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E BOOK Adaptive Agricultural Practices Building Resilience in a Changing Climate (SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science) 1st ed. 2020 Edition by Pradeep Kumar Dubey , Gopal Shankar Singh , Purus

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Contents
1Agriculture in a Changing Climate���������������������������������������������������������� 1
1.1Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1
1.2Changing Environmental Constraints Facing
Agricultural Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 2
1.3Adaptive Agricultural Practices and Their Intervention
at Three Different Levels: Crop/Species, Farm/Field,
and Landscape Level�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 6
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 8
2Adaptive Agronomic Practices for Sustaining Food Production ���������� 11
2.1Brief Overview of Adaptive Practices������������������������������������������������ 11
2.2Crop Diversification���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
2.2.1Intercropping�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
2.2.2Crop Rotation and Double/Companion Cropping������������������ 19
2.2.3Perenniation���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 21
2.3Agroforestry: A Farm/Field- and Landscape-Level Practice�������������� 22
2.4Mulching �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 26
2.5Organic Farming �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 30
2.5.1Integration of Livestock into Farm Lands������������������������������ 30
2.5.2Replacement of Chemical Fertilizers
by Organic Inputs�������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
3Increasing Resilience in Crops for Future
Changing Environment ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 45
3.1Use of Resilient Crop Varieties: A Species-Level Practice���������������� 45
3.2Coping Under Abiotic Stress Environment���������������������������������������� 46
3.2.1Conferring Drought Tolerance������������������������������������������������ 46
3.2.2Conferring Salinity Tolerance������������������������������������������������ 48
3.2.3Conferring Flood Tolerance���������������������������������������������������� 49
xiii
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Contents
3.3Coping Under Biotic Stress Environment������������������������������������������ 50
3.3.1Crop Weed Resistance������������������������������������������������������������ 50
3.3.2Crop Pests and Disease Resistance ���������������������������������������� 50
3.4Future Crops for Elevated Temperature and CO2 ������������������������������ 53
3.5Use of Climate/Crop Models for Building Adaptive
Capacity in Agriculture for a Future Environment ���������������������������� 55
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56
4 Resource Conserving and Innovative Practices
for Agricultural Sustainability������������������������������������������������������������������ 63
4.1Increasing Nutrient and Water Use Efficiency������������������������������������ 63
4.2Conservation Agriculture (CA)���������������������������������������������������������� 66
4.3Farm Innovations for Enhanced Production
of Major Cereals Crops���������������������������������������������������������������������� 73
4.4Sustainable Agriculture Intensification
and Extensification������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 77
4.5Sustainability Issues in Agriculture from the
Farmers’ Perspective�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 81
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 87
5Adaptive Agricultural Practices Employed in Eastern
Uttar Pradesh, India���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93
5.1Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 94
5.1.1What Are Adaptive Agricultural Practices?���������������������������� 94
5.1.2Objectives of the Present Study���������������������������������������������� 95
5.2Methodology Employed���������������������������������������������������������������������� 95
5.2.1Study Area: Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India ������������������������������ 95
5.2.2Field Survey���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 96
5.2.3Geographic and Meteorological Conditions
of the Study Region���������������������������������������������������������������� 99
5.3Results and Discussion ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
5.3.1Challenges and Threats Faced by Farmers ���������������������������� 100
5.3.2Adaptive Agronomic Practices Employed
by Local Farmers�������������������������������������������������������������������� 106
5.4Conclusions and Future Policy Implications�������������������������������������� 117
5.4.1Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 117
5.4.2Future Policy Implications������������������������������������������������������ 118
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
6 Policy Implications, Future Prospects and Conclusion�������������������������� 123
6.1Policy Implications and Future Prospects������������������������������������������ 123
6.2Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 125
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 128
Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 129
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About the Authors
knowledge (ILK), and ecosystem-based approaches for managing agrobiodiversity
for food and nutritional security. He is an expert member of four IUCN commissions (CEM, CEC, SSC, & CEESP), IUCN Task Force on Oil Palm & Biodiversity,
UN-FAO, UN-IPBES, UNDP-BES Network, UNFCCD, and International Resource
Panel of UNEP. He is also serving on the editorial board of the journals Agronomy,
Biodegradation, Biomass & Bioenergy, Energy, Ecology & Environment,
Environmental Management, Land Degradation & Development, Land, Restoration
Ecology, Sustainable Earth, and Tropical Ecology.
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Abbreviations and Acronyms
ABA
ACC
APSIM
AFOLU
AMF
APX
BPH
CA
CAFOs
CAM
CERES
DAP
DSSAT
EBL
EPS
EUE
FACE
FYM
GHGs
GIS
GSH
GWP
ICM
IDM
IGP
INM
IPM
IRM
IWM
LUE
NPK
Abscisic acid
1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate
Agricultural production systems sIMulator
Agriculture, Forestry or Other Land Use
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Ascorbate peroxidase
Brown plant hopper
Conservation agriculture
Concentrated animal feeding operations
Crassulacean acid metabolism
Crop environment resource synthesis
Diammonium phosphate
Decision Support System for Agro-Technology Transfer
24-Epibrassinolide
Exopolysaccharides
Energy use efficiency
Free air CO2 enrichment
Farm yard manure
Greenhouse gases
Geographic Information System
Glutathione reductase
Global warming potential
Integrated crop management
Integrated disease management
Indo-Gangetic Plain
Integrated nutrient management
Integrated pest management
Integrated rice management
Integrated weed management
Land use efficiency
Nitrogen/phosphorus/potassium
xvii
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xviii
NUE
OTC
PGPM
PGPR
PSB
PSM
REDD+
RM system
ROS
RR system
RW system
RWCS
SCI
SOC
SOD
SOM
SRF
SRI
SWAT
UN-FAO
UPAF
VOCs
VPD
WUE
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Nutrient use efficiency
Open top chamber
Plant growth-promoting microorganism
Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria
Phosphate-solubilizing microorganism
Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation
Rice–maize system
Reactive oxygen species
Rice–rice system
Rice–wheat system
Rice–wheat cropping system
System of crop intensification
Soil organic carbon
Superoxide dismutase
Soil organic matter
Short rotation forestry
System of rice intensification
Soil and Water Assessment Tool
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation
Urban and peri-urban agriculture and forestry
Volatile organic carbon
Vapour pressure density
Water use efficiency
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Chapter 1
Agriculture in a Changing Climate
Abstract Maximizing agricultural production for ensuring the food and nutritional
requirements of a rapidly growing human population is a major sustainability challenge of this twenty-first century. This introductory chapter briefly address the various environmental challenges faced by agricultural system such as overgrowing
human population, climate change, biotic and abiotic stress in crop plants etc., and
the need of transition towards a resilient farming practices for feeding a growing
population. In this backdrop, the sustainable execution of adaptive agricultural practices at different levels i.e. crop/species, farm/field, and landscape levels are imperative to meet the food and nutritional security of the growing human population.
Keywords Adaptive agriculture · Climate change · Food security · Resilience
1.1 Introduction
Global food security is at the crossroads as our ever-growing population (Godfray
et al. 2010; UNDES 2013) and changing climatic conditions (IPCC 2014) exert
tremendous pressure on agriculture systems worldwide. For one example, an
increasing population leads to decreased land holdings per person (Abegaz and
Keulen 2009; Abhilash et al. 2016) and thereby has resulted in continuous exploitation of croplands without any fallow periods. Consequently, the soil does not have
enough time to recuperate its fertility, thus showing nutrient loss. These stresses
ultimately enhance the process of land degradation and may lead to reduction in
average cultivated land per person to less than 0.17 ha (FAO 2011; Abhilash 2015).
Apart from that, the changing climatic conditions also pose serious threats to agriculture and food security (Dubey et al. 2016a, b; Dubey and Singh 2017).
The threat to ‘food security’ is also threatening ‘good quality of life’ at various
levels and scales (i.e., local, regional, global) with the ultimate results of poverty
and unequal sharing of food resources among the rich and poor peoples in the world.
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1 Agriculture in a Changing Climate
Even today, nearly one billion people are not so fortunate to have two full meals per
day (Sheeran 2011). Developing countries are most vulnerable to food security and
poverty (IPCC 2014), and millions of poor and smallholder farmers are prone to
malnutrition and hunger. Without immediate interventions, the problem will persist
for the coming decades (Godfray et al. 2010; Abhilash et al. 2015) and will seriously undermine the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) framed by the UN as
their 2030 agenda for development. In particular, 1.5 billion people in South Asia
and sub-Saharan Africa are under the grind of food poverty, a number expected to
reach 3.9 billion by middle of this century (Wheeler and von Braun 2013). The
global population is projected to increase to 9 (Godfray et al. 2010) or 9.6 billion
(UNDES 2013) by mid-century, and therefore feeding this overgrowing population
in the near future using the existing land area and also by current agricultural practices seems unimaginable. Moreover, the lack of information, knowledge sharing,
and extension services provided to farmers also have a major effect in narrowing the
agricultural yield in developing countries.
Climate scientists have already predicted that if immediate adaptation (particularly crop-level adaptation) strategies are not properly implemented (Challinor et al.
2014; Abhilash et al. 2016), the agriculture sector is going to witness severe repercussions in coming decades. To feed this rapidly growing population, at least 60%
additional agricultural extensification must happen by 2050 (Alexandratos and
Bruinsma 2012). However, land is a limited resource, and apart from agricultural
activities, the growing population also needs land for habitation and other developmental activities. Therefore, adopting systemic and transformational practices based
on the adaptive capacity of farms and fields are imperative for ensuring food availability in coming decades (Morton 2007; Challinor et al. 2014; Dubey et al. 2016a)
(Fig. 1.1).
1.2 C
hanging Environmental Constraints Facing
Agricultural Systems
As we mentioned earlier, the agriculture sector is badly impacted by changing environmental conditions, facing various biotic and abiotic stresses daily. Major biotic
stress includes herbivore or pathogen attack and crop pests and diseases (Figs. 1.2
and 1.3).
Abiotic stress includes drought, flood, salinity, heat shock, chilling stress, and
UV radiations (Fig. 1.4) (Wani et al. 2016; Schwalm et al. 2017). Although crop
plants bear a self-defence mechanism against these stresses and tend to show tolerance or sensitivity during different stages of growth and development (Chinnusamy
et al. 2004; Abhilash et al. 2012), they are vulnerable to multiple stresses. The plants
either release phytohormones such as abscisic acid (ABA) and ethylene or express
multiple traits (e.g., volatile-based emissions to repel pests/pathogens, etc.) to
­combat various abiotic and biotic stresses (Barrett and Heil 2012; Wani et al. 2016).
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1.2 Changing Environmental Constraints Facing Agricultural Systems
3
Need of adaptive agricultural practices
•Overpopulation
•Climate change
•Erratic weather changes or climate variability’s.
•Biotic and abiotic stress in different agro-climatic regions of
the world.
•Rising food demand and change in dietary preferences.
•Use of land and water resources for non-agricultural purposes
and everyday increasing rivalry for it.
•Constrain in agricultural land capacity to produce substantial
amount of food to feed overgrowing population.
•Soil degradation due to pollution by anthropogenic activities.
•Need of higher input cost in agricultural sector.
•Need of mitigating GHGs emissions from agricultural lands
Advantages of Adaptive Agricultural practices
•Conserve soil and improve its fertility.
•Ensure carbon sequestration
•Improve water availability.
•Increased nutrient use efficiency of crops
•Cope with events such as drought, flood/submergence, pest
diseases or salinity stress etc. in crop plants.
•Increased crop yield
•Enhancement of nutritional quality in crops or crop
improvements.
•Preservation of landscapes, rivers, streams, marshes and
mangroves.
•Conservation of natural resources, natural habitats and
associated biodiversity.
•Reduce greenhouse gas emissions into atmosphere.
Fig. 1.1 Why do we need adaptive agricultural practices? Indeed, adaptive practices are the need
of the hour. Pictorial representation of the need as well as the benefits of various adaptive agricultural practices
For example, several crops such as cereals (wheat and maize; Kong et al. 2010;
Chen et al. 2014), oilseeds (soybean; Komatsu et al. 2015), vegetables (tomato and
cucumber; Ahsan et al. 2007; He et al. 2012), condiments (cacao; Bertolde et al.
2014), and spices (red/white clover; Stoychev et al. 2013) have been seen to show
adaptation under flood conditions by expressing diverse traits. However, because of
continuous, long-time domestication, most of the species have lost their natural
traits (Stenberg et al. 2015). In addition, intermittently occurring multiple stresses
pose additional challenges. For instance, events such as salinity and drought (IPCC
2008), heavy rainfall, floods, and drought (Iijima et al. 2016) are affecting the resilience of agricultural systems.
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1 Agriculture in a Changing Climate
Fig. 1.2 Crop pests are the major biotic stress in the agriculture sector. Common pests of rice
crops: (a) young caterpillar of cutworm, (b) damselfly, (c) slender rice bug (d–f), grasshoppers, (g)
gundhi bug, (h) whorl maggots, (i) stink bug. (Photo credit: Mr. Ajeet Singh, IESD, BHU)
Modelling studies have predicted that a climate-smart crop production system
alone cannot solve the burden of food security under changing climatic conditions
(Van Wijk et al. 2014). Looking at the shortage of plant-derived foods, various
national and international initiatives such as concentrated animal-feeding operations (CAFOs) (CLYEC 2007) and intensive livestock farm management (IAESD
and NIES 2009) have already been started in recent years to promote the consumption of animal-derived foods for human well-being. Consequently, the majority of
the global population has been more inclined towards consumption of animal food
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1.2 Changing Environmental Constraints Facing Agricultural Systems
5
Fig. 1.3 Damage caused in rice by (a) gundhi bug, (b) cutworms, (c) green horned caterpillar, (d)
stink bug, and (e–f) false smut disease caused by Ustilaginoidea virens. (Photo credit: Mr. Ajeet
Singh, IESD, BHU)
in the past two decades (Pan 2011). Initiatives such as CAFOs are expanding in
developing as well as developed nations including the US (USEPA 2009). However,
insofar as environmental and human health is concerned, over-dependence on animal food cannot be considered as a better alternative to crop-derived food.
Overall, the changing environmental conditions will negatively affect the crop
growth, yield, soil quality, and even the vegetation of a particular region (Abhilash
et al. 2013; Thornton et al. 2014; Rakshit et al. 2016a, b). Therefore, better adaptive
practices or strategies at different levels must be incorporated for sustainable agricultural production.
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1 Agriculture in a Changing Climate
Fig. 1.4 Abiotic stresses in crops such as (a) drought, (b) flood, (c) cold, and (d) salinity are the
major stresses affecting agricultural production across the globe. (Photo credits (d) Mr. Sheikh
Adil Edrisi, IESD, BHU)
1.3 A
daptive Agricultural Practices and Their Intervention
at Three Different Levels: Crop/Species, Farm/Field,
and Landscape Level
The foregoing assertions clearly indicate that adaptive practices are imperative for
sustainable agriculture as these adaptive practices should bring stability in the cropping system by retaining crop yield potential in terms of both quality (nutritional
value) as well as quantity. It also allows recuperation of the functional integrity of
agricultural systems even under stressed environmental conditions (Di Falco and
Chavas 2008; Lin 2011). Thus, it is anticipated that adaptive agricultural practices
can ensure both food security and environmental sustainability and thereby improve
the livelihood of one and all. The implementation of such adaptive agronomic practices at various levels (i.e., ranging from crop/species to farm/field to landscape
level) will also provide benefits at three different scales: local, regional, and global
(Fig. 1.5).
For example, a better adaptation to ‘salinity stress’ or ‘region having lack of
freshwater resources’ could be either to use saline water as a new resource for
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1.3
Adaptive Agricultural Practices and Their Intervention at Three Different Levels…
7
Fig. 1.5 Levels at which adaptive agricultural practices can be employed: (1) crop/species level,
(2) farm/field, and (3) landscape level
i­rrigation or other agricultural purposes in an innovative way (Pang et al. 2010), or
to develop salt-tolerant crop varieties by suitable crop and nutrient management
strategies (Singh et al. 2016). The former one is an example of farm/field/landscape
adaptation whereas the latter is crop/species level adaptive practices. Another example of a species-level adaptive practice is to select the suitable crop/intercrops for
providing defence against pest attacks. For instance, use of such intercrops that can
mimic the pathogen/herbivore which induces emissions of volatile organic compound (VOC) in crops and plants to provide resistance against pests is a successful
practice used by farmers for a long time (Khan et al. 1997). However, recent studies
suggest such practices of providing an indirect plant defence system against pests
was beneficial only in cases of monoculture (Rodriguez et al. 2015). Therefore,
there is always a need to explore more new insights of adaptive agricultural practices that could resolve both current and future problems under a changing environment. For instance, Stenberg et al. (2015) suggested that nectar-based food rewards
for ­biocontrol agents can be given combined with volatile-based tri-trophic interactions to resolve problems of pest attacks on crop plants.
In the present book, we articulate such promising adaptive agronomic practices
from different agro-climatic zones of the world as model practices for enhancing the
sustainability of global food production and also for building resilience under
changing climatic conditions. Moreover, the book also exemplifies the knowledge
gaps and future prospects for transforming agriculture as a sustainable enterprise in
a changing environment.
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1 Agriculture in a Changing Climate
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