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Contents
Section I
One Health Approach 1
3
1
The Need for One Health Approach at the Recent Anthropocene
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.8.1
1.8.2
1.8.3
1.8.4
1.8.5
1.9
1.10
1.11
Anthropocene 3
Infectious
Diseases: Animals to Humans 3
­
­Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases 3
­Definition of One Health 6
­Other Paradigms to One Health 8
One
Health Fundamentals 8
­
International
Health Regulations and Its Evaluation Mechanisms 9
­
Global
Health
Security Agenda 10
­
Zoonotic
Diseases
10
­
Antimicrobial Resistance 11
Food Safety and Food Security 11
Vector-Borne Disease 13
Environmental
Contamination 13
­
COVID-19 and One Health 13
Road
Map
­
­ for One Health 15
Challenges
of One Health Approach 15
­
Acknowledgment
16
­
References
16
­
2
­
Emergence and Re-emergence of Emerging Infectious Diseases (EIDs): Looking at
“One Health” Through
­ the Lens of Ecology 19
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.6.1
2.6.1.1
2.6.1.2
2.6.1.3
2.6.1.4
Introduction 19
Emerging
Infectious Diseases 20
­
Genesis
of
EIDs: Tracing from Natural History 20
­
Global
Trends
of EIDs 22
­
­Changes in Pathogen, Vector, and Human Ecology: A Faustian Bargain for EIDs
­Forests and Emerging Infectious Diseases: Unleashing the Beast Within 27
Forest-Derived
Human Infections 27
­
Kyasanur
Forest
Disease 28
­
Nipah Virus 28
Hantavirus 28
Mycobacterium ulcerans/Buruli Ulcer 29
23
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2.6.1.5
2.6.1.6
2.6.1.7
2.7
2.8
2.8.1
2.9
2.10
2.11
HIV/AIDS 29
Malaria 29
Lyme Disease 29
­Humans as the Dominant Driver of Emergence and Resurgence of EIDs
­Global Warming and EIDs 30
Interactions Between Climate Change and Pathogens 31
­COVID-­19: The Latest Avatar of the EID 32
­Mitigation 33
­Conclusion 34
­References 35
3
Environmental Interfaces for One Health
3.1
3.2
­ nvironment is the Most Dynamic Component of the One Health Triad 39
E
­Anthropogenic Alteration of Natural Landscapes Reduces Biodiversity and Promotes Emergence and Spread
of Infectious Diseases 39
­Climate Change Modify the Behavior of Reservoir Species of Zoonotic Pathogens and the Viability of the
Pathogens in the Environment 40
­Urbanization Creates Novel Habitats for Adaptable Species and New Niches for Diseases 41
­Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Is One of the Largest Threats to Global Public Health 41
­Transmission Dynamics of AMR in the Environmental and Wildlife Are Less Understood, or Neglected 41
­Major Anthropogenic Drivers of Zoonotic Disease Emergence Also Drives the Emergence and Spread of AMR in
Environment 42
­Food-­Producing Environments Play a Critical Role in the Emergence and Spread of AMR 42
­Wildlife Also Plays a Very Significant Role in the Ecology and Dissemination of AMR 43
­AMR is Not Monitored Regularly Using Standard Methods 43
­Global and National Action Plans on AMR 44
­References 44
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
29
39
4
Zoonoses: The Rising Threat to Human Health
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.4.1
4.4.1.1
4.4.1.2
4.4.1.3
4.4.2
4.4.2.1
4.4.2.2
4.4.2.3
4.4.3
4.4.3.1
4.4.3.2
4.4.3.3
4.4.4
4.4.4.1
4.4.4.2
4.4.4.3
­ hat is a Zoonotic Disease? 49
W
­Classification of Zoonotic Diseases 50
­Direct Contact 53
­Indirect Contact 54
Vector-­Borne Zoonotic Diseases 54
Definition and Transmission 54
Common Examples 54
Prevention and Control 56
Foodborne Zoonoses 56
Definition and Transmission 56
Common Examples 56
Prevention and Control 57
Waterborne Zoonoses 58
Definition and Transmission 58
Common Examples 58
Control and Prevention 58
Airborne Zoonoses 58
Definition and Transmission 58
Common Examples 59
Control and Prevention 59
49
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4.4.5
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
Zoonoses Contracted via Contaminated Soil and Surfaces 59
­Who Is at Risk of Zoonoses? 59
­Factors Contributing to the Emergence and Reemergence of Zoonotic Diseases
­Prevention of Zoonotic Diseases 61
­One Health Initiative 61
­References 62
5
Microplastics in Soil and Water: Vector Behavior
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
I­ ntroduction 63
­Concentrations of Inorganic Pollutants Adsorbed on Microplastics 65
­Concentrations of Organic Micropollutants Adsorbed on Microplastics 67
­Microplastics as Source of Plastic Additives and Decomposition Products 69
­Microplastics as a Base for Microorganisms Growth 70
­Conclusions 71
­References 71
Section II
60
63
Environmental Domains for One Health
75
6.1
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.3
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.2.1
6.3.2.2
6.4
6.5
Cyanotoxin in Hydrosphere and Human Interface 77
­
­Introduction 77
­Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins 77
Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins 77
Occurrence of Cyanobacteria in the Hydrosphere 80
Impacts of Climate Changes on Cyanobacterial Occurrence in the Hydrosphere 80
Impacts of Anthropogenic Activities on Cyanobacterial Occurrence in the Hydrosphere 81
­Modes of Human Exposure to Cyanotoxins and Illnesses Associated with Cyanotoxins 81
Modes of Human Exposure to Cyanotoxins 81
Illnesses Associated with Cyanotoxins 82
Human Illnesses 82
Animal Intoxications 83
­The Future Directions for Effective Risk Management of Toxic Cyanobacteria 83
­Conclusion 84
­Acknowledgment 84
­References 84
7
Contributions to One Health Approach to Solve Geogenic Health Issues 87
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.5.1
7.5.2
7.5.3
7.6
I­ ntroduction 87
­Medical Geology – Historical Perspective 88
­Pathways of Elements in the Geoenvironment
­The Hydrologic Cycle and One Health 90
­Geology and Health – Some Examples 91
Fluoride 91
Arsenic 92
Uranium and Radon 92
­Conclusions 93
­References 93
6
vii
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Contents
97
8
Disasters: Health and Environment Interphase
8.1
8.1.1
8.1.2
8.1.3
8.1.4
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.5.1
8.5.2
8.6
­Key Terminology on Disasters 97
Vulnerability 99
Exposure 102
Capacity 102
Disaster Risk 102
­Effects of Disasters on Environment and Health 103
­Managing Natural Disasters to Minimize Effects on Human Health
­Shifting the Focus: Response to Disaster Risk Management 107
­Resilience: A New Paradigm 108
Health Systems Resilience 109
Community Resilience 109
­Areas for Future Research and Practice 110
­Acknowledgment 111
­References 111
9
Role of Microorganisms in Bioavailability of Soil Pollutants
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.7.1
9.7.2
9.7.3
9.7.4
9.7.5
9.8
9.8.1
9.9
9.9.1
9.10
I­ ntroduction 113
­Soil Pollution: The Global Scenario 114
­Types of Soil Pollutants 115
­Emerging Pollutants 115
­Fates of Soil Pollutants 116
­Why Microbes? 116
­Organic Soil Pollutants 117
Chemotaxis 118
Cell Surface Properties 118
Biosurfactants 118
Pesticides 119
Petroleum Hydrocarbons 119
­Potentially Toxic Elements (Heavy Metals) 120
Rhizosphere Microorganisms 122
­Microplastics 122
Nanomaterials 123
­A Final Inference 123
­References 124
10
Per-­and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Migration from Water to Soil–Plant Systems, Health Risks,
and Implications for Remediation 133
10.1
10.2
10.2.1
10.2.2
10.2.3
10.3
10.4
10.4.1
10.4.2
10.5
I­ ntroduction 133
­Sources of PFAS Contamination 134
Aqueous Film-­Forming Foams (AFFFs) 134
Landfill Effluents 135
Wastewater Effluents and Biosolids 135
­Biotransformation of PFAS 135
­Transportation and Occurrence of PFAS in Water Resources 136
PFAS in Surface Water Resources 136
PFAS in Groundwater 137
­PFAS in Soil and Interactions 137
106
113
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10.5.1
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
PFAS and Soil Microbiome 138
­Plant Interactions and Uptake of PFAS 138
­Health Risks of PFAS 140
­Implications for Remediation 140
­Recommendations and Future Research Directions
­References 142
11
One Health Relationships in Microbe–Human Domain
11.1
11.2
11.2.1
11.2.2
11.2.3
11.2.4
11.2.5
11.3
11.3.1
11.3.2
11.3.3
11.3.4
11.3.5
11.3.6
11.4
­ icrobial Domain in Human 147
M
­Normal Bacterial Makeup of the Body 147
Skin Microbiota 147
Oral Microbiota 149
Respiratory System Microbiota 149
Gut Microbiota 149
Urogenital Microbiota 149
­How Microbiome Impact on Human Health and Homeostasis 149
Metabolism of Nutrients and Other Food Components 149
Synthesis of Essential Vitamins 151
Host Bile Acids and Cholesterol Metabolism 151
Drug Metabolism 151
Defense Against Pathogens 152
Immune Modulation 152
­Factors That Influence the Microbial Domain Due to Interactions Between Humans, Animals, Plants,
and Our Environment 153
Human Population Expansion into New Geographic Areas 153
Climate Changes and Anthropogenic Activities 153
Development of International Travel and Trade Movements 153
Urbanization 153
Chemical Pollution 153
­One Health Threats 154
Zoonotic Diseases 154
Antimicrobial Resistance 154
Vector-­Borne Diseases 154
­Animals as Early Warning Signs of Potential Human Illness 155
­Tools for Studying the Shared Microbiome 155
Sequencing Methods, Technological Advances for Studying the Microbiome 155
Marker-­Based Microbiome Profiling 155
Shotgun Metagenomics 156
Metatranscriptomics, Metabolomics, and Metaproteomics 156
Bioinformatic Tools for Studying the Microbiome 156
Microbial Diversity Measurements 156
Functional Analysis of Microbiome 157
Statistical Analysis and Data Visualization 157
Systems for Studying the Microbiome 157
Considerations in Sampling the Human Microbiome 157
Culture Systems for Characterizing the Human Microbiome 158
Understanding the Human Microbiome by Using Model Organisms 158
Engineered Systems for Studying Human–Microbiome Interactions (in vitro and ex vivo Models) 158
­Concluding Remarks 158
­References 158
11.4.1
11.4.2
11.4.3
11.4.4
11.4.5
11.5
11.5.1
11.5.2
11.5.3
11.6
11.7
11.7.1
11.7.1.1
11.7.1.2
11.7.1.3
11.7.2
11.7.2.1
11.7.2.2
11.7.2.3
11.7.3
11.7.3.1
11.7.3.2
11.7.3.3
11.7.3.4
11.8
ix
141
147
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161
12
Biomedical Waste During COVID-­19: Status, Management, and Treatment
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.5.1
12.5.1.1
12.5.1.2
12.5.1.3
12.5.2
12.5.2.1
12.5.2.2
12.5.2.3
12.5.2.4
12.5.3
12.6
I­ ntroduction 161
­Composition of Healthcare Waste 162
­Waste Management Strategies During COVID-­19 Pandemic
­Treatment of BMW During COVID-­19 164
­Healthcare Solid Waste Treatment Techniques 165
On-­Site Medical Waste Treatment 165
Autoclaving 165
Chemical Treatment 165
Microwave Treatment 166
Off-­Site Medical Waste Disposal 166
Incineration 166
Land Disposal 166
Plasma Pyrolysis 166
Encapsulation and Inertization 166
Other Emerging Technologies 166
­Future Aspects and Conclusion 166
­References 167
13
Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Disease Transmission: Learning from COVID-19 Data 169
13.1
13.2
13.2.1
13.2.2
13.3
13.3.1
13.3.2
13.3.3
13.4
13.4.1
13.4.2
13.4.3
13.5
I­ ntroduction 169
­Data Processing 170
Study Area and Study Period 170
Data Visualization 170
­Spatial Autocorrelation 170
Moran’s I 173
Moran Scatter Plot 174
Optimal Weight Function 174
­Spatiotemporal Analysis 176
Dynamics of Moran’s I 176
Illustrations of Moran Scatters 177
Risk Mapping 179
­Discussion 179
Acknowledgments 182
­References 182
14
Organic Farming: The Influence on Soil Health 185
14.1
14.1.1
14.1.1.1
14.1.1.2
14.1.1.3
14.1.1.4
14.1.2
14.1.3
14.1.3.1
14.2
14.2.1
14.2.1.1
14.2.1.2
­Introduction 185
Concept of Organic Farming 185
Principles of Health 185
Principles of Ecology 185
Principles of Fairness 185
Principles of Care 185
Global Scenario of Organic Farming 185
Organic Farming vs. Conventional Farming 186
Biodynamic Agriculture 186
­Soil Health 186
Soil Health vs. Soil Quality 187
Soil Health Indicators 187
Soil Health Management and Soil Health Principles
163
187
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14.3
14.3.1
14.3.2
14.3.3
14.4
14.5
­ rganic Farming Affecting Soil Health: Soil Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties
O
Effect of Organic Farming on Soil Physical Properties 189
Effect of Organic Farming on Soil Chemical Properties 190
Effect of Organic Farming on Soil Biological Properties 191
­Organic Farming Toward One Health 192
­Challenges, Trends, and Prospects 194
­References 194
15
Chronic Kidney Disease with Uncertain Etiology in Sri Lanka: Selected Case Studies
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.4.1
15.4.2
15.4.3
15.5
15.5.1
15.5.2
15.5.3
15.6
I­ ntroduction 199
­Prevalence of CKDu in Sri Lanka 199
­Etiology of CKDu 200
­Influence of Hydro-­geochemical Quality of Drinking Water 202
Fluoride and Hardness 202
Toxic Trace Metals 206
Agrochemical Usage and Food Contamination 206
­Influence of Biochemical Factors on CKDu 206
Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) in groundwater 206
Cyanotoxins 207
Heat Stress 207
­Future Directions 207
­References 207
16
Waste in One Health: Building Resilient Communities Through Sustainable Waste Management
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.6.1
16.6.2
16.6.3
16.7
I­ ntroduction 211
­Waste and Environmental Health 211
­Waste and Human Health 213
­Waste and Animal Health 213
­Waste Management During and Post-­COVID-­19 Pandemic 214
­Futuristic Approaches in Waste Management 215
Waste Management in a Circular Economy 215
Waste Management in Smart Cities 215
New and Emerging Technologies in Waste Management 216
­Final Remarks 217
­References 217
17
One Health Approach for Eye Care: Is It a Boon or Hype 221
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.4.1
17.4.2
17.4.3
17.4.4
17.5
17.5.1
17.5.1.1
17.5.1.2
Abbreviations 221
­Introduction 221
­Eye – The Visual Organ 222
­Eye Diseases 222
­Cornea and Its Diseases 223
Corneal Injury 223
Epithelial Injury 223
Microbial Infection 223
Gradation of the Damage 223
­Types of Corneal Injuries 224
Chemical Injuries 224
Alkali Injury 224
Acid Injury 224
xi
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199
211
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17.5.2
17.5.2.1
17.5.2.2
17.5.2.3
17.5.2.4
17.5.2.5
17.6
17.6.1
17.6.2
17.6.3
17.6.4
17.6.5
17.6.5.1
17.6.5.2
17.6.6
17.6.6.1
17.6.6.2
17.7
17.7.1
17.7.2
17.7.3
17.8
17.9
17.10
17.11
17.11.1
17.11.2
17.12
17.13
17.14
Particulate Injury 224
Pollution 224
Water Pollution 225
Non-­Infectious Waterborne Infections 225
Infectious Waterborne Diseases 225
Treatment of Corneal Injury 225
­Retina and Its Diseases 225
Diabetic Macular Edema (DME) and Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) 226
Macular Hole 227
Age-­Related Macular Degeneration 227
Retinal Detachment 227
Inherited Retinal Disorders 227
Therapies for IRD 228
Gene–Environmental Interactions in Inherited Retinal Diseases 230
Glaucoma 230
External Therapeutic Drugs That Can Cause Glaucoma 230
Treatment for Glaucoma 232
­Environmental Effect on Eye Diseases 232
Air Pollution 232
Light Stress 232
Effect of Smoking/Tobacco Consumption on Ocular Ailments 233
­Microbes and Eye Diseases 233
­Eye Cancers and Environment 233
­Eye Diseases and COVID Infection 234
­Role of Community Screening by Optometrists 235
Community Eye Care 235
Awareness 236
­Role of Community Awareness Programs 236
­The Role of Green Landscapes in Eye Health 236
­Ocular Health and One Health Approach 236
­References 236
18
Wastes in One Health – African Perspective 243
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7
18.8
18.9
18.10
18.11
18.12
18.13
18.14
18.15
I­ ntroduction 243
­Waste Categorization 243
­Plastics 244
­Domestic Garbage 244
­Liquid Waste 244
­Radioactive Waste 244
­Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (e-­Waste) 245
­Drivers of Wastes Generation in Africa 245
­Poor Handling Practices of Wastes 245
­Knowledge, Attitudes, and Perceptions of Wastes in One Health 246
­Environmental Degradation of Improper Waste Disposal 246
­Impact of Exposure to Waste on Human Health 246
­Contemporary Issues: Waste Management and Antimicrobial Resistance
­Waste Management Practices 249
­Actionable Recommendations on Waste in One Health 250
­References 250
248
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19
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.3.1
19.3.1.1
19.3.1.2
19.3.1.3
19.3.1.4
19.3.2
19.3.2.1
19.3.2.2
19.3.2.3
19.3.2.4
19.3.3
19.4
19.5
Endocrine Disruptors and Female Reproductive Health: A Problem to Tackle with
One Health Perspective 255
­
­Introduction 255
­Endocrine Disruptors 256
­Human Female Reproductive Tract 257
EDCs and the Ovary 258
Bisphenols 259
Phthalates 259
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) 260
Genistein 260
EDCs and the Endometrium 261
Bisphenol A 262
Phthalates 262
Polychlorinated Biphenyls 263
Genistein 263
EDCs and Transgenerational and Multigenerational Effect 264
­Mitigating the Exposure/Impact of EDCs and Future Research Through the “One Health” Approach
­Concluding Remarks 265
­References 266
265
273
20
Emerging and Re-­emerging Zoonoses in South Asia: Challenges of One Health
20.1
20.2
20.3
20.3.1
20.3.2
20.3.3
20.3.4
20.3.5
20.3.6
20.3.7
20.3.8
20.3.9
20.4
20.4.1
20.4.2
20.4.3
20.4.4
20.4.5
20.5
­ ne Health Concept 273
O
­Zoonoses 274
­Emerging and Re-­emerging Zoonoses in South Asia 275
Rabies 275
Leishmaniasis 276
Trypanosomiasis 277
Nipah Virus 278
Coronavirus (SARS, MERS, CoV) Infections 279
Leptospirosis 279
Anthrax 279
Avian Influenza 280
Other Zoonoses 280
­Challenges of Implementing One Health in South Asia 280
Poverty and Overpopulation 280
Identification of Zoonoses in Animals 281
Poor Collaboration Between Different Parties Involved in Zoonosis Control
Lack of Awareness 282
Political Instability 282
­Conclusion 282
­Acknowledgments 282
­References 282
21
Impacts of Crop Protection Practices on Human Infectious Diseases: Agroecology as the Preferred
Strategy to Integrate Crop Plant Health Within the Extended “One Health” Framework 287
­
­Introduction 287
­Limits of the Study 287
­A Conceptual Framework to Position Crop Protection Practices 289
21.1
21.2
21.3
xiii
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21.3.1
21.3.1.1
21.3.1.2
21.3.1.3
21.3.1.4
21.3.2
21.3.2.1
21.3.2.2
21.3.2.3
21.3.2.4
21.3.2.5
21.3.2.6
21.3.3
21.3.3.1
21.3.3.2
21.3.3.3
21.3.3.4
21.3.3.5
21.3.3.6
21.4
21.4.1
21.4.2
21.4.3
22
22.1
22.2
22.3
22.4
22.5
22.5.1
22.5.2
22.5.3
22.6
22.7
22.7.1
22.7.2
22.8
22.9
Examples of Conventional Crop Protection Practices or Those Aiming at Improving the Efficiency of the Same
(=E-­Based) 289
Synthetic Insecticides 289
Synthetic Rodenticides 289
Synthetic Herbicides 292
Synthetic Bactericides and Fungicides 292
Examples of Substitution (S)-­Based Crop Protection Practices 292
Crop Plant Resistance 292
Trapping, Hunting, and Culling of Vertebrate Pests 294
Physical Barriers 294
Mineral, Botanical, or Organic Pesticides 294
Augmentative Biological Control 295
Soil Solarization 295
Examples of Redesign (R)-­Based Crop Protection Practices 295
Sanitizing Rotations 295
Push-­Pull 297
Crop-­Livestock Integration 297
Conservation Biological Control with Arthropod Natural Enemies 297
Conservation Biological Control with Vertebrate Natural Enemies 298
Organic Agriculture 298
­Discussion and Conclusion 299
Irrelevance of Conventional Crop Protection Practices or Those Aiming at Improving the Efficiency of the
Same (=“E”-­Based) 299
Relevance of Some Substitution (S)-­Based and Most Redesign (R)-­Based Crop Protection Practices 299
Agroecology as the Preferred Strategy to Integrate Crop Plant Health Within the Extended “One Health”
Framework 299
­References 300
Tackling Antimicrobial Resistance Needs One Health Approach 309
­
­ ntimicrobial Resistance (AMR): A Brief Overview 309
A
­AMR: Antimicrobials, Their Origin, and Development of Resistance 309
­AMR: Types and Mechanisms 311
­AMR: No Boundaries for Transmission 311
­AMR: Current Status 313
Burden of AMR in Human Health 313
Burden of AMR in Animal Sector 314
AMR in the Environment 315
­AMR: Inter and Intra Transmission Among Humans, Animals, and Environment
­One Health Approach for Tackling AMR 317
Action Plan by WHO 317
Tripartite (WHO, FAO, and OIE Working Together) 320
­Constraints in Implementing One Health Approach 320
­Conclusion 320
­References 320
315
23
Eco-­epidemiology of Tick-­Borne Pathogens: Role of Tick Vectors and Host Animal Community
Composition in Their Circulation and Source of Infections 325
23.1
23.1.1
23.1.2
23.1.3
­General Features of Tick Biology 325
Ticks as Ectoparasites 325
Tick Life Cycle 325
Tick-­Borne Infections (TBIs) and Tick-­Borne Pathogens
326
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Contents
23.2
23.2.1
23.2.2
23.3
23.3.1
23.3.2
23.4
23.4.1
23.4.2
23.4.3
23.4.4
23.5
23.6
­ cological Factors Affecting Tick-­Borne Agents 327
E
Reservoirs of TBIs: Domestic and Sylvatic Cycles 327
Biodiversity and the Dilution Effect Model 328
Ticks and Tick-­Transmitted Pathogens in the United States 328
Ticks are the Most Prevalent Sources of Vector-­Borne Infections in the United States 328
A New Concern in the Study of Tick-­Borne Agents in the United States 335
­Ticks and Tick-­Transmitted Pathogens in Sri Lanka 335
Current Knowledge About Ticks and their Hosts in Sri Lanka 335
Tick-­Borne Disease Agents and Human Diseases in Sri Lanka 335
Animal Reservoirs of Tick-­Borne Disease Agents in Sri Lanka 338
Ecological Considerations Affecting Tick-­Borne Disease Agents and Their Transmission in Sri Lanka
­The One Health Approach to Understanding Tick-­Borne Disease Agents 340
­Conclusions and Future Directions 342
­Acknowledgments 342
­References 342
24
Natural Enemies Against Dengue: Opportunities and Constraints on Biological Control of Dengue
Vectors in Sri Lanka 351
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4
24.4.1
24.4.2
24.4.3
24.4.4
24.5
24.6
24.7
24.8
24.9
­ engue: The Fastest Spreading Vector-­Borne Disease
D
­Management Strategies of Dengue 351
­Biological Control of Dengue 352
­Biological Control of Dengue in Sri Lanka 353
Larvivorous Fish 353
Cyclopoid Copepods 353
Dragonfly Nymphs 354
Bacillus Strains 354
­Carnivorous Mosquito Larvae 354
­Carnivorous Aquatic Plants 354
­Endoparasitic Ciliates with Antagonistic Effect 356
­Ecological Perspective of Biological Control 356
­Opportunities, Constraints, and Way Forward 358
­Acknowledgments 359
­References 359
Section III
xv
339
351
Futuristic Approach for One Health 363
25
Planetary Health: Rethinking Health 365
25.1
25.1.1
25.1.2
25.1.3
25.1.4
25.1.5
25.1.6
25.2
25.3
25.3.1
25.3.2
25.3.3
25.3.4
I­ mpact of Humans on the Planet 365
Climate Change 365
Ocean Acidification 366
Freshwater 366
Changes in Land Use and Soil Erosion 369
Toxic Chemical Pollution and Exposure 372
Biodiversity Loss 372
­Paradigm Shift: Human to Planetary Health 374
­Approaches to Promote Planetary Health 380
Food 380
Integrated Land Use Planning 381
Female Empowerment 381
Energy 381
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xvi
Contents
25.3.5
25.3.6
25.4
Manufacturing of Goods and Services 381
Sustainable and Resilient Cities 382
­Measure Growth, Progress, and Development and Govern Ourselves 382
­Acknowledgment 382
­References 384
26
SARS-­CoV-­2 and Other Pathogenic Organisms in Food and Water: Health Implications and
Environmental Risk 389
26.1
26.2
26.3
26.4
26.5
26.5.1
26.5.2
26.6
26.6.1
26.7
26.7.1
26.8
I­ ntroduction 389
­SARS-­CoV-­2 and Other Pathogens in Food and Drinking Water 390
­Food as a Non-­Droplet Spreading Route of Pathogen 396
­Water is a Carrier of SARS-­CoV-­2 With Other Pathogens 399
­Eradication Methods of Pathogen for Safety and Sustainability 400
Chemical Disinfectant 400
Physical Disinfectant 400
­Disadvantage of Chemical Remediation of Foodborne Pathogen 400
Chlorine as Disinfectant to Remove SARS-­CoV-­2 and its Impact on Ecosystem (Chemical Remediation)
­Biological Remediation and its Advantage 403
The Application of Biosurfactant as Antiviral Agent Against COVID-­19 403
­Conclusion 404
­Acknowledgments 405
­Conflict of Interest 405
­Funding 405
­Credit Author Statement 405
­References 405
27
Modifying the Anthropocene Equation with One Health Concept
27.1
27.2
27.3
27.3.1
27.3.2
27.3.3
27.3.4
27.4
27.5
27.6
“­ A” for Anthropocene 411
­The Inseparability of Human, Animal, and Environmental Health; One Health Concept
­Trends in Global Environmental Change in Recent Anthropocene 413
Climate Change and Global Warming 413
Biodiversity Loss 413
Altering Biogeochemical Cycles; Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles 414
Chemical Pollution 414
­Challenges to One Health in the Recent Anthropocene 414
­From One Health Concept to Practice 416
­Conclusion 417
­References 418
28
Bioavailability of Trace Elements in Soils
28.1
28.2
28.3
28.3.1
28.3.2
28.3.3
28.3.4
I­ ntroduction 421
­Bioavailability Process in Soil 421
­Factors Affecting Bioavailability Process
pH 423
Redox Potential 423
Organic Matter 423
Clay 423
402
411
412
421
423
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Contents
28.3.5
28.3.6
28.3.7
28.4
28.4.1
28.4.1.1
28.4.1.2
28.5
28.5.1
28.5.1.1
28.5.1.2
28.5.1.3
28.5.1.4
28.5.2
28.5.3
28.5.4
28.5.5
28.5.6
28.5.7
28.5.8
28.6
Cation Exchange Capacity 423
Oxides and Hydroxides 424
Inherent Bioavailability Potential of Elements 424
­Soil–Plant Transfer of Trace Elements 424
Assessment of Bioavailability of Trace Metal(loid)s 424
Soil Metal Pollution Assessment 424
Plant Metal Remediation Assessment 424
­Strategies Used to Control the Bioavailability of TEs 425
Incorporation of Soil Amendments with Soil 425
Biochar 426
Industrial By-­Products 426
Natural Minerals 426
Metal Oxides 426
Phytomining 426
Phytoremediation 426
Microbial Bioremediation 429
Artificially Established Wetlands 430
Soil Washing 430
Bio-­Electrokinetic Remediation 430
Low-­Temperature Thermal Desorption 430
­Remarks 430
­References 431
29
“Light” as an Environmental Factor for the Well-­Being of the “Plant, Animal, and Human Triad” 435
29.1
29.2
29.3
29.4
29.5
29.6
29.7
29.8
29.9
29.10
29.11
29.12
29.13
29.14
29.15
I­ ntroduction 435
­Phototropic Movements in Retina and Visual Function 435
­Phototropism in Plants 436
­Phototropisms and Phototaxis in Animals 437
­Photomorphogenesis 438
­Photosynthesis 438
­Heliotropic Movements in Animals, Humans, and Plants 439
­Heliotropic Movements in Plants – Case Study of Plants Grown at University of Hyderabad 439
­Solar Tracking can be Modeled by Quantum Mechanics 442
­Genetic Basis of Movements 442
­Vision in Animals, Unicellular to Multicellular Organism, and Rhodopsin Cycle 444
­Optogenetics: Photoreceptors, Neural Circuits, and Light-­Induced Channels 446
­Metabolites, Circadian Clock, and Sleep Pattern in Humans Under Altered Light Conditions 447
­Light Therapy for Human Diseases 448
­Conclusion and Prospects 450
­Acknowledgments 450
­References 451
xvii
Index 457
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3
1
The Need for One Health Approach at the Recent
Anthropocene
1.1 ­Anthropocene
Humans have become closer to both the environment and
other life forms. In the early stages of our civilization,
extraction of natural resources by humans resulted in minimal impacts on the ecosystem. Nevertheless, over the
years, humanity thrived on natural resources, alleviating
poverty with improving access to safe water and sanitation,
hygiene, and housing (Deaton 2015). Developments in
­preventive and curative healthcare contributed toward
reduction of both communicable and non-­communicable
diseases (Pinker 2020). Life expectancy at birth has
increased, and under-­five mortality has declined to unprecedented levels (Haines et al. 2019).
However, subsequently, our relationships with the ecosystem components have been more competitive than collaborative to a large extent. As a result, severe negative
impacts have been had on the environment. Rising economic and population growth demanded an escalation of
the use of natural resources for housing, agriculture, and
industry (Steffen et al. 2015). Indiscriminate use of fossil
fuels has become unsustainable (Steffen et al. 2015). It is
estimated that the current extinction rates of species are
1000 times higher than the natural background rates of
extinction, whereas the future rates would be 10,000 times
higher (De Vos et al. 2015). A myriad of environmental
conflicts such as ocean acidification, pollution, and overfishing have resulted in the meantime (Jackson 2010). The
period in the history of the earth where the impacts of
human beings have been so fast, profound, and far-­reaching
has been named the Anthropocene. The Working Group
on the Anthropocene has agreed that the mid-­twentieth
century to be the starting point of the Anthropocene
(Zalasiewicz et al. 2017).
1.2 ­Infectious Diseases: Animals
to Humans
One of the necessary evils of humans becoming more and
more closer to animals, both domesticated and wild, has
increased the exposure of humans to infectious diseases.
For example, 60% of known infectious diseases in humans
and 70% of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) have been
caused by zoonotic pathogens (Woolhouse and Gowtage-­
Sequeria 2005; Taylor and Habibi 2020). It has also been
found that zoonotic pathogens are two times more associated with emerging and reemerging infectious diseases
than non-­zoonotic pathogens (Woolhouse and Gowtage-­
Sequeria 2005). The evolution of the One Health Concept
is closely linked to the infectious diseases in domesticated
and wild animals that could infect humans or cause
zoonoses. A zoonosis is any disease or infection that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans
(WHO 2020). We will commence this chapter by reviewing
emerging and reemerging infectious diseases (RIDs), with
a focus on zoonosis.
1.3 ­Emerging and Reemerging
Infectious Diseases
EIDs and RIDs are used to signal the absolutely or relatively
new risks of infectious diseases in each area or community.
Thus, the definition of EIDs and RIDs takes the time and
place into consideration. EIDs signal new infectious disease
risks, whereas RIDs indicate older risks that are reappearing. Table 1.1 summarizes the definitions of EIDs and RIDs.
A third category has been identified as deliberately emerging infectious diseases (DID), indicating those used with
One Health: Human, Animal, and Environment Triad, First Edition. Edited by Meththika Vithanage and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad.
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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4
1 The Need for One Health Approach at the Recent Anthropocene
Table 1.1
Definition of emerging and reemerging infectious diseases.
Emerging Infectious Diseases (EIDs)
Description
Example(s)
Diseases that have not occurred in humans before
COVID-­19a
Diseases that have occurred previously but affected only a small numbers of
people in isolated places
AIDS, Ebola hemorrhagic fever
Diseases that have occurred throughout human history but have only recently
been recognized as distinct diseases due to an infectious agent
Lyme diseases, gastric ulcers
Reemerging infectious Diseases (RIDs)
Diseases that once were major health problems globally or in a particular country
and then declined dramatically but are again becoming health problems for a
significant proportion of the population
Malaria, tuberculosis
Deliberately Emerging Infectious Diseases (DIDs)b
Diseases occurring due to pathogens that have been developed by man, usually for
nefarious use
Anthrax
Accidently Emerging Infectious Diseases (AIDs)
Epizootic vaccinia, Transmissible
vaccine-­derived polioviruses
­
malicious intentions. Figure 1.1 shows the global examples
of diseases belonging to these three categories.
An EID is a disease of which the prevalence has recently
increased considering the timeframe of 20 years, and this
rise may continue in the near future (Verma n.d.). Under
EID, three categories of diseases could be identified.
The first category involves newly emerging infectious
diseases in humans for the first time, such as HIV/AIDS
(1981), Nipah virus (1999), SARS (2002), MERS (2012), and
COVID-­19 (2019).
The second category has historically been known to infect
humans, but they appear in new locations (e.g. West Nile in
the United States and Russia in 1999) or in more resistant
forms (e.g. methicillin-­resistant Staphylococcus aureus).
The third category includes diseases that have affected
human beings over time but only have recently been identified as being due to an infective agent (e.g. Lyme diseases,
gastric ulcer) (Tabish 2009).
RID is used to indicate infectious diseases that were once
a significant health problem in an area, declined in their
occurrence considerably, and are now reoccurring as a
problem (e.g. malaria, tuberculosis) (Tabish 2009).
DID occurs due to the use of pathogenic organisms to
cause human suffering (e.g. anthrax) (Morens et al. 2004).
Accidentally emerging infectious disease (AID) occurs due
to unintentional human errors (e.g. epizootic vaccinia and
transmissible vaccine-­derived polioviruses).
In addition to the categories mentioned earlier, some
infections become endemic in areas where they were once
newly emerging infections.
EIDs occur due to the complex interaction between
many factors. An extensive list of factors has been identified in relation to the human, animal, and environmental interphases. We have summarized factors from
literature on the subject in Table 1.2 (Church 2004;
Health [US] and Study 2007; Morens et al. 2004;
Morens and Fauci 2020; Tabish 2009).
As shown in Table 1.2, a range of factors operating at
underlying, intermediate, and immediate level could be
identified as contributing to the rise of EID, RID, DID,
and AID. Underlying factors such as population growth,
globalization, urbanization, and industrialization
explain how, over time, a more favorable environment
for the emergence of such diseases has evolved at the
global level. In the meantime, political instability, social
injustice, and inequality are contributing to the increased
risk of such diseases. Further, climate change, which is
anthropogenic and resulting from a combination of
underlying factors, is also contributing to the rise of
diseases.
Under intermediate factors, population mobility is considered. The movement of people within and between
countries has contributed to the introduction of new diseases to new locations very quickly. The COVID-­19 pandemic is the best example of this from the recent past. In
addition, along with population growth and economic
development, the demand for meat production has
increased not only for food, but also for proteins.
Hence the need for modern food production has
increased, including food production in strictly regulated
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1.3 ­Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Disease
Newly emerging
Re-emerging/resurging
Cryptosporidiosis
Heartland virus
Enterovirus D68
Antimicrobial-resistant threats
(CRE, C. difficile, MRSA,
N. gonorrhoeae)
Human monkeypox
H3N2v influenza
Hepatitis C (nationwide)
E. coli O157:H7
Measles
Adenovirus 14
Listeriosis
“Deliberately emerging”
Cryptosporidiosis
E. coil O104:H4
Powassan virus
MDR/XDR
tuberculosis
Lyme disease
West Nile virus
Anthrax bioterrorism
Dengue
Akhmeta virus
MERS-CoV
Diphtheria
Hepatitis C
MDR/XDR
tuberculosis
MDR/XDR
tuberculosis
Coronavirus disease
2019 (COVID-19)
H5N6 influenza
SFTSV bunyavirus
H10N8 influenza
E. coil O157:H7
Typhoid fever
H7N9 influenza
Drug-resistant
malaria
H5N1 influenza
SARS
Drug-resistant
malaria
HIV
2009 H1N1
influenza
Hantavirus
pulmonary
syndrome
5
Lassa
fever
Nipah
virus
Human African
trypanosomiasis
Acute flaccid myelitis
Bourbon virus
Cyclosporiasis
Yellow fever
Hantavirus
pulmonary
syndrome
Chikungunya
Zika virus
Cholera
Figure 1.1
Ebola
virus
Marburg
virus
Rift Valley
fever
Ebola virus
Human
monkeypox
Zika virus
Plague
MDR/XDR
tuberculosis
Cholera
Hendra virus
Enterovirus 71
Nipah virus
Map of emerging, re-emerging and deliberately emerging infectious diseases (Morens and Fauci 2020).
environments. Cross-­border transportation of food,
including meat and meat products, became a necessity,
increasing the risk of EID and RID. Irrational use of antibiotics, not only for human health but also in animal husbandry, increased the risk of immediate risk factors such
as antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The deterioration of
biosafety and biosecurity systems, backed by global political instability as an underlying factor, contributed to the
rise of DID and AIDs.
The interplay of the underlying and intermediate factors gives rise to the immediate factors for the emergence
of EID, RID, DID, and AID. New or more virulent forms
of known pathogens could rapidly arise. Increasing vector density could rapidly transmit the disease to humans.
Humans being in close contact with the vectors could
increase the spread. Breaches of food security will also
increase the risk of food-­borne diseases. Poor immunity
of humans to such new organisms, coupled with
increased exposure, could increase the risk of human
infections. Breakdown of health services could hamper
surveillance, early detection, and management of newly
emerging diseases. AMR could further deteriorate the
situation by making the available antibiotics effective
against the pathogens.
When considering the contributory factor framework
mentioned earlier, the emergence of EID, RID, DID, and
AID cut across humans, animals, and the environment.
Therefore, one discipline alone cannot engage all stakeholders, agencies, and organizations. One Health is an
approach aimed at engaging the whole range of stakeholders from human health, animal health, and environmental
health to address the complex problems of EIDs. This has
been a concept that has been in evolution probably from
the beginning of human civilization. The Greek physician
Hippocrates, in the fifth or fourth century BCE, in his book
Airs, Waters, and Places, explored the causal relationship
between human disease and the environment (Miller 1962).
Table 1.3 summarizes the historical evolution of the One
Health concept. The core of the approach as enshrined in
its definition, as well as the historical narrative, is that consorted efforts are needed to ensure the health of people,
animals, and the environment instead of the compartmental and fragmented approach to addressing the health of
each component separately.
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6
1 The Need for One Health Approach at the Recent Anthropocene
Table 1.2 Factors contributing to the rise of emerging, reemerging, deliberately emerging, and accidently emerging
infectious diseases.
Underlying factors
Intermediate factors
Immediate factors
Population growth
Population mobility
Evolution of new or more virulent organisms
Globalization
Increased demand for food especially protein
Increased vector breeding
Urbanization
Cross-­border transportation of food
Increased exposure to pathogens
Industrialization
Modern food production practices
Breaches of food safety
Political instability
Antimicrobial misuse in humans and animals
Poor human immunity
Social injustice
Deterioration of biosafety and biosecurity systems
Inequity
Antimicrobial resistance
Breakdown of health services
Climate change
Table 1.3
Historical evolution of the One Health concept.
Year
Events
2013
●●
2012
●●
2011
●●
2010
●●
The Second International One Health Congress is held in conjunction with the Prince Mahidol Award
Conference
The Global Risk Forum sponsors the first One Health Summit
The High-­Level Technical Meeting to Address Health Risks at the Human-­Animal-­Ecosystem Interface Builds
Political Will for the One Health Movement
The European Union Reaffirms its Commitment to Operate Under a One Health Umbrella
The United Nations and the World Bank Recommend Adoption of One Health Approaches
●● Experts Identify Clear and Concrete Actions to Move the Concept of One Health from Vision to Implementation
●● The Hanoi Declaration, Which Recommends Broad Implementation of One Health, is Adopted Unanimously
●●
2009
Key Recommendations for One World, One Health™ are Developed
USAID Establishes the Emerging Pandemic Threats Program
●● The One Health Office is Established at CDC
●●
●●
2008
●●
●●
2007
One Health Becomes a Recommended Approach and a Political Reality
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), OIE, and WHO Collaborate with UNICEF,
UNSIC, and the World Bank to develop a Joint Strategic Framework in Response to the Evolving Risk of
Emerging and Re-­emerging Infectious Diseases
●●
The One Health Approach is Recommended for Pandemic Preparedness
The American Medical Association Passes the One Health Resolution Promoting Partnership Between Human
and Veterinary Medicine
2004
●●
The Wildlife Conservation Society Publishes the 12 Manhattan Principles
1927–2006
●●
1947
●●
The Veterinary Public Health Division is Established at CDC
1849–1919
●●
William Osler, Father of Veterinary Pathology
1821–1902
●●
Virchow Recognizes the Link Between Human and Animal Health
●●
Calvin Schwabe Coins the Term “One Medicine” and calls for a Unified Approach Against Zoonoses That Uses
Both Human and Veterinary Medicine
1.4 ­Definition of One Health
Several definitions of One Health could be found, probably showcasing the focus of the agency that has created
it in relation to the concept. A narrow and a broader
approach to One Health have been described. The narrow approach had a biomedical focus, largely combining
human and animal health through human and veterinary medicine. The WHO and Organization for Animal
Health (WOAH, founded as OIE) definitions are examples of such narrow approaches addressing One Health.
The broader definitions have been put forward by the
One Health Commission and One Health Global
Network. Hence, all definitions have some large
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1.4 ­Definition of One Healt
overlaps; however, each has its own uniqueness, which
probably would have contributed to the creation of yet
another definition (Figure 1.2). Three definitions of One
Health are considered in Table 1.4.
Ecology
Veterinary
medicine
Public health
Individual
health
Population
health
Environmental
health
Bacterial infections
Viral infections
Vector-borne
infections
Antimicrobial
resistance
Parasite
infections
Bio threats
Zoonotic infections
Global
health
Food safety
Surveillance
The broader scope of One Health could be shown
using the following umbrella diagram by the One
Health Initiative (Gibbs and Paul 2014; One Health
Initiative 2019).
Human
medicine
Molecular and
microbiology
Ecosystem
health
Comparative
medicine/
Translational
medicine
Vector
control
Health
economics
Metabolic disorders in
humans and animals
Cancer and
cardiovascular disease
in humans and
animals
Intervention
Vaccines and
thera peutics
7
Joint and skeletal
diseases in humans
and animals
Human-animal
bond
Environmental
hazards exposure to
humans and animals
Sanitation
Figure 1.2
The One Health Umbrella. Source: One Health Initiative.
Table 1.4
Definitions of One Health.
WHO definition
An approach to designing and implementing programs, policies, and legislation and research in which multiple sectors communicate
and work together to achieve better public health outcomes (WHO 2017).
Organization for Animal Health (WOHA, Founded as OIE) definition
A collaborative global approach to understand risks for human and animal health (including both domestic animals and wildlife) and
ecosystem health as a whole.
US CDC and One Health Commission definition
One Health is a collaborative, multisectoral, and trans-­disciplinary approach – working at local, regional, national, and global
levels – to achieve optimal health (and well-­being) outcomes recognizing the interconnections between people, animals, plants, and
their shared environment (One Health Commission n.d.).
Food and Agriculture Organization definition
“A collaborative, international, cross sectoral, multidisciplinary mechanism to address threats and reduce risks of detrimental
infectious diseases at the animal-­human-­ecosystem interface.”
One Health Global Network – Aim of One Health
Aim of One Health is to “improve health and wellbeing through the prevention of risks and the mitigation of effects of crises that
originate at the interface between humans, animals and their various environments.”
One Health Initiative definition
A worldwide strategy for expanding interdisciplinary collaborations and communications in all aspects of health care for humans,
animals, and the environment (Monath et al. 2010).
(Continued)
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8
1 The Need for One Health Approach at the Recent Anthropocene
Table 1.4
(Continued)
Joint Tripartite (FAO, OIE, WHO) and United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP)
One Health is an integrated, unifying approach that aims to sustainably balance and optimize the health of people, animals, and
ecosystems.
It recognizes the health of humans, domestic and wild animals, plants, and the wider environment (including ecosystems) are closely
linked and inter-­dependent.
The approach mobilizes multiple sectors, disciplines, and communities at varying levels of society to work together to foster well-­
being and tackle threats to health and ecosystems, while addressing the collective need for clean water, energy and air, safe and
nutritious food, taking action on climate change, and contributing to sustainable development (WHO 2021; Panel [OHHLEP]
et al. 2022).
The broader definition of One Health proposed by the
One Health initiative involves disciplines such as environmental health, ecology, veterinary medicine, public health,
human medicine, molecular microbiology, and health economics (Gibbs and Paul 2014; One Health Initiative 2019).
It explores the relationship between individual health,
population health, and ecosystem health. Two overlapping
domains could be identified under the broad One Health
umbrella: Zoonotic infections and comparative medicine/
translational medicine. The former explores the spread and
control of infectious diseases between humans, animals,
and the environment, both naturally and intentionally. The
comparative/translational medicine uses the One Health
approach that uses animal models to explore cancer and
therapeutics such as medicines and vaccines for human use.
An important feature of the WHO definition of One
Health is its obvious focus on public health, while it calls
for different tiers of action, namely programmatic, legislative, policy, and research. The OIE definition sheds light on
both domestic and wild animals while emphasizing ecosystem health. The Joint Tripartite and UNEP definitions
show a unification of the focus on human, animal, and
environmental health while introducing the concept of
sustainability.
1.5 ­Other Paradigms to One Health
It should be noted that in addition to One Health, at least
two other paradigms also have arisen to address similar yet
overlapping issues in the intersection of human, animal,
and environmental health. They are Eco Health and
Planetary Health.
“Eco health can be defined as systemic, participatory
approaches to understanding and promoting health and
wellbeing in the context of social and ecological interactions. (Waltner-­Toews 2009)” The six pillars of Eco-­Health
approach are systems thinking, trans disciplinarity, participation, gender and social equity, sustainability, and knowledge to action (Lisitza and Wolbring 2018).
Planetary Health is defined as “the achievement of the
highest attainable standard of health, wellbeing, and equity
worldwide through judicious attention to the human
­systems – political, economic, and social – that shape the
future of humanity and the Earth’s natural systems that
define the safe environmental limits within which humanity can flourish. Put simply, planetary health is the health
of human civilization and the state of the natural systems
on which it depends” (Whitmee et al. 2015). The core of
Planetary Health is the balance between two systems: the
human systems and natural systems.
The similarities and differences of One Health, Eco
Health, and Planetary Health have been discussed extensively (Lerner and Berg 2017). The advantages of these
approaches based on the differences in their foci have been
acknowledged in this research while pointing out the challenges of these overlapping approaches competing for a
limited number of resources available to address them
meaningfully.
1.6 ­One Health Fundamentals
The implementation of One Health calls for a range of
activities across human health, animal health, and wildlife
health. Following actions are recommended by CDC, to
ensure that One Health is in Action (Figure 1.3).
One Health approach calls for people who protect
human, animal, and environmental health and other
partners to get together. They would coordinate, collaborate, and communicate to achieve the best health outcomes for people, animals, plants, and the environment
(CDC 2022c).
The intersectoral and interdisciplinary nature of One
Health demands the engagement of professionals from
diverse backgrounds in its implementation (Table 1.5).
In addition, coordination between different levels, from
the global level to the community level, is essential for the
effective implementation of the One Health approach. We
will examine two of the global collaborative mechanisms
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1.7 ­International Health Regulations and Its Evaluation
Mechanism
9
One
health
Coordinating
Communicating
Collaborating
To achieve the best
health outcomes for
people, animals, plants,
and our environment
People who protect
human, animal, and
environmental health,
and other partners
Figure 1.3 The foundations of One Health (https://www.cdc.gov/onehealth/basics/index.html) (Source: Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention).
Table 1.5 Multistakeholder professional engagement for One
Health approach.
Human health
Table 1.6 International Health Regulations core capacities
and Global Health Security Agenda action packages.
Doctors, nurses, public health
practitioners, and epidemiologists
IHR core capacities
Global Health Security
Agenda action packages
Veterinarians, paraprofessionals, and
agricultural workers
Legislation and policy
Antimicrobial resistance
Environment
Ecologists and wildlife experts
Coordination
Biosecurity and biosafety
Other areas of
expertise
Law enforcement, policymakers,
agriculture, communities, and even
pet owners
Surveillance
Immunization
Response
Laboratory systems
Preparedness
Legal preparedness
Risk communication
Surveillance
Human resources
Sustainable financing
Laboratory
Workforce development
Points of entry
Zoonotic diseases
Animal health
and platforms available that could be used for the implementation of the One Health approach (Table 1.6).
1.7 ­International Health Regulations
and Its Evaluation Mechanisms
Zoonotic events
International Health Regulations (IHR) (2005) provides
an overarching legal framework that promotes cross-­
border mobility of both humans and goods while minimizing public health threats. The IHR is part of an
international law that is legally binding in 196 countries,
including 194 WHO member states. It provides the criteria to determine an event as a “public health emergency
of international concern” (WHO 2016). Zoonotic events
Radio nuclear emergencies
Food safety
Chemical events
have been considered one of the IHR core capacities that
a country has to develop. Other capacities too are linked
to One Health indicating the public health risks across
the human, animal, and environmental interphases.
Several mechanisms are in place for the monitoring and
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10
1 The Need for One Health Approach at the Recent Anthropocene
evaluation of the implementation of IHR, such as State
Party Self Reporting, Joint External Evaluation, After
Action Review and Simulation Exercise. These mechanisms could be used to advocate for the implementation
of the One Health approach at the country level
(WHO 2016, 2022). In addition, the WOAH (Founded as
OIE) has developed the Performance of Veterinary Services
(PVS) Pathway, a capacity building platform for the sustainable improvement of national Veterinary Services.
Efforts are on the way for connecting the IHR and PVS
approaches as a part of global One Health efforts (World
Organisation for Animal Health, 2019).
1.8 ­Global Health Security Agenda
The Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA) is a coalition of
over 70 countries, international organizations and non-­
government organizations, and private sector companies
working together to achieve the vision of a world safe and
secure from global health threats posed by infectious diseases
(Global Health Security Agenda 2014). GHSA has developed
a framework to evaluate the health security of countries. Out
of the action packages of GHSA, zoonotic diseases, AMR,
and biosafety and biosecurity could be directly linked to the
One Health approach, while all other action packages could
be useful in promoting the One Health approach.
One key aspect that we need to address in the One Health
concept is the interrelationships that operate between
human health, animal health, and environmental health.
A disease in one sector can jump into another and vice
versa. Thus, it is important that we bring professionals
from all sectors and communities together under the concept of One Health, for both disease surveillance and disease determinants and control. For example, good
surveillance of the animals could help contain a potential
disease before it could jump to humans. Thus, sharing surveillance data among different sectors, in turn, could
increase not only the efficiency of surveillance in total but
also the control across all sectors.
Another application of the One Health approach is the
unity and clarity that it could bring to risk communication with the general public. The need to communicate
uniform and coherent information by human and veterinary health authorities has sometimes been called the
“One Communication” concept (Cipolla et al. 2015). In
the absence of such a communication approach, it is
likely that the human, animal, and wildlife professionals
would provide contradictory messages. Let us take an
example of a disease that has the potential to spread
through cow’s milk. With prevention in mind, public
health professionals would say that drinking milk should
Table 1.7 One Health issues.
1) Zoonotic diseases
2) Antimicrobial resistance
3) Food safety and food security
4) Vector-­borne diseases
5) Environmental contamination
6) Health threats on humans (chronic disease, mental health,
injury, occupational health, and non-­communicable
diseases)
7) Health threats on animals
8) Health threats on the environment
be stopped, whereas wildlife and animal health professionals would say that it is ok to consume boiled or
cooked milk. Thus, it could be very challenging and confusing for the general public to comprehend, digest, and
act upon. In contrast, if professionals from all three sectors get together, discuss, come to a consensus based on
facts, and then deliver the unanimous risk communication messages, it is likely that the general public will
have less confusion and will be more likely to take action.
Several issues have been identified that need to be
addressed using the One Health approach, where the intersection between human, animal, and environmental health
becomes significant (Table 1.7).
Some of the One Health issues listed in Table 1.7 are discussed in detail in the following sections.
1.8.1 Zoonotic Diseases
Zoonoses are infectious diseases that could be transmitted
from animals, either domestic or wild, to humans or from
humans to animals. In contrast to anthroponosis, which
can be transmitted between humans, the spillover from the
animal to the human or human to the animal is the whole
mark feature of zoonosis.
Out of 1415 species of infectious organisms known to be
pathogenic to humans, 868 (61%) are found to be zoonotic.
In addition, out of the pathogenic organisms, 175 species
are considered to be emerging. It has been found that
zoonotic pathogens are more likely to be associated with
emerging diseases than non-­emerging ones. When considering the emerging infections, 75% were found to be
zoonotic. Further, it was found that zoonotic pathogens
were twice as likely to be associated with EIDs as non-­
zoonotic pathogens (Taylor et al. 2001).
The One Health approach is essential for the early identification of diseases with zoonotic potential in animals
through surveillance. Sharing the results of such surveillance with the human health institution could contribute
to the prevention of spillover to humans. In addition,
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1.8 ­Global Health Security Agend
11
Case Study – Identification of West Nile Fever Outbreak in New York City
It was observed that many birds, starting with American crows to Chilean Flamingos and snowy owls, were dying unusually in New York in 1999. In the meantime, an unusual outbreak of equine encephalitis was also observed on Long
Island. A human outbreak of encephalitis was also found simultaneously. The human outbreak was initially thought to
be due to St. Louis encephalitis virus. However, subsequently, it was found that the avian, equine, and human infections
were due to West Nile fever virus (WNV). The introduction of WNV to the USA was a clear example of the need for the
One Health approach in the surveillance and management of emerging zoonotic infectious diseases (Nash et al. 2001).
uniform messages, agreed upon by health, animal, and
environmental professionals, could help launch community awareness and engagement projects targeting the prevention and control of zoonoses.
1.8.2 Antimicrobial Resistance
AMR in bacteria arises when changes in bacteria lead the
medications used to treat infections to become less effective. AMR will soon escalate to be one of the most serious
public health issues of the twenty-­first century. It is predicted that by 2050, 10 million lives will be lost per year due
to antibacterial resistance in the world. In the meantime,
the cumulative economic costs for the same period would
be 100 trillion US dollars, accounting to 2.5–3.0% loss of
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) globally (O’Neil 2014). It
was estimated that in 2019, 1.27 million deaths (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 0.911–1.71) were directly attributable to
resistance, while 4.95 million deaths (3.62–6.57) were associated with bacterial AMR globally for the same year
(Murray et al. 2022). As per the Antibiotic Resistance Threat
Report in 2019 by the CDC, it was found that more than
2.8 million antibiotic-­resistant infections occur in the
United States, with over 35,000 people dying as a result. In
addition, nearly 223,900 people in the United States required
hospitalization for Clostridium difficile, and at least 12,800
died as a result of the infection in 2017 (CDC 2022a).
Antibacterial resistance can occur due to several reasons.
In the human health field, over-­prescription of antibiotics by
healthcare professionals and incomplete use of antibiotics
by patients contribute to antibacterial resistance. In the animal health sector, overuse of antibiotics in livestock and fish
farming has been identified. There have been arguments on
which sector is responsible for this phenomenon, human
health or animal health. These arguments have contributed
to challenges in addressing this rising global concern.
One Health approach could help bring human health,
animal health, and environmental health professionals
under one umbrella for the shared analysis of the problem
as well as the planning, implementation, and evaluation of
effective interventions (McEwen and Collignon 2018).
Human health and animal health have to agree upon best
practices for the rational use of antibiotics. Infection
prevention and control become essential in both human
and animal health settings. General hygiene measures
need to be adhered to by people, while such practices
should be implemented in animal husbandry and fish
farming settings. This means improving our practices
with infection control, hygiene, and animal husbandry. We
need to improve the development and delivery of effective
and safe vaccines for humans and animals to reduce the
need for antibiotics. The environmental health professional could help in ensuring access to safe water, which in
turn could reduce infections and subsequently the need for
antibiotic use. Further, environmental health professionals
could assist in the surveillance of antibacterials in the environment, for example in surface water and sewerage. In
addition, they could assist in designing methods for the
removal of these substances from the ecosystem when the
concentrations go beyond the critical levels. All these
measures should be coupled with public awareness on the
rational use of antibiotics as well as their disposal through
uniform messages that have been agreed upon by professionals from all sectors (McEwen and Collignon 2018;
Collignon and McEwen 2019; Langbehn et al. 2021).
It should be clear by now that without a multistakeholder coordination and collaboration mechanism like
One Health, these complex issues could not be addressed
by one sector alone effectively.
1.8.3 Food Safety and Food Security
Food safety is central to One Health (Boqvist et al. 2018).
Many, but not all, of these zoonotic pathogens can be found
in food (Abebe et al. 2020). Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and Escherichia coli outbreaks are examples
of food-­related zoonoses. However, food safety concerns
can extend beyond infectious organisms. Dioxin and melamine pollution are two examples. The absence of cross-­
sectoral collaboration across the food supply chain,
including those from the animal health, food control, and
human health sectors, has been one of the primary concerns in food safety (Wielinga and Schlundt 2012).
By 2050, the global human population is predicted to
reach 9.7 billion people (United Nations, Department of
Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division 2022). To
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12
1 The Need for One Health Approach at the Recent Anthropocene
meet demand, food demand is expected to rise by 35–56%
by 2050 compared to 2010 (van Dijk et al. 2021). In addition
to food quantity, food composition will shift toward more
animal-­based proteins, driven by economic development
and urbanization. For example, protein consumption per
capita has increased worldwide over the last 50 years, growing from 61 g per person per day in 1961–1973 to 80 g per
person per day in 2009–2011 (Henchion et al. 2017).
As shown in Figure 1.4, global meat production is rising fastest in Asia, with some rise seen in Africa and
South America as well. Over the period of 2010–2018,
meat consumption seems to be quite stable in Europe,
North America, Central America, and Oceania (Ritchie
and Roser 2017).
As per Figure 1.5, it is clear that the total meat production in China has risen well passing that of the USA since
the 1990s and is continuing to rise (Ritchie and Roser 2017).
Natural disasters can also have restrained food security.
Further, animal and plant disease outbreaks could have
serious impacts on food production. Transboundary
Oceania
Africa
300 million t
South America
250 million t
North America
200 million t
Europe
150 million t
100 million t
Asia
50 million t
0t
1961
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Figure 1.4 Global meat production 1961–2020 (Source: Ritchie and Roser 2017 and Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations/CC BY 4.0).
Meat includes cattle, poultry, sheep/mutton, goat, pigmeat, and wild game.
China
80 million t
60 million t
United States
40 million t
20 million t
0t
India
United Kingdom
Sri Lanka
Macao
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
1961
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010 2018
Figure 1.5 Meat production, 1961–2018.
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1.9 ­COVID-­19 and One Healt
Table 1.8
13
Transboundary diseases.
Host
Transboundary diseases
that can affect animals
Transboundary diseases that can affect
both animals and humans
Foot-­and-­mouth disease
Peste des petits
ruminants
Classical or African
swine fevers
Brucellosis
Bovine tuberculosis
Parasitic illnesses
Anthrax
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(BSE) and certain strains of
influenza viruses
Vector
Figure 1.6
animal illnesses need special mention in this regard.
Transboundary animal diseases are highly contagious epidemic diseases that can spread quickly across country borders. They cause high rates of animal death and disease,
which can have serious impacts on food security, in addition to their socioeconomic and occasional human health
impacts (Clemmons et al. 2021) (Table 1.8).
As much as for adequate safety, food security also
demands close coordination of different sectors such as
agriculture, animal husbandry, fish farming, and also
human health, especially with regard to transboundary diseases that could affect human beings.
1.8.4 Vector-­Borne Disease
As discussed earlier, zoonotic diseases are primarily diseases that exist in animals but are transmitted from animals to humans. A vector-­borne disease on the other hand
is transmitted by vectors such as mosquitoes or fleas. They
carry pathogenic agents such as bacteria, viruses or parasites to healthy humans from infected humans, animals or
vectors themselves. Therefore, some diseases could be classified as zoonotic vector-­borne diseases (Table 1.9).
Table 1.9
diseases.
Relationship between zoonotic and vector-­borne
Zoonotic diseases but
not vector-­borne
Zoonotic and
vector-­borne
Not zoonotic but
vector-­borne
Brucellosis
Emerging
coronaviruses
Leptospirosis
Salomonella
Rabies
Tuberculosis
Leishmaniasis
Lyme disease
Lymphatic filarisis
(Brugia malayi)
Plague
Typhus (Flea-­
borne, endemic)
Rift valley fever
West Nile Fever
Yellow fever
Chickungunya
Dengue
Lymphatic
filariasis
(Wucheraris
brancofti)
Malaria
Zika
Environment
Pathogen
Epidemiological triad.
From Table 1.9, it is clear that certain diseases could be
transferred from animals to humans without a vector,
while the others could not. In addition, some can be transmitted from an infected person to another without an animal as an intermediate. The epidemiological triad has been
used to describe the relationship between the vector, host,
agent, and the environment (Figure 1.6).
The vector plays a critical role in connecting the host
with the pathogen and the environment (CDC 2021).
Therefore, any activities aimed at the prevention and control of vector-­borne diseases, especially with a zoonotic
host, call for coordinated action by the human, animal, and
environmental health sectors for their control, which is the
essence of the One Health approach.
1.8.5 Environmental Contamination
One Health approach has been used traditionally to address
infectious diseases. However, it has been proven that the
same approach could be used to address environmental
contamination, which spreads across the boundaries of
humans, animals, and the environment. The same epidemiological methods, as well as the disease control measures, could be used with the participation of human,
animal, and environmental health authorities in addressing such environmental contamination issues.
Three examples of environmental contamination issues
that were addressed through a One Health approach are
summarized in Table 1.10.
1.9 ­COVID-­19 and One Health
SARS-­CoV-­2 isolates from humans are genetically similar
to coronaviruses obtained from bat populations, notably
bats of the genus Rhinolophus. SARS-­CoV, the virus that
caused the 2003 SARS outbreak, is also closely linked to
coronaviruses recovered from bats. These close genetic
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14
1 The Need for One Health Approach at the Recent Anthropocene
Table 1.10 Example of environmental contamination issues
addressed through One Health approach.
Summary of the One Health approach
used
Year
Country
2004
Kenya
An outbreak of jaundice was
investigated, which pointed out an
environmental etiology. The deaths of
chickens who shared the same food as
the jaundiced humans led to the
identification of aflatoxin-­contaminated
maize as the causative agent (Probst
et al. 2007).
2009
Bangladesh
A disease was observed among the
children in Bangladesh in the Dhmrai
Subdistrict of Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Infectious agents were excluded.
Sudden deaths of calves and puppies in
and close to the affected villages
signaled an environmental etiology. The
clinical signs in humans and animals
signaled a cholinesterase inhibitor
pesticide as the environmental etiology.
Carbofuran, a carbamate-­type pesticide,
was revealed as the likely etiological
agent (Mandour 2013).
2008
USA
Harmful algal blooms are a common
occurrence in Florida, USA. A toxic
dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. K. brevis
produces a neurotoxin named as
Brevotoxin. This neurotoxin can
contaminate coastal aerosols or sea
spray, giving rise to the neurotoxic
shellfish poisoning. Susceptible
individuals could report upper and
lower respiratory tract irritation and
measurable changes in pulmonary
function. An integrated Ocean
Observation System (IOOS) has been
established with real-­time reporting
from lifeguards on the amount of dead
fish, apparent levels of respiratory
irritation among the people on the
beach, and observation of the water
color, surf condition, and beach
warnings used (Pierce and Henry 2008).
relationships imply that they all originated in bat populations (WHO 2020).
The Huanan Wholesale Seafood Market in Wuhan City
was directly linked to a major proportion of the initial cases
in late December 2019 and early January 2020. The virus
could have entered the human population through an animal or an infected human (Worobey et al. 2022).
Subsequently, the first human cases of SARS-­CoV-­2 infection have been identified as early as 1 December 2019, but
these cases did not have a connection with the animal market. Additional studies are ongoing to determine whether
unrecognized infections in humans may have happened
earlier through contact with undetected cases.
At this time, it is not possible to pinpoint how individuals in
China became infected with SARS-­CoV-­2. All known information, however, suggests that SARS-­CoV-­2 is of natural animal origin and is not a modified or engineered virus. The
SARS-­CoV-­2 virus’s ecological reservoir is most likely bats.
SARS-­CoV-­2, the virus that causes COVID-­19, is a
zoonotic virus, which means it can pass between humans
and animals. As more animals are found to be infected
with the COVID-­19 virus, it becomes evident that a One
Health strategy is critical to addressing new disease threats
that affect both humans and animals. The worldwide geographical distribution of SARS-­CoV-­2 outbreaks in animals compiled by Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO) is shown in Figure 1.7.
The first case of SARS-­CoV-­2 in animals was officially
reported to the (WOAH, Founded as OIE) by Hong Kong
(SARC) on 29 February 2021 in a dog. The occurrence of
the disease has been reported from 35 countries in the
Americas, Africa, Asia, and Europe in 19 different animal
species (cats, dogs, mink, otter, pet ferrets, lions, tigers,
pumas, snow leopards, gorillas, white-­tailed deer, fishing
cat, Binturong, South American coati, spotted hyena,
Eurasian lynx, Canada lynx, hippopotamus, and hamster)
(World Organization for Animal Health 2022).
As per the evidence so far, animals do not appear to play
a substantial role in the virus’s spread among humans.
Nevertheless, investigations using the One Health approach
as well as animal surveillance are critical for evaluating the
transmission between humans and animals. Such rigorous
surveillance is essential since it will enhance our knowledge of the animals that can be infected as well as the hazards of the virus establishing new hosts and reservoirs
where it can hide, evolve, and potentially reemerge as a
new variation in the human population. The CDC’s One
Health Office is aiming to support One Health efforts and
increase cross-­sector collaboration. It is essential to
strengthen the existing surveillance system, including that
for animal and environmental health, as well as rapidly
establish such systems in locations where they do not exist.
National and sub-­national surveillance and reporting systems for laboratory and epidemiological data on SARS-­
CoV-­2 disease are critical components of putting One
Health principles into practice.
The need for unified risk communication from professionals from all three sectors becomes extremely important
during this phase, where outbreaks are occurring not only
in humans but also in animals. Messaging for humans
engaging with animals during the pandemic, including
preventive measures, as well as steps to follow if their animals show symptoms of COVID-­19 are so vital. In an
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1.11 ­Challenges of One Health Approac
15
Events in animals
1–2
3–10
11–50
>50
Positive human cases
No data
0–5001
5001–50001
50001–500001
50001–5000001
5000001–200000000
Figure 1.7 Map of published SARS-­CoV-­2 events in animals up to 6 December 2022 at national level, over a cumulative COVID-­19
human cases background map.
e­ nvironment of the rule of misinformation among the pandemic, such simple yet practically useful verified shared
information from the professionals from all three disciplines cannot be over-­emphasized.
1.10
­Road Map for One Health
The One Health approach aims to sustainably balance and
optimize the health of people, animals, and ecosystems
through an integrated and unified approach. To achieve
this goal, a road map for One Health calls for coordinated
and collaborative approaches among the whole range of
stakeholders involved, coupled with effective communication and capacity building.
The 10-­Fold One Health Road Map calls for an increase
in collaboration between the human, animal, and environmental health sectors and disciplines at the global, national,
sub-­national, and community level.
1) To advocate for the need of One Health approach and
resource allocation for One Health to health and non-­
health decision makers.
2) To establish One Health Communities of Practice with
clear channels of communication between each level
and a governance structure.
3) To carryout collaborative basic and applied research to
increase understanding of the interplay between healthy
humans, healthy animals, and healthy ecosystems.
4) To strengthen surveillance and early-­warning systems
to pick up and act upon signals of diseases and contributory factors.
5) To innovate solutions to prevent and control health
threats, including new medications and vaccines.
6) To increase intra-­ and inter-­sectoral and disciplinary
capacity building.
7) To effectively communicate risk to communities about
threats to health.
8) To ensure rational and sustainable use of antimicrobial drugs.
9) To ensure the inclusivity of all segments of society
including those who are most vulnerable, in One
Health planning, implementation, monitoring, and
evaluation while ensuring the equity and access.
10) To develop a joint One Health Results Based
Monitoring and Evaluation Framework that is linked
to other global frameworks such as Sustainable
Development Goals, IHR, and Planetary Health.
1.11 ­Challenges of One Health Approach
Despite being a powerful concept, One Health still faces
many implementation challenges. Even though conceptually One Health calls for all professionals to act together, in
practice wider engagement of stakeholders still needs to be
improved.
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16
1 The Need for One Health Approach at the Recent Anthropocene
Another major challenge with the One Health approach
is that it still gets funded through external donor funding,
which poses serious sustainability challenges. It is important that domestic funding is allocated so that the One
Health program continues even in the absence of external
donor funding.
Having multiple overlapping and competing concepts
such as One Health, Eco Health, and Planetary Health is a
significant challenge. This situation could exhaust the limited funding by one approach without leaving much for
other approaches. In contrast, if these approaches could
unite, they could have more lobbying power, as well as the
ability to carry out activities that are not covered by other
approaches.
­Acknowledgment
The support extended by Banura Nadathilake in preparation of the manuscript is acknowledged with thanks.
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