urban settings. Some are publicly operated; others are operated by non-profit
organizations or are commercial operations.
• Early intervention services that support c­ hildren
who are at-risk or who have disabilities may be
offered in ECE programs or may be accessed
by families.
across Canada continues to be chaotic.
Oversight remains within the provinces and
territories. The federal government is stepping up its investment in regulated child
care and before- and after-programs. Public
education is expanding its reach to younger
children and to school children during outof-school hours.
• Responsibility for licensing and funding of child
care is now in departments or ministries of education in all provinces except British Columbia,
Alberta, Quebec and Manitoba.
• International examples of ECE programs point
to the value of increased investment, public or
publicly managed delivery, and championing a
professional early childhood workforce.
Review Questions
1. Compare and contrast the early childhood education programs offered in the provinces and
territories. LO 11.1
2. Who uses child and family centres, and what
are the benefits for children? What are the benefits for families? LO 11.2
3. How do public policies determine the operations of regulated child care centres, nursery
schools, preschools and family child care?
LO 11.3
4. Describe early childhood education programs in
two countries outside Canada. LO 11.4
Study Activities
1. Find out what early childhood education programs are taking place in local schools. Prepare
a report that describes the programs that your
local school board or school district offers for
children before they start kindergarten. LO 11.1
2. Describe the leisure and recreation programs
available for children in your community, and
how they complement other early childhood
education programs. LO 11.1
3. Review the Toronto First Duty website. Discuss
the working relationships of teachers and ECEs.
LO 11.2
4. Search online and watch Dr. Emis Akbari
explain the design of the Early Childhood
Education Report. Prepare a short PowerPoint
presentation that summarizes how this report is
created. LO 11.3
5. Choose a country not discussed in this chapter
and find out how ECE programs are organized.
Prepare a country profile that includes information about who pays, who has access, what
are the quality requirements, what government
departments are involved and how they are
monitored. LO 11.4
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Key Terms
Child and family centre (p. 232)
Early intervention services (p. 236)
Ecological approach (p. 232)
Family literacy (p. 233)
Family support program (p. 232)
For-profit (p. 226)
Full-day kindergarten (p. 229)
Full-day program (p. 224)
Not-for-profit (p. 226)
Suggested Readings
For additional resources,
visit MindTap.
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Akbari, E. & McCuaig, K. (2018). Early childhood education report 2017.
Toronto, ON: Atkinson Centre, OISE/University of Toronto. Retrieved
September 21, 2020, at http://ecereport.ca/en
Atkinson Centre. (2019). Governance, administration, service providers, educator training early childhood programs in selected OECD countries.
Retrieved September 21, 2020, at https://www.oise.utoronto.ca/atkinson/
UserFiles/File/Publications/OECD_governance_models.pdf
Bertrand, J. & McCuaig, K. (2019). The rationale for expanding public education to include preschool-aged children. Issues that Matter: Policy
Commentaries. Toronto, ON: Atkinson Centre, OISE, University of Toronto.
Retrieved September 21, 2020, at https://www.oise.utoronto.ca/atkinson/
UserFiles/File/Policy%20Commentaries/The_Rationale_for_Expanding_
Public_Education_to_Include_Preschool-Aged_Children.pdf
Corter, C. (2019 updated). Integrated early childhood development services.
In R. E. Tremblay, M. Boivin, R. DeV Peters (Eds), C. Corter (Topic Ed.).
Encyclopedia on early childhood development. Retrieved September 21,
2020, at http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/­dossierscomplets/en/integrated-early-childhood-development-services.pdf
McCain, M. (2020). Early years study 4: Thriving kids; thriving society. Toronto,
ON: Margaret and Wallace McCain Family Foundation. Retrieved
September 21, 2020, at www.earlyyearsstudy.ca
McCuaig, K, Akbari, E. & Bertrand, J. (2016). The role of public policies in
promoting equity in early childhood. Global report on equity early childhood. Leiden, Netherlands: Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care
and Development.
Underwood, K. (2013). Everyone is welcome: Inclusive early childhood education and care. Toronto, ON: Ontario Ministry of Education. Retrieved
September 21, 2020, at http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/childcare/underwood.
pdf
SECTION 4 The Early Childhood Education Landscape
Section
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Early Childhood
Educators: Looking
Ahead
Chapter
12
Learning Objectives
12.1 Identify the elements and purpose of early
childhood education professionalism.
12.3 Explore career pathways for early childhood educators.
12.2 Describe the characteristics of the work
environment in various ECE programs.
12.4 Develop strategies to maintain well-being.
12.5 Advocate for public investment in ECE.
Chapter 12 considers the opportunities and challenges for early childhood educators in Canada. Respect and recognition for educators and ECE professional
organizations are growing. The core professional practices of early childhood educators supported by the elements of professionalism are discussed in this chapter.
Working conditions, including compensation for qualified educators, are expanding
and improving. Nevertheless, challenges remain and educators are advocating for
increased public investment in ECE programs.
The many decades of ambiguity about what to call ourselves—teachers,
early childhood teachers, caregivers, early childhood workers, child care workers,
early child development workers—are over. We are early childhood educators,
and ours is a profession that is increasingly understood and valued by families,
other professionals, economists, media and the general public.
The ECE Professional Environment
The profession of early childhood education is coming of age in Canada. The origin
of the word professional is from “medieval times when an individual took vows in
order to be received in a religious community. It was the act of openly declaring or
publicly professing a belief or faith” (Giles & Proudfoot, 1994, p. 333). Over time,
“professional” came to mean belonging to a particular occupation that required
specific knowledge and high standards of practice.
The profession of early childhood education is coming of age in Canada.
With the expanded opportunities and recognition come new expectations and
responsibilities for early childhood educators. Professional education and ongoing
professional
Practitioner who has met
the standards of knowledge
and performance required by
a profession.
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learning are essential for a knowledgeable and responsive early childhood workforce. Early childhood educators need appropriate working conditions including
appropriate compensation levels, leadership and opportunities for ongoing professional learning. Educators can be powerful advocates for increasing quality
ECE programs and improving working conditions.
Professional Practice
Professionalism begins with belief in a vision and ideals that guide daily practice.
Professional practices for early childhood educators in Canada share a vision of
the image of the child as a capable and active participant in their own learning.
Professional practices are grounded in four principles: holistic development, environments matter, play is central and belonging. The professional practices for
ECE are responsive relationships, inclusion, cultural competence, reconciliation
and intentional teaching. These principles and practices are included in provincial
and territorial frameworks for ECE curriculum and pedagogy and are reinforced
throughout the chapters of this text.
Standards of practice
Outline expectations for
key areas of practice in
a profession.
Standards of practice are the skills and abilities
needed to perform tasks effectively. Included are standards of performance; input
standards, or the skills and knowledge an individual brings to an occupation; and
process standards, or the tasks required by an occupation (Child Care Human
Resource Sector Council, 2012; College of Early Childhood Educators, 2017).
Standards of practice are useful to a profession in establishing its benchmarks of quality beyond the basics of regulatory requirements. They also contribute to the overall quality of ECE programs. The professional organizations
for teachers and nurses establish and monitor standards of practice for their
practitioners (Beach, Bertrand & Cleveland, 1998). Standards of practice can be
used along with the body of core knowledge to guide professional preparation
and development, to establish criteria for certifying early childhood educators,
and to provide a basis for job descriptions and performance evaluation procedures. A coherent standard of practice statement that has broad support and
endorsement can be a useful tool in informational advocacy activities aimed at
raising public understanding of the value of early childhood educators’ work.
Standards of Practice
Ethical Practice In Canada, several professional organizations have
code of ethics
Principles intended to guide
professionals to make decisions and take actions that
are honest and aligned to the
vision, values and principles of
a profession.
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developed code of ethics statements for educators, to be used as a guide in making
day-to-day decisions. Often, educators have to take action in situations in which all
the facts are not known, or when there is no single course of action that is clearly
right or wrong. It is sometimes difficult to decide what an ethical response might
be. Making ethical decisions and taking ethical actions in early childhood education
may require being able to see beyond short-term consequences to consider longrange consequences.
The Early Childhood Educators of British Columbia (ECEBC) developed
a code of ethics statement in 1992 that guides educators in their daily professional practice. Educators in that organization adopted the ECEBC Code of
Ethics after a considerable period of discussion and consultation with members,
government representatives, and college and university faculty. It has been a
model for the development of codes of ethics in other provincial organizations.
Section 4 The Early Childhood Education Landscape
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© fizkes/shutterstock.com
When facing an ethical
decision, discuss your decision with another educator.
In 2004, the Canadian Child Care Federation (CCCF), a pan-Canadian organization ­(discussed later in this chapter) adopted a Code of Ethics that was
adapted from the ECEBC Code of Ethics. The ECEBC Code of Ethics is currently under review, and language will be revised to reflect changes in the ECE
profession and likely result in revisions to the CCCF’s code (Giesbreht, 2020).
CCCF Code of Ethics
Making
It
Happen
Courtesy of Canadian Child Care Federation
LO 12.1
(continued)
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Child care practitioners1 work with one of society’s most vulnerable groups—
young children. The quality of the interactions between young children and the
adults who care for them has a significant, enduring impact on children’s lives. The
intimacy of the relationship and the potential to do harm call for a commitment on
the part of child care practitioners to the highest standards of ethical practice.
Child care practitioners accept the ethical obligation to understand and work
effectively with children in the context of family, culture and community. Child
care practitioners care for and educate young children. However, ethical practice
extends beyond the child/practitioner relationship. Child care practitioners also
support parents2 as primary caregivers of their children and liaise with other professionals and community resources on behalf of children and families.
The Canadian Child Care Federation and its affiliate organizations recognize
their responsibility to promote ethical practices and attitudes on the part of child
care practitioners.3 The following principles, explanations and standards of practice are designed to help child care practitioners monitor their professional practice
and guide their decision making. These ethical principles are based on the Code of
Ethics of the Early Childhood Educators of BC. The principles have been adapted
for use by adults who work with children and families in a variety of child care and
related settings. They are intended both to guide practitioners and to protect the
children and families with whom they work. Professionalism creates additional ethical obligations to colleagues and to the profession.
Eight ethical principles of practice are presented. These principles are intended
to guide child care practitioners in deciding what conduct is most appropriate
when they encounter ethical problems in the course of their work. Each principle
is followed by an explanation and a list of standards of practice that represent an
application of the principle in a child care or related setting.
Consider:
How does a code of ethics influence professional practice in ECE?
1This code uses the term “child care practitioner” to refer to adults who work in the field of child care
including: early childhood educators; family child care providers; family resource program personnel;
resource and referral program personnel; and instructors in early childhood care and education programs in post-secondary institutions.
2This code uses the term “parent” to refer the parent or legal guardian or the adult who assumes the
parental role in the care of the child.
3The ethical practice of child care practitioners reflects the eight principles. However, the resolution
of ethical dilemmas can be difficult and there will be circumstances in which the ethical principles
will conflict. In these difficult situations, it is recommended that child care practitioners carefully think
through the likely consequences of giving priority to particular principles. By evaluating the consequences, it may become clear which principle ought to be given more weight. The preferred action
should be the one that produces the least amount of avoidable harm. Child care practitioners are also
encouraged to consult with colleagues to obtain different perspectives on the problem, always being
mindful of confidentiality issues. However, the final decision will be made by the practitioner facing the
ethical dilemma.
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Professional Requirements
The professional requirements for early childhood educators in Canada include
requirements for education qualifications and may include requirements for professional learning and recognition.
ECE Qualifications Provinces and territories have legislation and regulations
that govern the operation of regulated early childhood educator programs,
including post-secondary ECE credentials. An understanding of childhood,
curriculum, and pedagogy is expected to encompass knowledge and expertise
from biological sciences, education, psychology, sociology and anthropology.
Post-secondary qualifications including ECE certificates, diplomas and
degrees prepare educators with the entry-level skills and knowledge. The ECE
qualification requirements vary across provinces and territories. No province or
territory requires all staff to have a post-secondary credential in ECE. However,
several provinces and territories have minimum “entry-level” training requirements for all staff, which vary from 40 to 120 hours of ECE course work, and
post-secondary ECE requirements for a percentage of staff.
Nine provinces and territories (Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, Nova
Scotia, Quebec, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, and Yukon)
require caregivers in home child care to have some training beyond first aid.
In Manitoba, home care givers in regulated programs are required to complete
an approved 40-hour course from a community college in home child care or
early childhood education by the end of their first year of operation (Beach
et al., 2009). In Newfoundland and Labrador, caregivers in regulated home child
care are required to have a 30-to-60-hour course in home child care. They must
also complete a minimum of 30 hours of professional development every three
years. Although Ontario does not require caregivers in regulated home child care
to complete specific training, most agencies do provide training. Home visitors,
who are agency staff, support caregivers. Ontario’s home visitors must have completed post-secondary education in child development or family studies and have
at least two years’ work experience with young children (Beach et al., 2009).
Ontario, Nova Scotia and Northwest Territories recognize ECE qualifications for educator positions in kindergarten programs offered in public schools.
ECE qualification requirements extend to child and family centres in Ontario
and StrongStart in British Columbia.
Provincial and territorial requirements might include ongoing professional
development, certification or registration with a government or designated body,
first-aid training and criminal reference checks.
Equivalency Equivalency is the recognition of out-of-province educational
Equivalency
qualifications to meet requirements for credentials and is another aspect of
regulation and certification. Each jurisdiction sets up its own process for
determining if educational qualifications from outside that province/territory
are comparable or equivalent to those recognized within its boundaries.
A level of achievement that
is considered equal to completion of an educational or
training program.
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Equivalency validation credentials verify that an ECE who does not meet a
particular jurisdiction’s qualification requirements has comparable or equivalent
education and experience. Provinces and territories have educational qualification requirements for early childhood educators in ECE programs and related
settings have some established procedures for assessing qualifications and credentials from other jurisdictions.
Continuous professional learning (CPL)
A framework and process to
assist professionals to increase
their knowledge and skills
and ensure quality professional practice.
Research
Into
Practice
LO 12.1
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Professional Learning In addition to ECE post-secondary qualifications,
a commitment to ongoing professional learning is essential. Early childhood
educators must stay current and engaged with ongoing new information and deepen
their professional knowledge about children’s holistic development and learning.
Most educators take part in workshops and conferences that promote professional learning and professional practice in working with young children and
their families; these learning opportunities are often offered by professional organizations. The range of learning opportunities that promote skills and knowledge
includes workshops, seminars, conferences, publications, and networking. These
resources are offered by early childhood education organizations, government
departments, community groups, family resource programs, home child care
agencies, and child care organizations.
The effectiveness of professional learning for educators varies. It is difficult
to integrate new approaches into daily practice if professional learning opportunities are not part of an ongoing approach to professional learning. Effective
professional learning programs are based on research, underpinned by current
theoretical perspectives (both content and delivery methods) and are sustained
over a period of time (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council,
2015; Beach & Flanagan, 2007; Cherrington & Wansbrough, 2007).
Continuous professional learning (CPL) is effective for a knowledgeable
and responsive early childhood workforce. It is a systematic process that recognizes that, through ongoing or continuous learning, educators continue to build
their professional knowledge and skills. CPL is grounded in self-reflection, collaborative reflective practice with other educators and a commitment to lifelong learning (College of Early Childhood Educators, 2019).
ECE Continuous Professional Learning
Makes a Difference
Recent studies point to the impact of evidence-based continuous professional
learning opportunities (e.g., Perlman, Howe, Gulyas, & Falenchuk, 2019; Siraj
et al., 2019) and the need to sustain educators’ ongoing professional development
(Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015; Lazzari, 2012). Recent
Section 4 The Early Childhood Education Landscape
1/13/21 4:44 PM
reports recognize the need for professional learning that is focused on specific
learning needs of educators and combines workshops and ongoing support from
centre supervisors or other pedagogical leaders (Egert, Dederer, & Fukkink, 2020;
Siraj et al., 2019).
An Australian study found that workshops for educators were more effective
when the centre supervisors or other educational leaders were supported to reinforce the key messages (Siraj et al., 2019). The study revealed that in-service professional development had clear effects upon observed quality in early childhood
education as well as potential effects for child outcomes.
Consider:
Why do ongoing learning opportunities promote the professionalism of the
early childhood workforce?
Sources: Institute of Medicine and National Research, 2015; Egert et al., 2020; Lazzari, 2012;
Perlman, 2019; Siraj, Kingston, & Neilsen-Hewett 2019.
Recognition and Self-Governance
Professionalization describes the kinds of activities and actions that an early childhood educator or the early childhood workforce as a whole can use to achieve the
goal of being perceived as a profession.
Self-Governance The self-governance of a profession refers to its authority
to establish bodies to regulate its members and their practice through certification,
standards of practice, discipline, and requirements for professional education. Selfgovernance recognizes bodies outside government or organizations that represent
the economic or professional development interest of practitioners. That recognition
is usually embedded in legislation.
Provincial/territorial professional organizations have taken on tasks—such
as voluntary certification, development of codes of ethics, consultation with
governments on issues related to equivalency validation, and appropriate course
content for professional education programs—which are often associated with
self-governance. There are two self-governing bodies in Canada, the Association
of Early Childhood Educators of Newfoundland and Labrador, and the Ontario
College of Early Childhood Educators. The latter is a legislated, self-regulating
professional body. As discussed earlier in this chapter, members are required to
meet entry standards and continuing competence in order to be licensed with
the College. Certification and licensing with the College is required in regulated
early childhood settings (Pascal, 2009a).
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Making It
Happen
College of Early Childhood Educators
(CECE), Ontario
LO 12.1
The College of Early Childhood Educators (CECE) is a self-regulatory organization
for early childhood educators. In 2007, Ontario introduced the Early Childhood
Educators Act (2007), which defined the practice of early childhood education and
established CECE in Ontario.
The College:
• Regulates the practice of early childhood education
• Maintains membership
• Issues certificates of registration
• Enforces professional and ethical standards
• Investigates complaints against members
• Takes disciplinary action if necessary
Membership in the College is required for everyone wishing to use the title
of “Early Childhood Educator” or “Registered Early Childhood Educator” or
“Éducateur/Éducatrice de la petite enfance inscrit[e].” Also, membership is required
for any educator who is a working supervisor, staff or resource teacher in a regulated child care centre. An ECE postsecondary diploma is required to be eligible for
registration and the title of Registered Early Childhood Educator.
CECE’s primary duty is to serve and protect the public interest. It regulates and governs over 55,000 Registered Early Childhood Educators and
is responsible for establishing and enforcing professional practice and ethical
standards, investigating complaints against members, and dealing with issues
of discipline. CECE promotes continued competence through resource development, the continuous professional learning program and professional leadership initiatives.
Consider:
How is the Ontario College of Early Childhood Educators supporting the professionalization of early childhood education?
Early Childhood Education Organizations
Visit MindTap to find out more
about Ontario’s College of
Early Childhood Educators.
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There are early childhood education organizations and associations at the national,
provincial/territorial, and local levels that support the early childhood workforce
and advocate for its recognition. In addition to their involvement in advocacy and
activities related to professionalism, these groups carry out a range of professional
Section 4 The Early Childhood Education Landscape
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education and development activities. Centres and faculty at Canadian universities
support ECE research, policy and practice.
Canadian Child Care Federation The Canadian Child Care Federation
(CCCF) is a national organization committed to improving the quality of early
learning and child care across Canada. Its network of affiliates includes 13 ECE
provincial/territorial organizations. As described above, this organization works
to improve quality of child care and education services across Canada, build an
infrastructure for the early childhood education and care community, and provide
extensive information and resource services.
The CCCF provides leadership to the early childhood workforce on a
number of fronts, including research, publications, conferences and workshops,
and information services, including a complete listing of all organizations, professional education and development programs, and related resource groups. The
CCCF sponsors projects to develop a national framework for quality assurance
and guidelines for home child care training.
Child Care Now (Child Care Advocacy Association of Canada)
Child Care Now comprises a broad network of provincial and territorial child
care organizations and a range of groups including unions, anti-poverty groups,
and employers and municipalities who champion human and women’s rights.
Child Care Now focuses on public education and news related to advocacy for
child care and political action to increase government support for child care. The
recent Child Care for All Campaign aims to mobilize Canadians to promote the
vision of universal child care.
Association for Young Children (CAYC) CAYC
promotes professional development and communication among early childhood
educators, researchers, and faculty and students in university and college
programs related to ECE. It publishes Journal of Childhood Studies three times
a year.
Canadian
This organization provides education, resources, consul­
tation and support for program development, resources and publications to a
national network of family support programs, including child and family centres, to
reach families from all backgrounds.
Families Canada
Childcare Resource and Research Unit The Childcare Resource
and Research Unit provides public education, consultation, and publications;
organizes and disseminates information and resources; conducts child care–
related research projects; and provides a circulating library and database
of resources.
Across Canada, provincial and territorial ECE organizations support the
early childhood education workforce. Table 12.1 includes brief descriptions of
these organizations.
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Table 12.1 ● Provincial and Territorial ECE Organizations
Name
Description
Association of Early Childhood Educators,
Newfoundland and Labrador (AECENL)*
Professional organization for qualified early childhood educators and for others who are working in ECE programs.
https://www.aecenl.ca
Implements provincial certification program for the government and provides professional learning for educators.
Early Childhood Development Association of
Prince Edward Island* (ECDA of PEI)
https://www.ecdaofpei.ca
Association of Early Childhood Education
Nova Scotia*
Promotes and supports ECE programs in PEI. Provides
information, guidance, resources and professional development opportunities and is a voice representing healthy
child development for PEI children age 0 to 8 years and
their families.
Focuses on the professional practice of early childhood educator in all ECE programs.
https://www.nscece.com
Certification Council of Early Childhood
Education of Nova Scotia*
Offers voluntary certification process for qualified early childhood educators.
https://ccecens.ca
Quebec Association for Preschool Professional
Development (QAPPD)
Promotes quality care for children in Quebec and encourages ongoing professional development within the field.
https://www.qappd.com
Association québécoise des centres de la petite
enfance (AQCPE)
A network of nonprofit child care centres and coordinating
offices for home child care throughout Quebec.
http://www.aqcpe.com
Association of Early Childhood Educators
Ontario (AECEO)
https://www.aeceo.ca
Home Child Care Association of Ontario*
Advocates for respect, recognition and appropriate wages
and working conditions for early childhood educators in
all ECE programs. Leads provincial Professional Pay and
Decent Work Campaign.
Represents and advocates for Licensed Home Child Care
Agencies in Ontario
http://hccao.com
Early Childhood Resource Teacher Network
Ontario
http://ecrtno.ca
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Network of professionals who promote the inclusion of children with varying needs and abilities in their communities.
Provides professional learning opportunities and advocates
for resource teachers and consultants across Ontario.
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Name
Description
Manitoba Child Care Association* (MCCA)
Advocates for a quality system of child care, advances early
learning and child care education as a profession, and provides services to its members.
http://mccahouse.org
Saskatchewan Early Childhood Association*
(SECA)
Promotes professional development opportunities and advocates for children and families, high quality learning, and
those working within the profession.
http://seca-sk.ca
Association of Early Childhood Educators
of Alberta*
https://aecea.ca
British Columbia Aboriginal Child Care Society*
https://www.acc-society.bc.ca
Amplifies the voice of early childhood educators by advocating for higher educational standards, better wages and
working conditions, and comprehensive system supports as
well as aims to transform Alberta’s early learning and child
care (ELCC) workforce into a recognized profession.
Supports Indigenous communities in developing high quality,
culturally respectful, and spiritually enriching community
child care services that are based in the child’s culture, language and history.
Early Childhood Educators of British Columbia*
(ECEBC)
Promotes respects for early childhood educators.
Provides professional learning opportunities and resources
to educators.
BC Family Child Care Association*
Promotes professionalism in the delivery of family [home]
child care through training opportunities, resources
and advocacy.
https://www.ecebc.ca
Westcoast Child Care Resource Centre
https://www.wstcoast.org
Early Childhood Pedagogies Collaboratory
https://www.earlychildhoodcollaboratory.net
Yukon Child Care Association
Provides resources, referrals and training to families, professionals and organizations who are seeking the best care and
early learning for children.
Hybrid and experimental space where educators and
­pedagogues meet and investigate the complexities of
21st-­century early childhood education
Promotes centre-based and family child care.
https://p.facebook.com/YukonCCA
*Affliliate members of Canadian Child Care Federation
LO 12.1
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University Centres Supporting Early Childhood Education
Research, Policy and Practice ECE programs in Canada are supported
Visit MindTap to learn more
about these organizations.
LO 12.1
Visit MindTap to find out more
about university-based organizations for research, policy
and practice.
by several university research centres that work with educators and policy
makers. Their research studies often are opportunities to collaborate to better
understand ECE program policies and practices. The centres in Table 12.2 are
committed to exchanges of information and experiences between researchers
and educators to shape research questions.
The ECE Work Environment
Early childhood education offers qualified educators expanding opportunities in a
variety of career directions in Canada. As the field is expanding and becoming more
visible, recognition of the value of the early childhood educator working with young
children and supporting families is growing. The historically low compensation rates
are slowly increasing. Future work in early childhood education is indeed promising.
Across Canada ECE programs are expanding and are finding it difficult to
recruit qualified educators. In 2020, there was an estimated early childhood workforce shortage of about 58,000 qualified early childhood educators across Canada
in regulated child care programs (Akbari et al., 2021). The recent expansion of
public education into early childhood education has increased the demand for
Table 12.2 ● University Centres SUPPORTING EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Research Centre
Description
Atkinson Centre for Society The Atkinson Centre is a research centre committed to using the best possible
and Child Development,
evidence on early child development to inform public discourse, public policy
OISE, University of Toronto and the professional learning of those who work with young children. The Centre
works in collaboration with the ECE Program at George Brown College. A weekly
newsletter offers updates about ECE–related events, resources, publications and
research studies from across Canada and internationally.
Early Childhood Centre
Collaborative Research
Centre, Mount Saint
Vincent University
The ECCCRC’s research program aims to enhance early childhood well-being
and support families by studying policies and practices for effective early
learning environments.
Offord Centre, McMaster
University
A multi-disciplinary research institute that studies how to improve the lives of
children and youth. The centre’s Early Development Instrument (EDI) initiative
measures children’s ability to meet age-appropriate developmental expectations
across Canada and internationally.
Human Early Learning
Program, University of
British Columbia
The Human Early Learning Partnership (HELP) is a collaborative, interdisciplinary
research network. HELP’s unique partnership brings together many scientific
viewpoints to address complex early child development (ECD) issues.
Early Childhood Centre
University of New
Brunswick
The Early Childhood Centre studies early literacies, family literacies, early learning
and child care, and early years curriculum. Also, the centre includes a full-time
program for young children.
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qualified early childhood educators, as they are finding employment in these programs (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018; Akbari et al., 2021; Bertrand & McCuaig, 2019).
Also, the spotlight on early child development as a determinant of later learning,
behaviour, and health (e.g., McCain, Mustard & McCuaig, 2011; McCain, 2020)
has spawned a growth of niche programming, such as music and movement classes,
preschool creative groups, or infant–parent yoga, for young children and their
parents. Educators are well positioned to fill positions in these programs as well.
ECE Career Pathways
Early childhood educators are in high demand in ECE programs across Canada
and have flexibility in where they work. There are multiple opportunities close to
home for most early childhood educators as well as opportunities to move to new
places. ECE programs offer positions working directly with children and their families. Educators can also think about career pathways to be ECE program leaders,
and research and policy positions related to ECE programs are other possibilities.
Provincial and territorial governments’ legislation
and regulations require some staff in the child care centres to have ECE
qualifications. The organization of educators in child care centres varies. Some
centres have lead or head early childhood educators with responsibilities to
monitor and guide pedagogical practices. In other centres, the centre supervisor
or director takes on this role. Most child care centres are organized into age
groupings that align with provincial or territorial regulations.
Many educators launch their career in child care centres. When they can be
guided by other educators and supervisors with more experience and perhaps
additional qualifications, newly qualified educators build their knowledge and
competence. Also, they can consider what future career opportunities may exist
at the child care centre. Positions in child care centres for educators with ECE
qualifications are plentiful, so it is possible to be selective and seek employment
in centres that offer quality programming to young children as well as professional learning opportunities. Most positions in child care centres are full-time—
five days per week, seven or eight hours per day.
Child Care Centres
Nursery Schools and Preschools Nursery schools or preschools are
included in most provincial and territorial legislation and regulations and also
require some of the staff have qualifications. Some will have a group of children
attend in the morning and another group attend in the afternoon. Nursery
schools and preschools are usually not open during public school holidays.
Educators may work hours that are similar to a typical school day or half-days
for two to five days a week.
Prekindergarten/Junior Kindergarten and Kindergarten in
Public Schools Public schools across Canada offer kindergarten to five-
year-old children that employs qualified teachers with approved education
degrees. Educators may also be employed as education assistants who support
children with special educational needs and disabilities.
In Ontario, Nova Scotia and Northwest Territories, educators are employed
in public school ECE programs for four-year-old children. In Nova Scotia the
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pre-primary program has two early childhood educators for a class of up to 20
children. Manitoba’s half-day prekindergarten program is called nursery school,
is offered to four-year-old children in some public schools, and may be led by an
early childhood educator or a teacher.
In Ontario, full-day kindergarten (FDK) for four- and five-year-old children
has a qualified early childhood educator and teacher team in most FDK classroom.
Educators in Nova Scotia and Northwest Territories public school classrooms
plan and implement the programs according to provincial/territorial curriculum
guidelines. In Ontario, educators and teachers work together to implement FDK.
Teachers have knowledge of the Ontario elementary curriculum from kindergarten to grade 8. They understand how kindergarten curriculum expectations link
to later elementary grades. They are responsible for evaluation and reporting to
parents. Educators contribute to assessment and evaluation of children’s learning.
Educators in prekindergarten and kindergarten usually work the hours of
the school day and school year. They are included in some professional learning
opportunities and may have some preparation time. They may not be paid for
school holidays, including over the summer months.
Before- and After-School Programs Before- and after-school pro­grams
may be licensed child care centres that require ECE qualifications for some staff
or be offered through schools or recreation programs and centres that may employ
qualified educators but do not require staff with ECE qualifications. Programs
may seek out staff with recreation and creative arts experience and qualifications.
The programs wrap around elementary school hours and offer programs on school
holidays. In child care centres that offer before- and after-school programs, educators
may work in the before- or after-school program and in a younger age group during
school hours. Others may work a split shift, before and after school, on school days.
Educators may choose to work in before- and after-school programs that
have a specific focus on recreational sports or creative arts that allow them to
further their own interests and skills. Other educators may choose a split shift
position that may accommodate pursuing further education.
Child and Family Centres Child and family centres often employ
early childhood educators. BC’s StrongStart programs require staff with ECE
qualifications. Ontario’s EarlyON programs are phasing in ECE-qualified staff
requirements. Educators typically work directly with young children and their
family members and other caregivers. They plan and carry out curriculum that
is both adult- and child-focused and strives to actively involve parents and other
caregivers in their children’s early development and learning.
Early Intervention Early childhood educators may decide to work with
children with special educational needs or disabilities and their families to ensure
that the children are able to participate fully in ECE programs. Or educators
may choose to work in early intervention services that support children in ECE
programs and at home. Additional qualifications are often preferred or required.
The expanding knowledge base
about the science and practice of early child development and ECE creates new
opportunities for early childhood educators. Resource centres, research institutes,
Research, Policy and Resources
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early childhood organizations, and governments are exploring ways to make new
knowledge and information readily available to the early childhood workforce,
parents and communities. Early childhood educators understand the daily lives of
front-line staff and families in early childhood settings and can explain what new
policies and research findings may be relevant.
Working Conditions for Early Childhood Educators
Working conditions include income, benefits and workload, as well as characteristics of the social and physical environment. Although provincial regulations
and legislation about employment standards set the basic requirements for a
minimum wage, mandatory vacations and maximum numbers of work hours per
week for educators, these factors vary depending on the setting and role.
Educators may be employed by parents, non-profit organizations, local or provincial governments, businesses, or school boards; or they may be self-employed.
The type of early childhood education setting affects the employment status of
educators and the related working conditions.
The working conditions in ECE programs create an organizational climate for
the adults and the children in that setting. A positive organizational climate helps
create a quality setting for young children and their families. (See Chapter 10 for
further discussion about quality.) The organizational climate is positive when salary
and benefits are reasonable; job responsibilities and obligations are clear; health and
safety are protected; educators are valued; opportunities for professional growth
and advancement are present; and management is competent. Educators report
less job satisfaction when ECE programs are dominated by unqualified staff and
there is a lack of pedagogical leadership (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018).
The Organizational Climate of Early
Childhood Programs
International and Canadian research findings point to the school principal or program
manager, supervisor, or director as the gatekeeper of quality who sets the organizational climate (Fullan, 2001). School principals are expected to be leaders of learning,
knowledgeable about curriculum and pedagogy, and able to assess and develop
teacher skills. They are also expected to provide working conditions for teachers
that allow them to practise their profession (McElgunn, 2006; Mort, 2007; National
Association of Elementary School Principals, 2005; Phillips, 2003). Early childhood
educators need the same kind of leadership in all early childhood programs.
Skilled management and leadership in early childhood programs create a positive organizational climate. Educators have opportunities to be involved in decision
making. A coherent administrative framework supports early childhood educators
working together in teams. In family child care, support and contact with other
caregivers is part of a positive organizational climate.
Working conditions
Physical work environment,
compensation (salary and
benefits), hours of work, career
and professional learning
opportunities, and supervision approach.
organizational
climate
Collective perception of staff
about the work environment.
Research
Into
Practice
LO 12.2
(continued)
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Effective leadership practice in early childhood programs includes pedagogical and curriculum leadership and outreach to families and communities in addition to necessary financial and human resources management skills (Bertrand &
Michals, 2007; Fullan, 2020; McLean, 2019; Siraj et al., 2017; Siraj, Kingston, &
Neilsen-Hewett, 2019).
Pedagogical leadership contributes to good practice (Bertrand & Michals,
2007; Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2016, McLean 2018) and encourages staff stability
(Schlieber et al., 2019). In early childhood programs, leaders and managers who
are pedagogical leaders enhance program quality and the overall climate of the
program. Managers who have higher educational levels seem to be better able to
provide curriculum and pedagogical leadership to educators.
Leadership, innovation, creativity and a strong knowledge base are essential (McLean, 2018; Schlieber et al., 2019; Siraj et al., 2019). As early childhood
programs in Canada expand and expectations for their achievements grow, the
complexities of providing high quality programs will require highly skilled people at
all levels. Appropriate training for leadership roles is a critical element in providing
high quality ECE programs, particularly as more complex, multi-professional teams
of staff come together to provide more integrated programs.
Consider:
Why do you think pedagogical leadership is an essential component of
quality ECE programs?
Compensation Table 12.3 compares the full-time average salaries of
teachers employed in public schools and educators employed in early childhood
education settings (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018; Akbari et al., 2021).
Between 2000 and 2020, provincial/territorial government policy and
funding initiatives that influence human resources included wage subsidies,
educational support, bursaries and incentives, and revised policies regarding recognition of post-­secondary early childhood credentials. Higher education, more
experience, unionization and non-profit and public status were factors found to
be related to higher income levels, even within the same province or territory
(Akbari & McCuaig, 2018; Akbari et al., 2021).
Across Canada, educators with ECE post-secondary qualifications working
with young children in child care centres earn on average $38,000 annually
(Akbari & McCuaig, 2018). The range of salaries varies across provinces and
territories and between centres in the same jurisdiction. The salary differences
between teachers and educators persist, and in many jurisdictions the gap is
growing (Akbari and McCuaig, 2018).
The still-too-low income levels of early childhood educators is a major issue
for the sector. Recent studies report that low remuneration remains a significant problem for those working in early childhood education settings as well as
for government officials, representatives from provincial/territorial and national-sector organizations, and faculty members from colleges and universities
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Table 12.3 ● Teacher–ECE Remuneration by Provinces
and Territories
Teacher Salaries
ECE Salaries
ECE Salaries as % of
Teachers’ Salaries
NL
63,200
43,600
69
PEI
60,100
35,800
60
NS
62,750
33,400
53
NB
61,900
36,400
59
QC
77,600
48,000
62
ON
67,400
38,900
58
MB
73,800
38,200
52
SK
62,147
34, 600
56
AB
79,700
37,900
47
BC
65,300
37,700
58
Salaries for early childhood educators lag behind public school teachers’ salaries.
Source: McCuaig, Akbari (2018). Early Childhood Education Report 2017. Provincial territorial profiles,
(http://ecereport.ca/en/report/provincial-territorial-profiles/). Published by the Atkinson Centre at OISE
University of Toronto.
(Beach & Flanagan, 2007; Flanagan & Beach, 2010; Doherty et al., 2000; Akbari
& McCuaig, 2018).
It is difficult to compare income levels for educators in different ECE programs. Educators who work with children in centre-based settings are employees.
Educators in regulated home child care settings are self-employed. Wages earned
as an employee are subject to different deductions and taxation than income
earned through self-employment. Educators working in public ECE programs
in schools or operated by municipalities in Ontario receive higher compensation
(Akbari & McCuaig, 2018).
The large wage gap between early childhood educators and teachers is
emerging as a major issue as early childhood education programs become integrated into the education sector and into schools (Atkinson Centre, 2018). Early
childhood educators want a role as programs become part of the education
system, and they want to see comparable compensation. Early childhood educators currently working in early childhood programs delivered through public
education (or municipalities) typically earn higher hourly wages than other
­educators working in child care centres in the same region.
LO 12.3
Unionization
that could lead to improved compensation and working conditions, as well as
to improved quality of the early childhood programs. The labour movement
in Canada has been involved in organizing the early childhood workforce and
To organize employees of
an organization into a labour
union that is recognized to
negotiate working conditions
with the employer on behalf of
the employees.
chapter 12 Early Childhood Educators: Looking Ahead
263
Unions in Early Childhood Education Unionization is a strategy
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bargaining for better compensation and working conditions since the 1970s
(Beach et al., 2004). The most recent information available from 2012 reported
that approximately 21 percent of staff employed in child care centres are
members of trade unions in Canada (Beach, Flanagan & Varmuza, 2014; CUPE,
2018). Rates of unionization vary across Canada, ranging from 30 percent
in Quebec to 2 percent in Alberta and 0 percent in New Brunswick (Beach,
Flanagan & Varmuza, 2014; CUPE, 2018).
Educators employed in the expanding ECE programs offered through public
education typically become union members (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018; Akbari
et al., 2021). In Ontario, approximately 12,000 early childhood educators in
full-day kindergarten or employed as educational assistants in elementary classrooms are members of CUPE or a teacher’s union. In British Columbia, 350
educators in the school-based child and family program StrongStart are CUPE
members. Educators in Nova Scotia’s pre-primary Program for four-year-old children in public schools are members of the Nova Scotia Government Employees
Union or CUPE. In Quebec, educators who are working in before- and afterschool programs are unionized.
Employment structures and funding for non-profit and commercial ECE
programs present barriers for the unionization of early childhood educators.
In centre-based child care programs, it is difficult to organize relatively small
staff groups into collective bargaining units. Educators who demand increased
­compensation can be threatened with the inability of parents to afford increased
fees—and the parents are people they see and speak with every day, people with
whom they have forged relationships. Early childhood educators employed in
programs operated within larger institutions (such as municipalities in Ontario
or community colleges) are included as a small proportion of a broad bargaining
unit, but this solution is less than perfect: it may be difficult within the larger
union to address issues that are specific to the child care workforce (Beach,
Bertrand & Cleveland, 1998).
Early childhood educators and other staff working in unionized child care
centres earn higher pay and better benefits than staff in other settings. On
average, child care staff earns 25 percent more in unionized centres. They are
also more likely to receive benefits such as disability insurance, extended health
care, life insurance, employee top-up of maternity benefits, and parental leave
benefits and pensions (Beach & Flanagan, 2007; Beach, Flanagan & Varmuza,
2014; CUPE, 2018).
Well-Being Strategies for Educators
The emotional, physical and social well-being of educators in ECE programs is
an essential element of the quality of the environments that children experience.
ECE programs can be stressful work environments for educators who are trying
to respond to the needs and wants of young children and their families. Educators
in ECE programs are subject to many sources of stress and often work in isolated
settings. Working conditions described earlier in this chapter can moderate or exacerbate daily stresses. Educators can be proactive in adopting strategies that improve
well-being.
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Physical Well-Being Strategies Health and safety conditions for
educators and other staff working in ECE programs contribute to well-being.
Physical demands and infectious disease are two risks facing educators that may
not be eliminated but can be reduced. Working with young children is physically
demanding. Babies and toddlers are often lifted and carried. Furnishings and
equipment must be moved around to accommodate children’s play and daily
routines. Information about correct bending and lifting from the knees reduces
back injury. Adult-size furnishings in some of the play areas can be provided.
Stools with wheels allow educators to easily move about play areas easily.
Infectious diseases are common in ECE programs, and staff risk becoming
ill. Young children get colds with runny noses, crusty eyes and coughs. Young
children also get gastrointestinal viruses and may vomit or have diarrhea. Clear
policies that indicate children must stay home when they are ill can be enforced
to reduce the risk, but often these illnesses first appear while children are in
programs. Excellent hygiene practices are important. Educators who take care
of their personal physical health through healthy living are less likely to pick
up infections.
Social-Emotional Well-Being Strategies Educators often work
in isolated settings. The dynamics of a group of children or the behaviours of
an individual child can be difficult. Multiple demands for educators’ time and
attention are stressful. Professional practices for responsive relationships require
that educators are constantly engaged and focused with many adults and children.
Self-Care
Educators are encouraged to understand and support children’s social and emotional well-being and self-regulation. Researchers find that educators who pay
attention to their own self-regulation and related social-emotional well-being are
better able to support children (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Schonert-Reichl,
2017).
Educators’ ability to respond sensitively to children’s emotions is shaped by
their own capacity to regulate their own emotions. Educators who have greater
stress create early learning environments that are more stressful for children and
make it harder for children to regulate their emotions or their behaviour.
Self-care is a key strategy for educators who are working with young children
to self-regulate their emotions. Eating well and getting enough sleep and regular
exercise are key elements of self-care (Wei, 2018). Mind–body practice such as
yoga, meditation and deep-relaxation techniques are effective strategies to reduce
stress. One simple deep-relaxation technique is to practise simple deep breathing
for 10 minutes daily, by sitting quietly and slowly breathing in and out.
Self-care increases an educator’s social-emotional well-being and their abilities to reduce stress in the early learning environments they share with children.
self-care
Actions that an individual takes
to improve their health and
well-being.
Research
Into
Practice
LO 12.4
(continued)
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Stressed-out educators create more stressed-out environments in ECE programs
that make it difficult for young children to regulate their emotions and behaviours.
Consider:
In ECE programs, how does educators’ self-care improve children’s socialemotional well-being?
Sources: Schonert-Reichl, 2017; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Wei, 2018.
© Dragana Gordic/shutterstock.com
Taking time for self-care is
essential for educators.
Advocating for Early Childhood Education
Canada is expanding early childhood education for its youngest citizens. But there
are not enough programs—only one in every two children five years and younger has
access to an ECE program (McCain, 2020). Apart from the ECE programs offered
through public education, costs are often prohibitive. Quality concerns abound.
Poor coordination and a lack of integration at the local level may lead families to
be confused about what services they are entitled to and how they can access those
services. As noted in Chapter 11, the typical array of early childhood education and
related programs and services available to a young child is chaotic. Many families do
not understand what services are available to everyone, let alone how to access more
complex services such as special-needs interventions. The workforce challenges
facing governments and communities that want to expand ECE programs include
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low compensation, isolated workplaces, insufficient opportunities for effective professional learning and a weak program leadership (Akbari & McCuaig, 2018).
The campaign for better ECE programs spans seven decades. Governments
of every political stripe have tried to address the issue with some notable successes including the expansion of universal ECE programs for younger children
in Ontario, Nova Scotia and Northwest Territories. Overall, public investment in
ECE programs has doubled in the past decade but the demand is growing faster
(McCain, 2020; Akbari & McCuaig, 2018). Early childhood educators can be
powerful advocates who understand the arguments for more investment in ECE
programs and expanded opportunities for young children. Educators can communicate the value of ECE to colleagues, families, communities and governments.
Children’s Rights
Young children have a right to the best possible childhoods and that includes
participation in ECE programs. The first Early Years Study states “it is the right
thing to do for our young children” (McCain & Mustard, 1999, p. 2). Early Years
Study 4 notes, “Most important, early education gives children a space where
play and friendships flourish, making for happier, healthier childhoods” (McCain,
2020, p.2). School-age children (6–12 years old) have often lost the third space
of childhood—the play space apart from home life and school (Collins, 2018).
Before- and after-school programs can bring back the opportunity for play spaces
that allow children to create their own social worlds.
Chapter 1 introduced the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights
of the Child, which includes the idea that children are citizens with rights and
are entitled to resources. Childhood is viewed as an important phase of life,
not just a prelude to adulthood. As recognized in the image of the child vision
in Chapter 1 (see Figure 1.1), the child is an active, competent learner. ECE
programs become an integral part of children’s culture. They amplify children’s
interests and aptitudes outside the family.
ECE and Lifelong Learning, Earning and Health
All young children have an astounding capacity to learn—astounding both in how
much they can learn and in the variety and range of what they can learn. Given the
capacity of children to learn, particularly during their early years, it makes sense
to keep all avenues, options, and aspirations open. The primary focus is identifying and introducing the experiences, activities and challenges that enhance everyone’s learning.
Participation in high quality ECE programs prepares children for academic
success, higher education and lifelong learning. Regular participation in quality
ECE programs offers young children the kinds of opportunities that benefit
language, social competence, emotional maturity and cognitive development.
The positive impact of early education carries forward into elementary school
to establish a foundation for later success. Children who are living in disadvantage derive more benefit from high quality early childhood programs, but
the advantages apply to all children and they apply whether the mother is in
the paid workforce or not. All children show improved educational and social
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outcomes from regular, sustained participation in ECE programs (McCain, 2020;
Yoshikawa et al., 2013).
The learning benefits of ECE programs translate into many economic benefits (Alexander et al., 2017). Play-based learning builds children’s knowledge
and the skills that they will need to survive, develop, and grow in the present
and into the future. Studies consistently find that the long-term benefits of early
childhood education programs, particularly from age two until school entry, are
more than the program costs (Yoshikawa et al., 2013; Alexander, et al., 2017;
McCain 2020). Studies also find that ECE programs reduce the need for special
education resources in elementary school and beyond (Philpott et al., 2019).
Parental Employment
ECE programs support the dual responsibilities of parents to earn a living and raise
their children. Parents who work outside the home, or carry out paid work inside
the home, need non-parental care arrangements for their children, particularly for
young children who have not entered the formal school system. As Canada’s population ages. the Canadian economy requires increasing numbers of mothers with
young children to work (Alexander et al, 2017; McCain, 2020). Early childhood
education programs that support parental employment also support economic
benefits that come from increased income taxes and reduced use of income benefit
programs (Alexander et al., 2017; Fortin, 2019; McCain, 2020).
Social Benefits
Early childhood education programs live in neighbourhoods and communities
and can offer a comfortable space and meeting place that welcomes all young
children and families. ECE programs connect families with each other. Children
need spaces and places to play with each other. When children play, families from
diverse religious, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds can find common ground
where everyone belongs.
Child care centres are well positioned to be an effective platform to deliver a
host of other services and serve as a central hub within a community, connecting
parents with a network of other services and resources including health, nutrition, family supports, early interventions and community development (Corter,
Janmohamed & Pelletier, 2012; McKenzie, 2019). Early childhood settings have
daily opportunities to connect families with each other. Families have strengths,
experiences and skills that they can share with one another. Programs can contribute to a family’s social and support networks and reduce the isolation and
exclusion families often feel in disadvantaged communities. ECE programs can
connect families, particularly low-income, lone-parent (typically mother-led)
families, to an array of local resources and supports (Small, Jacobs & Massengill,
2008). Families form social networks, make cultural connections and participate
in their communities as a result of their ECE program participation.
Early childhood education programs help to transmit social and cultural
values. They are places where children are exposed to and influenced by others’
values, and where children consolidate their value system, acquire their own
vision of the world, and learn to socialize and function as part of a group. Because
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early childhood programs typically take in all children, regardless of gender,
ethnic origin, religion, ability, family composition or financial situation, they
serve an important democratic and civic function—one in which equal opportunity and fairness for all are daily realities, being part of the group is reflected in
the activities carried out together and with shared objectives, and the search for
the common good takes individual well-being into account.
Families who are newcomers to Canada and who share similar cultural traditions or who speak languages other than English or French, benefit from meeting
each other. Families also benefit when they learn about child rearing practices
from families with different backgrounds. ECE programs can unite families from
diverse origins through participation in common activities related to their children—for example, potluck dinners or weekend picnics. Adults and children find
out that co-operation among social classes and ethnic groups is possible and positive. Early childhood education programs can be places that can foster community co-operation. They strengthen appreciation for diversity and promote equity
among racial and ethnic groups, enhancing social integration and solidarity.
Early childhood education programs typically offer parents information
about child development. Pamphlets, workshops and YouTube videos may be
welcomed by families but are not as effective in changing parenting practices
as “learning by doing” opportunities. ECE programs that offer parents opportunities to observe educators interacting with their children or provide specific
opportunities for parents to practise positive interactions with their children are
more effective (Grindal et al., 2016).
A Canadian study of the social and economic benefits of early childhood
education reports that ECE programs in Canada can reduce the equity gap
between children in low-income families and those in more affluent ones
(Alexander et al., 2017).
equity gap
Avoidable differences that exist
due to income differences.
Campaigns for Early Childhood Education
The ECE professional organizations discussed earlier in this chapter often take on
specific campaigns to promote children’s access to ECE programs. They also champion early childhood educators and advocate for improved working conditions.
Ontario Early Childhood Sector Decent
Work Charter
Making It
Happen
LO 12.5
The Association of Early Childhood Educators Ontario (AECEO) developed the
Ontario Early Childhood Sector Decent Work Charter to gain greater recognition,
increased salaries and benefits, and improved working conditions for educators.
The Charter is a vision for decent work. ECE programs and related organizations
can sign on to the Charter indicating their commitment to advancing policy reforms
to improve working conditions for educators in all ECE programs.
(continued)
chapter 12 Early Childhood Educators: Looking Ahead
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The Charter is based on the four foundations of Ontario’s early learning curriculum framework, How Does Learning Happen? (Government of Ontario, 2014):
Belonging
• Recognition of staff as valued professionals
• Commitment to establish and maintain structures and resources internally
and externally that recognize the critical role early childhood staff perform in
the delivery of quality programs
Well-Being
• Professional pay/compensation
• Commitment to establish and maintain strategies to provide professional
pay for professional work
Engagement
• Professional learning
• Commitment to establish and maintain structures and resources to support
early childhood professionals in all aspects of ongoing professional learning
Expression
• Quality work environments
• Commitment to establish and maintain structures and resources that promote belonging, inclusion, diversity, well-being, engagement and expression
in the work environment
Courtesy of Association of Early Childhood Education, Ontario. Used with permission.
Visit MindTap to learn more
about the Ontario Early
Childhood Sector Decent
Work Charter.
Summary
• ECE professionalism includes specific knowledge, standards of practice, ethics, qualifications,
recognition and self-governance, and ongoing
professional learning.
• The work environment for educators
in ECE programs is characterized by low
270
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compensation. Program leadership
makes a difference in creating work
environments that value and recognize
educators and support their ability to design
and offer quality early learning
environments.
Section 4 The Early Childhood Education Landscape
1/13/21 4:44 PM
• Educators can pursue careers in ECE programs,
including child care centres, child and family
centres, early intervention, before- and afterschool programs, preschool and nursery schools,
prekindergarten and kindergarten. Opportunities are growing in ECE–related research and
resource initiatives.
• The well-being of educators is interrelated
with children’s social-emotional well-being
and self-regulation. Supportive work environments and self-care contribute to educators’
well-being.
• Educators are powerful advocates in promoting
increased public investment in ECE programs.
Review Questions
1. Describe three key elements of the early childhood profession. LO 12.1
2. What are the similarities and differences in
the roles and responsibilities of early childhood educators employed in child care
centres, public school prekindergarten and
kindergarten, and child and family centres?
LO 12.2
3. What would you want to know about the
work environment in an ECE program before
accepting an offer of employment? LO 12.2
4. How do child care centres, prekindergarten in
schools and child and family centres offer career
opportunities for educators? LO 12.3
5. What are three strategies to support the wellbeing of educators? LO 12.4
Study Activities
1. Prepare a 15-minute presentation for your local
business community that outlines the long-term
social and economic benefits in early childhood
education. LO 12.5
2. Ontario’s College of Early Childhood
Education (CECE) has prepared a document
on professionalism. Find it online and review
the three scenarios: Posting on Social Media,
Supporting a Child, or Following Workplace
Policies and Offering a Diagnosis. Answer the
questions and then discuss with other students.
LO 12.1
3. Review the Code of Ethics from the Canadian
Child Care Federation. What changes would
you recommend to revise and update the Code?
LO 12.1
Key Terms
Code of ethics (p. 248)
Continuous professional learning (CPL) (p. 252)
Equity gap (p. 269)
Equivalency (p. 251)
Organizational climate (p. 261)
Professional (p. 247)
Self-care (p. 265)
Standards of practice (p. 248)
Unionization (p. 263)
Working conditions (p. 261)
chapter 12 Early Childhood Educators: Looking Ahead
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Suggested Readings
For additional resources,
visit MindTap.
Akbari, E., McCuaig, K., & Foster, D. (2021). Early childhood education report
2020. Toronto, ON: Atkinson Centre, OISE, University of Toronto.
Anderson, L., Sing, M., and Haber, R. (2020). Executive summary: A competitive, publicly funded provincial wage grid is the solution to BC’s ECE
shortage. Vancouver, BC: Early Childhood Educators BC and Coalition
of Child Care Advocates of BC. Retrieved September 22, 2020, at http://
ecebc.ca/wage-grid-exec-summary.pdf
Child Care Now. (2019). Early learning and child care: Essential for women’s
economic security. Ottawa, ON: Author. Retrieved September 22, 2020, at
https://allforchildcare.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Early-learning-and
-child-care-and-womens-economic-security.pdf
College of Early Childhood Educators. (2019). Continuous Professional
Learning Portfolio Cycle, Handbook 2019. Toronto, ON: Author. https://
www.college-ece.ca/en/Documents/CPL_Portfolio_Handbook.pdf
MacDonnell, M. and McCorquodale, L. (2019). Hidden messages: Barriers
toward professional recognition. The Peer Reviewed Collection 3(2). Toronto,
ON: AECEO. Retrieved September 22, 2020, at https://drive.google.com/
file/d/1rfgb-Rnusx5JTacgXL9DrwRtqThksoWx/view
Roach, A., Hooper, S. & Jakubiec, B. (2019). Exploring early childhood educators’ notions about professionalism in Prince Edward Island. Journal of
Childhood Studies 44(1): 20–36.
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Glossary
accommodation: Using an existing schema to
explore and understand a new object or experience.
adult–child ratio: Maximum number of children
allowed for every staff member.
aesthetics: Overall attractiveness of an object
or environment.
alphabetic principle: A group of skills that connect
letters wth sounds to read and write.
anecdotes: A written description that is recorded
after an event or interaction is observed and
includes what was seen and heard.
assimilation: Changing a schema because it does
not work for a new object or situation.
at risk: Term used when there are concerns about
developmental delay related to biological, environmental or physical conditions.
autonomy: Knowledge that one has control over
one’s own decisions and actions.
baby-boom: Significant increase in births following
World War II and continuing to mid 1960s.
before- and after-school programs: A range of programs for children who are attending school kindergarten, prekindergarten programs, or grades 1 to 6
that are offered before and after school hours and
on school holidays.
behaviourism: Theory of learning that proposes that
behaviours are acquired through conditioning or
interactions with the environment.
caregiving: Looking after physical and emotional
needs for safety and well-being.
child agency: A child’s ability to make choices and
decisions that impact on activities and on their life.
child and family centre: A family support program
that offers ECE programs to young children and other
supports and resources to their families and caregivers.
child-centred: Based on the child’s cues, interests
and abilities.
classical conditioning: A form of learning that links
a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that results in a
reflexive behaviour. The neutral stimulus alone then
produces the same reflexive behaviour.
co-construct: A process in which a child and an
educator or a group of children (with or without
an educator) work together to figure something out
and build or create knowledge.
co-constructed pedagogical documentation:
Pedagogical documentation that is led by a child or
children who participated in an activity with the
support of educators who listen to and record children’s ideas.
code of ethics: Principles intended to guide professionals to make decisions and take actions that are
honest and aligned to the vision, values and principles of a profession.
cognitive: Mental processes involved in learning,
thinking and knowing.
colonization: The act of settling among and
gaining control over the Indigenous people of the
same area.
communities of practice: A group of professionals
who share a strong interest about a topic related to
their practice and come together to collaborate to
improve their practice.
compensatory preschool programs: Designed for
children up to six years old who have developmental delays, or who are at risk of developmental
delays, because of environmental conditions,
including disadvantaged communities.
continuous professional learning (CPL): A framework and process to assist professionals to increase
their knowledge and skills and ensure quality professional practice.
continuous quality improvement: Ongoing analysis
of quality evaluation results to understand changes
needed to improve the quality of early learning
environments for young children and their families.
creative-constructive play: Play in which children
use materials and tools to make something.
cultural competence: Effective understanding, interacting and communicating with people across cultures.
culture: Ways of knowing, attitudes, values, goals
and customs shared by a society.
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curriculum: Sum total of the interactions, planned
and unplanned learning opportunities, routines,
events, materials and physical space that children experience in an early childhood education program.
curriculum approach: Organized system of intentions, interactions and plans designed to promote
learning and well-being.
custodial care: Care for a child that provides basic
safety and nutrition but does not intentionally offer
learning experiences.
data management: Collecting, keeping and using
information that helps children sort, organize,
count, compare and understand information.
developmentally appropriate practice: Early childhood education practices that are grounded in child
development concepts and knowledge, and observations of and interactions with young children, their
families and their cultural context.
didactic: Educator-directed approach to teaching
specific skills or information.
digital technology: Electronic tools, systems, devices
and resources that generate, store or process data.
Includes computers, online games, social media,
mobile phones and tablets.
direct instruction: Specific pedagogical (teaching)
strategy to teach a specific skill.
documentation: Practice of gathering and sharing
observations, examples and information about children’s learning experiences that can be interpreted
and analyzed.
documentation panel: A mounted display of pedagogical documentation that may include text,
photos, and children’s representations and focus on
a specific process or project for an individual child
or a group of children.
early childhood education (ECE): Ongoing
programs for young children that are guided
by qualified educators and defined curriculum
and pedagogy and may or may not provide
nonparental care.
early childhood educator: People who work directly
with children in early childhood education programs,
have early childhood post-secondary education credentials and are recognized by provincial/territorial
legislation as qualified staff in ECE programs.
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early intervention services: Programs and services that
work with children whose development is delayed or
at risk, often offering comprehensive services.
early learning framework: Learning areas in
ECE settings.
early learning standards: Expectations for young
children’s learning and development.
early literacy: A collection of skills needed before
learning to read.
ecological approach: Awareness of family’s immediate context, community context, and broader
policy and system context.
elements of life: Life-giving elements—air, fire,
earth and water.
emergent curriculum: Early learning environments that are responsive to children’s interests,
questions and explorations to create meaningful
learning experiences.
emergent literacy: Awareness of the meaning of
print that develops before early reading and writing.
emergent numeracy: Awareness of the meaning of
numbers that precedes ability to use numbers in
simple computations.
emotional: Feelings such as happiness, anger
or sadness.
emotional climate: How the environment is organized to support emotional stability and nurture
children’s emotional and social well-being.
equilibrium: The accommodation of
existing schemas to most situations that a
child encounters.
equity gap: Avoidable differences that exist due to
income differences.
equivalency: A level of achievement that is considered equal to completion of an educational or
training program.
event sample: Observation that is recorded while
an event (specific routine or learning experience) is
happening. The record includes the preceding conditions, the child’s behaviour in the event and the
conditions following the event.
executive function: Inhibitory control, working
memory and cognitive flexibility skills.
exploratory play: Touching, listening, smelling and
watching objects to find out about their properties
and what happens when they are manipulated.
GLOSSARY
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family literacy: How parents, children and other family
members use literacy at home and in the community.
family support program: A range of services aimed
at improving family and child well-being and
building their strengths. Services can include parenting, healthy living, employment and housing
resources, and early childhood education.
fixed mindset: Underlying belief that one’s qualities
are fixed and cannot be changed.
formative assessment: Using observations to
assess or take stock of what a child knows
and can do for the purpose of planning future
learning opportunities.
for-profit: Organizations that are owned by an individual or corporation and can make a profit.
four directions teaching: Holistic notion of heart,
mind, spirit and body or north, south, east and west.
full-day kindergarten: Full-day ECE program
available to all four- and five-year-old children in
Ontario public schools that offers a play-based
learning approach.
full-day program: ECE programs that operate at
least 6 hours per day, five days a week.
growth mindset: Underlying belief that one’s
qualities can be changed and improved through
one’s effort.
guided participation: Ways in which adults help
children negotiate everyday life.
habits of mind: Strategies to successfully solve complex problems and overcome challenges.
holistic: Understanding that the parts of learning—
mind, body and spirit—are interconnected.
home language: Language learning in a child’s
home environment.
image of the child: View of children as the agents
and experts of their own life and active participants
in their own learning.
inclusion: An approach to practice and policies in
early childhood education that accepts all children,
and every child, including those with disabilities, is
supported to the fullest extent of their abilities.
Indigenizing: Process of making Indigenous ways of
knowing, being, doing and relating part of organizations, culture and daily practices.
intentional teaching: Thoughtful and purposeful
design, organization and implementation of early
learning environment.
invitation: An encouragement from an educator to a
child or group of children to do something.
key developmental indicators: Descriptions of
observable child behaviours that indicate a child’s
knowledge and skills in HighScope content areas.
kindergarten: ECE program for five-year-old children.
knowledge-keepers: Trusted, respected and valued
individuals who carry forward Indigenous knowledge that has been passed down from generation
to generation.
land acknowledgement: Formal statement that recognizes and respects Indigenous peoples as traditional
stewards of the land as well as the relationship between
Indigenous peoples and their traditional territories.
language: Written or spoken communication
using words.
language nest: An immersion approach to revitalize
Indigenous languages in early childhood education programs.
learning dispositions: Children’s characteristics
or attitudes to learning that are valuable for supporting lifelong learning.
learning pathways: Description of children’s
thinking and learning that emerges and evolves in a
variety of curriculum areas.
learning stories: Narrative descriptions about a
child or a group of children’s learning that is prepared by educators from the perspective of the
child and may include contributions from children
and/or families.
letter knowledge: Ability to recognize and name
uppercase and lowercase letters.
linguistically appropriate practice: Guidance for
educators in ECE programs that includes children
who are learning English or French.
literacy: Ability to use written language (reading
and writing).
loose parts: Items that can be manipulated (e.g.,
moved, carried, combined, lined up, taken apart or
stacked) in multiple ways and can be used alone or
combined with other materials.
mindfulness: Intentional awareness of being present
in the moment.
multi-sector ecosystem lens: An approach that
includes professional learning, policy and standards
from multiple sectors (e.g., licensed child care,
public schools, recreation) and play opportunities
GLOSSARY
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for children that interconnect with each other
within physical environments.
not-for-profit: Organizations that are incorporated
as non-profit and governed by a board of directors.
nursery schools and preschools: Part-time ECE programs that may be regulated centres or an extension
of elementary schools for younger children.
observational learning: Learning by observing the
behaviour of others.
onlooker play: Watching others play but not
engaging in the play.
open-ended materials: Items that have more than
one designated purpose.
operant conditioning: A form of learning in which a
behaviour is followed by a stimulus that influences
whether the behaviour will be repeated.
organizational climate: Collective perception of
staff about the work environment.
parent co-operative: Early childhood education
programs that include parent participants in the
program and in the management and administration
of the program.
pedagogical documentation: Interpretation and
analysis of documented records of children’s
learning that influences planning for the learning
environment and learning experiences.
pedagogy: Principles and practices related to an
understanding of how learning happens in an early
childhood education program.
perceptual–motor: Coordination of sensory and
motor skills such as eye–hand coordination.
phonemes: Smallest distinct sounds in a language.
phonemic awareness: Ability to hear and identify phonemes, the smallest unit of distinct sound in speech.
phonological awareness: Ability to hear and manipulate the sounds of words, including rhymes and
syllables and phoneme awareness.
physical: Abilities to use and control large and small
body movements.
physical literacy: Developing, using and understanding fundamental movement skills.
physically active play: Physical activity with regular
bursts of moderate to vigorous movement.
portfolio: A collection of pedagogical documentation of an individual over time.
positive guidance: Variety of strategies including
understanding, nudging, encouraging, supporting,
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problem solving and goal setting used to guide
children’s behaviours rather than punishing or
rewarding strategies.
post-foundation theory: Challenges traditional systems of knowledge and encourages a critical consideration of taken-for-granted assumptions about
power, equality, equity and fairness.
prekindergarten/junior kindergarten: ECE programs
for four-year-old and sometimes three-year-old children before entry to five-year-old kindergarten.
pretend play: Make-believe play where children act
as if something or someone is real.
print awareness: Children’s understanding
that print carries meaning and that books contain
letters and words.
print motivation: Children’s interest and enjoyment
of books and reading and recognition of symbols
that carry meaning.
process quality: Interactions between educators and
children, among children, and between educators
and children’s families during everyday experiences
and routines.
professional: Practitioner who has met the standards of knowledge and performance required by
a profession.
professional identity: How one perceives oneself
within an occupation and how that is communicated.
provocation: Deliberate decisions to provide unique
materials. Objects or environments with learning
potential that challenge or intrigue children to
engage and explore.
psychoanalytic theory: A personality theory that
proposes an individual is motivated by three
levels of awareness: conscious, preconscious
and unconscious.
psychosexual: Relationship of psychological and
sexual events and feelings.
psychosocial: Interrelationship of social and psychological factors.
rating scale: A measure of quality based on observation of specific items that are scored a number
value indicating poor to excellent.
reconciliation: Recognizing the impact of colonization for Indigenous peoples and Indigenous ways of
knowing and establishing and maintaining a mutually respectful relationship between Indigenous and
non-Indigenous peoples.
GLOSSARY
1/18/21 6:18 AM
reflective practice: Consideration of actions in context of beliefs, values and knowledge.
Reggio Emilia: A curriculum approach in an Italian
town by the same name that is child centred and
focused on children’s exploration and inquiry.
regulated home child care: Arrangements for child
care in small groups (often fewer than six children), usually in the caregiver’s home and either
directly licensed or regulated or approved through
an agency.
responsive relationship: Ongoing connections built
on interactions between and among children, educators and families.
risky play: Situations in which children recognize
and assess an exciting physical challenge and decide
on a course of action to manage the challenge to
avoid injury.
rote learning: The memorization of information
through repetition.
rough-and-tumble play: Physically vigorous
behaviours such as play fighting, wrestling and
chasing games that are accompanied by positive behaviours.
running record: Detailed observation record
written over a specific period of time while a
behaviour is happening.
scaffolding: A process that enables a child or
adult to solve a problem, complete a task or
achieve a goal that is just beyond their skills
and abilities.
schema: Activity pattern that children repeat in
their play.
schoolification: Process of focusing on academic
subjects, particularly literacy and numeracy, to prepare children for entry to public education.
self-care: Actions that an individual takes to
improve their health and well-being.
self-regulation: Capacity to monitor, modify and
adapt behaviour, emotions and attention.
social: Relating to other people.
social competence: Social, emotional and thinking
skills children need to relate to, and to get along
with, others.
social construct: An idea that is originated and
accepted by people.
social learning: Learning behaviours and skills by
watching and imitating others.
social-emotional competence: Ability to regulate
one’s own emotions, behaviour and attention; to
interact and get along with others, solve problems
and communicate effectively.
social-emotional learning (SEL): Social and emotional abilities that support learning and well-being.
socio-dramatic play: Pretend play that is shared
with others.
spatial awareness: Includes knowing about shapes,
positions, directions and movements.
spiritual: A sense of awe, wonder, being
and knowing.
standards of practice: Outline expectations for key
areas of practice in a profession.
structural quality: Factors such as adult–child ratios,
group size and staff education that can be regulated.
summative assessment: Evaluation of specific
learning skills or knowledge.
teachable moments: Opportunities for teaching
that often arise spontaneously during children’s
play or daily routines.
theory of mind: Understanding that others have
beliefs, desires and intentions that are different than
one’s own.
time sample: Observation record that notes an
individual child or group of children’s behaviour at
predetermined times.
trauma-informed practice: Understanding, recognizing and responding to the impact of trauma.
unionization: To organize employees of an organization into a labour union that is recognized to
negotiate working conditions with the employer on
behalf of the employees.
universal design: Organization of physical environment including space and things to be usable by
everyone without further adaptation.
Western understanding: Beliefs, values, customs
and traditions that have their origins in European
civilizations, dating back to ancient Greek and
Roman civilizations.
working conditions: Physical work environment,
compensation (salary and benefits), hours of work,
career and professional learning opportunities, and
supervision approach.
zone of proximal development: Difference between
what an individual can do on their own and what
they can do with guidance.
GLOSSARY
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Index
A
C
Abecedarian approach, 92, 94, 105
Abecedarian research study, 36
Aboriginal Head Start (AHS), 231
Aboriginal Head Start On-Reserve (ANSON), 231
Aboriginal Head Start Urban and Northern Communities
(AHSUNC), 231
Accommodation, definition of, 32
Active Healthy Kids Canada, 56
Adult-child ratio, definition of, 206
Aesthetics, definition of, 141
Aistear, 123
Alberta, early learning frameworks in, 110, 118
Alberta Education Kindergarten Program Statement, 118
Alden, Christine, 50–51
Alphabetic principle, 167
Anecdotes, 185
Arousal/recovery continuum, 39
Assessment, intentional teaching, 195–197
Assessment for Quality Improvement (AQI), 213–214
Assimilation, 32
Association of Early Childhood Educators Ontario
(AECEO), 269
At risk, 36
Australia, early learning frameworks in, 122–123
Autonomy, 7
Campaigns, for ECE, 269
Canada
child study movement in, 28–30
early learning frameworks in, 109–121
ECE programs in, 222–231
ECE public policies in, 240–242
families, 255
outdoor play, 77
Canada Assistance Plan, 44
Canada-Québec Asymmetrical Agreement, 240
Canadian Association for Young Children (CAYC), 255
Canadian Child Care Federation (CCCF), 249, 255
Canadian ECE programs, 74
Canadian Paediatric Society, 171, 172
Capable, Competent and Curious: Nova Scotia’s Early
Learning Curriculum Framework, 110, 112–114
Career pathways, ECE, 259–261
Caregivers, ECE, 142–143
Caregiving, 94
Chicago Child–Parent Centers, 14
Chicago Longitudinal Study, 150–151
Child agency, 82
Child and family centres, 232–236
Child care
integrating early education and, 237–239
regulated, in Canada, 225–226
working mothers and, 45
Child Care Advocacy Association of Canada, 255
Child care centres, 224–226, 259, 268
history of, in Canada, 41–46
Child Care Now, 255
Childcare Resource and Research Unit, 255
Child care space regulations, 141
Child-centred programs, 10, 96
Childhood trauma, 102
Children
belonging to, 10–11
communication, 7
educators and, 142–143
environment and experiences of, 9–10
and family centres, 260
future citizens, 7
interaction with others, 6, 13–14
learning challenges, 7
number of, 207
B
Baby boom, 44
Bandura, Albert, 32
B.C. Early Learning Framework. See British Columbia Early
Learning Framework
Before- and after-school programs, 4, 139,
230–231, 260
Behaviourism, 28
Behaviours, targeted, 185
Belong, Being and Becoming Early Learning Framework,
122–123
“Best” curriculum approach, 99–100
Blatz, William, 29–30
British Columbia, early learning framework in, 110,
118–119, 121, 189
British Columbia Early Learning Framework,
110, 118–119
Bronfenbrenner, Urie, 37, 38, 96
Built play environments, 82–83
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Children (continued)
perspectives of, 185–186
quality views on, 203–204, 214
sense of self in, 6
voices of, 124
Children’s Rights, 267
Child study movement, in Canada, 28–30
Classical conditioning, 28
CMEC Early Learning and Development Framework,
119–120
Co-construct, definition of, 12, 13
Co-constructed pedagogical documentation, 189
Code of ethics, 248
Cognitive domain, 8
Cognitive flexibility, 40
Cognitive sensitivity, 145
Cognitive stages, of play, 54
Coherent administrative framework, 261
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning
(CASEL), 102
Collaborative play, 64
College of Early Childhood Educators (CECE), 253–254
Colonization, 19
Communities of practice, 215
Community Action Program for Children (CAP-C), 236
Community early child development centres, 239
Compensation, 262–263
Compensatory preschool programs, 33–36
in Canada, 36–37
Constructive play learning pathways, 158, 159–160
Contemporary early childhood pedagogy, 62
Continuity of learning, 67–68
Continuous professional learning (CPL), 252
Continuous quality improvement, 215
Corter, Carl, 69
Creative arts learning pathways, 160–162
Creative-constructive play, 60–61
Crèches, 41–43
Critical friends, 199
Cultural competence, 18–19
Culture, 4, 5
Curriculum approaches, 21, 90–92
Abecedarian approach, 94
best curriculum approach, 99–100
developmentally appropriate practice (DAP),
95–96
emergent curriculum, 97–99
HighScope, 94–95
Indigenous curriculum approaches, 103–105
Montessori education, 93
Reggio Emilia approach, 96–97
self-regulation, 101–103
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Curriculum areas, 155–179
creative arts, 160–162
dramatic and constructive play, 158–160
language and literacy, 162–168
physically active play, 157–158
social-emotional learning (SEL), 155–157
STEM learning, 168–179
Custodial care, 42
D
Daily schedules, ECE programs, 134–138
Dance and movement, 161–162
Data management, 177
Day care centres, on university campuses, 45
Day Care Parents Association, 44
Day nurseries, 43–44
Day Nurseries Act, 44
Design thinking learning pathways, 174–176
Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP), 92, 95–96
Dewey, John, 27, 96
Digital technology, 168, 171–173, 187
Dingle, Della, 29
Direct instruction, 65, 67
Disability, 17–18
Dockendorf, Maureen, 2
Documentation
intentional teaching, 183, 186
pedagogical, 188–190
photographs and videos for, 186–187
sharing, 190–191
Documentation panel, 190
Doherty, Gillian, 204
Dominion-Provincial Wartime Day Nurseries Agreement, 43
Dotsch, Daisy, 30
Dramatic play learning pathways, 158–159
E
Early childhood education (ECE), 3–7
advocating for, 266–270
in Canada, 24–46
outside Canada, 242–244
curriculum approach, 90–106
kindergarten in Norway, 243–244
mid–20th century theories and, 30–37
organizations, 254–258
outdoor play, 73–87
play-based learning, 52–70
practices of, 11–21
principles of, 8–11
professional learning, 252–253
programs and policies, 222–244
INDEX
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public policies in Canada, 240–242
qualifications, 251
quality perspectives of, 201, 203–204
special education needs, 17
unions in, 263–264
work environment, 258–266
Early childhood education programs, 4, 18, 268
in Canada, 222–231
in an Indigenous community, 120
organizational climate of, 261–262
people in, 142–151
policy trends, 241–242
process quality in, 208–209
quality in, 201–215
space, 139–142
time, 133–139
Early Childhood Education Report, 241
Early childhood educator(s), 3, 13–15, 33, 40, 52, 56,
62, 66
childhood trauma, 103
and children, 142–143
dialogue of, 215
ECE professional environment, 247–258
ECE work environment, 258–266
and family interactions, 148–150
intervention services, 260
meal times, 137
pedagogical approaches, 100
planning learning experiences, 165
quality views, 203
support, 84–85
well-being strategies for, 264–265
working conditions for, 261–264
Early Childhood Educators of British Columbia (ECEBC), 248
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS),
210–211
Early education, integrating with child care, 237–239
Early intervention (EI) services, 236–237
Early Learning and Child Care Bilateral Agreements, 240
Early learning curriculum frameworks, 74
Early Learning for Every Child Today, 110, 116, 121
Early learning frameworks, 108–109
in Australia, 122–123
in Canada, 109–121
impact of, 126
in Ireland, 123
shared focus, 124–126
in New Zealand, 121–122
Early learning standards, 196
Early Learning Framework: Relationships, Environments,
Experiences, 110, 113–114
Early literacy learning pathways, 162, 167–168
Early Returns: Manitoba’s Early Learning and Child Care
Curriculum Framework for Preschools and Nursery Schools,
111, 116–117
Early Returns: Manitoba’s Early Learning and Child Care
Curriculum Framework for Infant Programs, 111, 116–117
Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF), 122
Early Years Study, 52, 69, 125, 241, 267
ECEBC Code of Ethics, 248
ECE Program Quality Rating Scales, 211–212
Ecological approach, 232
Ecological theory of human development, 38
Educational qualifications, importance of, in
program quality, 206
Effective leadership practice, 262
Elements of life, definition of, 80
Emergent curriculum, 97–99
Emergent literacy learning pathways, 162, 164–167
Emergent numeracy, 176
Emotional climate, 143
Emotional domain, 8
Engineering, 174–176
English language learners, 6
“Environment as teacher” approach, 96
Environment Rating Scales Institute (ERSI), 211
Equilibrium, 32
Equity gap, 269
Equivalency, 251–252
Erikson, Erik, 31
theory of psychosocial development, 37
Ethical practice, 248–249
Event sample, 185
Executive function, 40, 102
Explicit direct instruction, 65
Exploration and discovery learning pathways, 169
Exploratory play, 57
F
Facilitators, 215
Family engagement, 14
Family literacy, 233
Family support programs, 232
Federal funding, 240
Federal/provincial/territorial child care agreements, 110
First Peoples Principles of Learning, 119
Fixed mindset, definition of, 101
Flight-Alberta’s Early Learning and Care Framework, 111, 118
Formative assessment, 123
For-profit organizations, 226
Four directions teaching, 80
Free play, 63
Freud, Sigmund, 27–28, 31
Friendly critics, 199
INDEX
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Froebel, Friedrich, 25–27
Full-day kindergarten (FDK), 229, 260
Full-day programs, 224
G
Gardening, 78–79
Geometry, 177
Growth mindset, 101
Guided-learning experiences, 135
Guided participation, 38
Habits of mind, definition of, 39
Head Start programs, 35, 36
High-quality child care, 205
HighScope, 35, 92, 94–95, 99
Holistic development, 4, 8–9
Home child care, regulated, 4, 227–230
Home language, 163
How Does Learning Happen, 110, 116
I
Image of the child, 3–5
Inclusion, 17–18
Inclusive spaces, 141–142
Indigenizing outdoor play, 79
Indigenizing practices, 104
Indigenous beliefs, 3
Indigenous communities, 105
ECE program in, 120
Indigenous curriculum approaches, 103–105
Indigenous languages, 104
Indigenous peoples, 20
Indigenous views, of early childhood, 25
Information processing theory, 37
Inquiry play, 64
Integrating early education, 237–239
Intentional teaching, 21, 182–183
assessment, 195–197
documentation, 186–193
observation, 183–186
planning, 193–195
reflective practice, 197–199
International and Canadian research, 261
Inuit children, 104
Invitation, definition of, 144
Ireland, early learning frameworks in, 123
J
Jones, Elizabeth, 97
Junior kindergarten, 4, 259–260
16091_em_indx_hr_303-312.indd 306
Kass, Jamie, 219–221
Key developmental indicators (KDIs), 95
Kindergarten, 4
curriculum, 74
in Norway, 243–244
programs, 227, 229–230
in public schools, 259–260
Knowledge-keepers, 20
L
H
306
K
Laissez-faire approaches, 100
Land acknowledgement, 20–21
Language
domain, 8
and literacy, 162–168
nests, 104–105
Large group times, ECE programs, 135
Lawson Foundation, 75–76
Leadership, effective, 261–262
Learning
assessment, 195–196
dispositions, 39
in natural settings, 77–79
Learning experiences, 153
curriculum areas, 155–179
learning pathways, 153–155
small-group play-based, 134–135
Learning games, 65–67
Learning pathways, 153–155
and emotional maturity, 156
social competence, 156
Learning stories, 122
Learning through Observation and Pitching In (LOPI), 55
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender/transsexual and queer
(LGBTQ), 15–16
Letter knowledge, 167
Linguistically appropriate practice (LAP), 163
Literacy, language and, 162–168
Locke, John, 25
Loose parts, 83–84
Loud noises, 103
M
Malaguzzi, Loris, 96
Manitoba, early learning frameworks in, 110, 116–117
Mathematics learning pathways, 176–179
McLean, Christine, 130–132
McMillan, Margaret, 80
Mealtimes, ECE programs, 137
INDEX
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Meeting Early Childhood Needs: Quebec’s Educational
Program for Childcare Services Update, 110, 115
Mid–20th century theories, and early childhood education,
30–37
Mindfulness, 101
Mixed-age groupings, 148
Moncton Headstart Inc., 36
Montessori, Maria, 93
Montessori education, 93, 99
Multilateral Early Learning and Child Care Framework, 240
Multiple perspectives, on quality, 204
Multi-sector ecosystem lens, 76
Music, 161
My Time, Our Place: Framework for School Age Care in
Australia, 123
N
National Advisory Committee on Recess, 139
Natural environments, 84
Nature Kindergarten program, 78
Navigating the Early Years: An Early Learning Curriculum
Framework, 110, 111–112
New Brunswick, early learning frameworks in, 110, 114–115
New Brunswick Curriculum Framework for Early Learning
and Child Care, 110, 114–115
Newfoundland and Labrador, early learning frameworks in,
110, 111-112
Not-for-profit organizations, 226
Northwest Territories, early learning frameworks in, 111
Nova Scotia, early learning frameworks in, 110, 114–115
Nursery Education Association of Ontario, 30
Nursery schools, 4, 226–227
Nurturing Capable People from Birth to School Entry, 110
“Nurturing pedagogy” (Ireland), 125
O
Observation, intentional teaching, 183–186
Observational learning, 55
Observation records, 184–185
Onlooker play, 55
Ontario Early Childhood Sector Decent
Work Charter, 269
Ontario, early learning frameworks in, 110, 116
Open-ended materials, 208
Operant conditioning, 28
Oral language learning pathways, 162–164
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD), 237, 241, 242
Organizational climate, 261
Organized sports, 57
Outdoor play, 73
Canada, 77
focus on, 73–80
Lawson Foundation and, 75–76
pedagogy of, 80–85
risky play, 85–87
and thinking skills, 73–74
Owen, Robert, 41
P
Parental employment, ECE programs as support for, 268
Parent co-operative, 30
Parents, quality views on, 203
Parten, Mildred, 53–54
Pathways, for children, 141
Pavlov, Ivan, 28
Pedagogical documentation, 188–189, 191
Pedagogical leadership, 262
Pedagogical strategies, 91–92
for educators, 143–146
Pedagogy, 21
of outdoor play, 80–85
Perceptual–motor integration, 56
Perry Preschool Project, 35, 36
Phonemes, 167
Phonemic awareness, 167
Phonological awareness, 167
Physical domain, 8
Physical environment, 207–208
Physical literacy, 56
Physically active play learning pathways, 56–57, 157–158
Physical well-being strategies, 265
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, 32–33, 37, 96
Planning, intentional teaching, 193–195
Play
and childhood, 67–70
creative-constructive play, 60–61
exploratory play, 57
games with rules, 61–62
matters, 52–53
onlooker play, 55
physically active play, 56–57
pretend play, 58–60
stages of, 53–54
types of, 53–62
Play and Exploration: Early Learning Program Guide, 111, 117
Play-based learning
curriculum approaches on, 99
play–learn continuum, 62–67
Playful learning, 64–65
INDEX
16091_em_indx_hr_303-312.indd 307
307
1/18/21 10:42 PM
Play–learn continuum, 62–63
collaborative play, 64
free play, 63
inquiry play, 64
learning games, 65–67
playful learning, 64–65
Play-rich environments, 82–84
Play zones, for children, 141
Portfolio, 190
Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play, 75, 76
Positive guidance, 144
Post-foundation theory, 40
Post-secondary ECE programs, 126
Practical knowledge, 206
Prekindergarten, 4, 227, 229–230, 259–260
Preschool children, 57, 59, 214, 227
Preschool programs, 91
Preschools, 4, 226–227, 259
Pretend play, 58–60, 70, 177
Primary schools, 68
Prince Edward Island, early learning frameworks in,
110, 113
Print awareness, 167
Print motivation, 167
Problem-based learning (PBL), 68–69
Problem solving learning pathways, 174–176
Process quality, in ECE programs, 205
Professional, 247
Professional identity, 21
Professionalism, 248
Professional learning, 252
Professional practice, 248–249
Professional requirements, 251–252
Progressive education, 27
Provincial/territorial professional organizations, 253
Provocations, 144, 194
Psycho-analytic theory, 27–28
Psychosexual development, 27
Psychosocial theory, 31
Public child care centres, 226
Public Health Agency of Canada, 236
Q
Quality early childhood education, 208
Quality matters, ECE programs
components of, 205–209
evaluation of, 209–215
perspectives of, 201–204
Quebec, early learning frameworks in, 110, 115
Quebec Education Program: Preschool Education, 115
308
16091_em_indx_hr_303-312.indd 308
R
Racism, 19
Rating scales, 210–212
Recess Project (Ryerson University), 139
Recognition, and self-governance, 253
Reconciliation, 19–21, 25
Recordkeeping vs. pedagogical documentation, 190
Recreation, 57
Reflective practice, intentional teaching, 197–199
Reggio Emilia approach, 92, 96–97, 99
Regulated child care, in Canada, 225–226
Regulated home child care, 4, 227–230
Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth, 56
Responsive educators, 143, 209
Responsiveness, 209
Responsive relationships, 12–16
Rest time, ECE programs, 138
Risky play, 85–87
Rote-learning, 93
Rough-and-tumble play, 86
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 25
Routines, ECE programs, 136
Rule-based games, 61–62
Running records, 185
S
Saskatchewan, early learning frameworks in, 110, 117
Scaffolding, 38
Schema, 32
School-age children, 57, 143, 204
Schoolification, 100
Science learning pathways, 170–171
Scientific reasoning, 57
Scotland, ECE outdoor play in, 81
Self-care, 265–266
Self-control, 40
Self-governance, recognition and, 253
Self-regulation, 38–40, 101–103
play and, 69–70
Sesame Street, 34–35
Sharing documentation, 190
Skilled management and leadership, 261
Skinner, B.F., 28
Small-group play-based learning experiences, 134–135
Smilansky, Sara, 53–54
Social benefits, 268–269
Social competence, 6
Social construct, 4, 5
Social context, 92
Social domain, 8
INDEX
1/18/21 6:14 AM
Social-emotional competence, 102
Social-emotional learning (SEL), 102, 155–157
Social-emotional well-being strategies, 265
Social learning theory, 32
Socio-cultural theory, 37–38
Socio-dramatic play learning pathways, 70, 158
Spatial awareness, 177
Spiritual domain, 8
Standardized direct assessments, 196
Standards of practice, 248
Starting Strong studies (OECD), 74, 109
STEM learning, 53, 168–179
Strategy games, 62
StrongStart BC, 235–236
Structural quality, in ECE programs, 205–208
Structured games, 61
Structured observations, 185
Suffrage movement, 43
Summative assessment, 196
T
Tabula rasa view of childhood (Locke), 25
Targeted behaviours, 185
Teachable moments, 194
Teacher–ECE remuneration, by provinces and
territories, 263
Technology learning pathways, 171–176
Te Whāriki, 121–122
Theoretical knowledge, 206
Theories of development, Freud vs. Erikson, 31–32
Theory of mind, 60
“Third space of childhood,” 138–139, 232
Time sample, 185
Toddlers, 6, 33, 57, 143
Toileting, ECE programs, 138
Toronto First Duty (TFD), 237–239
Transitions, ECE programs, 136
Trauma-informed practice, 102–103
Typical learning pathways, 154
U
Unionization, 263
Unions, in ECE, 263
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 7, 123
Universal design, definition of, 141
University of Western Ontario Preschool Project, 36–37
V
Visual arts, 160–161
Vygotsky, Lev, 37–38, 96
W
Watson, John B., 28
Well-being strategies, for educators,
264–265
Western understandings, 24
Willows Forest Nature Program, 80
Working conditions, 261
Working memory, 40
Working mothers, 45
Y
Young children, 5, 7, 14, 93, 103, 104, 172, 177
Z
Zone of proximal development (ZPD), 38, 154
INDEX
16091_em_indx_hr_303-312.indd 309
309
1/18/21 6:14 AM
16091_em_indx_hr_303-312.indd 310
1/18/21 6:14 AM
16091_em_indx_hr_303-312.indd 311
1/18/21 6:14 AM
16091_em_indx_hr_303-312.indd 312
1/18/21 6:14 AM