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1
Nutrient Composition and
Health Benefits of Millets
CONTENTS
1.1
1.2
Introduction ......................................................................................................1
Composition of Millets .....................................................................................3
1.2.1 Macronutrients...................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Micronutrients ...................................................................................... 4
1.2.3 Phytochemicals.....................................................................................6
1.2.4 Antinutrients .........................................................................................7
1.3 Bioavailability of Nutritional Factors ............................................................... 8
1.3.1 Factors Affecting Bioavailability..........................................................9
1.3.1.1 Dietary Factors..................................................................... 10
1.3.1.2 Physiological Factors ........................................................... 10
1.4 Biological Activity of Millets ......................................................................... 10
1.4.1 Antioxidant Activity ........................................................................... 11
1.4.2 Anti-cancerous Activity...................................................................... 11
1.4.3 Antidiabetic Activity .......................................................................... 12
1.4.4 Antimicrobial Activity........................................................................ 12
1.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives ............................................................... 13
References................................................................................................................ 13
1.1
INTRODUCTION
One of the earliest foods consumed by humans was millets. It is a plant that produces
cereal and belongs to the Graminae grass family. It is related to species from five
1
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Nutriomics of Millet Crops
genera in the Paniceae tribe, namely Panicum, Setaria, Echinocloa, Pennisetum, and
Paspalum, and one genus in the Chlorideae tribe, Eleusine (Malathi et al., 2014).
Millets have been a mainstay of the inhabitants of Asia and Africa’s semi-arid tropics
for generations when other crops fail to thrive (Sharma and Niranjan, 2018). Millets
are a rich source of nutrition and have been increasingly produced in recent dec­
ades to fulfill the nutritional needs of the world’s growing population. Millet grain
is a nutrient-dense grain that is abundant in minerals, dietary fiber, phytochemicals,
and vitamins. The most commonly used millets include sorghum, pearl millet, finger
millet or ragi, kodo millet, barnyard millet, proso millet, little millet, and foxtail
or Italian millet (Figure 1.1) (Thakur and Tiwari, 2019). Millets play an important
role in the development of modern meals, such as multigrain and gluten-free (GF)
cereals. They have also been shown to reduce fat absorption, slow sugar release [low
glycemic index (GI)], and thus lower the risk of heart disease, diabetes, and high
blood pressure due to their high content of polyphenols and other biologically active
chemicals. They are becoming more popular as people become more aware of their
FIGURE 1.1 Classification of millets.
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Nutrient Composition and Health Benefits of Millets
3
health-promoting properties (Kumar et al., 2018). Thus, millets are now being com­
monly used to augment cereal-based foods and have grown in popularity due to their
gluten-free nature and nutritional and economic benefits. Small millets’ grains are
nutritionally superior to rice and wheat because they are high in macronutrient and
micronutrient and are therefore classified as nutri-cereals (Dayakar Rao et al., 2017).
Wheat and rice may offer food security, but millets have the potential to serve food,
health, nutrition, as well as livelihood security. This chapter provides a consolidated
overview of the nutritional and antinutritional profile of millets, their bioavailabil­
ity, and associated bioactivities, along with the effect of various common process­
ing treatments on their properties. Since the United Nations-Food and Agriculture
Organization (UN-FAO) has declared the year 2023 as the “International Year of
Millets”, this cluster of information presented here would be of enormous value to
understand the potential of millets as a food ingredient. It would also provide guid­
ance for basic and strategic research on diversifying the utilization of millets.
1.2
COMPOSITION OF MILLETS
Millets are a good source of proteins, minerals, vitamins, and phytochemicals. The
nutritional composition of millets is similar to that of rice and wheat, except that
they are high in fiber and micronutrients (Muthamilarasan et al., 2016). This section
discusses the macronutrient, micronutrient, phytochemical, and antinutrient compo­
sition of some common millets.
1.2.1 Macronutrients
Table 1.1 presents the macronutrient composition of some common millets. The
carbohydrates in millets can be categorized as non-structural (sugars, starch, and
fructosans) carbohydrates and structural (cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectin sub­
stances) carbohydrates (Dayakar Rao et al., 2017). Among common millets, finger
millets have the highest amount of carbohydrates, consisting of free sugars (1.04%),
starch (65.5%), and non-starchy polysaccharides (dietary fiber) (11.5%). In addition,
finger millets were found to possess lower amylose content (16%) compared to sor­
ghum (24.0%), pearl millet (21.0%), proso millet (28.2%), foxtail millet (17.5%),
and kodo millet (24.0%) (Banerjee and Maitra, 2020).
Another macronutrient, that is, protein, is the millet’s second most significant com­
ponent. Proso millet (12.5%), foxtail millet (12.3%), and pearl millet (11.6%) have
higher amounts of protein than other non-millet cereals such as rice (7.2%) (Has­
san et al., 2021). Although millet’s protein level is similar to that of wheat grains,
unlike millet protein, wheat proteins are deficient in critical amino acids, which are
required to prevent protein-energy malnutrition. Furthermore, millet protein has
fewer crosslinked prolamins, which contribute to their protein’s improved digestibil­
ity. However, millet proteins, such as cereal proteins, are low in lysine, but they work
well with lysine-rich plants (leguminous) and animal proteins to create nutritionally
balanced composites with high biological value (Sharma and Sahu, 2021).
In terms of fats and lipids, finger millet has a lower fat content than pearl mil­
let, barnyard millet, little millet, and foxtail millet, which might explain why finger
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Nutriomics of Millet Crops
millet can be stored better than other millets. Compared to maize, which has a fat
level of 3.21–7.71%, pearl millet has a fat content of 5–7%. Furthermore, it has been
stated that the lipid content of finger millet and pearl millet was 1% and 5%, respec­
tively (Hassan et al., 2021). In this, about 70–72% of finger millet lipids are neutral
lipids, mostly triglycerides, with traces of sterols; 10–12% are glycolipids and the
rest 5–6% are phospholipids (Banerjee and Maitra, 2020). In terms of fatty acids, fin­
ger millet comprises 46–62% oleic acid, 8–27% linoleic acid, 20–35% palmitic acid,
and traces of linolenic acid (Banerjee and Maitra, 2020). However, pearl millet has
a high content of fatty acids such as palmitic, stearic, and linoleic acids, and lower
oleic acid compared to maize (Hassan et al., 2021).
Macronutrient dietary fiber has been linked to lower blood cholesterol, lower
blood sugar, and better bowel movement. This is because of its slow digestion,
which leads to prolonged transit time, lowering blood glucose levels, and benefit­
ing non-insulin-dependent diabetics. In addition, the prolonged transit time of food
from the stomach to the intestines also results in longer feeding intervals. Pearl mil­
let (20.8%) and finger millet (18.6%) have more total dietary fiber than sorghum
(14.2%), wheat (17.2%), and rice (17.2%). Hemicelluloses A are non-cellulosic
β-glucans found in small, kodo, and barnyard millets, while hemicelluloses B are
composed of hexose, pentose, and uronic acid (Chauhan et al., 2018).
1.2.2
Micronutrients
Millets have a mineral composition equivalent to other cereals such as wheat and
rice (Table 1.1), however, with significantly higher amounts of calcium and manga­
nese. Pearl millet has a calcium value of 40.6–48.6 mg/100 g (Kumar et al., 2020).
On the other hand, finger millet has higher amounts of calcium, ranging from 162
to 487 mg/100 g depending on the genotype, which helps to build bones and reduce
the incidence of fractures. High manganese content in millets may help the body
fight illnesses such as cancer (Hassan et al., 2021). Millets also possess substantial
amounts of phosphorus, which is a key component in the mineral matrix of bones, as
well as adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, which is the body’s energy booster (Kumar
TABLE 1.1
Macronutritional Composition of Millets (g per 100 g)
Millets
Carbohydrates
Protein
Fat
Ash
Fiber
References
Pearl millet
67.0
11.8
4.8
2.2
2.3
(Muthamilarasan et al., 2016)
Finger millet
72.05
7.3
1.3
2.7
11.5
(Shobana, et al., 2013)
Foxtail millet
63.2
11.2
4.0
3.3
6.7
(Jaybhaye et al., 2014)
Proso millet
70.4
12.5
3.1
1.9
14.2
(Habiyaremye, et al., 2017)
Barnyard millet
68.8
10.1
3.9
2.1
12.5
(Kaur and Sharma, 2020)
Little millet
65.55
8.92
2.55
1.72
6.39
(Dayakar Rao et al., 2017)
Kodo millet
66.6
9.8
3.6
3.3
5.2
(Saleh et. al., 2013)
Sorghum
72.97
10.82
3.23
1.70
1.97
(Kumar et al., 2018)
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Nutrient Composition and Health Benefits of Millets
TABLE 1.2
Mineral Nutritional Composition of Millets (mg per 100 g)
Millets
Ca
P
Fe
Mg
K
Na
Mn
Cu
Zn
References
Pearl
millet
46
379
8.0
137
442
12.0
1.8
1.06
3.1
(Chauhan et. al.,
2018)
Finger
millet
137.33
158.43
1.46
6.38
35.19
3.70
2.85
0.06
0.48
(Shamsudeen et al.,
2019)
Foxtail
millet
23
310
3.2
130
270
10
2.2
0.9
2.1
(Serna-Saldivar and
Espinosa-Ramírez,
2019)
Proso
millet
10
200
2.2
120
210
10
1.8
0.8
1.7
(Kumar et al., 2018;
Serna-Saldivar and
Espinosa-Ramírez,
2019)
Barnyard
millet
22
280
18.6
82
-
-
0.96
0.60
3
(Chandra and Selvi,
2016)
Little
millet
30
260
20
133
370
8.1
20
4
11
(Chauhan et al.,
2018)
Kodo
millet
32.33
300
3.17
110
141
4.8
1.10
1.60
32.7
(Kumar et al., 2018;
Chandra and Selvi,
2016)
Sorghum
35.23
266.30
5.29
0.19
350
6
1.63
1.08
3.01
(Kumar et al., 2018;
Chhikara et al.,
2019)
et al., 2020). Apart from this, barnyard millet and pearl millet are rich in another
major micronutrient, that is, iron, and their diet can help pregnant women with
anemia get the iron they need. Barnyard millet has an iron concentration of 17.47
mg/100 g, which is only 10 mg less than the daily need. Among all millets, foxtail
millet has the highest concentration of zinc (4.1 mg/100 g) and is also a rich source
of iron (2.7 mg/100 g) (Jaiswal et al., 2019). For example, zinc and iron are essential
nutrients that help in improving immunity (Kumar et al., 2018).
Among vitamins, small millets are high in vitamins such as thiamine, riboflavin,
niacin, and vitamin C. Pearl millet, which has high oil content, is also thought to
be a rich source of fat-soluble vitamin E (2 mg/100 g). In addition, the grain is
an excellent source of vitamin A. Vitamin A equivalent (8.3–10.5 mg) and vita­
min E (87–96 mg) were detected in the unrefined fat recovered from the kernel
of common millet (Hassan et al., 2021). Similarly, foxtail millet is high in thia­
min (0.59 mg/100 g), although proso millet has the highest quantity of riboflavin
(0.28 mg/100 g). Rice and wheat had riboflavin levels of 0.04 and 0.1 mg/100 g,
respectively (Table 1.1), which was much lower than those in other millets, par­
ticularly pearl millet, foxtail millet, and small millet (Muthamilarasan et al., 2016).
Tables 1.2 and 1.3 present some major minerals and vitamins in different varieties
of millets, respectively.
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Nutriomics of Millet Crops
TABLE 1.3
Vitamin Composition of Millets (mg per 100 g)
Millets
Thiamin
(Vit B1)
Riboflavin
(Vit B2)
Niacin
(Vit B3)
Pearl millet
0.38
0.21
2.8
(Muthamilarasan et al., 2016;
Chandra and Selvi, 2016)
Finger millet
0.48
0.12
1.30
(Ramashia et al., 2019)
Foxtail millet
0.48
0.12
3.70
(Devi et al., 2014)
Proso millet
0.55
0.17
5.11
(Serna-Saldivar and
Espinosa-Ramírez, 2019)
Barnyard millet
0.33
0.10
4.2
(Jaybhaye et al., 2014)
Little millet
0.30
0.09
3.2
(Saleh et al., 2013)
Kodo millet
0.15
2.0
0.09
(Kumar et al., 2018)
Sorghum
0.237
0.142
2.972
(Chhikara et al., 2019)
1.2.3
References
PhytocheMicals
Table 1.2 presents the phytochemical composition of some common millets. Mil­
lets’ outer layers contain a high concentration of phytochemicals, including phe­
nolic acids, flavonoids, and phytosterols, which are important biologically active
substances (Sharma et al., 2021). These compounds exhibit several health-related
benefits due to their anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, antidiabetic, and antioxidant
properties (Mudau et al., 2022). Phenolic acids in millet grains are bound at 60%,
with the remaining 40% occurring in free forms. Ferulic, sinapic, and caffeic acids
constitute the majority of the phenolic acids found in soluble extracts, which contain
more than 80% of them, whereas coumaric and ferulic acids predominate in con­
jugated fractions (Pradeep and Sreerama, 2018). The phenolic acid content varies
greatly within different varieties of millets. For instance, as per Kumari et al. (2016),
finger millet has a higher total phenolic content (TPC) than foxtail and proso millet
in its soluble extracts. In addition to epicatechin, catechin is the main phenolic com­
ponent found in finger millet (Xiang et al., 2019; Chandrasekara and Shahidi, 2011).
Variation with color of millets was also observed by Chandrasekara and Shahidi
(2010), who found that compared to light-colored millets such as those with white or
yellow testa, those with dark-colored testa and pericarp pigments have more soluble
phenolic compounds.
The pericarp and testa of the millet grain also contain other phytochemicals,
including flavonoids. Flavonoids are significant antioxidants that lower the chance
of developing chronic diseases. Compared to foxtail and proso millets, finger mil­
let has a higher quantity of flavonoids, with flavanols being the primary subclass
(Chandrasekara and Shahidi, 2010, 2011). Flavones, isoflavonoids, flavonols, and
dihydroflavonols, as well as their glycosides, are additional phenolic substances that
fall under different flavonoid subclasses. The same flavonoid subclasses have been
found in the soluble extract of barnyard millet (Ofosu et al., 2020). The authors also
reported other flavonoids in barnyard millet, including formononetin, kaempferol,
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Nutrient Composition and Health Benefits of Millets
TABLE 1.4
Phytochemical Composition of Millets
Pearl
Millet
Finger
millet
Foxtail
millet
Proso
millet
Barnyard
millet
Little
millet
Kodo
millet
Total Phenol
(mg gallic
acid
equivalent/g)
2.6
10.2
2.0
0.9
0.8
2.12
19.7
(Serna-Saldivar
and Espinosa­
Ramírez, 2019;
Chandra and
Selvi, 2016)
Flavonoids
(mg catechin
equivalent/g)
0.6
2.4
0.7
0.5
0.6
-
11.1
(Serna-Saldivar
and Espinosa­
Ramírez, 2019)
Phytosterols
(mg/100 g)
58
-
57
26
-
-
-
(Duodu and
Awika, 2019)
References
apigenin, isorhamnetin, and 3,7-dimethylquercetin. Similar to phenolic compounds,
millets’ flavonoid content is directly correlated with the color of the grains. For
instance, four varieties of finger millet with seed coatings that were brown, white,
reddish, and red were studied by Xiang et al. (2019) to determine their bioactive
component. They noted that red finger millet grains had the highest quantity of flavo­
noids, followed by brown, reddish, and white seed coat grains.
Phytosterols serve as a precursor to produce a variety of bio-functional substances,
including steroidal glycoalkaloids, brassinosteroids, steroidal saponins, and phyto­
ecdysteroids (Moreau et al., 2018), while, squalene, a long-chain triterpene molecule
with a high degree of unsaturation in nature, functions as a precursor in millets’
route for producing phytosterols (Ji et al., 2019). Campesterol, stigmasterol, and
β-sitosterol make up the phytosterols in Italian finger millet, with β-sitosterol mak­
ing up 85% of the total (Bhandari and Lee, 2013). In addition to millet grains, the
phytosterol composition of foxtail millet bran oil has been studied. It was discovered
to contain stigmastanol, campesterol, and β-sitosterol, along with trace amounts of
fecosterol, ergostanol, and campesterol (Pang et al., 2014). Although both sterols and
stanols have the comparable effects on human health, stanols are more significant for
millets’ bioactivity (Duodu and Awika, 2019). Table 1.4 presents different classes of
phytochemicals possessed by millets.
1.2.4 antinutrients
Antinutrients are harmful elements found in grains and legumes that prevent nutri­
ents from being absorbed and decrease their bioavailability in the body. They are
thought to reduce mineral bioavailability, impede proteolytic and amylolytic enzy­
matic activities, and decrease the digestibility of protein and starch in pearl and finger
millets (Hassan et al., 2021). The two antinutritional components of millet grains
that have been the subject of the most research among the different antinutrients
present in cereals are tannins and phytates. In the case of phytic acid, it is known that
they reduce the bioavailability of minerals and the activity of enzymes due to their
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Nutriomics of Millet Crops
TABLE 1.5
Antinutritional Composition of Millets
Grains
Tannin (mg/g)
Phytate (mg/g)
Reference
Pearl millet
2.75
5.92
(Amalraj and Pius, 2015; Serna-Saldivar and
Espinosa-Ramírez, 2019)
Finger millet
2.64
5.29
(Amalraj and Pius, 2015; Serna-Saldivar and
Espinosa-Ramírez, 2019)
Foxtail millet
0.028
9.9
(Sharma et al., 2021)
Proso millet
0.003
7.2
(Pawar and Machewad, 2006; Sharma et al.,
2021)
Barnyard millet
3.51
3.53
(Panwar et al., 2016; Sharma et al., 2021)
Kodo millet
1.1
1.3
(Sharma et al., 2021)
tendency to bind to and precipitate proteins and minerals. Mineral deficiency caused
by phytate – metal-insoluble complexes – may result in decreased absorption of sev­
eral minerals, including zinc, iron, calcium, and magnesium. On the other hand, by
building complexes with proteins or sporadically interacting with minerals, tannins
can affect how food is digested (Raes et al., 2014). Tannins can be found in hydro­
lyzable or condensed forms; the latter are less likely to be absorbed during diges­
tion and are more likely to produce hazardous toxins after hydrolysis (Adeyemo and
Onilude, 2013). The highest concentrations of inositol hexaphosphates were found
in proso and barnyard millet, while the highest concentrations of condensed tannins
were found in kodo, finger, and barnyard millet (Sharma and Gujral, 2019). Table 1.5
presents the tannin and phytate content in different classes of millets.
1.3 BIOAVAILABILITY OF NUTRITIONAL FACTORS
The term “bioavailability” refers to the portion of a nutrient that may be ingested
during a meal and utilized by the body through normal metabolic pathways. Since
not all amounts of a nutrient taken are utilized properly by the human body, it is an
important phrase that reflects nutritional efficacy. Therefore, the term “bioavailabil­
ity” describes the proportion of a nutrient or bioactive component that is consumed
that enters the systemic circulation and is ultimately used by the body (Tharifkhan
et al., 2021). Bioavailability is significantly impacted by the mechanical breakdown
of foods and the enzymatic hydrolysis of nutrients, leading to the release of absorbable nutrients in the GI tract (Lemmens et al., 2014). The type of matrix in which
the nutrients are included, chemical binding form, interference from other foods, and
their ingredients in enhancing or inhibiting absorption, post-absorption metaboliza­
tion, and host-associated factors such as health status, genetics, age, and lifestyle,
among other person-specific factors, have all been connected to variations in the
bioavailability of nutrients (Shubham et al., 2020). Recently, it has been identified
that non-effective delivery methods and bioavailability of the bioactive peptides
from millet can limit their therapeutic applications. These difficulties result from
several crucial inherent physicochemical and biological characteristics of peptides,
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Nutrient Composition and Health Benefits of Millets
9
including molecular size, charge, lipophilicity, solubility, and administration method.
Therefore, extensive research is required to identify the methods for successful trans­
lation of millet bioactive peptides to therapeutics as well as nutraceutical applications
(Majid and Priyadarshini, 2020).
In the case of millets, the bioavailability of nutrients is low due to the instance
of antinutritional factors. Certain phenolic compounds, phytates, and tannins are
examples of antinutritional parameters that impact iron and zinc bioavailability
(Hassan et al., 2021). However, typical domestic food-processing processes, such
as decortication, milling, soaking, malting, germination, fermentation, popping,
and cooking, might mitigate the deleterious effects of these antinutrients. These
approaches lower the quantity of phytates, phenol, tannins, and trypsin inhibitor
activity in millets, as well as improve the digestibility and mineral bioavailability
(Dayakar Rao et al., 2017).
1.3.1 Factors aFFecting BioavailaBility
The bioavailability of nutrients in millets is influenced by both dietary and physio­
logical variables, including initial digestion, enzymatic/chemical breakdown of the
consumed meal, and nutrient release (Tharifkhan et al., 2021). Figure 1.2 enlists the
factors responsible for the bioavailability of millet nutrients.
FIGURE 1.2
List of factors affecting millet nutrients bioavailability.
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Nutriomics of Millet Crops
1.3.1.1 Dietary Factors
Bioavailability in the lumen is influenced by the physio-chemical form and solubility
of nutrients produced from the dietary matrix. The absorption of ascorbate, carbo­
hydrates, organic acids, amino acids, and certain fatty acids is enhanced by their
consumption. Enhancers control the solubility of nutrients and/or prevent inhibitors
from interacting with them (Tharifkhan et al., 2021).
Millets’ phytic acid has demonstrated a potent propensity to bind to calcium,
zinc, and iron to form insoluble complexes. With a strong ability to chelate and a
tendency to form complexes with monovalent and multivalent cations of calcium,
potassium, zinc, iron, and magnesium, phytate, the salt of phytic acid (myoinositol
1,2,3,4,5,6-hexakisphosphate), serves as a major phosphorous and mineral storage
form. This chelation ability reduces bioavailability (Boncompagni et al., 2018).
1.3.1.2 Physiological Factors
Physiological factors that affect nutrient bioavailability include gastric acidity, intes­
tinal secretions, gut motility, lumen redox state, body status (including tissue lev­
els and nutrient stores), mucosal absorptive cell-mediated homeostasis, endocrine
system effects, genetic polymorphisms, inborn metabolic errors, and gut microflora. Bioavailability is affected by the binding of dietary elements with vitamins
or minerals in general. When concentrations exceed threshold limits, competitive
inhibitors can affect bioavailability. Copper, zinc, and iron are transition metals with
comparable chemical characteristics that approach the same binding sites or carriers.
Estimating the bioavailability of lipid-soluble nutrients can be done by measuring
the degree of mixed micelle incorporation after digestion (Tharifkhan et al., 2021).
1.4 BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF MILLETS
Plant-based diets are preventative against a number of degenerative diseases,
such as Parkinson’s disease, cancer, cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes,
FIGURE 1.3 Mechanism of action of the biological activities of millets.
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Nutrient Composition and Health Benefits of Millets
11
and metabolic syndrome. Millets are also recognized as functional foods and
nutraceuticals since they supply essential nutrients such as dietary fibers, pro­
teins, energy, minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants. Millets have been linked to a
variety of health benefits, including prevention of cancer and CVDs, along with
prominent antioxidant and antimicrobial activities (Chandrasekara and Shahidi,
2012; Saleh et al., 2013). Figure 1.3 represents the mechanism of the biological
activity imparted by millets.
1.4.1 antioxidant activity
Millet grains are a rich source of antioxidants due to the abundance of phenolic
compounds in them. In addition to xylo-oligosaccharides, insoluble fiber, and pep­
tides, millet grains include a variety of naturally occurring phenolic components,
such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and tannins (Liang and Liang, 2019). Along
with micronutrients (carotenoids and tocopherols), which also possess antioxidant
capabilities, these chemicals are primarily found in the bran layers. Additionally,
millets can be enhanced with antioxidants (i.e., phenolics and flavonoids) by pro­
cedures such as germination and fermentation. Due to the production of phenolic
compounds, dry heat treatment has been demonstrated to increase the antioxidant
activity of millets, whereas wet thermal treatment has been shown to decrease
the activity and has an adverse effect on the activity (Liang and Liang, 2019).
In a study on the impact of processing on the nutrient content and antioxidant
activity of little millets (Panicum sumatrense), it was found that roasting samples
significantly improved their nutrient content and free radical-scavenging abilities
(Pradeep and Guha, 2011).
Studies on millets’ antioxidant characteristics have focused on their ability to
chelate metals, quench singlet oxygen radicals, have reducing power, and scavenge
free radicals (Sharma et al., 2021). According to Kaur et al. (2019a) and Kaur
et al. (2019b), numerous in vitro studies demonstrated the protective effects of
antioxidants against age-related issues, chronic degenerative diseases, and other
contemporary lifestyle disorders, such as celiac disease, coronary heart diseases,
and diabetes. For instance, a study was done by Wei et al. (2018) using animal
models to evaluate the impact of high salt on hypertension and the cardiac dam­
age brought on by a millet-enriched diet. The authors discovered that a diet rich
in millet had a significant impact on lowering blood pressure, and concluded that
millet’s anti-oxidative stress effect helps to prevent cardiac damage brought on by
high salt ingestion.
1.4.2 anti-cancerous activity
Uncontrolled cell division is a key aspect of cancer’s growth and progression (Majid
and Priyadarshini, 2020). Cancer therapy includes inhibiting or delaying the fast
multiplication of tumor tissue, which may help to halt the growth of cancer cells.
Natural dietary components that prevent DNA damage and slow cancer cell growth
have been studied (Chandrasekara and Shahidi, 2011). Millets are high in antinu­
trients such as phenolic acid, tannins, and phytate that have been found to diminish
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12
Nutriomics of Millet Crops
the incidence of colon and breast cancer in animals. Millet phenolics have also been
shown to be useful in preventing cancer development and progression in vitro (Sarita
and Singh, 2016).
1.4.3 antidiaBetic activity
Diabetes is a metabolic condition caused by changes in energy metabolism and is
defined by unbalanced glucose homeostasis, where insulin secretion is hampered and
insulin resistance develops (Majid and Priyadarshini, 2020). Diabetes rates have been
found to be lower among the millet-eating population. Millets have demonstrated the
benefits of lowering α-glucosidase and pancreatic amylase levels, lowering postpran­
dial hyperglycemia, and decreasing enzymatic hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates.
The control of glucose-induced oxidative stress and inhibition of starch-digesting
enzymes by millet active biomolecules gives them potential antidiabetic properties.
For instance, finger millets’ antinutrients have been demonstrated to slow down the
digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, which reduces the glycemic response
(Kumari and Sumathi, 2002). Similarly, the protein concentrates derived from mil­
lets have been shown to significantly reduce insulin levels, increase plasma adi­
ponectin, and improve glycemic responses in type 2 diabetic mice (Choi et al., 2005;
Park et al., 2008). In 2010, the National Institute of Nutrition (ICMR) collaborated
with the Indian Institute of Millets Research in Hyderabad to examine the GI of
sorghum-based meals as part of the National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP).
The findings revealed that meals made from sorghum had a low GI and were respon­
sible for lower postprandial blood glucose levels. Furthermore, due to the presence
of considerable amounts of magnesium, millets also aid in the prevention of type II
diabetes. Magnesium is a vital element that enhances the effectiveness of insulin and
glucose receptors by creating several carbohydrate-digesting enzymes that regulate
insulin functions (Kam et al., 2016).
1.4.4 antiMicroBial activity
The secondary metabolites found in millet grains exhibit a wide range of biological
characteristics. The phenolic and flavonoid compounds found in the bioactive sec­
ondary metabolites of some millet cultivars have antibacterial and antifungal proper­
ties (Nithiyanantham et al., 2019). According to the authors, finger millets’ phenolic
and flavonoid compounds have been discovered to play a significant role against
the proliferative inhibitory activity of bacterial pathogens, including Escherichia
coli, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus
pyogenes, Serratia marcescens, Proteus mirabilis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In
addition, a recent study reported that the addition of finger millet bran extract in chitosan/gelatin-based films significantly improved the antibacterial activity against E. coli
and antifungal activity against Penicillium nettle (Xu et al., 2022).
Millets have been shown to possess exceptional bioactivities. However, to con­
clude their health benefits, sufficient evidence-based studies are required. This can
include investigating the mechanism of action of the millets and their constituents
using various in vitro and in vivo models, and pharmacodynamics and kinetic studies.
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Nutrient Composition and Health Benefits of Millets
13
Studies can also be carried out to evaluate the effect of millets on various other less
explored lifestyle-related disorders.
1.5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
As the population grows, there is an increasing need for a well-balanced diet. Mil­
lets have pertinent amounts of nutrients and are widely accessible and inexpensive.
Millets are rich in iron, calcium, manganese, magnesium, zinc, potassium, and phos­
phorus, among other nutrients. For this reason, they could be the best alternative
cereal grain for human consumption. To shield the body from numerous oxidative
stresses, millet grains can be employed as a readily available supply of natural anti­
oxidants. Millets have recently been found to be effective in treating conditions such
as hypoglycemia and hypolipidemia. These millet grains also have significant uses as
anti-tumor, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial agents.
Millets offer several health benefits, making it worthwhile to incorporate these old,
treasured grain-like seeds into our regular diet. Millets’ health benefits are already
well known. Nonetheless, their use and popularity are limited due to the presence of
antinutrients (phytate, oxalate, and tannins), which have a detrimental effect on min­
eral bioavailability and protein and carbohydrate digestion. However, with the right
scientific inputs, not only can these limitations be overcome, but also the remarkable
biological properties of millets can be utilized. Future research should therefore focus
on the assessment of millets’ in vivo bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, as well as their
precise molecular mechanism of action in order to use millets as health-promoting
agents in food systems in the development of new nutraceuticals/functional foods/food
supplements. Some of the aspects are reviewed in the rest of the chapters of this book.
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