A complicated interplay of historical, ethnic and political forces has shaped
Muslim identity and practice in the United States. The early history of Islam in the U.S.
and the challenges presented by the post 9/11, "War on Terror" have deeply shaped
how Muslims in America practice their faith and identify themselves while they interact
with the broader society. The variety within the American Muslim community
complicates these dynamics as African American Muslims and immigrants from
Muslim-majority countries have different experiences, including their descendants. In
this essay I will examine how the American context shapes Muslim identity and practice
for African American Muslims and immigrant Muslims differently, and how it draws
attention to the effect of these distinctions. It will analyze the effect of the post-9/11
climate and relate it to the "War on Terror," and it will critique the broader social and
political forces that have influenced Muslim identity in America.
Islam’s history in the United States was started by enslaved Africans who brought
their faith. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, organized Muslim communities in
the U.S. began to emerge as immigrant populations from the Middle East and South
Asia and Eastern Europe arrived. African American Muslims converted to Islam during
the early 20th century through movements like the Nation of Islam and they added
another layer to the development of American Muslim identity. “The rise of the NOI’s
profile as the most popular African American Muslim movement in the United States
coincided with the increased presence and impact of foreign and immigrant Muslim
missionaries.” (p.55, Curtis IV)” The NOI led by figures like Elijah Muhammad and
Malcolm X presented a different vision of Islam that was closely connected to the
African American fight for civil rights and social justice. The groundwork for the variety
of Muslim practice and identity in the U.S. was laid by these early movements and it
was built upon later.
How has the American context influenced the development of Muslim identity
and religious practices for both African American Muslims and immigrants from
Muslim-majority countries and what creates key differences and similarities in their
experiences? The experience of racial discrimination in the American context has
strongly affected the shaping of religious practices and identity by African American
Muslims. “As a result of the increased immigrant and foreign Muslim presence in the
United States, many more African American Muslims began to use canonical Islamic
texts, including the Qur’an and , in some cases, the hadith to articulate ethical,
theological, political, and socioeconomic visions for themselves and other U.S. blacks.”
(p. 50, Curtis IV) Islam often acted as a vehicle for racial empowerment and resistance
to systemic oppression for African Americans because it provided them with a strong
community and a means to stand up against injustice. Muslim immigrants from
majority-Muslim countries brought special ethnic and religious practices that reflected
the traditions of their homelands when they began arriving in vast numbers after the
1965 Immigration and Nationality Act. For these groups, the process of Americanization
was often marked by maintaining ties to their ethnic and national identities and by
navigating the realities of life in the U.S.
An important divide that exists within the American Muslim community is the
difference between African American Muslims and Muslim immigrants along with their
descendants. African American Muslims often embrace Islam as a response to the
historical and continuing realities of racism and they have an one-of-a-kind relationship
with the faith that is both religious and political. “But African Americans were attracted to
Islam in that decade not only for political reasons but for religious reasons as well.”
(Curtis, p.33) The desire for social and economic empowerment in a context of systemic
discrimination has influenced the Black Power movement and the Nation of Islam in the
African American community, and these movements have been historically linked with
efforts for racial justice. “The Nation of Islam appealed to African Americans on many
levels simultaneously. It was, at once, a political, a social, and a religious organization.”
(Curtis, p.38) The conversion to Islam by many African Americans was seen as part of a
broader search for ethnic identity and self-determination and it was connected to the
legacy of colonialism and slavery imposed by European settlers. In contrast, immigrant
Muslims have often been able to rely on established transnational networks, including
religious institutions and cultural practices from their countries of origin, to create strong,
close-knit communities in the U.S. “Immigrant American Muslims established religious
networks, often along ethnic lines, that were national in scope.” (Curtis, 56) These
communities, however, often face challenges related to assimilation and integration into
American society. Immigrant Muslims may struggle to reconcile the religious and cultural
practices of their home countries with the realities of life in the U.S. This experience can
sometimes lead to tensions with the broader American public, which might view Muslim
religious practices and cultural norms as foreign or incompatible with American values.
Although a common faith is shared by both African American Muslims and
Muslim immigrants, their experiences in the U.S. are shaped by special historical and
ethnic contexts. Social justice movements that intersect with issues of race and class
are often engaged in by African American Muslims while more emphasis on community
building and education and professional improvement may be placed by immigrant
Muslims. Shared experiences are found among both African American Muslims and
immigrant Muslims in spite of the differences, and these experiences are particularly
clear in the interactions with the broader American public. Both groups confront
prejudice and stereotypes and misconceptions about Islam, especially after September
11, 2001. Many see Islam as a foreign and radical religion which makes it hard for both
groups to express their identity freely and safely.
The turning point for many Muslims in the United States was marked by the
attacks of September 11, 2001. The “War on Terror” changed how the general public
viewed Muslims. It also shifted perspectives among law enforcement agencies,
policymakers and the media. Extremism, terrorism, and violence increasingly connected
with Islam. Many Muslims faced suspicion and hostility, so this shift in public view
deeply affected them. “Hate crimes included violent assaults against Muslims, attacks
against places of worship, and personal harassment.” (Curtis, p.100) Many Muslims
from immigrant communities faced increased surveillance and racial profiling, while
some experienced rising Islamophobia after 9/11. “some Americans had physically or
verbally assaulted Muslims and those who “looked like Muslims” as a reaction to events
overseas.” (Curtis, p.99) New policies, such as the USA PATRIOT Act, enabled the
government to conduct more surveillance on many Muslim communities, while at many
airports, countless people with Arab, South Asian, or Muslim-sounding names faced
racial profiling, and harassment. “The U.S. administration contributed to Muslim Americans’ negative attitudes about the war on terrorism through its mistaken prosecutions of
Muslim Americans as terrorists.” (Curtis, p.102) Immigrant communities felt this
suspicion deeply and people often had to prove their loyalty to the country. Everyday life
was made a fraught experience by the dual stigma of race and religion for Muslim
Americans of color. Many African American Muslims faced special challenges, and a
larger group encountered hardships too. Throughout history, the criminalization of
African American communities has been faced by many and since post-9/11, a web of
both racial and religious profiling has been encountered by many African American
Muslims. The special identity of Black Muslims often faced erasure or misunderstanding
because many people assumed that "Muslim" simply referred to "Arab" or "foreign,"
which clashed with the realities of African American Islam. Many African American
Muslims encountered difficulties, as others assumed more loyalty to their ethnic
backgrounds than to their faith.
Both groups felt a shared sense of vulnerability because of 9/11, and it affected
them deeply. In the years after the attacks, American Muslims felt a sharper sense of
alienation. Common Islamophobia was observed in political rhetoric, news media, and
social discourse, with threats to national security, ethnic cohesion and American values
often represented by the media as being constituted by Muslims. “Uncovering,
contesting and repackaging Muslim identity around issues such as violence and
terrorism, gender and ethnicity, the tensions between Islam and modernity or Islam and
"the West.”, acquired a sense of urgency.” (Turner, p.48) American Muslims felt a new
sense of solidarity through shared suspicion and marginalization, seeing themselves as
part of the global Muslim ummah and the American mosaic.
Following 9/11, many Muslims in the U.S. greatly changed how they practiced
Islam and this also shifted their views of their roles in American society. For many
people, the urgent need to assert their religious identity grew and many felt compelled
to actively contribute to meaningful interfaith dialogue. Many Muslim Americans actively
spoke out to defend their rights, many groups worked together to advocate for social
justice and countless people sought to debunk the stereotypes surrounding their faith.
Many advocacy organizations, including the Council on American-Islamic Relations
(CAIR), actively pushed back against Islamophobia, while many mosques and
community centers became important spaces where people engaged in dialogue,
education and activism. “Battling anti- Muslim prejudice in the United States, CAIR
documented cases of hate crimes against Muslims in the United States, studied the
impact of immigration and other laws on Muslims in the United States, and publicized
instances of anti-Muslim bias in the news, film and TV, and other mass media.” (Curtis,
94) In the post-9/11 period, a renewed focus on social justice was experienced by
African American Muslims, with an added emphasis placed on the intersection of race
and religion. Imam Siraj Wahhaj and the Muslim Alliance in North America (MANA)
actively drew attention to the special history and important contributions of African
American Muslims, which reminded both Muslim Americans and non-Muslim Americans
of the important role that Black Muslims have played in shaping the larger Muslim
community.
In the post 9/11 era, Immigrant Muslims increased their efforts to integrate into
the larger American religious and political landscape. “The fact that Muslims were
associated with the politics of protest against white supremacy was a source of Islam’s
popularity among blacks, as was Islam’s association with economic self-determination.” (Curtis, p.43) Many Muslim organizations seek to engage in civic matters. They
focus on voting and representation. They want to make sure their voices are heard in
politics. Younger Muslims face tensions with older generations of immigrants. They
navigate their identity in a post-9/11 world. This world often views them with suspicion.
Meanwhile many older immigrants focus on preserving ethnic practices and religious
traditions.
In the U.S., the way people understand Muslim identity changes continuously
because it is influenced by different histories, varied experiences and special
perspectives that people from this community bring with them. In America, while both
groups have contributed to a wealthy and evolving comprehension of Islam, the
experience of African American Muslims is markedly different from that of immigrant
Muslims. Increased surveillance, racial profiling and a growing Islamophobic climate
have complicated these identities further, as Muslims navigate the challenges in the
post-9/11 context. In spite of these challenges, resilience is shown by the American
Muslim community. In the U.S., Muslims assert their faith and contribute to society while
finding new ways to promote solidarity among varied groups, and they navigate the
complications of their racial, and religious identities in a changing world. The American
Muslim experience includes hardships, and hopes, as it draws from a wealthy history of
faith, and resilience while navigating what it means to be Muslim in America. “The
religious awakening of the late twentieth century inspired the hope that the Muslim
community in the United States would become a beacon for the rest of the Islamic
world, modeling what Islam could be if lived with verve and commitment.” (Curtis, p.69)
Bibliography:
Curtis, Edward E. Islamism and Its African American Muslim Critics: Black Muslims In
The Era Of The Arab Cold War. Black Routes To Islam, 2009.
Curtis, Edward E. A Short History: Muslims in America. Oxford University Press, 2009.
Mumtaz, Ahmad. Muslims and the Contestations of Religio-Political Space in America,
Pluto Journals, 2009.