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UNIT I Research Design
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND IPR
UNIT I RESEARCH DESIGN
Overview of research process and design, Use of Secondary and exploratory data to
answer the research question, Qualitative research, Observation studies, Experiments and
Surveys.
1.1 Overview of research process and design
Definition of Research
Research refers to a search for knowledge.
It is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
Research refers to the systematic method of enunciating (clearly stating) the problem,
formulating a hypothesis (proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence),
collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the
form of solutions(s) towards the problem or generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
Research Methodology
Enunciating the problem
Formulating a hypothesis
Collecting the facts or
data Analyzing the facts
Reaching conclusion
Solutions(s) towards the problem
Formulation
Generalizations for some theoretical
Motivations in Research
The factors that motivate people to undertake research are
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
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4. Desire to be of service to society
5. Desire to earn respect
6. Desire to get better employment
7. Curiosity about new things
Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry
out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
The various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor they
are separate and distinct.
They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order.
However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural
guideline regarding the research process:
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Development of working hypotheses
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis-testing
10. Generalizations and interpretation
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis
1. Formulating the research problem:
The researcher must firstly decide the general area of interest.
Formulating the research problem involves understanding the problem thoroughly and
stating the same in meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities
relating to the problem can be resolved.
Then, the feasibility of a particular solution is considered before the formulation of the
problem is set up.
2. Extensive literature survey:
Once the problem is formulated the researcher should undertake extensive literature
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survey connected with the problem.
For this purpose, academic journals, conference proceedings, books, government reports,
published or unpublished bibliographies etc.. are to be referred.
The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied.
3. Development of working hypotheses:
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state the working hypothesis or
hypotheses.
Working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to test its logical or empirical
consequences.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it
has to be tested.
Developing a working hypotheses:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem.
(b) Examination of data and records concerning the problem.
(c) Review of similar studies in the area.
(d) Investigation involving original field interviews with interested parties .
Some problems do not need working hypotheses, specially in the case of exploratory or
formulative researches the hypothesis.
4. Preparing the research design:
The function of research design is to provide relevant evidence with minimal expenditure
and effort.
The preparation of the research design involves:
(i) the means of obtaining the information
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any)
(iii) Organization of information
(iv) time available for research
(v) finance available for the research.
5. Determining sample design:
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for
obtaining a sample from a given population.
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Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample
design.
The important sample designs are as follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling:
It is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling.
It involves deliberate selection of particular units from the population.
(ii) Simple random sampling:
It is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in
the population has an equal probability of inclusion.
(iii) Systematic sampling: Sometimes it is practical to pick every nth element on a list.
Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population is non-homogeneous, then stratified sampling
technique is applied. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of
nonoverlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum.
(v) Quota sampling:
Quota samples are non-probability samples which are generally judgement samples rather
than random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the
population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for
inclusion in the sample.
Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping
areas, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected and all units in these
small areas are included in the sample.
(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably
large geographical area like an entire country.
In this, the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states, then
districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns.
(viii) Sequential sampling: The size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is
determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as
survey progresses.
6. Collecting the data:
Primary data can be collected through experiment or through
survey. In an experiment, the researcher records some
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observations.
In the case of a survey, data can be collected by observation, personal interview, telephone
interviews, mailing questionnaires or Through trained enumerators
7. Execution of the project:
The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time.
8.
Analysis of data:
The analysis of data involves coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
9. Hypothesis-testing:
After analysing the data, the researcher can test the formulated hypotheses earlier.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians
for the purpose.
Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
10.
Generalisations and interpretation:
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory.
11.
Preparation of the report or the thesis:
Report should be written in concise and simple language avoiding vague expressions such
as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) the preliminary pages;
(ii) the main text
(iii) the end matter.
The preliminary pages should carry title, acknowledgements, foreword, table of contents,
list of figures, list of tables, list of graphs and charts given in the report.
The main text of the report should have:
(a) Introduction: It should contain objectives of the research, scope of the study, limitations
and explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research.
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(b) Summary of findings
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections including background, methodology and
results.
(d) Conclusions
(e) Bibliography i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in
the end.
Research design definition
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a
researcher. The design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are suitable for
the subject matter and set up their studies up for success.
The design of a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey
research, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-type (experimental
design, research problem, descriptive case-study).
There are three main types of designs for research: Data collection, measurement, and
analysis.
The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design and
not vice-versa. The design phase of a study determines which tools to use and how they are
used.
An impactful research usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the
accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the least margin of error in experimental
research is generally considered the desired outcome. The essential elements are:
1. Accurate purpose statement
2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analysing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis
1.2 Use of Secondary and exploratory data to answer the research question
Exploratory research: Definition
Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is
not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing problem, but
will not provide conclusive results. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea
and uses this research as a medium to identify issues, that can be the focus for future
research. An important aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to change his/her
direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight. Such a research is usually carried
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out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is often referred to as grounded theory
approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why and how.
For example: Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that increasing the variety of
juices will enable increase in customers, however he is not sure and needs more information.
The owner intends to carry out an exploratory research to find out and hence decides to do an
exploratory research to find out if expanding their juices selection will enable him to get
more customers of if there is a better idea.
Another example of exploratory research is a podcast survey template that can be used to
collect feedback about the podcast consumption metrics both from existing listeners as well
as other podcast listeners that are currently not subscribed to this channel. This helps the
author of the podcast create curated content that will gain a larger audience.
Types and methodologies of Exploratory research
While it may sound a little difficult to research something that has very little
information about it, there are several methods which can help a researcher figure out the best
research design, data collection methods and choice of subjects. There are two ways in which
research can be conducted namely primary and secondary.. Under these two types, there are
multiple methods which can used by a researcher. The data gathered from these research can
be qualitative or quantitative. Some of the most widely used research designs include the
following:
Primary research methods
Primary research is information gathered directly from the subject. It can be through
a group of people or even an individual. Such a research can be carried out directly by the
researcher himself or can employ a third party to conduct it on their behalf. Primary research
is specifically carried out to explore a certain problem which requires an in-depth study.
Surveys/polls: Surveys/polls are used to gather information from a predefined group of
respondents. It is one of the most important quantitative method. Various types of
surveys or polls can be used to explore opinions, trends, etc. With the advancement in
technology, surveys can now be sent online and can be very easy to access. For instance, use
of a survey app through tablets, laptops or even mobile phones. This information is also
available to the researcher in real time as well. Nowadays, most organizations offer short
length surveys and rewards to respondents, in order to achieve higher response rates.
For example: A survey is sent to a given set of audience to understand their opinions about
the size of mobile phones when they purchase one. Based on such information organization
can dig deeper into the topic and make business related decision.
Interviews: While you may get a lot of information from public sources, but sometimes an in
person interview can give in-depth information on the subject being studied. Such a research
is a qualitative research method. An interview with a subject matter expert can give you
meaningful insights that a generalized public source won’t be able to provide. Interviews are
carried out in person or on telephone which have open-ended questions to get meaningful
information about the topic.
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For example: An interview with an employee can give you more insights to find out the
degree of job satisfaction, or an interview with a subject matter expert of quantum theory can
give you in-depth information on that topic.
Focus groups: Focus group is yet another widely used method in exploratory research. In
such a method a group of people is chosen and are allowed to express their insights on the
topic that is being studied. Although, it is important to make sure that while choosing the
individuals in a focus group they should have a common background and have comparable
experiences.
For example: A focus group helps a research identify the opinions of consumers if they were
to buy a phone. Such a research can help the researcher understand what the consumer value
while buying a phone. It may be screen size, brand value or even the dimensions. Based on
which the organization can understand what are consumer buying attitudes, consumer
opinions, etc.
Observations: Observation research can be qualitative observation or quantitative
observation. Such a research is done to observe a person and draw the finding from their
reaction to certain parameters. In such a research, there is no direct interaction with the
subject.
For example: An FMCG company wants to know how it’s consumer react to the new shape
of their product. The researcher observes the customers first reaction and collects the data,
which is then used to draw inferences from the collective information.
Secondary research methods
Secondary research is gathering information from previously published primary research. In
such a research you gather information from sources likes case studies, magazines,
newspapers, books, etc.
Online research: In today’s world, this is one of the fastest way to gather information on any
topic. A lot of data is readily available on the internet and the researcher can download it
whenever he needs it. An important aspect to be noted for such a research is the genuineness
and authenticity of the source websites that the researcher is gathering the information from.
For example: A researcher needs to find out what is the percentage of people that prefer a
specific brand phone. The researcher just enters the information he needs in a search engine
and gets multiple links with related information and statistics.
Literature research: Literature research is one of the most inexpensive method used for
discovering a hypothesis. There is tremendous amount of information available in libraries,
online sources, or even commercial databases. Sources can include newspapers, magazines,
books from library, documents from government agencies, specific topic related articles,
literature, Annual reports, published statistics from research organizations and so on.
However, a few things have to be kept in mind while researching from these sources.
Government agencies have authentic information but sometimes may come with a nominal
cost. Also, research from educational institutions is generally overlooked, but in fact
educational institutions carry out more number of research than any other entities.
Furthermore, commercial sources provide information on major topics like political agendas,
demographics, financial information, market trends and information, etc.
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For example: A company has low sales. It can be easily explored from available statistics and
market literature if the problem is market related or organization related or if the topic being
studied is regarding financial situation of the country, then research data can be accessed
through government documents or commercial sources.
Case study research: Case study research can help a researcher with finding more
information through carefully analyzing existing cases which have gone through a similar
problem. Such analysis are very important and critical especially in today’s business world.
The researcher just needs to make sure he analyses the case carefully in regards to all
the variables present in the previous case against his own case. It is very commonly used by
business organizations or social sciences sector or even in the health sector.
For example: A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest success rate for performing
knee surgeries. A lot of other hospitals or doctors have taken up this case to understand and
benchmark the method in which this surgeon does the procedure to increase their success
rate.
1.3 Qualitative research
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text,
video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather indepth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.
Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting
and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.
Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in
subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.
Qualitative research approaches
Approach
What does it involve?
Grounded theory
Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest and develop
theories inductively.
Ethnography
Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to
understand their cultures.
Action research
Researchers and participants collaboratively link theory to practice to
drive social change.
Phenomenological
research
Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and
interpreting participants’ lived experiences.
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Approach
What does it involve?
Narrative research
Researchers examine how stories are told to understand how
participants perceive and make sense of their experiences.
Qualitative research methods
Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods.
These are some of the most common qualitative methods:
•
•
•
•
•
Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field
notes.
Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or
video recordings, etc.
Qualitative data analysis
Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might
be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from
natural settings.
Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:
1. Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing
up fieldnotes.
2. Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that
emerge.
3. Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes
that you can apply to categorize your data.
4. Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean
going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a
spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your
system if necessary.
5. Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.
Advantages of qualitative research
Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can
be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:
•
Flexibility
The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge.
They are not rigidly decided beforehand.
•
Natural settings
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Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.
•
Meaningful insights
Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in
designing, testing or improving systems or products.
•
Generation of new ideas
Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities
that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.
Disadvantages of qualitative research
Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting
their data. Qualitative research suffers from:
•
Unreliability
The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled
factors that affect the data.
•
Subjectivity
Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research
cannot be replicated. The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data
analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.
•
Limited generalizability
Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous
analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be
biased and unrepresentative of the wider population.
•
Labour-intensive
Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis
often has to be checked or performed manually.
1.4 Observation Studies
The term observational research is used to refer to several different types of nonexperimental studies in which behaviour is systematically observed and recorded. The goal of
observational research is to describe a variable or set of variables. More generally, the goal is
to obtain a snapshot of specific characteristics of an individual, group, or setting. As
described previously, observational research is non-experimental because nothing is
manipulated or controlled, and as such we cannot arrive at causal conclusions using this
approach. The data that are collected in observational research studies are often qualitative in
nature but they may also be quantitative or both (mixed-methods).
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There are several different types of observational research designs that will be described
below.
1.participant
2.non participant
3.Naturalistic observation
4. simulation
1). Participant observation
Another approach to data collection in observational research is participant
observation. In participant observation, researchers become active participants in the group
or situation they are studying. Participant observation is very similar to naturalistic
observation in that it involves observing people’s behavior in the environment in which it
typically occurs. As with naturalistic observation, the data that is collected can include
interviews (usually unstructured), notes based on their observations and interactions,
documents, photographs, and other artifacts. The only difference between naturalistic
observation and participant observation is that researchers engaged in participant observation
become active members of the group or situations they are studying. The basic rationale for
participant observation is that there may be important information that is only accessible to,
or can be interpreted only by, someone who is an active participant in the group or situation.
Like naturalistic observation, participant observation can be either disguised or undisguised.
In disguised participant observation, the researchers pretend to be members of the social
group they are observing and conceal their true identity as researchers. In contrast
with undisguised participant observation, the researchers become a part of the group they
are studying and they disclose their true identity as researchers to the group under
investigation. Once again there are important ethical issues to consider with disguised
participant observation. First no informed consent can be obtained and second passive
deception is being used. The researcher is passively deceiving the participants by
intentionally withholding information about their motivations for being a part of the social
group they are studying. But sometimes disguised participation is the only way to access a
protective group (like a cult). Further, disguised participant observation is less prone to
reactivity than undisguised participant observation.
2)non participant observation
The researcher does not participate in the activities of the group being observed.
on-participant Observation involves observing participants without actively
participating. This option is used to understand a phenomenon by entering the community or
social system involved, while staying separate from the activities being observed.
3) naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation is an observational method that involves observing people’s
behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs. Thus naturalistic observation is a
type of field research (as opposed to a type of laboratory research). Jane Goodall’s famous
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research on chimpanzees is a classic example of naturalistic observation. Dr. Goodall spent
three decades observing chimpanzees in their natural environment in East Africa. She
examined such things as chimpanzee’s social structure, mating patterns, gender roles, family
structure, and care of offspring by observing them in the wild. However, naturalistic
observation could more simply involve observing shoppers in a grocery store, children on a
school playground, or psychiatric inpatients in their wards. Researchers engaged in
naturalistic observation usually make their observations as unobtrusively as possible so that
participants are not aware that they are being studied. Such an approach is called disguised
naturalistic observation. Ethically, this method is considered to be acceptable if the
participants remain anonymous and the behavior occurs in a public setting where people
would not normally have an expectation of privacy. Grocery shoppers putting items into their
shopping carts, for example, are engaged in public behavior that is easily observable by store
employees and other shoppers. For this reason, most researchers would consider it ethically
acceptable to observe them for a study. On the other hand, one of the arguments against the
ethicality of the naturalistic observation of “bathroom behavior” discussed earlier in the book
is that people have a reasonable expectation of privacy even in a public restroom and that this
expectation was violated.
4) simulation observation
The researcher simulates or recreates a situation, environment, or system and observes
the subject under study in the simulated environment.
CASE STUDIES
A case study is an in-depth examination of an individual. Sometimes case studies are also
completed on social units (e.g., a cult) and events (e.g., a natural disaster). Most commonly in
psychology, however, case studies provide a detailed description and analysis of an
individual. Often the individual has a rare or unusual condition or disorder or has damage to
a specific region of the brain.
1.5 Experiments and Surveys
Survey :
Survey refers to the way of gathering information regarding a variable under study from all
or a specified number of respondents of the universe. Surveys are carried out by
maintaining a structured form of data collection, through interview, questionnaire, case
study etc. In surveys prepared questions are asked from the prepared formal questionnaire
set and the output is collected in the same form.
For example – Survey among the students about the new education policy of India.
Experiment :
Experiments refers to the way of experimenting something practically with the help of
scientific procedure/approach and the outcome is observed. Experiments are carried out by
performing the experiments by following scientific procedure or scientific approach. In
experiments the investigator/examiner performs tests or experiments based on various
factors and observes the outcome of the experiment.
For example – Experiment in the chemistry laboratory by a group of students and faculties
specific to a topic.
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Difference between Survey and Experiment :
S.No. SURVEY
EXPERIMENT
01.
It refers to a way of gathering information
regarding a variable under study from
people.
It refers to the way of experimenting
something practically with the help of
scientific procedure/approach and the
outcome is observed.
02.
Sureys are conducted in case of descriptive
research.
Experiments are conducted in case of
experimental research.
03.
Surveys are carried out to see something.
Experiments are carried out to experience
something.
04.
These studies usually have larger samples.
These studies usually have smaller samples.
05.
The surveyor does not manipulate the
variable or arrange for events to happen.
The researcher may manipulate the variable
or arrange for events to happen.
06.
It is appropriate in case of social or
behavioral science.
It is appropriate in case of physical and
natural science.
07.
It comes under field research.
It comes under laboratory research.
08.
Possible relationship between the data and
the unknowns in the universe can be
studied through surveys.
Experiments are meant to determine such
relationships.
09.
Surveys can be performed in less cost than
a experiments.
Experiments costs higher than the surveys.
10.
Surveys often deals with secondary data.
Experiments deal with primary data.
11.
In surveys there is no requirement of
laboratory equipment or there is a very
small requirement of equipment just to
collect any sample of data.
In experiments usually laboratory equipment
are used in various activities during the
experiment process.
12.
It is vital in co-relational analysis.
It is vital in casual analysis.
13.
No manipulation is involved in surveys.
Manipulation is involved in experiments.
P
PREPARED BY. E.JANAKIRAMAN.MCA.MPHIL.
APEC/AP
Downloaded by Bakeyalakshmi Ponmude (bakeyalakshmi1812@gmail.com)
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lOMoARcPSD|46468465
RM4151 - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND IPR
UNIT - 1
14.
In surveys data is collected through
interview, questionnaire, case study etc.
In experiments data is collected through
several readings of experiment.
15.
Surveys can focus on broad topics.
Experiments focuses on specific topic.
-----THE END-----
P
PREPARED BY. E.JANAKIRAMAN.MCA.MPHIL.
APEC/AP
Downloaded by Bakeyalakshmi Ponmude (bakeyalakshmi1812@gmail.com)
.
15