Course code: MAC390
Course: NEW MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES
TERM PAPER ON
THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON POLITICAL MARKETING IN NIGERIA
COMPILED BY
GROUP NINE, MEMBERS
LATEEFAH OLOLADE ANIFOWOSHE MATRIC NO: 1806072012
OKAFOR NKECHI MICHEALLA MATRIC NO: 1806072018
AKPOBASA JOY SANDRA MATRIC NO: 1806072033
OMIDORA OLUFUNSO JUMOKE MATRIC NO: 1806072043
OLUFUNMILAYO OGUNJOBI MATRIC NO: 1806072032
IDOWU MARIA OLUWABUNMI
OGBONNA PRECIOUS FAVOUR
OLAMIDE AGBOOLA
OLUWAFEMI AMODA
SHONSAYA OLUWAYEMISI VICTORIA
IDOWU OLUWAREMILEKUN FELICIA
IKPE FAVOR NKECHIYENRE
PAUL
DEPARTMENT:
MASS COMMUNICATION HND1 PART TIME (REGULAR)
YEAR 2018/2019
CONTENT
Abstract
Introduction
Background study
Chapter one
Concept of social media
Effect of social media Nigeria community generally
Chapter two
What politics?
Effect of social media Nigeria community generally
Chapter three
Political marketing in Nigeria and social media
Reference
Abstract
Social Media as a Tool of Communication for Political Candidates Social media
offers a variety of avenues through which political candidates can communicate
with people. In fact, social media is known to have been used widely by
politicians to either create awareness or to make people see them as accessible
and credible . Over the last 30 years the nature of communication has undergone
a substantial change and it is still changing. Email has had a profound effect
on the way people keep in touch. Politicians in recent times have used this
means to reach out to their audience, creating impressions which they believe
would be favorable to them. Using emails, communications are shorter and
more frequent than when letters were the norm and response time has greatly
diminished. Instant messaging has created another method of interaction, one
where the length of messages is shorter and the style of the interaction is
more conversational. Broadcast technologies like Twitter transform these short
bursts of communication from one on one conversations to little news (or
trivia) programs: which we can tune in whenever we want an update or have
something to say.
Online communication tools also have the potential to
increase our awareness of the movements of our professional or social contacts.
Twitter, for instance, offers us an update of things people we know happen to
be doing at a particular point of time. This phenomenon has been referred as
social proprioception by Thompson (2007), named after the physical quality
of proprioception that tells a creature where its extremities are by the reception
of stimuli produced within the organism. Social proprioception tells us where
the nodes of our community are and provides a sense of connectedness to and
awareness of others without direct communication. Internet is the third place
where people connect with friends, build a sense of togetherness. Increasingly,
a computer with an Internet connection is the locus of a range of interactions
in a variety of media and a gateway to an array of social spaces for work
and play. Social networking sites like Facebook and Myspace and virtual
environments like Second Life and World of War craft have become online
meeting spaces where users, members, residents, or players, can interact and
express themselves. They offer a way to keep in touch with existing
communities that users belong to offline, such as social and professional
groups. They also make it possible for people who would not normally
communicate more than a few time Published by European Centre for Research
Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) a year to keep in touch
politicians could interact with their teeming supporters on a daily basis, giving
their supporters a sense of belonging through the online community itself.
Sites like
YouTube
and
Flicker
represent
another
forum
for
online
communication that is centered on sharing, preference, and popular culture.
Whether it is as simple as checking back to see what other comments have
been added to yours or as involved as attending a workshop or presentation
in a virtual world, the nature of the attraction lies in the connections between
people that these online spaces afford.
Introduction
Back ground study
The internet has made new systems reachable to organizations such as the social
media. The world has transformed dramatically as a result of the evolution of the
social media of communication. It has removed the barriers of communication by
decentralizing communication such that almost everybody can voice out and
participate in many issues affecting them in the society. It has a significant role in
changing people’s lives in the society. In Recent times, social media have become
an integral part of public discourse and communication in the contemporary society.
The fast development of social media has caused major changes Pertaining the way
people find groups of individuals with similar interests, the nature of Information,
the available news sources, or the possibility to require and share ideas. It has had
major effects on fields such as advertising, public relations, Communications, and
political communication More recently, the prominence of social media has been
particularly Highlighted in politics, given the fact that the use of social networking
sites (Facebook) and Micro blogging services (Twitter) are believed to have the
potential of positively influencing Political participation “The use of social media
platforms are important tools within political communication Campaigns to secure
victory and encourage interaction between political parties/candidates and Voters,
and most times to portray positive image of the political candidates”. Social media
are new information network and information technology using a form of
Communication utilizing interactive and user-produced content, and interpersonal
relationships are created and maintained. Typical social media network services
could be content sharing, Web communities, and Internet forums. Acheaw and
Larson (2015) revealed in their study that social media has a strong relationship with
the performance of the students. Faced with a sharp decline in party membership and
a more demanding, assertive and Distrustful public increasingly willing to intervene
directly in the political process (often Through the use of digital media-enabled
personalized forms of participation), political parties And candidates embraced new
online tools as part of their campaign communication. Social networking sites like
Facebook, micro blogs like Twitter and video-sharing sites Like YouTube have not
only given politicians a powerful avenue for interacting with a more Demanding
citizenry, but also have allowed them to offer more personalized images to the Public
and have given less resourceful parties the opportunity to match well-funded
campaigns In sophistication, using creative and relatively inexpensive strategies.
Through Social networking sites, political organizations and candidates have not
only the possibility to directly communicate with their publics, but also to interact
with them (two-way Communication). A Political candidate is a person seeking or
being considered for some kind of position; for Example: to be elected to an office
in this case a candidate selection procedure occurs. In The context of elections for
public office in a representational partisan democracy, a candidate who has been
selected by a political party is normally said to be the nominee of that party. The
Party’s selection (that is, the nomination) is typically accomplished either based on
one or more primary elections according to the rules of the party and any applicable
election laws. Candidates also may be described as "incumbents", if they are already
serving in the office for which they are seeking re-election or "challengers", if they
are seeking to unseat an incumbent. In this era of social media, the demand for a
public relations function based on direct and trust based Communication with
publics for better relationship building is great. At the same time, the emergence of
social media can also provide one of the best venues for new public relations which
can function as The hub of dialogic, participatory communications between publics
and organizations. In either Case, garnering credibility from publics is essential.
Instead of being passive recipients of messages, publics are now active enough to
select Communication channels, especially when they care about an issue. Unlike
Traditional media such as radio or television, the use of social media by individuals
is increasingly becoming “instrumental”, depending on their motivations for
communication (Functionality), purposive or planned nature of communicating
(intentionality), communication Choice (selectivity), and involvement with media.
Given such audience selective and active Media use, communication without the
creation and cultivation of credibility for better public Engagement or brandbuilding can be hardly effective
In truism, politicians in Nigeria and most
developing world insists on carrying out political men Jingles and other advertising
campaign on the traditional media-TV, radio, billboard, Newspapers, and magazines
instead of adopting the newest social media (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn,
Instagram, Reddit, Pinterest etc.) to market a political candidate and also a political
Party. Majority of the Nigerians now own android phones, I-pads, I-phones,
blackberry phones Or a PC to do many of their communications and transactions
online. The reason behind this “Communication Myopia” is best known to them, but
the fact still remains that this social Media networks is the trend and any politician
and political party that really want to target a Profitable and viable audience must
key into it. That is the only way of achieving success in this millennium’s many
electioneering campaigns. Also, the youths are the future leaders of Tomorrow and
because they perceive the image of politicians as bad, the social media is urgently
needed to change their attitudes and worldview. So, this study is aimed at filling this
Gap in the use of the traditional media as against the new media; the social media to
market a Political candidate and also a political party. In the light of the above
therefore, the researchers seek to determine the effect of social media in projecting
the image of a political candidate.
CHAPTER ONE
The concept of social media
Social media is the collective of online communications channels dedicated to
community based
Input, interaction, content-sharing and collaboration. Websites and applications
Dedicated to forums, micro blogging, social networking, social bookmarking, social
curation,
And wikis are among the different types of social media.
Social media can be defined as a collection of internet-based applications that
expand the
Ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0 and that permit the creation
and
Exchange of user-generated content. Social networking sites are
The interface between people and social media, and for many the “Internet” is
synonymous with
Social networking sites. One of the most interesting characteristic of
Social media is represented by the term “user-generated content”, which refers to
different
Forms of media content, publicly available and created by end users.
Therefore, people use social media not only to consume online information, but also
to produce
Unique content themselves, transforming from
Content “consumers” to content “producers”. Facebook is a social networking site
founded in 2004, by Marck Zuckerberg, with the purpose
Of being used by Harvard students. Rapidly, it gained worldwide popularity, and
today
Facebook represents the most used social networking site, with over 1 billion users
worldwide
. Twitter is a micro blogging platform that enables users to read and
Send short text-messages, keeping its service simple, by limiting the length of the
updates to
140 characters. Compared to the more private environment provided by Facebook,
most
Messages on Twitter are public and searchable, as the main feature of Twitter is the
hashtag,
Which allows content organization by categorizing information.
Most of the common examples of social media tools include;
Facebook: is a popular free social networking website that allows registered users to
create Profiles, upload photos and video, send messages and keep in touch with
friends, family And colleagues. According to statistics from the Nielsen Group,
Internet users within the United States spend more time on Facebook than any other
website.
Twitter: is a free micro blogging service that allows registered members to broadcast
short posts called tweets. Twitter members can broadcast tweets and follow other
users' tweets by using multiple platforms and devices.
Google: is Google's social networking project, designed to replicate the way people
interact offline more closely than is the case in other social networking services. The
project’s slogan is “Real-life sharing rethought for the web.”
Wikipedia: is a free, open content online encyclopedia created through the
collaborative effort of a community of users known as Wikipedians. Anyone
registered on the site can create an article for publication; registration is not required
to edit articles. Wikipedia was founded in January of 2001.
LinkedIn: is a social networking site designed specifically for the business
community. The goal of the site is to allow registered members to establish and
document networks of people they know and trust professionally.
Reddit: is a social news website and forum where stories are socially curated and
promoted by site members. The site is composed of hundreds of sub-communities,
known as "subreddits." Each subreddit has a specific topic such as technology,
politics or music. Reddit site members, also known as, "redditors," submit content
which is then voted upon by other members. The goal is to send well-regarded stories
to the top of the sites main Thread page.
Pinterest: is a social curation website for sharing and categorizing images found
online. Pinterest requires brief descriptions but the main focus of the site is visual.
Clicking on an image will take you to the original source, so, for example, if you
click on a picture of a pair of shoes, you might be taken to a site where you can
purchase them. An image of blueberry pancakes might take you to the recipe; a
picture of a whimsical birdhouse might take you to the instructions.
Instagram: this social media allows one to open a profile page that allows one to
upload pictures in which friends and foes all described as followers can go online
view, like and comment.
Characteristics of Social Media
Social media is best understood as a group of new kinds of online media, which
share most or all of the following characteristics (Wikipedia, 2016): Participation
social media encourages contributions and feedback from everyone who is
interested. It blurs the line between media and audience. Openness most social media
services are open to feedback and participation. They encourage voting, comments
and the sharing of information. There are rarely any barriers to accessing and making
use of content password-protected content is frowned on. Conversation whereas
traditional media is about “broadcast” (content transmitted o distributed to an
audience) social media is better seen as a two-way conversation. Community social
media allows communities to form quickly and communicate effectively.
Communities share common interests, such as a love of photography
Effect of social media Nigeria community generally
Since the emergent of social media it as affected people in different ways, some
Nigerians would say more bad than good , but I believe everything that is good also
as a bad side that doesn’t make it evil it just the nature of things. Social media as
brought lot of good to Nigeria, for example: Easy access to foreign knowledge:
social media as made it easier for people to have access to information and
knowledge about things that are not easy to reach or about countries and places that
are far away and not easy for all to travel to. With the help of social media one can
have access to verse knowledge about this things and places at their own comfort.
A global village: social media in general has made the world a kind of global village
with access to easy communication to friends and foe both near and far, one can also
easily get connected to other people that may be helpful to one either career wise or
for personal reasons, lost friends or guardians can easily be found trough the help of
social media.
Easy marketing: social media as now make it easier for traders, producers and
service worker to now advertise and market there product to a large audience without
havening to spend huge sum of amount on media houses and without making use of
professionals.
Social media as also had bad effect on Nigeria like foe example;
Laziness: social media such as google and Wikipedia as helped in rending the young
agile citizens of the country lazy in terms of research works, finding information and
also striving hard for success. Many today Nigeria youth are more interested in
scamming people online of their money, copying other peoples work and presenting
it as there’s because they know this people wouldn’t find them.
Also social media as increase the show case of nuisance by some Nigerians in other
to attract public views and get popular Social Media as a Tool of Communication
for Political Candidates
Chapter two
What politics:
Politics is a group of people who have come together in other to make use their
franchise (the right to vote) and be voted for in other to help solve the countries
problem.
Social Media as a Tool of Communication for Political Candidates
Social media offers a variety of avenues through which political candidates can
communicate with people. In fact, social media is known to have been used widely
by politicians to either create awareness or to make people see them as accessible
and credible. Over the last 30 years the nature of communication has undergone a
substantial change and it is still changing. Email has had a profound effect on the
way people keep in touch. Politicians in recent times have used this means to reach
out to their audience, creating impressions which they believe would be favourable
to them. Using emails, communications are shorter and more frequent than when
letters were the norm and response time has greatly diminished. Instant messaging
has created another method of interaction, one where the length of messages is
shorter and the style of the interaction is more conversational Broadcast technologies
like Twitter transform these short bursts of communication from one on-one
conversations to little news (or trivia) programs: which we can tune in whenever we
want an update or have something to say. Online communication tools also have the
potential to increase our awareness of the movements of our professional or social
contacts. Twitter, for instance, offers us an update of things people we know happen
to be doing at a particular point of time. This phenomenon has been referred as social
proprioception by Thompson (2007), named after the physical quality of
proprioception that tells a creature where its extremities are by the reception of
stimuli produced within the organism. Social proprioception tells us where the nodes
of our community are and provides a sense of connectedness to and awareness of
others without direct communication. Internet is the third place where people
connect with friends, build a sense of togetherness. Increasingly, a computer with an
Internet connection is the locus of a range of interactions in a variety of media and a
gateway to an array of social spaces for work and play. Social networking sites like
Facebook and MySpace and virtual environments like Second Life and World of
War craft have become online meeting spaces where user, residents, or player can
interact and express themselves. They offer a way to keep in touch with existing
communities that users belong to offline, such as social and professional groups.
They also make it possible for people who would not normally communicate more
than a few times a year to keep in touch politicians could interact with their teeming
supporters on a daily basis, giving their supporters a sense of belonging through the
online community itself. Sites like YouTube and Flicker represent another forum for
online communication that is centered hat other comments have been added to yours
or as involved as attending a workshop or presentation in a virtual world, the nature
of the attraction lies in the connections between people that these online spaces
afford. Social media offers a variety of avenues through which political candidates
can communicate with people. In fact, social media is known to have been used
widely by politicians to either create awareness or to make people see them as
accessible and credible. Over the last 30 years the nature of communication has
undergone a substantial change and it is still changing. Email has had a profound
effect on the way people keep in touch. Politicians in recent times have used this
means to reach out to their audience, creating impressions which they believe would
be favorable to them. Using emails, communications are shorter and moren frequent
than when letters were the norm and response time has greatly diminished. Instant
messaging has created another method of interaction, one where the length of
messages is shorter and the style of the interaction is more conversational .Broadcast
technologies like Twitter transform these short bursts of communication from one
on- one conversations to little news (or trivia) programs: which we can tune in
whenever we want an update or have something to say. Online communication tools
also have the potential to increase our awareness of the movements of our
professional or social contacts. Twitter, for instance, offers us an update of things
people we know happen to be doing at a particular point of time. This phenomenon
has been referred as social proprioception by Thompson (2007), named after the
physical quality of proprioception that tells a creature where its extremities are by
the reception of stimuli produced within the organism. Social proprioception tells us
where the nodes of our community are and provides a sense of connectedness to and
awareness of others without direct communication. Internet is the third place where
people connect with friends, build a sense of togetherness. Increasingly, a computer
with an Internet connection is the locus of a range of interactions in a variety of
media and a gateway to an array of social spaces for work and play. Social
networking sites like Facebook and MySpace and virtual environments like Second
Life and World of War craft have become online meeting spaces where users
members, residents, or players can interact and express themselves. They offer a way
to keep in touch with existing communities that users belong to offline, such as social
and professional groups. They also make it possible for people who would not
normally communicate more than a few times
Political marketing and Digital Literacy
Political marketing has created an avenue for digital learning and has paved way for digital
literacy thereby allowing the digital natives who were born before digital technology to
migrate digitally in order to have opportunities to vote and participate in politics.
Going Viral
Going viral” is an image, video, or link that spreads rapidly through a population by being
frequently shared with a number of individuals. The Social media technologies has really
boosted the role of social media in political marketing as it enables candidates to make
videos of past achievements and present administration especially if aspires to go for
another tenure. However, video or audio could also be used as propaganda to dissuade the
audience about a candidate from the opponent in order to win election at all cost especially
in Nigeria when politicians view politics as “Do or die affairs”.
Politicians see the social media as a platform for their campaign. Looking at social media,
it is an over-emphasis to say that actions go viral (at the speed of light) there and the
political strategists have to make a well planned decision in other to have profitable
audience. Hashtag Campaigns Twitter is the king of communication campaigns at the
moment, and it stands in space of competition with the major media. Most political
candidates who aspire to win usually have their profiles on the social media to sensitize the
public.
Recently, the social media circulated a particular code for free MTN airtime courtesy of
the Former Vice President, Alh. Atiku Abubakar whose birthday was celebrated in
October, 2018. This single act of Airtime sharing, changes some audience’s opinions about
the Presidency candidate. The supporters and well-wishers of almost all the political parties
have this habit of flooding social media circles with scandalous, fake and malicious posts
in order to frame rival parties. In response, those framed claim such charges to be
scandalous misinformation if not anything else.
Chapter three
Political marketing in Nigeria and social media
Since Obama ex American president with the use of social media like twitter was a
huge success, so was Donald trump’s campaign true the social media. Donald trump
strategy of going viral was a big success for him he made use of the social media
medium to lay words of attacks. He taught that rules or mistakes are no longer to
become the keys to interaction and organic growth, during his campaign he was able
to catch the attention of a very large audience by going viral on social media.
Just like Donald trump had and continues to use social Medias like twitter and the
rest to keep the attention of the people so as many politician around the world as
adopted include Nigerians politician.
During the rain of Goodluck Jonathen he was able to get the attention of Nigerians
through the use of this social media his wife also went viral gaining more followers
for her husband and his party.
Babatunde Raji Fashola also used the social media to get closer to the people
especially the young, he created social media platforms that people can easily have
access to him. Trough he was able to know what the people wanted.
This present politics is mainly field with politicians trying to get the people attention
using social Medias like twitter.
Effect of social media on Nigeria political marketing
The use of social media as gotten the youth to get more involve in Nigeria politics
It also allows for the citizens to know more about the person they are voting for base
on his reactions or use of words on this social media platforms
Social media as also made it easy for political parties to be able to tell whom the
people like and what they want in an aspirin leader
The social media as also make it possible for people to see that this politicians are
like and which of them is ready to go to the extreme for the country betterment,
Though social media as lot of positive effect in Nigeria it as also in some way turn
elderly grown men into desperate children ready to do anything to get the people
attention.
Advantages of social media in political marketing
News Around the Clock
One of the ways that social media has transformed politics is the sheer speed at
which news, poll results and rumors are shared. Whereas in the pre-internet days,
people had to wait for the next newspaper or TV news show to get the latest
information, online news is a 24/7 phenomenon. Social media has taken this a step
further. While you can access news on many websites at any hour. A lot of people
spend more time on Facebook and twitter than they do on serious news or political
websites. This means that you get all of the latest trending news stories and opinions
shared by your friends whenever you log on.
The Impact of Polls
Political polls are an important part of every campaign. They are often confusing,
because you can often find multiple polls with contradictory results posted on the
very same day.As with other types of political news, the internet has greatly
increased the number of poll results we see each day. Social media has accelerated
this even more. Not only do social media sites report the results of polls, you can
actually participate in Facebook polls.
Polls results as a huge influence on political system, this is true even if they are
flawed. A poll can be a self-fulfilling prophecy. For example, if people think one
candidate is far ahead in the race, they might conclude there’s no point in voting for
the underdog. When people are posting the latest poll results on social media
throughout the day, there’s a great deal of pressure on candidates to pull ahead of
their opponents.
Cost savings
Political candidates don’t have to worry over the cost of conducting these polls, since
more than half of the people and about 75% of those in age of responsibility (age 18
and above) are already on the internet, social media therefore offers the best
machinery for opinion poll. The outcome of the polls is known almost as soon as the
poll closes. Collating the votes do not take time as everything is already summed up
before the collation ends. This process is free and saves time. The Social Media also
reduces the conventional mobilization fund usually spent by politicians during
election to reach various villages in order to sensitize people about a political
candidate.
Direct Interaction with Politicians
One of the positive effects that social media has on politics marketing is the
opportunity for voters to interact more easily with candidates and elected officials.
Traditionally, if you wanted to meet a politician or candidate, you’d have to attend
a live event. Not everyone is able to do this. With modern technology, it’s now
possible to attend virtual events where you can participate in live streaming events
and interact with politicians and candidates.
Demographics and Targeting
Targeting is used throughout the advertising industry to make sure that ads and
messages reach the right audience. Politicians do this as well. In the age of social
media, politicians and people running for office are able to target their campaigns.
If a candidate wants to address the concerns of women, college students, retired
people, Latinos or any other group of voters, they can now tailor their messages. Just
as advertisers on Facebook are able to use analytics and targeted advertising, so can
candidates and politicians. Thus, if you notice that political messages seem to be
talking to you personally, this is no accident.
Freedom of Speech
Perhaps the most outstanding feature of the social media is the fact that it provides
for the
Citizens the much sort opportunity to express their thoughts, to criticize or praise
any
Government without fear of arrest. This is particularly so in democratic states as
Nigeria
Claim to practice. Politicians/Government Officials that are been misled by praise
singers and political sycophants can get to know what people really feel about them
and them policies first hand through social media. Issues prevailing in our
contemporary society suggest that on several occasions, such criticisms have been
received by those in question, and in most cases, it ends up influencing their action
in favor of the public. People feel free to contribute over the internet, since they
know no visible power will come after them.
Large Audience
With social media, politicians have a new way to communicate with their
constituents and supporters, in a quick and efficient way. In a quick 30 second post
they can reach millions of people, giving a summary of their beliefs on an issue,
making a big announcement, or an update on their lives. The Social Media has also
made it simple for political candidates to reach out to a large number of audience,
scattered all over the 6 geographical states of Nigeria and also to Nigerians in
diaspora without limitation.
Disadvantages of media in political marketing using Digital Citizenship
Digital Empathy
This can be defined as the cognitive and emotional ability to be reflective and
socially responsible while strategically using digital media”. The public tend to
favor or cast vote for a candidate due to empathy if the candidate uses an emotional
campaign. Some members of the public voted the present President, President
Muhammodu Buhari using emotion.
Cyber Security
Cybersecurity is the protection of internet-connected systems, including hardware,
software and data, from cyberattacks. In a computing context, security comprises
cybersecurity and physical security both are used by enterprises to protect against
unauthorized access to data centers and other computerized systems. Most at times,
the profile of political candidates was hacked and this usually give way for identity
theft by the public which in most cases uses the profile of the candidates to extort
the public or persuade them to cast their votes for the said candidates
Cyber Bully
Cyberbullying or cyber harassment is a form of bullying or harassment using
electronic means. Cyberbullying and Cyber harassment are also known as online
bullying. Though this usually occurs among teens but over the years, it was extended
to the political arena where candidates bully one another online during campaign.
Critical thinking this is the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to
form a judgement. Most at times, the public could not distinguish between truth and
false during campaign as the social media is usually filled with propaganda and
enormous campaign promises by political parties and candidates.
Digital footprint
A digital footprint is a trail of data you create while using the Internet. It includes
the websites you visit, emails you send, and information you submit to online
services. A "passive digital footprint" is a data trail you unintentionally leave online.
Similarly, it can be a nightmare to fight the image which can be destroyed on this
media. It will be extremely hard for such politician to remove this maligned image
and may take forever.
Social media and public manipulation
A politician may use it to manipulate public opinion by using paid trolls for
promoting false claims, stories etc. and creating in fancy in public mind. Degrading
opposition etc.
Reference
Wikipedia 2018
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Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org)
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Wright, W. R. (1981). Functional Analysis and Mass Communication, Public
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Zaller, J. (1992). The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. Cambridge: CUP