PRELIM INDIA POLITICAL Military Despotism Bengal Army - The European core of the company’s army was supplemented by increasing numbers of Indian ‘sepoys’. - Sepoys recruited were among the upper-caste peasantry of northern India and Bihar. 1854 - jurisdiction of the Bengal army extended all over northern India. Madras Army - A numerically weaker army drawn from Eurasians, Telugu warrior clans and Muslims who were unable to find employment - in the Mysore army, and the Bombay marine. ● The total strength of the company’s armed forces increased dramatically during the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars (115,000 in 1790 to 155,000 in 1805) 1760s and 1780s - Centralized Civilian Bureaucracy ● ● Formal authority over the company’s Indian affairs was exercised by the court of directors in London. Lord North’s Regulating Act of 1773 and Pitt’s India Act of 1784 ○ Aimed to regulate the company’s administration and increase parliamentary oversight. After 1773 the governor-general and his council ruled with the assistance of a cadre of about 400 covenanted civil servants. The colonial bureaucracy became more racially exclusive and distant from lower levels of Indian clerks during the era of nationalistic imperialism. ○ Peter Marshall has noted, ‘Indian agency at lower levels was still essential for the running of the government’, but ‘the ethos of the higher ranks of the service had become firmly British’. 1810 & 1830s - Urban Artisan Riots ● By weavers and dispossessed artisanal groups in north Indian towns 1806, 1833, 1854 - Grain Riots in Madras 1933-1838 - Grain riots in North India - Grain riots were not necessarily a product of hunger, although they were a facet of struggles over the control of food. - Two forms: a) market riots, where the crowd protested against the price or lack of availability of grain, and b) blockade, where in times of shortage people prevented the export of grain from a town or district because they believed that merchants and landlords should not benefit from scarcity and that such exports would drive up the price locally. - Caused by religious and social tensions, discontent with colonial legal systems (colonial civil and criminal laws, calling for the restitution of traditional Mughal law officers), resistance across social groups (rural magnates, peasants, and urban artisans - 1850s - Exporter of agricultural raw materials - Cotton, jute, tea, coffee, wheat and oil seeds Military Mutinies ● Madras Army in Vellone - 1606 ● Bengal Army in Java - 1015 ● Gwalior - 1834 ● Afghanistan - 1839-1842 ● Burma - 1824 & 1852 (previous mutiny of Burma) THE REBELLION OF 1857 Gen. Service Enlistment Act of 1856 - required recruits to undertake military service abroad (across kala pani - dark waters) - Used to be prestigious & had bhatta (pay bonuses) but due to the Afghan debacle the british had to widen the circle of caste & regional groups that will be recruited to the bengal army Annexation of Awadh, 1856 - By this time, Rajputs & Bhumihar Brahmans of Benares & Awadh (what was previously made up of the military abroad) had lost their prestige Religious Millenarianism (belief in a future golden age of prosperity) 1856 Persian & company confrontation - seen as a start to a Muslim mobilization against the Brits - British vs. Ghazis (warriors of faith) - Complications: - rivalry amongst Sunnis & Shias - some refused to proclaim jihad due to low success rates 1857 Aug. 25 Proclamation of Azamgarh - Hindu-Muslim Unity were ruined by English tyranny Mutiny of the XI Native Calvary (May 10-11, 1857) - CAUSE: sepoys (indian soldiers w/in the British garrisons) were imprisoned because they refused to utilize the cartridges (bullets) because they were rumored to be smeared by cow & pig fat - Which is detestable to muslims & hindi - As such arose public discontent due to their compatriot’s humiliation - 1st focus of Revolt: North & West of Delhi - LOST, because they failed to consolidate their grip over the liberated land & failed to attack british forces from the north (Punjab) - 2nd focus of Revolt: East in Awadh - put down the newly installed British administration & imprisoned the British garrison - By summer of 1858, British won back Awadh with the help of Bhumihar magnates of Benares (rivals of Rajput) - 3rd focus of Revolt: Central India - rulers & peasants of the Maratha territories tried to rid the British but failed > all were confined to Northern India gangetic plain & central india Agrarian Revolt 1857 - loss of landed rights - bania (trader-moneylenders) took ownership of provincial lands - high British tax - done by the chief villain (aka. Tax collector) - was actually the main cause of revolts - political deprivation - another cause of revolts due to high land revenue demand, it lowered the rebels’ status; equaling them to their peers & their spouses in other parts of the district. July 1857 Revolt in Hyderabad - failed due to Sikh magnates (East), british loyalist, who helped contain the disruption in Punjab Strong British troops in Bengal & Britain’s expeditionary troops as reinforcement (were supposedly set towards China) discouraged potential rebels Aftermaths of the Rebellion - abolition of East Indian company (Aug. 1858) - creation of Crown Raj - & DEBT worth 500 million rupees that the Crown Raj needed to pay to the british - To address this, taxation system was revamped CROWN RAJ 1858 ➔ Governor General to Crown’s viceroy ➔ Control over Indian affairs was exercised by secretary of state for India (member of Britain’s cabinet) ◆ Task (viceroy and sec. Of state): ● Reorganization of British Indian Army and civil bureaucracy to sustain Britain’s imperial dominance ➔ Rent Act of 1859 ◆ Fair rent and rights to stay on the land they worked ➔ Indian Councils Act of 1861 ◆ Provincial councils were created in Bengal, Madras and Bombay ◆ British officials are majority but few nominated non-official Indians were consulted on legislative matters ➔ 1870 and 1890 ◆ India’s export surplus was critical for Britain’s balance of payments ● Britain struggled to sell goods b/c of protectionist policies ● India exported raw materials and agricultural products to Britain na sa helped balance payments ➔ 1870 ◆ Outflow of interest is higher than inflow of fresh capital to India ● India is paying more to Britain than receiving more investments ➔ 1882 ◆ Granted Indians to local affairs ◆ British partly accepted the notion of elected representatives by agreeing to consider recommendations of certain Indian organizations ➔ Indian Councils Act of 1892 ◆ Proportion of non-official Indian councils was increased ➔ 1893 -Began to tax wealthier urban groups - Land revenues were regulated ➔ Colonial Bureaucracy “Steel Frame” ◆ Racial discrimination and inequality ● Upper echelons of bureaucracy were exclusively for senior British officials ● Indian Civil Service held in London ○ Indian Nationalists demanded it to be held both in London and India ● Resolution in simultaneous examination by House of Commons in 1893 ○ Not implemented until after end of WW1 ◆ Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1900 ● Limits transfer of land ownership to non farmers ➔ 1909 ◆ Morley-Minto reforms ● Extend links between higher and lower councils ◆ Supra-local caste and religious categories (“depressed classes” “Indian muslims”) ● Accorded reservation of seats and separate electorates for election ◆ Extended to 1919 Montagy- Chelmsford reforms and incorporated into Government of India Act of 1935 ➔ Bengal Tenancy Act of 1955 ● Fair rent and rights to stay on the land they worked ➔ Reinvention of “Traditional authority” ◆ British made sure that rulers didn’t seek approval to their people but seek or legitimize authority through British rule ● Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ○ born in 1869 ○ studied law in England ; did not successfully establish the practice in either Bombay or Ahmedabad ○ 1893-1915 - lived in South Africa ■ Political Prominence - Created an organization of non-violent protest against the racist policies of South Africa’s White Government ● Kheda Satyagraha (1918) ○ Protest against the state’s high revenue demand at a time of economic distress ■ ● Farmers are unable to pay taxes due to poor harvest and sought remission of taxes; government refused to grant any relief Farmers refuse to pay taxes as a sign of protest (non-violent resistance) ■ ■ Ahmedabad Satyagraha (1918) ○ Conflict between Indian workers and industrialists in the city’s textile mill. ■ Gandhi led the Indian workers protest through a hunger strike 1919 ● ● ● ● ● Rowlatt Act of 1919 ○ Rowlatt Act - Permit the British to hold Indians without trial. ■ Known to Gandhi as “The black act” by a “Satanic” government Satyagraha Sabha - all Indian mass protest movement against the Rowlatt Act Khilafat Movement - pan-Islamic force in India in an effort to protect the Ottoman caliph as a symbol of unity among the Muslim community in India April 13,1919 - Jallianwala Bagh Massacre ( Amritsar Massacre) ■ Unarmed crowd of villagers gathered in Jallianwala Bagh defying the ban of public meetings which is a martial law regulation. ■ General Dyer and his men fired bullets and block the entrance and exit of the Jallianwala Bagh ■ 379 died from the British bullets and more than 1200 injured. 1919 reforms created the dyarchy– system of double government for the provinces of India 1920 ● Non Cooperation movement in 1920 ■ The Satyagraha Sabha merged with Khilafat movement (noncooperation movement) ■ aimed at achieving Swaraj (self-rule) by non-violently resisting British rule. The movement was in response to events like the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the repressive Rowlatt Act. ○ Attack on the symbols of British Authority (e.g banks, post offices, railway stations, and town halls, etc..) ○ Led to the unity among Hindus,Muslims, and Sikh 1921 - Boycott of the British ● This was proven to be much more effective than the 1905 boycott ● During the visit by the Prince of Wales, the raj had a sense of alienation 1922 - End of the non-cooperation movement of 1920-2 left the Congress split down the middle 1923 December - Congress president at Cocanda, Mohamed Ali called for an accommodation of religious differences through the creation of a ‘federal of faiths’ rather than just a ‘unity of opposition’ 1927 November - British created prospect of Indian unity with the announcement of an all-white commission led by John Simon Simon Commission was to enquire into the future of constitutional reforms in India 1928 - saw India and Bombay in particular rocked by a series of labor strikes and radical protest by urban youth and students Revival of Indian Nationalist Movement (Early 1930s) ● ● Economic crisis and agrarian struggles led to peasant unrest ○ Gandhian civil disobedience were launched ○ Rise of revolutionary violence and extremism Several British concessions was signed (ex. Gandhi-Irwin pact, British Communal award, poona pact) to pacify the indians The Government of India Act of 1935 ● Established the federal polity of the country, introduced provincial autonomy and ended dyarchical rule. ○ Outcome: Lukewarm response at best because of the lack of Indian involvement in drafting. ○ outcome : divided Growing competition between the nationalist party and the conservative gandhian leadership ■ The british resorted outright to a new round of political engineering to divided and deflect the nationalist challenge. Political Upheaval ( Late 1930s) ● ● ● Despite political autonomy, the British kept sufficient emergency and reserved powers. Political rivalry between the nationalist party and the gandhian leadership was at its peak Growing muslim anxiety towards hindi dominated politics, spearheaded by the muslim league Prologue to WWII (Early 1940s) ● ● The declaration of war by the viceroy of INdia without the consultation of INdian leaders. ○ Led to mass resignation of Indian leaders. Political denial and economic interventions were unprecedented ○ Economic recession was felt once again due to dislocations of war and government purchases of war-related materials. Eventually led to famines. ○ WWII further amplified the anti-colonial nationalist movement of the radicals and socialist in India Quit India Movement (1940s) ● ● ● One of the biggest civilian uprising in india, demanding for immediate withdrawal of British rule ○ Organized armed struggle was launched against the colonial government, attacking all symbols of British authority. British response: ○ Coercive measures were used; Protestors and political leaders were imprisoned. ○ Cripps mission - a negotiation with Indian leaders to secure full cooperation towards the war effort, but it was rejected. Muslim league response: ○ Supported the British War effort and condemned the congress’ policy Indian Independence (1946) ● ECONOMIC The British decided to send out a cabinet mission to discuss the terms and shape of Indian independence ○ Unity quickly degenerated into serious division and conflict on how power was to be shared among indians once the british exited the subcontinent. 1757-1810 - EIC exploitation of Indian goods - The British East India Company (EIC) exploited India's revenue to buy Indian goods, like textiles, which they sold in global markets Indigo and Opium - Forced cultivation of Indigo to finance China tea trade by establishing monopoly cultivation illegally sold to China - Opium became a major source of income for the British but was unprofitable for Indian farmers 1793 - Permanent Settlement - British gave rights to landowners (zamindars) to collect taxes or revenues from farmers (raiyats) in Bengal - Some farmers couldn't pay taxes and sold their lands, others pay higher rents, causing widespread poverty Rotwari System - In the Madras region, the British collected taxes directly from farmers (raiyats) Farmers were heavily taxed while the British increased taxes over time, leading to economic burden 1757-1810 - Plunder of India's Wealth ➔ The British East India Company (EIC) exploited India's revenue to buy Indian goods, like textiles, which they sold in global markets 1810 - India’s artisanal economy lost its ability to compete with cheaply manufactured British textiles and to sell its products on world markets 1813 - Charter Act of 1813 - ended the East India company’s monopoly of trade with India. - Allowed British businesses to enter Indian market making it hard for Indian artisans to compete - Decline of traditional Indian industries, like cotton textile industry Indigo and Opium Trade - Forced cultivation of Indigo to finance China tea trade by establishing monopoly cultivation illegally sold to China - Opium became a major source of income for the British but was unprofitable for Indian farmers (vulnerable to fluctuations in the capitalist world economy) 1859-1860 - Blue Mutiny - Indigo system was overthrown in Bengal ➔ 1850s ◆ Exporter of agricultural raw materials ● Cotton, jute, tea, coffee, wheat and oil seeds 1918 ● By the end of World War I, New Delhi had a hard time servicing the needs of the capital while maintaining the political and economic dominance of Britain in India. ● The war had an detrimental effect on the Indian society, especially in the economy because they had to print more money which led to inflation in the country worsley affecting the countryside, especially the day-to-day commodities. Prelude to the Depression Decade (1926-1929) Largely agricultural based society ● High taxation rates, low value for crop commodities which led to price decline ● Economic slowdown : weakening demand for Indian goods in Western markets. ○ Imperialistic policies protected Britain's economy but slowly destroyed India’s in the process. Global Great Depression (1929) ● Stock market crashed led Britain to setting their sights on exploiting India to keep their economy upfloat ● Compelling the working class to sell their gold/silver ornaments to the British which in turn revitalized the British economy. SOCIAL Social changes: rural areas (first half of the 19th century) ● Experienced devastating alteration through deforestation and the effects were: ○ (1) Produced climatic change; (2) Led to the disruption of tribal lands; (3) Rude intrusion of money into tribal economies; (4) Invasion of the nomadic and pastoral economy; (5) In northern and central Indian groups engaged in cattle raising and horse breeding, they were subjected to the stern discipline and immobility of agricultural commodity production – peasant family was the most common work unit. Social changes: urban areas (1820s-1830s) ● The ideological influence of science and reason reached Calcutta in the early 1820s. ● At least three strands are identifiable in Calcutta society’s response to Western education and culture. 1. “Young Bengal” Group (based in Hindu College, led by Henry Derozio) ■ Most enthusiastic about the new ideas from the West ■ Flaunted their Westernization & derided ‘irrational’ Indian social customs 2. “Dharma Sabha” Society ■ Took conservative reaction against the Young Bengal group 3. “Brahmo Samaj” Society (led by Rammohun Roy) ■ He attempted to adapt elements from all that he considered best in Indian and Western learning. ● Bengal Renaissance (1820s-1830s) ○ Significant achievements were made in literature, the arts, and social and religious reform. ○ The promotion of Western education – Indian urban elites and British officials promoted Western education in English for different reasons. For educated Indians, it was seen as part of a process of self-strengthening and became almost proto-nationalist in character. ○ According to the British, the aim of Western education was to ‘form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons Indian in blood and color but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect.’ ● Social Resistance was widespread, affecting all regions of the subcontinent and various social groups. ○ Rural magnates opposed the higher land-revenue demand of the colonial state & the erosion of their kingly authority. ○ In South India, poligars put up ferocious resistance against the company during the Sivaganga revolt. ○ Zamindari revolts peaked during the economic downturn of the 1830s. ○ Peasants resisted the demands of both the colonial state and its zamindari intermediaries. Some of the movements articulated a religious ideology. ○ The Faraizis movement led by Dudu Mian. They refused to pay rent and revenue. They attacked Hindu traders and moneylenders and burnt down the houses and factories of the notorious indigo planters in the 1830s-1840s. ○ The Mapilla rebellions in the 1800s-1850s combined religious reform of their society and social protest against Hindu landlords and British officials. ○ (stubborn resistance) from Tribal people who attacked British and Indian moneylenders who were tearing down their forests and grabbing their best lands, respectively. ■ Bhils in western India ■ The Kols ■ The Santhal Hool (uprising) ○ Urban resistance – centered on dispossessed artisanal groups who rioted in northern and southern Indian towns ■ Weavers ■ Muslim artisans ■ More often, the uprisings took the form of grain riots. Late 1920s and early 1930s ● The Great Depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s overturned most of the equations of the metropolis-colony relationship. ● The Great Depression changed the capital-colony relationship between the two countries. PAKISTAN British Colonial Legacies Ideas and Instituions ● ● The British rule had a "traditionalizing" as well as modernizing effect by bolstering patriarchy, cast system, and tribal identity. "Punjabization" of Pakistan - increasing dominance of Punjab province in Pakistan's political, economic, and military life. ○ Large Punjab population in ○ Punjabi-dominated Pakistan army ○ Resulted in resentment among other ethnic groups 1947 Partition ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Reasons for Partition Two- Nation Theory ● ● Importance of Islam as the defining element in the formation of Pakistan Viewed community as monolithic and set apart Hindu nationalist sentiments were coeval with territorial nationalism of Congress ○ Partition-related upheaval was to increase hostility to the Muslim "other" Divided the Muslim majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal accompanied by mass migration and killings Greatest refugee migration of the 20th century Pakistan - refugee problem was an important factor in the strengthening of the bureaucracy and the army to the detriment of political parties Stereotypes of the Muslim "other' as a sexually rapacious and violent aggressor have been drawn from the stories, memories and distorted history of the Partition and have been repeated at times of communal conflict ○ Stereotypes of Hindu "treachery" and the desire to destroy Muslim culture ○ Found in books sanctioned by the state Self-identity is strengthened by the demonization of the "other" Kashmir dispute (conflict over the claim of Jammu and Kashmir) ○ Pakistan's foreign policy focused on countering Indian hegemony ○ Diverted resources: traded less with each other and distrust over shared resources ○ Pakistan's military dominance over civil institutions, contributed to the underdevelopment of democratic structures Composite Nationality Theory ● Redefinition of identities not as a simple by-product of colonialism but by the process of resistant against the colonial rule ● ● ● from the Hindus Explains the differences between religions ○ Communalism vs Separatism ■ Nehru (INC) - secularism ■ Jinnah (Muslim League) separatism; against secularism because of religious tension against the Muslim minority Community-based identity Religious Rivalism ○ Hindu Muslim vs Muslim Indian ■ Ripon reforms - local government ○ Muslim Communitarianism ● ● ● Pan-Islamist Anti-colonial anti-national Muslim League led by Jinnah Morley-Minto Reforms ● By Sayyid Husain Bilgrami and Krishna Gupta Power disparities between Indian Muslims and Indian Hindu ■ Through political representations in society Indian Nationalism ● ● ● ● Nationalism - only expressed in Hindu's experience Anti-colonial Indian National Congress - led by Nehru Lucknow Pact 1996 ○ Bal Gangadhar and Mohammed Ali-Jinnah ○ Representation of religious minorities and legislature ○ Members of the legislature are represented 50-50 ■ opposed by Hindu nationals ○ Members of the legislature are Indians elected by the Indian members of the Parliament ■ Elected provincial and central legislature ○ Separate electorate for Muslims in the province except for Punjab and Bengal ○ Hindu-Muslim cooperation (Khalifal Movement) to ensure the terms agreed are established formally ○ Non-cooperation movement - strengthen nationalist sentiments ● ● ● Equal political representation in Indian parliamentary Electoral membership to local legislative councils Increase Indian members to the council (60 members) ○ Bombay (Mumbai) and Madras (Chennai) - 20-50 members ● Disparity in political representation SiKander hayat Khan ○ Punjab Premier ○ Unionist Party Fazlul Haq ○ Bengal ○ Krishak Praja Party Nehru’s Report ● ● ● ● ● ● Equality among the comity of nations Emphasized secularism and equality Unitary government ○ Executive ■ President/king ○ Parliamentary ■ Prime minister ○ Judiciary No state religion Equality and rights Joint mixed electorate ○ No reservation of seats ■ Except for Punjab and Bengal Challenges to State Building ● Isolated/compartmentalized electorates in the provinces ○ Displacing Muslim minorities ● Rowland Act ○ resulted in the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre ○ Criminalized revolutionary acts ○ Exclusivity of local Muslim leaders/politicians ○ Division between the INC and the Muslim League ■ Montagu-Chlemford reforms Jinnah’s Fourteen Points ● ● ● ● ● Federal, power vested in provinces Uniform autonomy Separate electorates NWFP and Balochista will receive equal reforms Equal representation in the cabinet of either central or provincial ■ ■ ■ ■ Government in India Act (Self-regulation) Separate representation failed to establish a unified Muslim community No single community represents the Muslim Indians Congress inclusionary nationalism based on singular and homogenous nation ■ Inequality of political representation ● Cripps Mission ○ Cooperation from India for British efforts during World War II ○ Quit India Movement ■ Object dominion status ■ Full independence ○ Jinnah supports the mission and criticized Single Indian Union ■ Led to the establishment of Pakistan ● The Great Calcutta Killing (Direct Action Day) 1946 ○ Led to the partition SRI LANKA (CEYLON) POLITICS (Presidents) ILLIBERAL TWO MAIN POLITICAL PARTIES: United National Party (UNP) and Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) A. Stephen Senanayake ● Father of the nation ● Liberated Sri Lanka from the British Rule on February 4, 1948 ● First Prime Minister of the Dominion of Ceylon ○ Elected to the Legislative Council of Ceylon ○ Ceylon Nation Congress ○ Minister of Agricultural and Land ■ Land Development Ordinance (Moderate Agriculture, Irrigation Schemes and Cooperatives, Hydro-Power and Irrigation Projects) ■ Founded the Union National Party (UNP) B. Dudley Senanayake (Succeeded Stephen Senanayake) C. Sir John Kotelawala (Followed by SWRD) D. Solomon West Ridgeway Dias (SWRD) Bandaranaike ● Championed Sinhalese nationalism ● Declared Sinhala as the national language ● Defeated the UNP founder of the Sri Lanka Party ● Sri Lanka's democracy is not ideally presented compared to the British democracy. DEMOCRACY & ETHNIC OUTBIDDING ● ● ● SRI LANKA HAS ILLIBERAL DEMOCRACY DUE TO ETHNIC OUTBIDDING. Democracy in South Asia is different due to heterogeneous society. Electoral Democracy ○ Provides representation to the majority of the Sinhalese population. ○ An expression or outcome of Illiberal Democracy because you are looking at a country with different ethnic groups. ○ The linguistic disparity is a result of illiberal democracy. (Because of Sinhalese as the national language, but what about the minority groups?) ○ There was also nepotism, favoritism, and gangsterism in ethnic politics. Ethnic Outbidding ○ Sri Lanka has an unstable socio-political structure due to ethnic outbidding ○ Used to mobilize the votes of the majority. ○ Exercised through corruption, violence, intimidation, and electoral malpractices (ballot stuffing) so that their political parties would survive. ○ Parties and their candidates rely on violence to influence politics and win elections. ○ Violence and deadly weapons are part and parcel of Sri Lankan politics. ● SOCIAL ● ● ● Majority Sinhalese; Minority Tamil population (Pro-Sinhalese Buddhist and Anti-Tamil) Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) – extremist ethnic ideologies The Novorich population created wider economic disparities (rich and poor). Even though there were amendments, they did not appeal to the Tamil minorities. NEPAL ● ● HISTORY (Mostly Gorkha moments) Before Rana Regime ● Nepal was never colonized, but it has a dependent relationship with the British Raj in India. The country was under the Gorkha empire ○ The Gorkhas were an important part of the British Indian Military (British Raj) Tenurial Classification of Gorkha Polity ○ Scheme is applied exhaustively and exclusively to the land ■ Gorkha Mandala ■ There is a specific land or physical environment for the Gorkha ○ There is contractual agreements of the members ■ Members are not necessarily Gorkhas. ■ The members can apply to a particular territory of the Gorkha. ○ Tenural schemes defined the rents, levies, duties and fees of obedience that tenants submitted to the king directly or indirectly through his revenue collectors. ■ Payment can be made through taxes or services. To enter the territory they have to practice certain ceremonies of the Gorkha Acetics don’t adhere to these practices Nepali girls practice: that if they have their menstruation, they are seen as impure. They transfer to the mountains and separate themselves from the village. This is quite risky because they are easily exposed to dangers such as wild animals and sexual abuse. Last Ruler of the Gorkha empire: King Prithri Narayan Shah ○ Sugauli Treaty ■ Host British residency in Nepal The realms of the kings in Nepal ○ Desa (Realm) ■ Icon of the universe centered on the temple of the King’s tutelary deity and demarcated on the perimeter of the temples– often four or eight. ■ Pasahara Festival = to commemorate the traditions ■ Social relationship = membership– how you define your relationship. ● This is also a way to apply for a membership. Muluk and the Gorkha King ○ Boundary was defined through the collection of revenue ○ Boundaries are not defined but fixed by the changeless natural environment or cultural presence of the people. ○ Fixed because there are certain borders. Desa and Muluk ○ Bhimesvar (East) ○ Natesvar (South) ○ Kalesvar (West) ○ Nilkantha (North) ○ ○ ○ ● ● ● ● ● FORMATION OF A NEPALI STATE Formation of a Nepali State (overview of the article) ○ There is now defined borders ○ Nepali language ○ Ethnic groups: ■ Wearers of the Sacred thread/ Tagadhari (Janai/Cord wearing - twice born) = Brahmans ■ Non-enslavable Alcohol drinkers (Gorkha Army) ■ Enslavable Alcohol drinkers ■ Impure bit (Dalit) ○ Kingship from the State ■ Jung Bahadur Kunwar ● Kot Massacre (1846) - killed the royalties (shah after the Gorkha) ■ Nepali congress and King Tribhuran Vir Vikram Shah overthrow the Rana Empire. ■ ● ● ● ● 1951 Revolution– the entire dynasty was overthrown. King Mahendra ● Panchayat System = partyless governments making the natives one under one system. ○ Appease the society to come up with a certain degree of representation. ○ Confiscate large Rana estate ○ Political parties and interest groups have no legitimate place in Nation-state of Nepal ○ All natives are one and the same ○ King and citizens possess identical substance ○ The members of the cabinet and parliament follow under the King. ● Organization: Communist Party of Nepal ○ People’s government ■ Dr. Baburam Bhattari - attempted to throw the Pancayat system ■ Rolpa, Rukum, Jajakurt, Gorkhajara Sindhul ■ “Himalaya People’s Power” The Royal Massacre ○ Prince Dipendra ■ Shot his parents and other royalties, and killed himself. King Gyanendra ○ State of emergence ○ Reinstate the Parliament in 2006 ○ 2007: Nepal was government a unicameral (composed of a united government) legislature (members is under the prime minister) under an interim constitution. ○ Now, Federal State ■ Ram Baran Yadar ■ Federal executive government ● President: head of the state ● Prime minister: head pf the cabinet members ■ Current leaders: ● Mr. Ramchandra Paudel POLITICAL SYSTEM POLITICAL PARTIES ● ● POLITICS (EARLY YEARS OF DEMOCRACY) Democracy was connected to the liberation from the rule of the Ranas. ● Nepal had a democratic revolution when its literacy rate was less than 5 percent; have a few kilometers of motorable roads; lacking any mass media except for a government-run newspaper; and an absence of any capitalist economy. Nepal under Rana Oligarchy (1846-1950) ● Feudalistic social order ● Governed by orthodox Hindu social and legal code. ● They isolated Nepal from foreign influences and modernization, to avoid opposition. ○ Loophole: allowing people to go to India for education, pilgrimage, political exile, and recruitment for the British Army. ● India helped in fighting for democracy in Nepal by: ○ Providing asylum for dissidents including King Tribhuvan. ○ Allowing space for anti-Rana activities ○ Transmitting the ideology of democracy ○ Exerting diplomatic pressure on the Rana. ● 1951 - overthrow of the Rana Autocracy ○ How? Through numerous strike, demonstration, revolts, uprising, and peace based compromise. ● India’s role and solution was accepted , which brought back the Shah monarchs, along with a new Two major parties: ○ The Nepal Congress (NC) - made of middle class Nepalis living in India and ex-Gurkha soldiers. ■ Against the Panchayat ■ November 1950– they launched a three-month armed revolution that succeeded in obtaining the easter hill. ○ The Communist Party of Nepal (unified Marxist-Leninist, UML)-- the largest party in the parliament and formed a minority in the government. ○ This was soon brought down by a vote of no confidence. ○ Adopted neoliberal solutions to Nepal’s economic and ecological problems did not improve the situation. ○ What helped the economy: the growing remittances from the poor Nepalis working in construction and security abroad. constitution. The restoration of the Shah Monarchy ● King Tribhuvan got his chair back! ● The Interim Government of Nepal Act 1951, which provided a polity based on the principle of the King in the Council of Ministers. ● The basic principle of democracy were adopted. ● The elections were held in 1959, where NC won two thirds of the seats on 37 percent of the vote. ○ B.P. Koirala became the prime minister. ● December 1960, King Mahendra (the new king kay na deds mn si tribhuvan) dismantled democracy through a bloodless coup. Panchayat democracy/system ● Designated Nepal as a Hindu Kingdom ● Mahendra thought that they could mobilize the youth and imitate some of the methods of Chairman Mao– however, this only radicalized the villagers. ● Opposition: small-scale armed resistance by the NC ● The regime concentrated on the NC, and they did not try to repress communist activities. ● King Birendra (1972) ○ Softer and more compromising character. ○ The king conceded a referendum on the future of the Panchayat system. ○ The Panchayat system moved in a democratic direction. ○ 1980s– direction for a greater democratization. ○ The legitimacy of the panchayat eroded because their incumbents always had corruption scandals. THE PROCESS OF MODERNIZATION ● ● 1963 →new Civil Code ○ Equality before the law 1964 →Land Reform Act ○ Regulation of land rents. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● RECONSTRUCTIN G DEMOCRACY AND THE STATE Infrastructure developments and education End of 1980s - literacy rate of around 39% However, jobs and income generation opportunities were harder to come by. ○ Problem: educated unemployment, high prices, and ethnic inequalities. Relations between India and Nepal were strained in 1980s ○ Nepal’s support of arms for China, which violated the 1950 Friendship treaty. ○ The economic hardship of Nepal’s cities added to the dissatisfaction within the regime that boiled over in 1990. ○ 1990 - The Indian government adopted a non-interference attitude. A coalition government led by the NC, compromising representatives for both the Left and the King made a new constitution, namely the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990 ○ Vesting sovereignty on the people, gave the legitimacy to the Maoists’ demand for a constituent assembly. ○ The king as the head of the state and armed forces, and can remove difficulties in times of emergency. ○ Designate Nepal as a Hindu Kingdom, even though it was supposed to be multiethnic and multilingual. Problem of underdevelopment and uneven development: ○ Ethnic differences ■ Tarai - home to 50% of Nepal’s population. ■ Madhesis - Nepalis of Indian ethnicity and language. They are indistinguishable culturally fro Indians– they are suspected by Nepal. ■ Bahuns (Brahmans) ■ Chhetris (Kshatriyas) ■ Janajatis ■ Dalits ■ None of these were acknowledge by the Panchayat. ○ 1991– ethnic differences emerged into the public sphere and politicized. The border of India opened up: ○ Nepalis may cross and work, marry, shop, and go to college in India without papers and vice versa. Frequent changes of government meant that they were unable to address the pressing issue. ○ NC and UML competed through the use of growing insurgency, ○ The king seized power in two steps: ■ In October 2002– dismissed Prime Minister Deuba and called for a technocratic government ■ Coup d'etat in February 2005 Reinventing democracy after 2002 ● Political struggle took the form of a triangular conflict with different roles and motives for each of the key actors. ○ King– attempted to tackle with the Maoist insurgency by negotiating or suppression ○ The Seven Party Alliance (SPA), launched a series of street protests against the king’s regression, while keeping their distance from the Maoist. ■ Girija Prasad Koirala– unwavering opposition to the king from October 2002 ○ CPN (Maoist) - escalate its “People’s war more intensely during the time of the royal regime. Tarai can no longer be ignored ○ Because of frequent bombings and assassinations, and a plethora of small armed groups hiding over the border in India. ● The CA election was held peacefully and in relatively fair manner despite massive pre-election violence and rigging. ○ CPN-M won the election ○ NC– second ○ UML– Third ○ Rose of ethnic parties: ■ Madhes Janadhikar Forum (MJF) –won 50 seats ■ Tarai Madhes Loktantrik Party (TMLP) – scored 20 seats Reconstructing the State (3 key elements): ● Transformation of armed conflict ○ NC Mukti Sena (liberation Army) – turned into the Nepal police. ■ They were not doubted because the political system introduced the ideology of multiparty democracy. ■ Today, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) is in cantonments, and the United Nations Mission in Nepal (UNMIN) is monitoring the arms management process. ■ The Nepal Army is firmly against any integration with the PLA– they are constituted and trained according to communist principles. ○ November 2005, the CPN-M publicly reaffirmed its faith with the multiparty system. ■ They are actively involved in the decisions in the post-Jan Andolan II transitional process. ● The end of the monarchical rule forever (Establishment of a republic) ○ Jan Andolan II was the final showdown in a half-century-long confrontation between democracy and monarchy. ○ Royal Massacre (June 1, 2001) ■ Crown Prince Dipendra killed his father, King Birendra, with all his immediate family members along with five other royals. ■ King Gyanendra, his wife, and his son, Paras who survived because they were not there. ○ King Gyanendra ascended the throne ■ Unpopularity fueled republican sentiment and massively undermined people’s faith in the monarchy. ■ He lacked any toughness or the military experience ■ 2006 - monarchy started losing its power and relevance. ● April 2006- he was ousted by his army generals ○ The rise of ethnic activist→demand for a secular state→had a negative impact on the traditional legitimacy of the Nepali monarchy ○ Rise of republicanism ○ February 2005 royal coup→ justified by the failure of the party regime. ■ Lack of plans for economic, political, and military improvement. ■ The CPN-M’s violent “people’s war” intensified and spread all over the country ● ○ ○ ● ● MOVEMENTS The biggest reason for the success of republicanism in Nepal: shortsightedness of the monarch. May 2006 Declaration– Nepali Magna Carta ■ Declared Nepal a secular state ○ November 2007– declaring Nepal a federal republic ■ Due to CPN-M’s relentless campaigning for a republic The advancement of inclusive democracy. ○ 1990 constitution ■ Reservations and designated the state as “multiethnic” and “multilingual” ■ Did not give any proper representation. ○ The declaration of Nepal as a secular state adopted bilingualism. ■ 45% for the bureaucracy for excluded groups ■ 33% for the women ■ 335 PR seats in the CA as per the side of the population ○ The restoration of multiparty in 1990 coincided with ethnic revival. ○ Platform for ethnic activism ■ Popular sovereignty ■ Equality ■ Freedom ■ Cultural rights ■ Right to organize ○ 3 large blocs: ■ Janajatis ■ Madhesis ■ Dalits ○ The Maoist were able to help with the ethnic demands to be adopted into the political agenda. ○ CPN-M→ blend ethnic rights and class war was evident in its opening of ethnic “front organization” ○ The transitional period (2006-08) ■ Suggests that political protests will not stop just because the CA has been elected. ■ Regional groups protests if their demands aren’t met. ○ The hill high caste will find their representation reduced to the side of the national legislature to their own population. ○ The ethnic groups will represent in portion to the size of their population ○ One-third women in the CA Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (MRD) ○ This was made against King Mahendra’s absolute monarchy under the banner of partyless Panchayat system. ○ It reached its climax in the 1990 mass movement, also known as, Jan Andolan I. ○ 1972-72 - a short-lived communist revolt in Jhapa, east Nepal, which was suppressed by the Panchayat regime by: ■ India giving priority to its security interest. ● ● ● ● ● ■ NC were reduced to seeking strategies for survival ■ There was loyalty and unity of the elites in Kathmandu. The 1990 mass movement (Jan Andolan I) ○ Student radicalism ○ Support from professional groups ○ Both men and women from the Newar peasant caste. ○ Formed one small part of the global “third wave” of democracy ○ Outset of the 1990 mass movement ■ Unity between the NC and the splinter communist parties. King’s coup (February 1, 2005) ○ Major leaders of civil society under house arrest and taken into military barracks– made closer to the CPN-M. ○ 12-point understanding between the SPA and the CPN-M ■ 3 commitments: ● SPA endorsed the CPN-M– for the elections to a CA ● Maoists reciprocated with an assurance that they accepted multiparty competitive political system. ● Both the SPA and Maoists agreed to launch a peaceful mass movement against the monarchy ■ Agreed with the active involvement of India. ○ India took a tough stand against the King’s coup. April 2006 ○ Jan Andolan II– did not correspond to any global “wave” ○ Sita Ram Yechuri– leader of the Communist Party of India (Marxist)-- a supporter of the ruling coalition in India. ○ Internal forces determined its course and outcome. ○ Was unique and unprecedented both in terms of the degree of the people’s participation and the nature of the political demands ○ Most powerful anti-establishment struggle ○ 19-days popular uprising were rural dwellers. ○ Republican movement in spirit. ○ Post-Andolan– rapid removal of monarchical relevance The post-April 2006 ○ Ushered the important political developments, like the reinstatement of the dissolved parliament along with the government led by NC leader G.P. Koirala signed a Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) between the government and the CPN-M. ○ Amendments to the interim were made to cater to the ethnic groups. The Madhesi Movement (Jan-Feb 2007) → strongest, most violent, and most effective street protest. ○ Persistence of the Madhes→ acceded and demands for federalism BANGLADESH Political Parties and Political History: 1971-1990s Electoral Democracies ● Always incomplete ● Some serve as a transitional phase on the way toward liberal democracy and democratic consolidation Party Contestation ● Makes way for a self destructive pathology (1)Awami League (AL) ● Dominant party in Bangladesh ● Founded in mid 1950s by Husain Shaheed Suhrawardy ● After his death the leadership was passed to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Mujib) ○ Major leader of the provincial autonomy movement for East Bengal ithin united Pakistan Autonomy Movement for East Bengal ● More active during the leadership of Ayub Khan ● Culminating twice in massive outpouring of protest against rule of the West wing of United Pakistan ○ Interrupted by miliary intervention 1. 1969 - resulted in a crackdown from West pakistan & imposition of martial law & replacement of Ayub Khan with Yahya Khan Yaya Khan ● Promised national election to form a national government that will replace Ayub’s indirect rule scheme ● Mujib AL won ● Victory in the east gave Mujib’s party an absolute majority at the national level 1971 Yahya had Muhib arrested and ordered his army to crack down AL: ● Resulted to a bloodly civil war: West Pakistan Dominated army vs Mukhti Bahini (an independence force composed of bengali soldier that revolted and allied with larger contingent of guerillas) ● Songram (conflict) - lasted into decemember Bangladesh Independence ● December 26,1971 Fomation of a new Parliament ● 1970 AL Election winners ● It drew up a new constitution ● A westminster type (Jatio sangsad) parliamentary system ● A polity based on four pillars of Mujibbad (Mujibism) 1. Nationalism 2. Socialism 3. Secularism 4. Democracy ● Actually a defacto ratification of Mujib’s leadership role During the election negative things happened… ● Election, corruption, nepotism, favoritism and incompetence happened ● Had a severe mismanaged Famine in 1974 ● Bangabondhu’s (Friend of Bengal; Mujib’s name) credibility declined ● Economy declined ● Security deteriorated Mujib Solved this crisis through.. ● Building a parralel military force alongside the army declaring a state of emergency in Dec 1974 ● Nationalizing the major newspaper ● Next month, amending the constitution – to make him the head of the presidential system of the government ● Abolished all political parties in favor of a new one ● Declared the country as his personal fiefdom (based on feudal law) ● Democracy wise – bangladesh was in a downward spiral Mujib Assasination ● A group of army officers organized a coup in August 1975 where Mujib and his family was assasinated ● Was followed by a period of uncertainty General Ziaur Rahman ● Hero in the songram ● Emerged as a leader of a military headed government ● Tried popularizing his rule ● Founded a political party: Bangladesh National Party (BNP) ● Won the presidential and parliamentary election ○ There were still charges of poll rigging ○ BUT, proved to be a genuine leader by the end of 1970s ● Unrest continued in the military ● Assassinated: in May 1981 Abdus Sattar ● Vice president of General Ziaur Rahman ● Succeeded him ● Won a mandate on his own in a presidential election of the same year ● Reign was short General Hussain Muhammad Ershad ● Siezed power in a bloodless coup ● He also launched a political organization: Jatiya Party ○ BNP – headed by: Zia’s Widow Khaleda ■ Boycotted the poll ○ AL – headed by: Mujib’s daughter Sheikh Hasina Wajid ■ In cooperation with BNP decided to separate from it ■ Won quarter of the seat; proceeded to boycott the parliament ○ Jamaat-i-Islam (fundamentalist) ■ Banned during the civil war but was allowed by Ershad to resume ■ Won only 10 seats Jatiya party won the bare majority of the parliamentary seat (not enough to gain legitimacy) Despite BNP and AL win they boycotted the campaigns Jatiya party – never matured into something solid Opposition intensified ○ Frequent processions, demonstrations and hartals (strike) ● Request for Resignation: expanding movement composed of political parties, student groups, professional association, etc. ● Ershad was rebuffed by the military ○ When he tried to impose martial law and resigned office in Dec 4 1990 Interim Caretaker Government (Feb 1991) ● Superintend a new election ● 16 years of “punctuate democracy” - free and fair national elections were helda and print media was free ● Total hostility between two major parties debilitate political life: ○ Corroded burecuracy ○ Encouraged corruption ○ Foster criminal behaviour to a point of gangsterism ● ● ● ● Party Ideologies & Practical Differences 1. AL (Awami League) ● Adopted an ideology centering around “four pillars of mujibba” ● A party spearheading the drive for independence from Pakistan ● Through: ○ Pakistani bank and industry under state control ○ Emphasized Bengali aspect of the country’s character rather than Muslim dimension ○ Professed popular sovereignty in contrast with the military dictatorship in Pakistan ● India and US ○ India: Looked as an ali rather than antagonist ○ US: less friendly as they supported Pakistan during civil war 2. BNP (Bangladesh Nationalist Party) ● Emphasized Bangladeshi nationalist aspect of a new country more than Bengali cultural character ● No interest in socialism and secularism ● “Democratic” – as it demanded elections and was willing to support civil liberties while evincing little enthusiasm for transparency ● India and US: ○ India: hostility ○ US: favoured 3. Jatiya Party ● Resembled BNP ideology ● But is strongly more leaning to Muslim by declaring Islam as the state religion ● became a regional enterprise strong in Rangpur (Ershad’s hometown) and Sylhet but nonexistent elsewhere ● Was never strong in ideology in power, more less in opposition 4. Jamaat-i-Islam ● Conservative Islamic ideology ● Pro Pakistan political stance ● Managed to establish something of a regional base in the Khulna region ● Uncompromising Islam was the principal raison detre (purpose for living) Difference: AL and BNP ● 1990s Differences between AL and BNP largely disappeared in practice ● The real difference between them was personal rather than ideological ● Hasina (AL) ○ Built her life in an obsession of avenging for her father’s death convince that Zia was repsonsible ● Khaleda (BNP) ○ Continuing the legacy of her husband and duty bound to oppose the oportunist megalomania displated bt Sheikh Mujib ● Cooperated: during the campaign to oust Ershad ● Status of their Followers: had less ideological inclination; they only work mainly for rewards of power and patronage. Jatiya Party and Jamaat-i-Islam ● Both hung into the new era in a subordinate (low) role) Launching the Democratic Era Chief Justice Shahhabbudin Ahmed ● Agreed by the combined opposition party as the Caretaker President to preside over new election AL and BNP ● Close in the popular vote ○ BNP won 140 out of 300 seats ○ AL won 88 (not enough to form a government) brought Jamaat (18 seats) to a coalition (partnership) ● Both – agreed to change the constitution to replace the presidential system → parliamentary model ○ After: Cooperation broke down 1994 onwards ● Series of boycott, obstructionism, and government paralysis happened ● Minor Opposition: ○ initiated demonstrations, processions and hartals reminiscent of the final months of Ershad dictatorship ○ In hopes to bring the ff outcomes: ■ Collapse of public confidence ■ Dissertation of supporters ■ A military decision to intervene and start the political clock with a new election ○ However THIS DID NOT HAPPEN ● Major cities – had strikes and shutdowns ● AL – focused on demands on a caretaker government to supervise the coming election February 1996 ● Voters boycotted as well, with a turnout estimate of 5-10% ● BNP won almost all the seats ○ Khaleda agreed to a neutral caretaker regime, which supervised an election held in June and widely regarded as free and fair June Election ● AL won: 146/300 seats ● BNP: 116/300; allied with Jatiya Party to form the government ○ BNP protested that the result is unfair and rigged ■ Launched processions, demonstration and hartals – disrupted social and economic life in the country 2001 ● AL government ended their 5 year maximum lifeline ○ Turned over state power to a new caretaker government ● BNP won substantially taking 64% of the seats together with Jamaat ○ AL claimed fraud, rejecting the result and initially refusing to take its seat in the new parliament ○ AL decided to do the same thing BNP did in the June election until the January 2007 election arrived. ● RULES OF THE POLITICAL GAME “The rules of the Game” ● Failed to follow this – Frequently heard during the three successive democratically elected governments 1991-2007 ● Party in Power ○ excluded the opposition from any role in politics ○ Used the army to harass and undermine opposition ● Opposition ○ Used every means to create insurrection and provoke the state to retaliate The Political Scene | Economic | Social Scene ● Continually interrupted A definite but not Publicly Articulated set of Rules for the Political Game: 1. Elections are more or less free and fair 2. Election winners take all political power, leaving nothing for the opposition party 3. The opposition party claims that the election was rigged and launches an intermittent five year campaign disruption 4. Parties develop extensive networks of thugs on call generally known as mastaans, who act as enforcers 5. Both major parties endeavor to commandeer organization life in Bangladesh, politicizing professional associations, trade unions and most notoriously the universities 6. Press freedom exis although the print media are weak in investigative journalism, fact checking and the like. 7. An independent higher court system gives some protection to political rights and civil liberties ● Access tend to be restricted to those who can make a complaint ● This protection does not extend to the lower court system 8. New cycle begins with each successive election This rules of the game was followed through the 1991-2007 period and gave the political system a certain degree of popular legitimacy. Voters: 55% – 1991 75% – 1996 80% – 2004 However, the rules showed inherent instability Metastasizing pathology: The run-up to 2007 2001 Election ● BNP was yielding to the tempatation to reconfigure the de factor rules to give it an unimpeded route to victory Distressing signs fo deterioration ● Increase in violence and cirminal behaviour manifested extortion ● Kidnapping ● Campus violence ● Death threats ● Cinema house fire bombings ○ Mastaans (thugs) not in alliance with the police has taken charge of public life “Operation Clean Heart” ● BNP ordedered the army to crack down on criminal elements ● Lasted: Oct 2002 - January ● Thousands were rounded up ● Reports of human rights abuses mushroomed ● Crime rates went down briefly ● Army was given amnesty got any excess committed ○ Shortly after crime rates shortly resumed their upward climb Violence affected the Political Sphere: ● May 2004 Ahsanullah Master (Awami League MP) – assasinated ● Bomb attack on the British ● Shah a. M.S Kibria (AL Leaguer and former finance minister) – assasinated ● Lower ranking officials were killled (both sides) Islamic Fundamentalism – wrapped up in violence ● Aug 17 2005 400 small bombs went of in 63 of the 64 districts of the country (this sized worldwide attention) Jamaat ul-Mujahedeen Bangladesh (JMB or Assembly of Holy warriors of Bangladesh) ● Responsible for leaflets distribution ● Several suicided bombers targeted the courthouses and killing 2 dozens of people Bangla Bhai (Brother of Bengal) – notorious Islamist militant ● Sets up operation as a religious warlord ● He imposed.. ○ dress code daily prayers, Ramadan fasting rules, torturing malingerers (mental disorder) and executing opponents in public display ● The government – claimed that he did not exist or he could not be located ● He was getting local police protection ● International concern mounted and pressure grew on the government to rein him in ● March 2006: the government finally moved in to arrest him and other militant leaders ○ Violence diminished after ● Executed in April more than a year after his arrest Madrasahs (thugs) expanded rapidly in Bangladesh (VIOLENCE) ● In state schools ● Most of the budget supporting them came from the public budget of the persian gulf (Saudi Arabia) ○ Bankrolling the Jamaat and JMB and Bangla Bhai Bureaucratic Politization ● Others sided with one part others stayed neutral adhering to the esprit de crops of the Civil Service of Pakistan members (CSP-wallahs) ○ Signed on with the independence cause in 1971 ○ Became the inner core of Bangladesh Bureaucracy ○ 2000s – there are few bureaucratcs who did not join ● Facilitated corruption ○ Making it easier for gov. Officials and political leaders to work together in siphoning the off funds from public purse ● Transparency International Corruption Percetion Index ○ 2001 – Bangladesh was the most corrupt ○ 2006 – Bangladesh “graduated” and went into 3rd place Politization of the NGO ● NGO entered into the political arena through its 2 apex organization: 1. Association of Development Agencies in Bangladesh (ADAB) ■ Joined the movement to oust Ershad regime ■ 1996 protest the bogus election in Feb of that year ■ Seen as pro-AL 2. Proshika ■ Accused by BNP government of having embarked on an outright political campagin on behalf of AL ■ Many believed the accusation for Proshika. The leadership is then transfered to BRAC (largest single NGO in Bangladesh) ● Formed a new apex body ■ Seen as pro-AL ● 3. Federation of NGOs in Bangladesh (FNB) ○ Seen by many as a pro BNP With this the NGO sector’s neutrality has seen lost Election Mechanics – Badly compromised. Sources of Concern… 1. May 2004 – BNP with Jamaat passed the 14th amendment ○ Specified that the mandatory retirement age of the supreme court is extended from 65 to 67 ■ This had a huge implication for the next election ■ The 13th Amendment says that the chief advisor of the caretaker government superintending the hiatus between the parliaments will be the recently retired chief justice ■ By 2007 the incumbent chief justice would not have retired ■ The predecessor will be recognized as the BNP partisan and would be the one to condone malpractice 2. Appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner ● BNP government appointee and his deputies were believed to be BNP sympathizers ● There was believed to be a padding of voters rolls by adding millions of bogus names October 2006 – Stepping down of the BNP government and turn over to the care taker administration (until Jan 2007) ● AL raised a huge opposition against Chief Justice K.M. Hassan becoming the Chief Adviser ○ Hassan withdrew ● President Iajuddin Ahmed – appointed himself to the post ● Agitation went to the election commission – after a month the President announced that the chief election commissioner will gon on leave until after the election Problems Occuring: ● Protest, demonstration and counter demonstrations continued with AL playing its last card announcing that it would boycott the election and organize “siege program” against the government ○ 3 ftfths of the candidates withdrew ● Early January matters wree going towards crisis ○ Donor communities made representations to the caretaker government concerning uncontested election and the break dwon of the polity ● American ambassador pronouncing a one sided election is unacceptable ● International body declared that they would not act as observers for a poll that is flawed January 11 – 3 things happened ● Envoys from the US, UK, Japan, European Commission, Canada and Australia ○ Held closed door meeting with both the AL and BNP alliances ● UN announced that the participation of Bangladesh in peacekeeping operations will be jeopardized if the military supported a once sided election ○ This became a problem because Bangladesh has been the major provider of troops for UN peacekeeping (8% of active duty strength) ○ Special pay andallowances had come to form a major part of its prerequisites and would have been difficult togive up ● President Iajuddin – announced state of emergency and resigned from being the Chief Adviser → caretaker government ● Fakhruddin Ahmed – a former governor of Bangladesh central bank ○ Took offcieas chief adviser of the caretaker government Military Backed Caretaker Regime ● Shut down public political party activity and arrests public politicians from major parties ● Steered clear of martial law ● Allowed open press freedom ● Exiled Khaleda Zia ● Prevent Sheikh Hai=sina from returning from abroad ● Elections were postponed and made in December 2008 Mohammed Yunus ● Founder nd director of the world renowned Grameen and a Nobel Peace Prize winner ● Suggested the idea of starting a new political party General Moeen U Ahmed ● Army chief of staff ● Declared his intent to return the country to democratically elect civiliand rule but wanted Bagladesh to have its “own brand of democracy” Management of Polity: Different Phases Positive Developments in Bangladesh and its implication to Society Economic Growth ● Agriculture ○ Roughy half of the labor force have this as their work ○ Food grain production grew significantly rising from about 18-19 million tornts ot more than 28 million tons in 2006-2007 ○ Food availability per cappita: rose ■ Food grain prices dropped in bangladesh compared elsewhere during this time Transportation, Construction and retailing ○ Is exerting an upward pressure on wages 1980s - 2000s ● Agriculture = 66% - 46% (dropped) ● Outside A = 34% - 52% (rose) ○ This is due to the privatizing inputs like tubewells and fertilizers ○ allowing international foodgrain trading investing ing infrastructure ○ Paring back subsidies in the food sector ○ Supporting microcredit institution Donor Pressure ● Decreasing foreign aid helped induce the state to take up these reforms, many of which were elements of the “Washinton Consensus” ● State could have afforded to continue with its subsidies but chose instead to undertake a reform path ● Effects of all this Economic development ● Birth Rate ○ Dropped by about one third ● Total fertility rate ○ Decreased significantly but still above the replacement level (2.2) ● Changed the economics of household management as the benefits of child labor declined in an increasingly non agricultural economy How does these positive things happening despite being the most corrupt country? ● A large, energetic abd effective NGO sector working in agricultural extension, education, health and microcredic ○ Can explain a good part of the country;s succes. Additional notes: ● South Asia Problem: process of democratizing its political institutions. ○ Does this necessarily … the essence of democracy? ○ Instilling the western liberal democracy in SA→ failure ○ Nation-building in South Asia ■ Democracy is being challenged as South Asian states continue to process its reform ■ Different Identities→ difficulties in consolidating all ethnic groups → lacks of representation ● Bangladesh and Pakistan→ type of political governance Challenges: Representation→ failed to represent democratic governance because of the clientele political system (bangladesh) → Sri Lanka - Linguistic ● ● How do these countries (Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Pakistan, India) see democracy? ○ See it as a challenge because individuals use this to advance their own political interest ○ State-building→ politicized term and an ongoing process ○ Democracy: ■ Sri Lanka: Illiberal democracy ■ Nepal: Inclusive Democracy→ inclusion of different ethnicities ■ Bangladesh: Punctuated democracy→ over-institutionalized- NGOs are involved and it is has an interest-based policy ● Showcased democratic values, however with the use of the media and other NGOs, it resulted in worsening of vote rigging cases. South Asia (Yap ni maam) ○ What makes them unique is their identities that makes western style democracy hard/difficult to achieve in South Asia ○ There is no homogeneous identity( more on ethnic base rather than religious)
