Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering

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Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com CONTENTS Contributors........................................................................................................... xxi Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ xxv Preface ............................................................................................................... xxxiii Part I: Scope of Nanotechnology in Food Process Engineering..........................1 1. Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies.....................................................................................................3 Vandna Devi and N. Prudhvi Raju 2. Flavan-3-Ols Research: From Chemistry to Nanomedicine .....................39 Ajay Sharma, Anil Kumar, Hardeep Singh Tuli, Rajshree Khare, and Anil K. Sharma 3. Potential of Carbon Nanotubes for Green Applications............................77 Shrikaant Kulkarni Part II: Applications of Biomaterials in Food Products.................................. 117 4. Nanotechnology for Cereal-Based Food Products ................................... 119 Praveen K. Dikkala, Archana Kumari, Gosangi Avinash, Abhishek Thakur, and Monika Kaushik 5. Nanostructured Materials for Food Enrichment and Fortification .......161 Simran Arora, Rajpreet Kaur Goraya, Mohit Singla, and Sachin Mittal 6. Applications of Nanomaterials in Food Packaging Systems ...................207 Uday Annapure, Pravin Bhushette, Sachin Sonawane, and Omkar Sawant 7. Recent Advances in Nano/Micro-Emulsion Delivered Curcumin: A Focus on Improved Anticancer and Antioxidant Responses ...............231 Parth Malik, Nisha Choudhary, and Virendra Kumar Yadav 8. Edible Nanoemulsion Coating Materials: Potential for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables .......................................................................267 Satish Kumar, Vikas Kumar, Rakesh Sharma, Anamika Manhas, Sahil Chaudhary, and Simple Sharma Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com xx Contents Part III: Modern Nanotechnology for Human Health ....................................323 9. Scope of Nanotechnology in Human Health.............................................325 Praveen K. Dikkala, T. P. Pradeepa Roberts, Ravula Bharathi, Kandi Sridhar, and Abhishek Thakur 10. Nanotechnology Applications in Biological Engineering: Plant Health Management .........................................................................363 Pinkie Cherian and D. Sheela Index .....................................................................................................................385 Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com ABBREVIATIONS µg/g 1-D 2-D 3-D 4CL AA ABTS AFM Ag 20 pep Ag 40 pep Ag AgNP/SNP AL AmB AMD AMPK ANR ANS AP-1 API Au BCS BDMC BET BSA C4H CA C-AC CD CEA CF CFIA CG CH/CS microgram per gram 1-dimension 2-dimension 3-dimension 4-coumarate: CoA ligase ascorbic acid 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical atomic force microscopy silver nanoparticles of size 20 nanometers silver nanoparticles of size 40 nanometers silver silver nanoparticles alginate amphotericin B advanced micro devices 5’-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase anthocyanidin reductase anthocyanidin synthase activating protein 1 amaranth protein isolate gold biopharmaceutics classification system bis-demethoxy curcumin Brunauer, Emmett, and teller bovine serum albumin cinnamate 4-hydroxylase catechin carbon alkyl chain cyclodextrins consumer exposure assessment cohesive forces Canadian Food Inspection Agency catechin-3-O-gallate chitosan Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com xxvi Abbreviations CHI chalcone isomerase CHS chalcone synthase c-JUN protein encoded by the JUN gene CMC carboxymethylcellulose CNTPE carbon nanotube-based paste electrode CNTs carbon nanotubes CO2 carbon dioxide COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease CPC condensation particle counter CPH 1-hydroxy-3-carboxy-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrrolidine CRT cathode ray tube CTAB cetyltrimethylammonium bromide Cu copper CVC chemical-vapor-condensation CVD chemical vapor deposition CYP2E1 cytochrome P450 2E1 DFR dihydroflavonol reductase DHA docosahexaenoic acid DMC dimethoxy curcumin DMMP dimethyl methylphosphonate DMPS differential mobility particle sizer DMS differential mobility spectrometer DNA deoxyribonucleic acid DPPH 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl DRA drug response assessment dsDNA double-strand deoxyribonucleic acid DTAB dodecyl trimethylammonium bromide DTPA diethylene triaminepenta acetic acid DWNTs double-walled nanotubes EC epicatechin ECG epicatechin-3-gallate ECGT epicatechin: 1-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose-O-galloyltransferase EE encapsulation efficiency EEA environmental exposure assessment EFSA European Food Safety Authority EGC epigallocatechin EGCG epigallocatechin-3-gallate EGCG-SLNs EGCG-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles EGFP enhanced green fluorescent protein Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Abbreviations EIP ELPI EMI ENM eNOS EO EPA ERRα ESD F3ʹ H F3ʹ5ʹH F3H FAO FDA FEDs FET FMPS FRAP FRSA FSANZ FSSAI FTIR FTO GC GCE GE GHz GI track GIS GIT GMS GO Gox GPS GRAS HAS HE HLB HNTs xxvii emulsion inversion point electrical low pressure impactor electromagnetic interference shielding engineered nanomaterials endothelial NOS essential oils eicosapentaenoic acid estrogen-related receptor α proteins electrostatic discharge flavonoid 3ʹ-hydroxylase flavonoid 3ʹ5ʹ-hydroxylase flavanone 3β-hydroxylase Food and Agriculture Organization Food and Drug Administration field emission devices field-effect transistors fast mobility particle sizer ferric reducing antioxidant power free radical scavenging activities Food Standards Australia New Zealand Food Safety Standard Authority of India Fourier transmission infrared fluoride tin oxide gallocatechin glassy carbon electrode general electric gigahertz gastrointestinal track geographic information system gastrointestinal tract glycerol monostearate graphene oxide glucose oxidase global positioning systems generally recognized as safe human serum albumin hydroethidine hydrophilic/lipophilic balance halloysite nanotubes Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com We Don’t reply in this website, you need to contact by email for all chapters Instant download. 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Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com xxviii HPC HPH HPMC HRP HRPB HVO IBD IBM IL-6 ILs IMF INIC iNOS IRGC ITO JNK KATS KE-NPs KFDA LAR LBL LDL LEDs LIBs LLDPE MAP MC MCNs MCT MCTs MEHPPV MEMS MFDS MMT Mn MONC MOSFET’s MPa mtTFA Abbreviations hydroxypropyl cellulose high-pressure homogenization hydroxypropyl methylcellulose horseradish peroxidase hydroxide reinforces polymer biocomposites hydrogenated vegetable oils inflammatory bowel disease internal business machines interleukin-6 ionic liquids intermolecular forces Iran Nanotechnology Initiative Council inducible NOS International Risk Governance Council indium tin oxide c-Jun N-terminal kinases Korean Agency for Technology and Science keratin-catechin nanoparticles Korean Food and Drug Administration leuacoanthocyanidin reductase layer-by-layer low-density lipoproteins light-emitting diodes Li-ion batteries linear low-density polyethylene modified atmosphere packaging methylcellulose metal chalcogenide nanomaterials medium chain triglycerides monocarboxylate transporters poly[2-methoxy, 5-(2-ethylhexoxy)-1,4-phenylene vinylene microelectromechanical systems Ministry of Food and Drug Safety montmorillonite manganese metal oxide nanocomposites metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors megapascal mitochondrial transcription factor A Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Abbreviations MW MWCNT NaPc NASA NE NEC NIST NLC NM nm nNOS NO NOS NP NRF1 NRF2 O/W O/W/O OEA P38 P3OT PAL PAMAM p-AMPK PCL PDIs PEDOT PEG PEI PEMFC PGC-1α P-gp PHAC PHFL PIC PIT PL xxix molecular weight multi-walled carbon nanotubes naphthalocyanine National Aeronautics Space Administration nanoemulsions Nippon Electric Company National Institute of Standards and Technology nanostructured lipid carriers nanomaterials nanometer neuronal NOS nitric oxide nitric oxide synthase nanoparticle nuclear respiratory factor 1 nuclear respiratory factor 2 oil-in-water oil-in-water-in-oil occupational exposure assessment mitogen-activated protein poly(3-octylthiophene) phenylalanine ammonia-lyase PEGylated poly(amidoamine) phosphorylated adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase poly ɛ-caprolactone despite the dispersity indices poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) polyethylene glycol polyethyleneimine proton-exchange membrane fuel cell peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma–coacti vator 1α P-glycoprotein Public Health Agency of Canada post-harvesting food losses phase inversion composition phase inversion temperature photoluminescence Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com xxx PLA PLGA PM PONNEEM PS PSS PVC PVD PVP QDs RAM RDA RFID RNA RPM RT SAXS SCENIHR SDS SE Si siRNA SIRT1 SLN SMPS SPI ssDNA SWCNTs SWNT PL SWNTs TEAC TFT’s THz Ti TiO2 TLNs TMC TNOdes Abbreviations polylactic acid poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid N-(1-pyrenyl) maleimide Pungam and neem polystyrene poly(styrenesulfonate) polyvinyl chloride physical vapor deposition polyvinylpyrrolidone quantum dots random access memory recommended dietary allowances radio-frequency identification ribonucleic acid rotation per minute room temperature small-angle X-ray scattering Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks sodium dodecyl sulfate spontaneous emulsification silicon small interfering RNA Sirtuin 1 solid lipid nanoparticles scanning mobility particle sizer soy protein isolates single-strand deoxyribonucleic acid single-walled carbon nanotubes single-walled nanotube photoluminescence single-walled nanotubes Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity thin-film transistors terahertz titanium titanium dioxide transformer like nanocarriers trimethyl chitosan transit nodes Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Abbreviations TSMC TTFTs UMC UNDESA UV W/O W/O/W WHO WPC WPE WPI WVTR β-Lg μg xxxi Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company transparent thin-film transistors United Microelectronics Corporation United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs ultraviolet water-in-oil water-in-oil-in-water World Health Organization whey protein concentrate whey protein extract whey protein isolate water vapor transmission rate beta-lactoglobulin microgram Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com PART I SCOPE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com We Don’t reply in this website, you need to contact by email for all chapters Instant download. Just send email and get all chapters download. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com You can also order by WhatsApp https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=%2B447507735190&text&type=ph one_number&app_absent=0 Send email or WhatsApp with complete Book title, Edition Number and Author Name. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com CHAPTER 1 SCOPE OF METAL CHALCOGENIDE NANOMATERIALS IN FOOD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES ABSTRACT The nanomaterials (NMs) offer a wide range of applications in every technological aspect including in food technology due to their exceptional functional properties like high surface-volume ratio, mechanical stability, effective delivery, and improved performance. Many food items have limited shelf life due to very high moisture content, which invites the microbial contamination from various routes like the raw materials used, surrounding environmental, processing equipment’s operations are attributed as the major factors that lead to qualitative as well as quantitative losses to the food. These hurdles can be overcome in the future by developing smart materials with a combination of polymer and metal chalcogenides. However, these metal chalcogenides are the layered crystalline structure compounds consisting of one transition element from the group IV to VIIB combined with one VIA chalcogen group such as S, Se, Te. These nano chalcogenides can be synthe sized using different synthesis routes which have been elaborated in detail. The nano-chalcogenide materials can act as a nanofiller for the dispersion in the polymer matrix which has wide spectrum usability in the food industries for various purification, extraction, and waste management operations. The current food industry is majorly focusing on two factors, i.e., the use of nanoparticles directly into food processing which may have the concerns like toxicity and development of polymer nanocomposites in food packing technology to improve the food delivery and supply chain management. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 4 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 The direct mixing of nanoparticles into the food have been reported to have various benefits with the major concerns of potential toxicity in the subjects, and therefore, we have been shown to produce the possible route of the development of nanocomposite materials with the combination of polymer and metal chalcogenides for food packing technology. 1.1 INTRODUCTION The global population is expected to increase to more than 7.3 billion by the year 2050 [1]. With this rise of global population, the necessity of food production and its packaging facility must also expand simultaneously for a well-fed survival of the masses. Food production is currently challenged by limited cultivable land and the effect of temperature variation due to climate change. India is one of the world’s leading top five countries in production, exports, and consumption of food grains and commodities. Yet, it loses nearly up to 14.33 billion US$ on account of post-harvesting losses that include 12.1% cereals and pulses, 10.1% oil seeds, 41.1% fruits and vegetables [52]. By considering the requirements of food security concern, storage, and packaging technology needs to be improved through reduction in postharvesting food losses (PHFL). Post-harvesting management is of inferior quality due to low-quality storage, transportation infrastructure, and more importantly poor packaging of products in the supply chain. From the past few decades, PHFL reduction has gained tremendous attention due to its sustainable means of reducing global hunger. The lifetime of food is limited in which the packaging also has a major contribution in the PHFL. Similarly, other factors such as processing, management divisions, grading issues, temperature facilities, consumer preferences, and market conditions also have a significant impact on PHFL. PHFL in packaging can be both qualita tive and quantitative in nature. Qualitative loss can be seen by reduced nutrient values that lead to unwanted changes such as taste, color, and texture of the food product. Similarly, quantitative food loss can be measured by a decrease in volume or weight due to the factors like pest consumption, spillage, and variation in moisture content and temperature effect. Therefore, packaging of food products is affected by various biological and technological factors resulting in rapid spoilage. The lack of proper and efficient packing leads to trans portation losses while moving to the markets. Poor quality of packaging causes moisture content in the food to increase when exposed to unfavorable Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies 5 environment that leads to food degradation. The materials used in food packaging involve glasses, metals (tin-free steel, aluminum, tinplate, foils, and laminates) and plastics [86]. Plastics are made of biodegradable polymers, which are differenti ated into three types such as biomass, chemical, and microbial polymers. Polymers made from biomass are proteins, polynucleotides, polypeptides, and polysaccharides. Polymers produced by classical chemical synthesis are polyacetic acid, biopolyester. These polymers are made by mixing with biomass and petroleum sources. Similarly, polymers produced from microbes and bacteria are bacterial cellulose, pullulan, curdlan, and polyhydroxy butyrate [69]. Among these, plastic polymers are majorly used in food packaging due to its low-cost manufacturing, easy moldability in a desired shape, lightweight and flexibility for printing labels. Food packaging and monitoring are major focuses in nanotechnology and food industry research. The use of nanotechnology in food science can be helpful in the detection of pathogenic bacteria increase in color quality and producing strong flavor [14]. Nanoparticles embedded in food packaging material matrix can increase the lifetime of food qualitatively and quantitatively. Therefore, it is hoped that at least 25% of all food packaging can be used in manufacturing with the advancement of nanotechnology. However, it is also important to consider the potential impact of nanotechnology on human health. Variety of nano materials (NMs) such as silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), Zinc oxide, Nano titanium dioxide, titanium nitride nanoparticles are used as additives in food packaging. These nanoparticles mixed with polymer matrix improve the humidity resistance of packaging, gas barrier properties, etc. Owing to these important advantages, these nanocomposites can be used in food products that are approved by the United States food and drug administration (FDA). Few particular groups of NMs such as nanosilver, nanomagnesium oxide, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and nanocopper oxide can provide antimicrobial properties. However, the use of AgNPs in food packaging is increasing owing to its prominent antibacterial activity [69]. However, these NMs are having certain disadvantages such as low water vapor transmission rate (WVTR), non-biodegradability, and results in environmental pollution, high water sensitivity, high sensitivity of moisture, thermal instability, brittleness; low melt strength [77]. The above addressed issues have opened a gateway of research in search of alternative materials in food packaging. These limitations can be over come in the future by implementing advanced nanotechnology in designing Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 6 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 the food packages with improved functionality. The global future research is currently aimed in support of safety and quality of food processing. The NMs are very effective and completely unique due to their exceptional high surface-to-volume ratio and its size-dependent properties within the range of 1–100 nm. Among various types of the NMs, metal chalcogenide nanomaterials (MCNs) are the group of materials which are used in various interdisciplinary fields such as physics, material science, biotechnology, environmental science, nanotechnology, and food science. The advantages of MCNs are it is mechanically and thermally stable with low toxicity which can be applied in food science. These MCNs also show unique physical and chemical proper ties such as (refractive index, nonlinearity, resistivity, melting temperature, conductivity, structural stability), catalytic, electrochemical, and photolu minescence (PL) properties. These chalcogenide NMs can also be inducted into the biopolymers matrix which produces nanocomposites with effective antimicrobial effects. Various synthesis routes have already been adopted for the synthesis of NMs such as microwave-assisted [37, 11], chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [13, 95, 102], Sol-gel [12, 85, 92], hydrothermal [50, 81, 103], Sonochemical [38, 105] and colloidal hot injection synthesis [21, 32], etc. The combina tion of nanoparticles with polymers produces homogenous dispersion in the polymer matrix with the change in its molecular mobility, enhanced thermal and mechanical resistance [19], and it increases the strength of nanocom posites by forming strong bond between polymers and nanoparticles [104]. Various materials on metal oxides such as titanium oxide, zinc oxide, and aluminum oxide are already under extensive applications in the form of nanoparticle-based food packaging in multiple advantages. However, limited data is available on the use of metal chalcogenides in the field of food science and technology. This chapter focuses on an overview of different synthesis routes of NMs, general depiction on the properties of nanocomposites; and their role in polymer nanocomposites along with possible applications of polymer nanocomposites in the food industry. 1.2 SYNTHESIS OF NANOMATERIALS (NMS) These NMs will be synthesized using different synthesis routes. The selection of synthesis routes however depends upon the requirement of the NMs for Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies 7 particular application. The use of hazardous acids and toxic solvents needs to be avoided to enhance the environmental benign procedures depending on their applications in the food industry. The most popular and commonly used synthesis procedures, schematic diagram, advantages, and disadvantages are discussed (Figure 1.1). FIGURE 1.1 1.2.1 Different synthesis routes of metal chalcogenide nanomaterials. MICROWAVE-ASSISTED SYNTHESIS Microwave-assisted synthesis is most attractive field of research for both chemists and physicists due to its wide range of applications focusing on food processing and other materials [34]. This is better than existing conventional oil bath synthesis due to its exceptional possibility of consistent yielding nanostructures with the latest 1-dimension in nano range formed by the strong coupling of microwaves. These nanoparticles are interesting due to Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com We Don’t reply in this website, you need to contact by email for all chapters Instant download. Just send email and get all chapters download. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com You can also order by WhatsApp https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=%2B447507735190&text&type=ph one_number&app_absent=0 Send email or WhatsApp with complete Book title, Edition Number and Author Name. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 8 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 its small size with high surface-volume ratio, high crystallinity and narrow size distribution. As shown in the flow chart, the precursors along with the solvent as a medium are performed in microwave cavities attributed with the microwave effect. The polar molecules in a solvent behave as mobile charges, and these charges are forced to align with the high field associated with a microwave radiation. This results in the heating up of the solvent which provides the desirable heat energy to carry out the chemical reac tion. Water is the most common and widely used solvent for the synthesis of nanostructures using microwave-assisted synthesis [106]. Water is a universal solvent, non-flammable, non-toxic, less vapor pres sure and more importantly a good microwave absorber as compared to other organic solvents. The loss of solvents depends on the relaxation times of the molecules which depend on the presence of the functional groups and their volume. Moreover, this method has the advantage of contamination-free environment whereas; there is no possibility of other chemical contamina tion. There is also no selective or localized heating and have advantages such as energy-efficientefficiency, short preparation time and higher yield. Synthesis of MCNs using microwave assistance is a very rapid process (within minutes) as compared to the other conventional synthesis routes (which may take more than hours or even days). For example, the synthesis of ZnS and CdS nanoparticles requires only 10 minutes using microwave synthesis method as compared with other conventional methods [53]. Similar examples of chalcogenides (such as CuS [94, 99], SnS [24, 79], CoS [25], Cu3BiS3 [10], A2B3 (A= Sb/Bi/Ni; B= Se, Te) [16, 44, 46, 71, 78]) have also used microwave-assisted route with noticeable rapidness and reduced preparation time. In this chemical reaction, the selection of the solvent plays an important role in the formation of nanostructures. Some of the commonly used solvents are ethylene glycol, 2-propanol, ethanol, meth anol, N,N-dimethyl formamide, acetic acid, hexane, and water [106]. Among these, water and ethanol are well-known and more frequently used solvents due to its exceptional stable polarity producing rapid and easy formation of nanoparticles with small size and narrow size distribution within short reaction time. As shown in Figure 1.2, the required precursor materials are initially taken on a stoichiometric ratio in deionized water (example) as solvent. After that, the whole solution is allowed to stir for 30 minutes on a magnetic stirrer to get a colloidal solution. The obtained homogenous mixture is allowed to maintain under a microwave 900 W (2.45 GHz) for 10–15 minutes to maintain a constant thermal effect on a chemical reaction. After successful Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies 9 completion of microwave assessment, the whole solution is washed 3–4 times in a centrifuge machine simultaneously with ethanol and water in order to get a pure particle. Finally, the obtained particles are dried whole night at 100°C under hot air vacuum and carried out for further analysis. Hence, the synthesis of NMs using microwave synthesis routes is a unique and effective way that can be implemented in food processing technology. FIGURE 1.2 General mechanism involved in the synthesis of nanoparticles using microwave technology. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 10 1.2.2 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION (CVD) Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a technique in which the chemical reac tion takes place within precursor gas medium (Figures 1.3 and 1.4). In this process, the solid materials such as powder or thin film or single crystal are coated on a substrate. The selection of gas can either be a mono source of H2, Ar, CH4 or mixtures of gases in a definite ratio [7]. This process involves the reaction between volatile precursors injected into the vacuum chamber. The material to be coated is placed inside the chamber, which is also called ‘boat.’ The pre-set temperature of the reaction chamber induces a reaction between the volatile precursors and the resulting compound that is formed after coating on to the substrate. In this technique, the elevated temperature is required for the reaction chamber in order to facilitate reaction. Before coating, the contaminants must be removed from the part surface and the film thickness is limited because of coating stress. This process gives better quality of materials with a wide range of physical and chemical properties. The flow of gas through substrates cause adsorption, surface reaction and produces volatile by-products as shown in the flow chart. Compared to other methods, this gives a superior adhesion of the product formed during the reaction inside the chamber. Unlike physical vapor deposition (PVD), the product molecules get chemically bonded to the substrate and hence are more robust in nature. But in this process, the coating shows a lot of benefits as it can coat almost every shape of substrates. The same can be applied to a wide variety of base materials including glass, ceramics, metals, and metal alloy. It can withstand exposure from low to high-temperature range. In spite of these pros, CVD is also one of the sophisticated and expensive techniques for the synthesis of NMs in which gas molecules are reacted and the resulting product is deposited as solid film. It is also difficult to mask the surface for getting a selected area for coating and the size of the substrate to be coated is limited by reaction vacuum chamber dimensions. In industries, this method is already used for the production of sunglasses and also the bags of potato chips which is having the advantage of the protection of the food in food processing technology. In this conventional synthesis route, temperature, and reaction time are the important parameters that affect the final product of a chemical reaction (i.e., if the temperature increases than the required range causes the un-confinement of the particle size). Similarly, in multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), with the effect of change in temperature from 590–850°C the diameter of an MWCNT increase from 16–45 nm [8]. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies 11 Catalyst induced CVD is a low cost and effective method for the synthesis of NMs. The deposition of films can be carefully performed using different catalysts at low temperature [43]. FIGURE 1.3 Generalized functioning of CVD method. FIGURE 1.4 CVD synthesis flowchart. Different types of a catalyst such as Palladium, Gold, Nickel, Iron, Miscel laneous are commonly used for the deposition of films. These materials are Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 12 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 from the transition metals group which are more suitable as catalysts due to their high melting points suitable for high-temperature deposition and high diffusion rates. There is an interesting scope of research in comparative studies produced by varying the substrates depositions at different tempera tures, the composition of gas mixtures, the flow of gas pressure and other experimental conditions. This technique is widely used for the synthesis of CNTs and metal oxides with a specified morphology which includes granular, crystallite faced texture, hexagonal shape, triangles, etc. Various chalcogenides materials such as ZnX (X = S, Se, Te) [89], Bismuth chalco genides [56], 2D semiconductors MoX2 (X=S, Se) [68, 93] and GeSe2 [20] have been reported using CVD approach. However, this method has failed in fabricating some materials, which is a major drawback. Nevertheless, there is a huge scope of using this method for the development of novel most effec tive and nontoxic NMs which can be applied in food packing technology. 1.2.3 SOL-GEL Sol-gel synthesis methodology for NMs was first pioneered by Dr. Jeffrey Brinker and sets an important guideline for the evolution of sol-gel science [18]. This chemical reaction involves the presence of water as a solvent under the aqueous medium. The process begins with the formation of a “soul,” which is a stable dispersion of colloidal particles in a solvent [40]. A gel is produced via cross-linkages forming a three-dimensional network. This process is called gelation involves polycondensation that occur via hydro lysis and polymerization of alcohol or water. In this process, the precursor materials such as nitrates, chlorides, sulfates, metal acetates are used. Among these, metal alkoxides are widely used and believed as a stable precursor for the synthesis of nanoparticles [17]. In nonaqueous medium, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones are widely used as a general solvent. These solvents act as oxygen supplier in the chemical reaction resulting in structural morphology, efficient surface properties, and controlled particle size. Advantages of this method involves low production cost, low temperature pathways and allows to synthesize a wide range of novel and functional materials. It is a convenient route extensively used for the synthesis of a wide range of NMs such as silica materials, metal oxides and hybrid materials (Combination of both organic and inorganic materials) [4]. It also can produce different variety of morphologies such as films, flowers, monoliths, etc. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com We Don’t reply in this website, you need to contact by email for all chapters Instant download. Just send email and get all chapters download. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com You can also order by WhatsApp https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=%2B447507735190&text&type=ph one_number&app_absent=0 Send email or WhatsApp with complete Book title, Edition Number and Author Name. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies 13 This method is flexible, less complex in which the nanoparticles are aggregated via hydrolysis and condensation reaction to produce a wet-gel as a by-product. The obtained wet-gel is further dried, resulting in a polymer structure known as xerogel. The method of supercritical drying yields aero gels. This gelation method has drawbacks due to its unsuccessful synthesis of insulating and oxide materials such as (e.g., SiO2, TiO2, and Al2O3). Over a few decades, scientists were focusing on sol-gel chemistry on non-oxide materials which have led the development of carbon aerogel and metal chal cogenides such as sulfides and selenides, silicon nitride and carbonitride, metal-doped silicon nitrides, Boron, and gallium nitrides [5, 63]. These materials have been shown to produce control surface area with stable porosity and superior charge transport properties. Using Sol-Gel traditional synthesis, several multifunctional inorganic materials such as ZnO, SnO2, WO3 have been reported for heterogeneous photocatalysis with significant yield using a low concentration of catalyst [83]. This Sol-Gel approach is simply the process of two distinct faces known as solution and gelatin. The solution is the primary level of a colloidal suspen sion of tiny particles whereas the gel is the secondary phase of the intercon nected particles in liquid stage [51, 64]. After the formation of gelation, the required amount of heat >100°C is supplied to the chemical substance for desorption of physically bound water and alcohol. However, uncontrolled way of drying causes the formation of cracks due to the extensive pressure produced from the porous backbone. Therefore, this uncontrolled way of drying is known as xerogel. The alternative way to avoid this is to achieve better porosity which is possible using freeze-drying known as cryogel. The schematic flow chart of the sol-gel method is depicted in Figure 1.5. 1.2.4 HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHESIS Hydrothermal synthesis rate is generally used for growing single crystals and NMs from an aqueous solution at high temperature and pressure in an autoclave. Solvothermal method is also similar method in which the reaction takes place in presence of nonaqueous solvents. The hydrothermal method causes growth of crystallization via the nucleation process. Temperature, reaction time, pH, capping agent, reaction medium, pressure, and concen tration of reactants are the important parameters that affects structural morphology, size/diameter, stability, and growth of nanocrystals. The effect of pH solution from 8–12.5 leads to the growth of a variety of nanostructures Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 14 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 like flowers, nanotetrapods, and urchin-like morphologies. Interestingly, at low pH value, i.e., <4.6, it shows the growth of nanorods. Similarly, by using different molar concentrations, the size distribution density of the nanopar ticles can be modulated [3]. FIGURE 1.5 Sol-gel method. As shown in the flow chart, the initial precursors in the presence of water as a medium are taken in a beaker and stirred to obtain a colloidal solution. After the forming of the colloidal solution, the whole solution is transferred into a Teflon autoclave and placed under the high temperature micro-oven at which the temperatures and reaction time period is maintained. In this chemical reaction, the high temperature and pressures produces the growth of crystallization through the nucleation process. The final solution is rapidly cool down to the room temperature (RT). The resulting solution is washed via centrifugation in process at high rotation per minute (RPM) using ethanol and water simultaneously for the removal of organic contaminants. There fore, the product solution is dried in a hot air oven at 100°C in order to get pure nanocrystals. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies 15 As far as the environmental hazard concern, hydrothermal method (Figures 1.6 and 1.7) is recommended compared with other methodolo gies, Owing to its low reaction temperature, defect free nanomaterial, and the stoichiometric control process. Moreover, it can regulate the rate and uniformity of nucleation processes, growth, and aging, morphology, and aggregation control. It is also possible to obtain a plethora of nanostructured morphologies, namely nano tetrapods, nano-urchins, honeycomb topology, etc. The future research work aims from food industries to semiconductors, will continue to use this facile process to obtain a feasible yield of NMs. FIGURE 1.6 Hydrothermal synthesis of nanoparticles. FIGURE 1.7 Different steps for hydrothermal synthesis. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 16 1.2.5 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 SONOCHEMICAL SYNTHESIS Among the few synthesis techniques mentioned in this chapter, the sono chemical route is an ingenious method for synthesis of NMs (Figure 1.8). The name (sono = sound + chemical) itself means a chemical reaction mediated by sound waves. In this process, the high-intensity ultrasound is used instead of various other reaction determining high temperatures, high pressures, or long reaction times. Ultrasonic wavelength spans from a few micrometers to a few cm, which is quite larger than the molecular size scale. Hence the ultrasonic sound waves do not interact directly with the sample. The interaction takes place via a physical phenomenon called the acoustic cavitation. This phenomenon includes the formation of bubbles – Growth of bubbles – Implosive collapse of bubbles at the final stage, as shown in Figure 1.8. FIGURE 1.8 Sonochemical synthesis. Bubbles are formed due to the alternative compression and rarefaction produced from the applied ultrasound waves. These waves induce a tensile stress within the liquid specimen resulting in a change of density. During this process, the growth of the bubble takes place until it reaches a critical size nearly of tens of micrometer which then family collapses. This impulsive collapse creates extreme conditions for the reaction that takes place during sonochemical synthesis. This extreme transient condition provides the required ambience for reaction to take place in a liquid even at RT which otherwise may require high temperature, high pressure and long reaction times. For the synthesis of organometallic compounds such as Cr(CO)6 and Fe(CO)5, etc., requires non-volatile solvents (e.g., Silicon oil) which will Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies 17 be suitable with the bubble reaction conditions [41]. Recently, there is also a widespread emergence of 2D materials which are having a large number of applications, and their synthesis is mediated by ultrasound. The energy associated with the ultrasound can exfoliate a single layer from the layered structure in bulk like in the case of graphene, MoS2, WS2, etc. [57]. During the synthesis there is also chemical effect associated with ultrasound energy irradiation. For example, graphene can be functionalized by styrene when the ultrasound induced activated styrene attacks the surface of it. This paves a way for easy one pot solution synthesis of functionalized NMs [42]. In this methodology, control of surfactant molecules using advanced nanotechnology covers a wide range of research interest due to its unique functional properties as compared with bulk materials. Oleic acid and polyvi nylpyrrolidone are commonly and popularly known surfactant molecules to produce the controlled diameter of nanoparticles [61]. Ultrasound synthesis technique is also used in food drying technology in which the resistance of internal and external water transfer from the food can be reduced. Hence, implementing this technique with the effective MNCs are very limited in literature as compared with other synthesis techniques. This paves the way for innovations in the fields of nano and food technology. 1.2.6 HOT INJECTION Hot-Injection is the most popular synthesis route to obtain high-quality monodisperse ultrafine quantum dots (QDs) and nanoparticles. The obtained QDs nanoparticles using this synthesis are good and small in size as compared with the existing hydrothermal method. With the decrease in the size of nanocrystals, the nucleation growth eventually increases under the different variations of temperatures (170–240°C), reaction time (1–10 minutes), pH range, molar ratio, etc. Usually, this process is preferred in a dual step synthesis approach by rapid injection of catalyst in a pre-heated chemical reaction. The higher basicity yielded leads to smaller particles from the observation of pH variation [59]. The schematic chemical reaction is shown in Figure 1.9. In an initial stage, the required precursors along with the stabilizer solution are taken in a beaker containing distilled water. The solution is stirred thoroughly on a magnetic solution for 1 hr. in order to get a complete mixed colloidal solu tion. The role of a stabilizer creates a charge between the colloidal solution and prevent it from agglomeration between the particles. The further reaction Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com We Don’t reply in this website, you need to contact by email for all chapters Instant download. Just send email and get all chapters download. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com You can also order by WhatsApp https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=%2B447507735190&text&type=ph one_number&app_absent=0 Send email or WhatsApp with complete Book title, Edition Number and Author Name. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 18 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 is transferred into three-neck conical flask which is fitted to a Schlenk line under the N2 atmosphere. The whole experiment is performed under an inert atmosphere to prevent it from the contamination. The chemical reaction is carried out for several hours with varying time and temperature in order to analyze the structural, size, and physicochemical properties. After synthesizing successfully under N2 atmosphere, the whole solution is collected in a centrifuge tube and washed it three times simul taneously with distilled water and ethanol. Finally, the resultant product is collected in a Petri dish and kept it under a hot air oven at 100°C to get the final product. The process of nucleation takes is based on classical nucle ation theory which has gained tremendous interest in thermodynamics and kinetics [29]. The advantage over hydrothermal synthesis of QDs is that they are much well dispersed. Another factor that makes it a bright prospect of synthesis of NMs is the ability to tune properties of the resulting product by precise control of external parameters such as concentration of stabilizer, flow rate of the inert gas through the Schlenk line into the three-neck flask, etc. FIGURE 1.9 1.3 Process of nanoparticle synthesis using hot-injection method. PROPERTIES OF NANOCOMPOSITES The term nanocomposite materials are defined by the combination of two or more different materials to produce the distinct and unique physical and chem ical property as compared with the individual properties. These composite materials have enormous benefits which include lightweight, long term dura bility, high strength to weight ratio, dimensional stability, and non-magnetic Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies 19 property. Similarly, nanocomposites are a kind of materials with multiple phase domains in which at least one domain is at the range of nanometer (nm) or structure. These materials have remarkable physical and chemical properties, which depends on the interfacial characteristics of the individual components. Some of these nanocomposites have shown even 1,000 times better effective property than the bulk materials. The reinforcement nature is inversely proportional to the matrix shiftiness in nanocomposites [58]. The role filler characteristics in nanocomposites also play an important role in its application and performance. The mechanical property of the nanocomposite is based on the effect of particle size distribution and particle size in which the strength decreases with increase in particle size [58]. The decrease in the particle size causes an increase in the concentration of fillers which is very much important in nanocomposites containing nanofibers, nanotubes, and spherical nanoparticles. Most of the nanoparticles at less concentration in the composite material matrix can be identified from XRD by crystalline peaks. But the size and concentration of the nanoparticles strongly influence the properties of nanocomposites [66]. Synthesis of metal oxide nanocomposites (MONC) is classified into two types such as top-down and bottom-up approaches, i.e., physical methods and chemical synthesis routes. The use of MONC is widely recognized in medicine and health, agri culture, food, and environmental applications (Figure 1.10). MONC is recently explored for its potential applications in drug delivery, screening of diseases and diagnosis, cancer treatment, tissue culture, etc. [30, 74]. In environmental applications, these MONC are popularly used as a sensor for detection of environmental pollutants, photocatalysts, and absorbents. The use of MONC with its high surface-to-volume ratio has a high reactivity of water purification. These MONC made in a combination with metal oxide and polymer are used as detection of heavy metals and dyes, which can be the proposed applicability in the food industry for detection of possible contamination of the raw material and finished products as well [22, 23]. In the food sector, it acts as a good strength filler material and antimicrobial activity like silver oxide nanocomposites [36, 45]. Metal oxide such as CeO, ZnO, and CuO and their composites with a combination of alloys and poly mers are useful in controlled and slow release of fertilizers for plants. This way is the promising route for the precaution of soil degradation and helps in improvement [65, 76]. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 20 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 FIGURE 1.10 Uses of MONC in various fields. The properties of nanocomposites include surface modification, growth, and diffusion barrier against the grain growth during synthesis, particle stability, luminescence. The diffusion barrier is used to prevent the core structure of a nanomaterial whereas by mutual solubility between core and coating. For the attachment of ligand molecules, it is essential to subject the nanoparticles for the surface modification that bridges the core and the ligand binding. Thus, surface modification helps to draw the benefits of core and ligand molecules in one system. In addition, coating also enhances the stability of the core. Among these inorganic nanoparticles, metal chalco genide nanocomposites such as ZnS and CdSe have been widely used due to the relatively strong luminescence properties. Hence, we can conclude that, the nanocomposites have widespread of application including in food sector. 1.4 IMPORTANCE OF POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITES Nanotechnology in polymers deals with materials with at least one dimen sion is at the nanoscale dispersed in a polymer matrix. These polymer nano composites can improve strength, optoelectronic properties, chemical and thermal resistance, and surface functionalities. The polymers are economi cally feasible, lightweight, flexible, and have low thermal conductivity. The combination of fillers in polymer composites enhances the physical and chemical properties of the polymer [39, 70]. Nanofillers can be powder, liquid or thin films, which are classified into three categories viz. 1-Dimension (1-D), 2-Dimension (2-D) and 3-Dimen sion (3-D). These polymer nanocomposites are also known as hybrid Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies 21 materials that are made in the combination of inorganic nanomaterial and an organic polymer. This is a unique combination of materials that significantly affects the overall performance of conventional polymer by the desired end product. Introducing fillers in a crystalline polymer effects spherulite and crystallite size, nucleation, and crystallinity. The increase in growth of nucleation causes an increase in stiffness, crystallinity, and a decrease in the size of a spherulite and resistance of a final product. The incorporation of nanoparticles in polymer matrix produces the improvement in nanocom posite which not only depends upon the individual material but also depends upon the parameters such as synthesis temperature, chemical concentration and reaction time. With the effective high surface to volume ratios, the nano material tends to generate effective morphological and interfacial properties [49, 72, 80]. These polymer nanocomposites show multifunctional properties which are generally made in-situ polymerization process using monomer chains, melt mixing, in-situ reduction of complex salts in the polymer matrix. The most common and simple way used for the synthesis of polymer nanocom posites is in-situ polymerization of monomer chains (Figure 1.11). FIGURE 1.11 TABLE 1.1 Synthesis of polymer nanocomposites. Examples of Different Types of Nanofillers Nature of Nanofillers Example [References] 1-D Nanodisks [33] Nanosheets [6] Nanoplates [6] Nanoprism [6] Nanowalls [15, 55, 98] Carbon nanowalls [96] Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 22 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 TABLE 1.1 (Continued) Nature of Nanofillers Example [References] 2-D 2D-Graphene [31] Carbon nanotubes [84] Gold nanowires [9, 100] Zinc oxide [75] Titanium dioxide [97] Nanoreactor [84] 3-D Spherical and cubical nanocrystals [2] Nanogranules [2] These polymer nanocomposites have applications in several interdis ciplinary fields such as packing, energy storage, optoelectronics, environ mental problems, and biomedical applications. The selection of nanofiller is based upon the desired potential application (Table 1.1). For instance, the combination of chitosan (CH) and Au/Ag nanoparticles nanocomposites shows good antibacterial properties. Another report reveals that the use of poly (acryloyl-s-aminocaproic acid) with graphene oxide (GO) grows hydrogels with self-healing nature [47]. One of the interesting studies shows that nanocomposites made in the combination of CNTs with polyurethanes are useful in actuator applications. Similarly, nanocomposite material with the combination of reduced GO with poly 9,9-dioctyl fluorine-altbithiophene can be used as a diode in electronics [90]. 1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD PROCESSING OPERATIONS All raw edible source of food item can be acquired from plant source, animal source, microbial source and fungal source. Food processing is the technique in which raw edible source mend to consume as the food. Food processing is circumventing of all processes in which food goes from the time of harvesting to the food arrived in the consumer’s plate. A special ized agency of the United Nations declares that FAO (food and agriculture organization) has been planned to defeat hunger in the international level. According to this food processing can be classified in three ways: Primary (1o), secondary (2o) and tertiary (3o). The 1o food processing is the basic cleaning, grading, and packaging as processed with vegetable and fruits. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com We Don’t reply in this website, you need to contact by email for all chapters Instant download. Just send email and get all chapters download. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com You can also order by WhatsApp https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=%2B447507735190&text&type=ph one_number&app_absent=0 Send email or WhatsApp with complete Book title, Edition Number and Author Name. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies 23 In 2o food processing, way alteration of the basic product to a stage just before the final preparation as in case of milling of paddy to rice. In the 3o food processing, ready-to-eat foods are bakery, health drinks, instant foods, etc. 1.5.1 FUNCTIONING OF FOOD PROCESSING Traditionally it can be classified in two steps: first to make food more digest ible and second is the preservation of food during the time of scarcity of seasonal crops. The moto of the processing can be customized to fulfill the nutritional requirement in pregnant women, infants, children, and elders. It aimed to produce safer food, free of microbial and chemical contaminants. By making proper products of the highest quality texture, flavor, and color, it will be very easy to develop convenient food. 1.5.2 METHODS OF FOOD PROCESSING The processes of food processing are very vast domain which can be studied by certain points: to boosts the shelf life of food articles, safe transport and food, prevents the food from contamination, increase in the market value, representation of food in attractive way. To fulfill all the above points, many methods involved such as washing, sterilizing, peeling off, chopping or slicing, fermentation, liquefaction, emulsification, mixing, mincing, gasifi cation in bread or soft drinks, spray drying, pasteurizing, and packaging. Nevertheless, the main steps of food preserving involves: Drying, Cooling, Freezing, Heating, Pickling. It is essential to prevent the development of microbes like fungal and bacterial growth. Food preservation is to slow down the oxidation of fat and oil present in food to reduce rancidity and foul smell. Advanced MCNs have the potency to amplify all these food processing steps which are discussed broadly in the following topics. 1.5.3 POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS OF CHALCOGENIDE NANOPARTICLES From the periodic table, the elements of group-16 (such as oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, polonium, and livermorium) are chalcogens elements. Among these, oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are non-metals; tellurium, Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 24 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 polonium is metalloid and livermorium at RT also behaves as a metalloid. In, chalcogenide NMs, the possible particles can be divided into pure and combination of at least two elements. Possible combinations can be either intra elemental combinations or inter elemental combinations. Intra elemental combinations is within chalcogens element except oxygen and inter elemental combination is between the chal cogens and other periodic table element how nanoparticles possible to exist. Indeed, MCNs comes under the classified combination of inter elemental combination in which only metal elements form the possible combination with chalcogens group 16 elements. Possible basic MCNs can exist between S-metal (M), Se-M, Te-M, Po-M, and Lv-M as the bi-elemental combina tions as depicted in Figure 1.12. Moreover, tri-elemental or supportive nano material combination are also playing the great potential ability towards the advances in MCNs such as polymers, CNTs, GO, etc. In this book chapter, we focused on MCNs and its advances discussed further. FIGURE 1.12 1.6 Selective chalcogenide group in the periodic table. ADVANCES IN METAL CHALCOGENIDE NANOMATERIALS (MCNS) The hierarchy of MCNs on the basis of elements composition is started from bi, tri to complex MCNs. MCNs can be synthesized in the form of gels and aerogels applicable as the fuel material. MCNs can be also synthe sized via green process having property of semiconductor nanoparticles. Multinary transition MCNs are helpful in photovoltaic cells. They are also manufactured as hybrid material for solar light absorption and conductive Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies 25 ink composition. Homoleptic ruthenium (III) with chalcogens from MCNs are used in catalytic functioning. Biopolymer-coated 2D transition metal chalcogenide nanoparticles are having potency for antimicrobial activity. MCNs are also useful in the preparation of nanofluids for the concentration of solar power and transition metal dichalcogenide-based NMs are useful for electrochemical energy storage. 1.6.1 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF MCNS IN FOOD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES After focusing throughout the advances of MCNs in food processing can be applied in six directions such as smart packaging, nanocatalyst, nanofiller, solar energy devises, nanosensors, and biomedical applications. These appli cations are discussed in subsections. 1.6.2 SMART PACKAGING AND NANO LAMINATES Smart packaging involves like labeling, tags attached onto the 1o processing such as on pouches, bottles, trays. On 2o processing for shipping containers for facilitation of better communications. Control upon the carbon dioxide (CO2) generation and generation in the sachet. Smart packaging is also involved in the reduction in the packed processed food respiration rate. Transition metal chalcogenides of like MoSe2, MoS2, WS2, WSe2, NbS2, etc., nanotube like structure. are investigated for the application in packaging to reduction in migration of oxygen, CO2, flavor, and water vapors. MCNs with one dimension range are formed as layers, which are effective as the nanolaminates. Nano laminates due to its nano range properties become very much fitted for the lamination in food processing. Most interestingly, these MCNs is having thermoplastic matrix and layered properties which is useful in lamination and packaging in food processing. 1.6.3 NANOCATALYST AND ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES Most of the MCNs are having catalytic properties with and without the presence of light. This indicates that MCNs can work as nanocatalysts or photocatalyst. This catalytic bearing property can show good antibacterial property. Microwave-assisted synthesized ZnS Nanocrystalline shows the Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 26 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 antibacterial properties against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli [27]. Facile one-pot synthesis of ZnS nanospheres with surfactant dodecyl dimethyl ammonium bromide is also reported as antibacterial property but negligible toxicity against mammalian cells [35]. Along with this, ZnS prepared nanocomposite films show the increase in tensile strength with the increase in ZnS composition on the composite material. ZnS composite films reveal interesting improved thermal and physical strength. It indicates that the ZnS MCNs are having catalytic, antibacterial, and physical strength triple character. This triple property is very useful for the application of the food processing technology. 1.6.4 NANO-FILLERS NMs are considered to be particles or materials whose at least one dimen sion is one to 100 nm range with some exceptions. Like the nanofillers are considered to be within the range as small as 5 nm. There are various traditional grated available for the commercial uses such as ceramic, carbon black, cellulose fiber, gold, mica, mineral, titanium white, talc, montmoril lonite (MMT) clay, CNTs and many more. From past few years, nanofiller is playing vital role in the field of plastic industries. It can be described as the solid form additives which comprise of inorganic material and rare organic materials. Nanofillers can play with the quality of the material in which it is infused for use. It may work as inactive filler as the extenders that raises the quantity but lowers the quality. Meanwhile in certain material activated nanofillers may enhance the quality by increasing its functioning. The activated nano filler depends upon many properties like cross-linking between the nanofiller and infused material, ration of constituents, polymer matrix, and immobili zation of adjacent molecules and their interaction and proper orientation. Nano filler can also be nano additives, nanoparticles, magnetic, conductive, nanopowders as the lubricants, etc. The combination of bismuth and telluride acts as a thermoelectric nanofiller and the combine bismuth telluride Bi2Te3 MCNs can be useful as a potentially allied for the food processing [26]. These nanofillers can be QDs, nanowires, nanosponges, nanotubes, nanobelts, etc. Examples of few nanofiller QDs are cadmium selenide, lead selenide, and lead sulfide. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies 1.6.5 27 SOLAR ENERGY DEVICES MCNs Solar devices is used in the drying for stored vegetable and fruits and for drying solar devices and to increase the efficiency of dryers. Solar energy concentrators can provide steaming, blanching, roasting, boilers. Thus, the improved research is going on MCNs providing the thermal gadgets, air dryers, heaters to remove moisture as the renewable energy post-harvesting process of food. These MCNs solar energy devices in food processing are having vast variety of benefits as the emerging technologies which together can provide good quality foods at low or no fuel uptake. It solves the major problem of reduction in utilization of non-renewable fuel sources. MCNs based semiconductors are the current focusing materials for the harvesting of sunlight as energy can directly trapped into the photovoltaic devices such as thin-film nanomaterial, hybrid inorganic nanostruc ture-conductive polymer composites, and quantum-dots-sensitized solar cells. CdTe, CdS, CdTe/CdS, MoBi2Se5, PbS, PbSe, Sb2S3, Sb2Se3, etc., are additional examples. 1.6.6 NANOSENSORS The use of nanosensors is very in detection of contaminated food during the food processing. Sometimes the food may become unsafe due to the presence of foodborne pathogens like bacteria, toxins such as Shiga, cholera, aflatoxin. The advantage of MCNs is having good electrocatalytic property, which can be used as an electrochemical sensor. Therefore, good electrocatalytic prop erties have good amperometric, voltammetric, galvanometric properties. From these peculiarities, these MCNs are currently being used in various nanosensors. The electrochemical MCNs sensors are very much found of its fluorescence property for the optical detection of contaminants said to be fluorescent biosensors. For example, QDs such as CdSe, ZnS, SnSe2, CdTe, etc., are having good fluorescence and as well as good semiconductor nature. All these MCNs are having interlinked properties like QDs in which the fluorescence property can be utilized for sensors [54]. These MCNs QDs can be helpful in capturing the solar radiations thus can be utilized for the solar cell devices [60]. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com We Don’t reply in this website, you need to contact by email for all chapters Instant download. Just send email and get all chapters download. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com You can also order by WhatsApp https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=%2B447507735190&text&type=ph one_number&app_absent=0 Send email or WhatsApp with complete Book title, Edition Number and Author Name. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 28 1.6.7 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE In the biomedical branch of biological fields, the food processing relates to the medication formulation and its quality control. Medication processing includes its formulation and packaging for transportation, selling, and distribution in the market or public sector. Quality control of drugs includes appropriate concentration of drug in proper ration in medication, contamination-free and durability like expiry date. Contamination in drugs is mostly of two types. First it may other than drug constituent in which other pollutant or microbial contaminant may present. Thus, with drug formula tion, quality control of medication is also an important step. Therefore, MCNs can be utilized in biomedical food processing applications in drying, mixing, grinding, wet heat sterilization, packaging, laminating, sanitizing and sensing applications (Figure 1.13). We have already discussed about the drying, mixing grinding through solar devices; packaging and laminating in the packing heading; contamination sensing in nanosensors. Moreover, sanitizing of medication with MCNs involve with the presence of infrared rays. MCNs have the property of heat absorption and release good amounts of infrared rays that are utilized for the sanitization of medication. Interaction of infrared radiation with food material kills the infections present in it. Plas monic MCNs have the property of direct absorption of radiation and become ready to develop the infrared ray helpful for sanitation. Other examples of MCNs in Biomedical fields are: coper-tin-selenide (Cu-Sn-Se) as plasmonic nanoparticles, CuS disk, CuTe, etc. [91]. 1.7 APPLICATIONS OF POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITES IN FOOD SCIENCE Nanocomposite materials for applications in food technology are one of the major important streams of research in academia and industry. The current food industry is majorly focused on food processing using nanoparticles and food packaging technology. In food processing technology, nanotechnology is used to improve food quality, safety, and -nutritional benefits. Some of the NMs are intentionally added into the food by creating delivery systems of preservatives, colors, nutrients, flavors along with these, it is also used for texture modification and with improved stability. For example, AgNPs may be a very good antimicrobial activity, but still, the toxicity nature with food processing has been limited [88]. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies FIGURE 1.13 29 Six multitasking and dynamic potent applications in food processing. The research teams have reported that, using animal studies have produced with, the use of AgNPs in food causes lymphocyte infiltration, disorder mucus composition in the intestine [62, 101]. Another study has reported that it can cause liver damage, kidneys, stomach, etc., and these drawbacks are due to the generated reactive oxygen species which promotes oxidative stress resulting in damage to cell membranes. Similar studies such as zinc oxide, TiO2, iron oxide, SiO2, are the inorganic materials which are also used directly in food processing. But, these materials also have various drawbacks/side effects on human health by damaging cell organs affecting human health [28]. Similarly, another source of materials such as organic nanoparticles can be used in foods that are less harmful than inorganic nanoparticles. The commonly used organic nanoparticles are lipid nanoparticles, protein nanoparticles, and carbohydrate nanoparticles. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 30 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 Hence the usage of nanoparticles, either organic or inorganic, may affect the esophagus, stomach, small, and large intestine which was wonderfully reported [28]. Therefore, rather than focusing on food processing using effective nanoparticles, it is better to focus on food packaging technology to avoid the toxicity concern and to produce long-term durability. These nano composites are unique materials made of organic polymers and inorganic nanofillers due to its better quality, safety, healthiness, the shelf life of food [48]. These nanocomposites are the most effective as compared with individual organic and inorganic materials. Several nanocomposites have been proposed using different structural polymers with the reinforcement effects of nanofillers. For the last few decades, the plastic waste produced from various sources, including food packs, caused environmental contamination problems due to its non-biodegradable nature. This has paid serious attention to the development of degradable nanocomposites in food packing technology. To overcome these issues, recently, bio-degradable nanocomposites have become a topic of research interest, which is made of polysaccharides as a biopolymer from agriculture resource and protein molecules from biotech nology (e.g., poly (hydroxy alkanoates), poly (lactic acid) [73]. Similar biopolymers made of cellulose reinforced biodegradable polymer composite films [1], CH-based bio-nanocomposite [104], hydroxide reinforces polymer biocomposites HRPB [87] have shown to produce interesting potential properties suitable for the food packaging technology. But these materials have drawbacks which are not suitable for long-term packaging due to its unstable degradable toxicity. Therefore, we mainly focus our intention on the possibility of developing polymer nanocomposites with effective metal chalcogenide materials. Metal chalcogenides are useful for the degradation of organic pollutants [67]. However, it is expected that the combination of metal chalcogenides with organic/polymer nanocomposites can be useful in food packaging technology with effective environmental degradation. The research on environmental degradation study of metal chalcogenide polymer nanocomposites is still found to be limited till date to the best of our knowledge (Figure 1.14). Hence, our approach will probably fetch and derive a new method using metal chalcogenide nanoparticles in polymer nanocomposites as a food packaging technology. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Scope of Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials in Food Processing Technologies FIGURE 1.14 technology. 1.8 31 Current focus of food industry in food processing and food packaging SUMMARY Thus, in all the above-described properties, MCNs have provided great infor mation about the theoretical to practical multitasking and dynamic property. From this, we conclude that MCNs can said to be the multitasking due to its working application rule on the catalytic, thermal emitting, solar absorp tion, plasmatic, and well electrochemical and fluoresce behavior. MCNs are multitasking and as well as it can be considered dynamic because all the sixspoke wheeler applications are interconnected. These MCNs have almost all the characteristic features such as semiconductors, QDs, and antimicrobial. From a commercial point of view, developing the MCNs as emulsion, plas monic liquid, nanofluids, nanospheres, and nanotubes will be the safer side for entrepreneur. A large number of publications have been reported on the advantages of various NMs such-as metals, oxides, polymers, and polymer composites on food processing. But very few reports are explored based on chalcogenide NMs in food technology. However, in this book chapter, we focus to highlight on the MCNs in various applications and the possibility of using in food packaging. This can be achieved by the incorporation of metal chalcogenide nanoparticles into the polymer matrix which acts as a stabilized nanofillers. These chalcogenides in combination with polymers are expected to be more efficient nanomaterial which will be more effective as compared with existing materials. We have classified different synthesis routes for the synthesis of NMs of which metal chalcogenide nanoparticles can be developed for applications in food packaging technology. However, it is also important to be noted that, the use of nanoparticle in food processing cause several health issues which have been illustrated in detail. Thus, Advanced MCNs in food processing direction can be good potent nanomaterials and can be put down in the market for common public applications. Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at etutorsource@gmail.com 32 Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering , Volume 2 • • • • • • metal chalcogenides nanocomposites nanofiller nanomaterials polymer quantum dots REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Abdul, H. P. S., Ying, Y. T., Cheu, P. L., Saurabh, C. K., Ariffin, F., Mohammad, F. A., & Mohamed, A. B. S., (2017). 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Nanotechnology Horizons in Food Process Engineering

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