U N I T CHRISTINE MOORCROFT WORLD WATCH SECOND EDITION GEOGRAPHY A Geography Course for Grade 7 2 I Title verso Introduction Key features of Student’s Book 2 •Book 2 begins with bringing the students’ focus on the physical features of the Earth and their formation: mountains, plateaus, valleys, and plains. The course of a river is explained through a trip along the Indus from its source to its delta. •It explains how the movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates created different landforms and continues to change the land. It also explains the causes of violent natural events such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes. •It builds on the students’ existing knowledge of the water cycle and introduces the conditions that affect water in the atmosphere, on the Earth’s surface, and under the ground. It explains how our water supply is produced, how we collect, store, and distribute it, and how it can be protected from waste and pollution. •It focuses on Pakistan’s rich supply of mineral reserves: metals, non-metallic minerals, gemstones, coal, gas, and oil, and its place in world commerce. •It discusses the origin, extraction, and uses of different energy resources and its environmental cost. •It explains different types of settlements, how and why these develop layouts, in certain locations, and in particular ways, and how they affect their surroundings. •It discusses different types of agriculture and farming, including forestry and fishing. It also explores the importance of agriculture to Pakistan’s economy. •It introduces different types of forests and explains how people live and work in the forest and the importance of forests to the environment. •Building on the students’ knowledge of different climates and the structure of the Earth’s atmosphere, the book explains climate change, global warming, and greenhouse gases, and their causes and effects. Learning features of World Watch Geography series. Carefully selected activities and research topics engage students to develop mapping skills, explore options for sustainable usage of land, resources, and environment, and find out the limitations of such options for developing countries. Building Skills List the advantages and disadvantages of using chemical fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides, and biomedical engineered seeds. Do you think Pakistan should use these to increase its agricultural output? Conversation boxes follow an enquiry-based approach to induce classroom discussions and build geographical skills and knowledge It’s a fact! • Did you know that the study of geography helps us to explore and understand space and place? Yes! It helps us in recognising the similarities and differences in landscapes, climates, availability of resources, cultures, political systems, Pesticides are chemicals that kill insects and other small creatures that eat or damage plants. Fact boxes are information prompters to engage the learner into diverse geographic data and to explore different sources and perspectives. economies, and environments across the world. III Contents Page 1 Plains and Rivers 1 Students will be able to: • Inquire Earth’s processes and patterns and how landscapes have changed over time (Types of plains features of the river). • Compare the geographical features of plains & rivers. • Compare urban and rural infrastructure to understand adaptation according to human needs (People living near rivers and on plains). • Find out the differences in lifestyles of people living near rivers and on plains to appreciate and respect diversity. • Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, Google Earth, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of the physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to develop and support conclusions. 2 Water Resources and Management Students will be able to: • Inquire why landforms are changing due to the natural processes of the Earth (Causes and consequences). • Inquire why landforms are changing due to human activity (Causes and consequences of pollution). • Analyse patterns of distribution and consumption of water resources of some selected geographical regions of the world. • Inquire why landforms are changing due to human activity (With respect to water) (Causes and consequences of pollution). • Analyse that scarcity of resources compels people to wisely use resources. • Suggest ways to utilise and conserve (Water) resources. • Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, Google Earth, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of the physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to develop and support conclusions. IV 15 C O NTE NTS 3 Settlements and Land Use 27 Students will be able to: • Analyse patterns of distribution and consumption of resources of some selected geographical regions of the world (Feasibility of human settlement). • Inquire and describe the interaction between physical and human geography in terms of types of settlements. • Explain that the economic progress of a region relies upon the advancement in infrastructure, transport, and use of science and technology. • Describe the effects of excess land use (Causes and effects of population increase, excessive agriculture, and excessive urbanisation). • Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to develop and support conclusions. 4 Agriculture 47 Students will be able to: • Explain patterns of distribution and consumption of resources in Pakistan in terms of agriculture. • Inquire and describe the types of agriculture in Pakistan. • Explain that the economic progress of a region relies upon the specialisation of resources through education, scientific research, and technology (Modern methods of farming). • Deduce that high revenues can be generated by exporting finished goods as per current demand (Raw materials from farming and fishery to other countries). • Explain the basic role of the global economic system and interdependence within the global economy (Raw materials from farming and fishery to other countries). • Describe the effects of excess land use (Effects of excessive agriculture). • Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to develop and support conclusions. V C ONTENTS 5 Climate Change 65 Students will be able to: • Construct arguments to describe the interaction between physical and human geography. • Investigate how and why our climate is changing (global warming, greenhouse effect). • Inquire why landforms are changing due to human activity (causes and consequences of pollution. • Find ways to improve the quality of their own and global environment. • Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of the physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to develop and support conclusions. 6 Minerals and Power 79 Students will be able to: • Analyse patterns of distribution and consumption of resources of some selected geographical regions of the world. (Minerals and Power) • Describe economic activities related to natural, capital, and human resources. • Explain that the economic progress of a region relies upon the specialisation of resources through education, scientific research, and technology. • Deduce that high revenues can be generated by exporting finished goods as per current demand. • Suggest ways to utilise resources and conserve them. (Minerals, fossil fuel, alternate sources of energy) • Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of the physical, human and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to develop and support conclusions. Glossary VI 102 1 1 UNIT UNIT U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s Plains and rivers Plains and Rivers What is a plain? Knowledge • Describe the physical features of plains. • Differentiate plains from the other landforms. • Identify some major types of plains of the world • Describe the river plain. • Explore a river system. • Describe the importance of the middle course of the river. • Discover why delta is found on the lower course of the river. • List different features of the upper, middle and lower courses of a river. • Explain how rivers are important in the biodiversity and economy of the region. Skills • Use maps, GIS or Google Maps , Google Earth, to identify different types of plains and their features. • Inquire about the working of a river system. • Investigate reasons why the Arctic plain is known as barren plain. • Investigate the living conditions in a Desert or the Arctic Tundra Plain. • Gather, organise, and interpret data to analyse the impact of rivers on the biodiversity of the region. • Exceeding use of vocabulary to describe physical, human, and environmental geography and economy related to them. What is a plain? Look at the land around you. Is it flat or hilly? If it has slopes, is the slope gentle or steep? If it is a large, wide area of land that is flat, or almost flat, it is a plain. A plain might slope gently, but never steeply. One of the world’s largest plains is the Eurasian Steppe. Steppes are found in places with a temperate climate and very little rain. Another very large plain region is the Great Plains of North America. What are plains like? Kyrgyztan is part of the Eurasian steppes which is a large area of un-forested grassland. There are different types of plains—each characterised by its unique features like climate, vegetation, and location. Some plains, like the Great Plains of North America, are bounded on one side by mountains. Some are found along the banks of rivers, like the Indus river plain in Pakistan. It is a vast expanse of fertile land, covering about 517997.6 km2 with a gentle slope from the Himalayan piedmont in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south. Coastal plains are found along the coasts of continents. Let’s find out about some other types of plains. Grasslands Grasslands receive enough rain for grasses to grow up to about 1 metre high. Scattered trees grow in the wetter parts. The Eurasian Steppe and the Great Plains of North America are grasslands. In North America grasslands are called prairies. The Plain’s bison on the American Prairie Reserve in Montana, USA; these animals are also known as buffalo. 1 U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s temperate grasslands of South America are called pampas. The Serengeti Plains of central Africa are called savannahs. Savannahs have grass, other small flowering plants, and a few trees. There are also savannahs in Australia and the southern part of North America. Deserts Some plains are deserts. Deserts are places that have less than 250 mm of rainfall per annum. The weather in deserts is usually hot, but it becomes cool at night. Most deserts are located between the latitudes of 20° and 35° north and south of the Equator. The land is flat but as the climate is very dry, there is very little vegetation. Parts of the Thar Desert in Pakistan and the Sahara Desert in North Africa are plains. There are also desert plains in Australia. Temperate or cold deserts are found in higher latitudes. Its dry environment is due to the presence of high mountains and its distance from the sea. The largest area of temperate desert lies in Central Asia, western North America, southeastern South America, and southern Australia. Katpana desert in Pakistan is an example of a cold desert. Although cold deserts experience lower temperatures than hot deserts, temperate deserts are similar in aridity, landforms, and soil. So grasslands are plains with temperate climates? Not always! There are grasslands called savannahs in tropical climates. These are warm throughout the year. They have wet and dry seasons. Arctic Tundra Plains of Arctic region where the ground is frozen are called tundra. The frozen ground is called permafrost. It can be up to 450 metres thick. In the coldest tundra plains, the surface of the soil remains frozen. In warmer tundra plains, the surface thaws in the summer. Tundra plains receive very little rain but the water from melted ice forms bogs and shallow lakes in the summer. Few trees grow on the tundra, but many small plants survive. The Thar Desert stretches over 446 square km and covers large areas of both Pakistan and India. Building Skills List the similarities and differences between the living conditions in deserts and arctic plains. 2 Permafrost in an Arctic tundra plain in Alaska, USA U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s Floodplains Plains which are built by river sediments are called floodplains. These are usually flat lands next to a river which are flooded regularly. The rivers flow slowly across plains because the land slopes less steeply. Floodplains form along the banks of a river that has collected a large amount of water, for example, the Indus and the Nile floodplains. Let’s take a look at the Indus floodplain. The river erodes its banks and leaves an area which is lower than the land around it. Most of the time, the river stays in its channel but sometimes it floods, usually in the rainy season. The flood water brings a huge amount of sediment to this land and, after the flood recedes, the nutrient-rich sediment is left behind—thus making the soil fertile. For centuries, people have used the fertile land of floodplains for farming, such as that of the River Nile and the River Indus. However, in modern times, people have built settlements on floodplains that face the threat of flooding. Plains are all densely populated around the world because of its flat land and availabilty of water. People are involved in a range of economic activities here like farming, industries, mining, etc. However, these areas are also liable for flooding. River Indus originates near the Mansarovar Lake in the Tibetan plateau and runs most of its course through Pakistan. It is the most important supplier of water to the Punjab and Sindh plains. It forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. This is why most of its population is settled in Punjab and Sindh, along the Indus Plain. The river is especially critical as rainfall is scarce in the lower Indus valley. Many industries and urban centers are on the Indus Plain. River Indus flowing from the Himalayas An aerial view of the Indus floodplain 3 U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s Locating plains on the world map Look at the map below. See if you can find the large plains of the world. Use the key to identify these regions on the map. Remember that plains are regions with the lowest elevations. Physiography (physical geography) has a direct impact on human activities. Time zones aid in international trade and communication. A time zone on the globe is approximately 15° longitude wide and extends from pole to pole and within which a uniform clock time is used. They are the functional basis of standard time and were introduced in the late 19th century as railways connected places that had differing local times. World plains and types of land GILGIT rol N T I Cont E R J & F R O K Line of MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR U N INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR ing D Wo rk N E * F I A D E (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) Bou ndar y The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. Key P Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. P *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. Tundra LEGEND Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Savannah Desert GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR Temperate grassland 69° Scale in km 2000 0 3000 71° 4000 O F K U T C H 68° I AN BANTVA AD AV I A International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek N A 21° G A Y BA D H LF OF CAM GU A 68° E. of GREENWICH. JUNAGADH AR Source of a river D 22° 24° J U Have you ever wondered where a river begins? Take a look at the River Indus on the map on page 5. The Indus is the longest river in Pakistan (2900 km). Its plains make up 20% of the total land of Pakistan. Let’s take a trip down the river from where it begins. N 22° 5000 24° Rivers 72° 23° G U L F M 1000 70° 23° SIR CREEK R 69° A B I A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. S E 71° 21° A 72° Building Skills Using the Internet, research difference between economic activities conducted on plains of Pakistan and any other country of your choice. The place where a river starts is called its source. Our journey begins at this point. Some rivers start in a lake or a glacier, but many rivers come from a spring on high land. A spring is formed when ground water pushes its way to the surface through holes or weak places in the rock. The spring becomes a stream as it flows downhill. The fast-flowing water carries sediment. As it flows, the water cuts a v-shaped valley. The valley is not straight because the stream changes direction if it comes to hard rock, called a spur. Where there are lots of spurs they are called interlocking spurs. This is the upper course of a river, where water flows fast downhill. 4 GILGIT U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s F R O N K trol f Con Line o MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR R J & T I E As the Indus flows away from its source, four main rivers join it at different places in Punjab. These are called its tributaries known as Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej. These rivers come from streams, snow, and glaciers in the Himalaya, Karakoram, and Hindu Kush mountains. F I A D E ing D Wo rk N E * Can you trace the course of the Indus river? U N INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) Bou nda GILGIT ry N T I E R J & Courses of River Indus and its tributries GILGIT nda RIV J & Line of MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR A A AB RI Y BA M D H LF OF CA 68° E. of GREENWICH. B I A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. S E 71° A RI VI 21° EJ TL CH A SU Council Resolutions. R VE RI OF PAKISTAN GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED COPYRIGHTS RESERVED JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR LEGEND 72° JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR A 69° R 69° I D SIR CREEK 23° 71° N 68° 72° ISLAMA 72°BAD 23° Headquarters; ProvinceG.U. L. F. .O.F. .K .U .T .C.H. . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR 23° Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G U L F SIR CREEK O F I K U T C H N D I A 22° 22° Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I S 70° Capital of Country 70° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71°. . . . . . . 69° 23° 24° 24° AN Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . BANTVA . . . . . . . . .JUNAGADH .......... N D I J U AR I 22° P AD AV 68° M DU IN R VE RI ER LEGEND Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . .. .. .. . .. .. ... .. ... .ISLAMABAD ... Capital of Country Actual boundary in the area where Headquarters; Boundary; Province . . . . .Province . . remark . . . . .. .FRONTIER .. .. ... .. .PESHAWAR . . UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately decided by. .the Boundary;be International . . .sovereign . . . . . . . . .authorities . Boundary; Working . .Province . . . . of. ..the .. ..Kashmir Boundary; . .. ..Jammu ... .. ... .. & ... . . . . dispute. concerned after the final.settlement Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . Line of Control . . . . . . .as . . defined . . . . . . in . . the . . . AJK . . Interim *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir River . . . . . Act, . . .1974. . . . .. .. ... .. ... .. .. ... .. ... .. ... .. .. ... .. ... .. .. . . . . Constitution River RA EN GU A RIV The red dotted line of *Aline J & represents K stands for approximately Azad Jammu & the Kashmir ascontrol definedin Jammu & Kashmir. of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession in theThe AJKstate Interim Constitution Act, 1974. is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions.LEGEND RI 21° G A US Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER The red dotted line ultimately represents approximately the line UNDEFINED appears, would be decided byof control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & the sovereign authorities concerned after the final Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Bo un dary R VE AB N A VE AR J U R JUNAGADH AD AV BANTVA y the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. 22° 24° IND ndar *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as FRONTIER defined Scale Actual boundary in1: the3,000,000 area where remark appears, would ultimately be decided by in the AJK InterimUNDEFINED Constitution Act, 1974. R VE R VE RI S DU I P Wo rkin g EN CH IN D Bou D N AN International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek I UM P R VE RI EL JH 22° ing N E * 72° K U T C H F I 71° 23° G 24° D E l M 16 Tanda Dam F A 17 Taunsa Barrage 18 Thanedar Wala 19 Uchhas Complax (including Khabbaki. Uchhali and Jahiar) U N 70° Wo rk Line of Contro The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR its STATUS accession is DECIDED yet to be decided through (DISPUTED Kashmir TRRITORYand - FINAL TO BE IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC the RESOLUTIONS) a plebiscite under relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR O F S Pass Karakoram Pass Karakoram SRINAGAR P P 23° G U L F rol Cont INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR MUZAFFARABAD GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED SIR CREEK N E (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) * LEGEND Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68° W A E R TI K ST A *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. 69° N ry N T I ER Bou AL N F R O US IND ing I TB I D LG GILGIT H N E GI Wo rk F I A C * Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. P INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) D E The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. U N The movement ofWetlands water in in a river is called Pakistan a current. The current is usually strongest 1 Astola (Haft Talar Island) 2 Chashma Sarrage near the river’s source. Storms can increase 3 Dah Akro-II Desert Wetland Complex the magnitude of4 the current Drigh Lake which can even move large boulders. TheLake broken pieces 5 Haleji 6 Hub (Hab) Dam of rocks scrape and dig into the riverbed. 7 Indus Delta Gradually a river 8tears away rocks and soil Indus Dolphin Reserve 9 Jiwani coastal Wetland along its bed, and carries them downstream. 10 Jabho Lagoon N The river carves a V-shaped 11 narrow, Kinjhar (Kain) Lake valley A T 12 Miani Hor and creates rapids, waterfalls, and gorges. S 13 Nurri Lagoon I A gorge or canyon a deep valley that has N 14 isOrmara Turtle Beaches A 15 Runn of Kutch H been cut by a river. P F R O K trol f Con Line o MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR The upper course of a river N A P A Y BA G A Line of Control . . .21°. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. .H . . . . . . . International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek M River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24° A AN 24° R A B I A N S LF 70° E. of GREENWICH. 71° 69° GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN RESERVED JCOPYRIGHTS U A 72° AR N A I R A N G A 21° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek 21° GU E JUNAGADH AD AV BANTVA 68° E. of GREENWICH. M CA OF22° Y BA M D H LF OF CA GU 21° JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 69° A R A B The upper course of a river 68° E. of GREENWICH. I70° A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. 69° S 71°E 71° A 72° 72° 23° G U L F SIR CREEK O F 23° K U T C H source 68° I N D I A 24° RI S DU IN R A B I A N S E 68° E. of GREENWICH. Y BA M D H LF OF CA A R A B I A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. S 71° E 21° A 72° interlocking spur k an rb ive r G A GU 69° interlocking spur It’s a fact! N A 21° v-shaped valley A • ‘River’ means the whole course of the river from the source to the sea. ‘Stream’ usually means a very narrow, shallow body of flowing water. • ‘Downstream’ means towards the mouth of the river. • ‘Upstream’ means towards the source of a river. J U JUNAGADH AR stream International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek BANTVA AD AV VE 24° AN A This tiny spring in the Pennines mountains in England is the source of the South Tyne. The South Tyne is a tributary of the river Tyne, which is one of the longest rivers in England. 22° M R 22° spur channel rocks and soil rock river bed The upper course of a river 5 U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s Rapids on the upper course of the River Hvítá in Iceland Gullfoss (“Golden Falls”), a waterfall close to the rapids on the same river Dams A dam is a man-made wall built across a river to control the flow of the water. It is a form of hard engineering that involves building artificial structures to control rivers. Dams trap water behind the walls built to create a reservoir. It helps store water and release it in a controlled way from its channels. The Indus plain fulfills diverse human needs as it offers a variety of activity and operations, such as: • • • • • farmland for food and raw material for industries land for settlements industrial setup since it has flat land, raw material, transport routes, electricity, labour, etc. fresh water for inland fishing irrgation canals for arid areas away from rivers During our trip down the River Indus we have passed some large dams. The largest is the Tarbela Dam in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. This is the largest Earth-filled dam in the world. It is 193 metres high. Lake or Reservoir Dam The Tarbela Dam The reservoir at Tarbela holds 14.3 billion cubic metres of water. Engineers can let the water flow through the dam when it is needed. It serves many purposes: • • • • • 6 It helps irrigating farms for agriculture. It generates hydroelectricity. It helps to control river floods by saving the rainwater in reservoirs. It supplies water for homes, industry, and agriculture. It provides important habitats for plants and animals. U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s According to World Bank, Pakistan has 47.09% of agricultural land but most of it is not irrigated by canals. To address this deficit, currently DiamerBhasha Dam, Naulong Dam, Kurram Tangi Dam, Nai Gaj Dam, and Dawarat Dam are in the initial stages of development in Pakistan. This has boosted economic growth in agriculture and industries. Some areas of deserts in Sindh and Punjab are also inundated by canals linked to dams. The River Nile in Egypt also has dams. Like the Indus, the Nile floods each year. The Aswan High Dam was built to control the river floods. Floods can be controlled by letting the water through the dam whenever it is needed. It is located at the border between Egypt and Sudan. The Aswan High Dam is the world’s largest embankment dam built across the Nile in Aswan, Egypt, between 1960 and 1970. There are some limitations and disadvantages of making dams. It is an extremely expensive development project which has a high maintenance cost to avoid sedimentation in dams. Widescale displacement of people for construction can change demography of the area and disrupt ecosystems from deforestation. It also adversely affects the groundwater table and can block progression of water to other countries, states, or regions by redirecting the natural course of the water. Building Skills Using the Internet, find out more hard and soft engineering methods of river management to list alternatives for countries that cannot make dams. Key fastest flowing water 1. The middle course of a river Let’s continue our journey down the Indus. The river flows across wide flat land called floodplains. By this time, it has collected a lot of water from streams and other rivers that run into it, so it flows with more energy. The river cuts a deep, wide channel and continues to flow within it. Where it meets high ground made of hard rock, it flows round it, thus making a bend in the river. Look at this diagram to find out what happens. The water on the outside of the bend flows faster than the rest and cuts a cliff on the riverbank. In the middle course, the river carries a higher volume of water. The angle of the land is less steep due to the lateral (sideways) erosion, which has widened and deepened the river channel. A larger river channel has less friction, so the water flows faster. As the river erodes land laterally, it forms large bends, and then a horseshoe-like loop is formed which is called a meander. They are formed due to both deposition and erosion. eroded areas areas where material is deposited A cliff might form here. 2. 3. The gap between the banks becomes narrower 4. The river flows straight across the gap. The meander becomes larger. The meander becomes an oxbow lake. The middle course of a river 7 U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s A satellite photo of the River Indus in 1992. The main channel of the river has cut across a meander. The same part of the River Indus in 2002. Ten years later the meanders are much larger. A meander is cut off from the river and has become an oxbow lake. Meanders gradually migrate downstream. The force of the water erodes and undercuts the river bank on the outside of the bend. Here, a river cliff is formed since the water flow has most energy due to decreased friction. On the inside of the bend, where the river flow is slower, material is deposited, as there is more friction. This will form a slip-off slope. Over time, the horseshoe becomes slimmer with deposition, until the ends are very close together. A large meander. See if you can tell which the left When the river will have a higher discharge, for bank is and which is the right bank. example during floods, the river will breakthrough, and the ends of the horseshoe will join, cutting-off the loop from the main channel. This cut-off loop is called an oxbow lake. (oxbow lake, meanders will be bold) The lower course of a river The river channel at this stage is deep and wide and the land around it is quite flat. As we reach the mouth of the River Indus, on the coast of the Arabian Sea, it spreads across a plain and splits into several smaller branches. This is called a delta. Building Skills Make an animated presentation on the differences between the upper, middle, and lower courses of river to explain the working of a river syterm. Why does a river form a delta instead of just flowing into the sea? Well, the water has flowed a long way and collected sediment. In the upper course of the river, when the water carries the sediment, it flows faster. The surface is flat in lower course of a river. This is why they deposit fine material to form delta at the mouth of the river, called an estuary. At the mouth of the river, the sea waves take the sediment to the ocean. However, if the river deposits sediment more quickly than the sea can take it away, the sediment gets heaped up. Consequently, the river splits up to flow round the heaps. The world’s longest river, the Nile, in Egypt, also has a delta. The mouth of the Nile is on the coast of Egypt, on the Mediterranean Sea. Where tidal action is strong, the sediments arrange widely, forming an estuary. This is where the fresh water of the river mixes with the salt water of the sea. Slow-flowing water deposits sediment on the riverbed or seabed. Sometimes the sediment is carried out to sea and deposited along the coast. 8 U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s Course of River Nile Ni GILGIT K J & Line of MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR rol Cont Saudi Arabia A F I N E ing D Bou ndar y ile The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. e White N il P Wo rk D E Sudan P U N INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) * N E R Egypt N T I Libya F R O le Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. Blu eN *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. A satellite photo of the lower course and mouth of the River Nile. ile LEGEND Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . South Sudan Ethiopia levees floodplain GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 69° 70° 71° 72° 23° Zaire 23° G U L F SIR CREEK O F K U T C H Kenya 68° I N D I A 22° 22° AN 24° AD AV BANTVA N A 21° G A Y BA D H LF OF CAM GU A 68° E. of GREENWICH. JUNAGADH AR J U International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek estuary M 24° 69° R A B I A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. S 71° E 21° A 72° The middle and lower courses of a river and an estuary It’s a fact! • A delta gets its name from the Greek letter delta ( )—a triangle. • The shape of a delta when you look at it from above is a triangle. Rural and urban settlements on plains More than half of the world’s population lives in towns and cities, however, majority of Pakistanis still reside in rural areas. Rural and urban settlements on plains offer different lifestyles. Building Skills People in rural areas are mostly engaged in farming and labour Draw a diagram or a digital activities. People have started to engage in small-scale and sustainable poster to show the impacts of businesses like tourism, setting fish farms, organic farming, etc. human activities on landforms. The upper Indus plain in Punjab is the largest in Pakistan. It joins 5 tributaries in Panjnad to river Indus and flows as one in Sindh and drains in the Arabian Sea at delta. The largest plain of Philippines is situated in the Central Luzon region and produces most of the national rice supply, earning itself the nickname “Rice Bowl of the Philippines”. Urban areas attract people from rural areas for many reasons. It holds most of the educated workforce of a country, jobs for all sectors of industry, widely distributed transport routes, better healthcare, etc. How many cities can you name on the Indus plain? 9 U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s River habitats It’s a fact! A habitat is where organisms live or grow naturally. Some of the living things in a river habitat are too small for us to see without using a microscope. They might live in the water, on the river bed, in nearby rocks or soil, along the river banks or on its flood plain. Some may spend a lot of their time in the air. Some of them are there all the year round; some arrive for different seasons; others move along the river at different stages of their lives. A river affects the biodiversity of a place: that is the variety of plant and animal life there. Pakistan has an arid climate, it has more than 780,000 hectares of wetlands. These cover about 9.7% of the country’s land, and they contain 225 nationally important wetlands. Nineteen of these have worldwide significance and are RAMSAR sites (Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat). Waterfowl are birds that depend on wetlands. An ecosystem is a collection of living things that depend on each other. Pakistan has many rivers draining in the Arabian Sea. You have learned about the Indus River and how it changes along its course. All along the Indus are important wetlands, from the glaciers and high altitude lakes, flood plains, freshwater lakes to the coastal wetlands of the delta. Wetlands in Pakistan C 1 Astola (Haft Talar Island) 2 Chashma Sarrage 3 Dah Akro-II Desert Wetland Complex 4 Drigh Lake 5 Haleji Lake 6 Hub (Hab) Dam 7 Indus Delta 8 Indus Dolphin Reserve 9 Jiwani coastal Wetland 10 Jabho Lagoon N 11 Kinjhar (Kain) Lake A T 12 Miani Hor S 13 Nurri Lagoon I N 14 Ormara Turtle Beaches A 15 Runn of Kutch H G 16 Tanda Dam F A 17 Taunsa Barrage 18 Thanedar Wala 19 Uchhas Complax (including Khabbaki. Uchhali and Jahiar) GI LG GILGIT US IND I TB ER AL RIV TI H ST N I N W A IND l S Pass Karakoram Pass Karakoram AN Line of Contro E MUZAFFARABAD US RIV ER SRINAGAR INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TRRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) * M LU E JH R VE RI Wo rkin g Bo un dary Scale 1: 3,000,000 R RI VE R VE AB RI S EN IN DU CH The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. ER V RI VI Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities EN AB RI VE R RA CH I J R E TL *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. LEGEND A SU concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute. R VE I Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR D R Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N VE RI Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I S DU IN Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED I R A N JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 69° 70° 71° 72° 23° 23° G U L F SIR CREEK O F K U T C H 68° I N D I A 24° AN 24° DU S IN A R A B I A N S E A J U International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek 10 N A G A 21° 69° R A B I A Y BA M D H LF OF CA GU A 68° E. of GREENWICH. JUNAGADH AR RI BANTVA AD AV VE 22° M R 22° N 70° E. of GREENWICH. S 71° E A 72° 21° U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s Types of Wetlands • • • • • Marine (coastal wetlands including lagoons, rocky shores and coral reefs) Estuarine (deltas, tidal marshes, and mangrove swamps) Lakes and the land around them Riverine (wetlands along rivers and streams) Marshes (swamps and bogs) Importnce of Wetlands Wetlands are important for many reasons: Boreal Forest • They store water. This is vital because it helps to make up for any shortages in our reservoirs, natural lakes and marshes. • They support fibre and fuel production (logs, fuel wood and peat) and fodder for livestock from mangroves. Many wetlands have the right type of land for growing rice. • They help in reducing global warming. Wetlands are a ‘carbon sink’. They help to contain greenhouse gases. • They refill the water table supplies. • Natural processes in marshes and swamps break down organic pollution, but they cannot cope with great amounts of pollution from untreated waste. Aerial view of Okavango delta swamps • They help to control erosion by holding soil and sediment in marshes and swamps. They also help to create fertile soil when temporary lakes dry out. Riverbank forests help to cut down erosion during floods. • Floodplains and marshes give protection from floods and storms. Mangrove forests and coastal wetlands hold back floodwater from tsunamis . • Wetlands can be a habitat for pollinators such as bees and other insects. Without pollinators most plants cannot reproduce. Mangroves are perfect for keeping bees for producing honey. Indus dolphin The best-known animal of the Indus is the Indus River dolphin. It is one of the world’s rarest mammals. Most dolphins live in the sea, but this is a freshwater dolphin, which is only found in the Indus. It lives in the lower parts of the river’s course, where it has adapted to living in muddy water. It feeds on crustaceans such as prawns, and fish such as carp, catfish and gobies. Indus dolphin can only be found in the lower parts of the Indus River in Pakistan and in River Beas, India. 11 U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s The Indus dolphin is blind and finds its way around using echolocation—like bats. You have probably heard echoes—where sounds are reflected back to you. There are now only about 2,000 Indus River dolphins. Their population has reduced due to many reasons like water pollution, reduced habitat by setting of barrages, dolphins becoming stranded in irrigation canals or entangled in fishing nets and poaching (people catching them illegally). The Indus River dolphin is protected as an endangered species, and scientists from World Wildlife Fund Pakistan are studying them to learn more about how to help them to survive. They are also working with communities around their habitats to help to protect them: for example, by helping farmers and factory owners to avoid polluting the river. Changing plains and rivers Historically, settlements have flourished along riverbanks, however, rivers routinely flood and sometimes abruptly shift their course. These ‘channel-jumping’ events have changed landscapes and caused some of the worst floods in human history. They are also called avulsions. Over time, rivers deposit sediment at the avulsion site, and create different features. The dispersed deposition of sediment and water across the rivers’ floodplains form its characteristic triangular shape, also called an alluvial fan. River Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum flow westward to join the Indus River and drain into the Arabian Sea (west of Pakistan). But research suggests that these rivers once flowed eastward into the River Ganges and drained into the Bay of Bengal (east of India). Scientists predict that the rivers were rerouted five million years ago due to the ongoing collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates that bulldozed the terrain, tilting it westward or lifting up river-diverting mountains. Scientists have found that avulsion sites on deltas can move from their historic locations to new areas. Rapid increase in the sea level can move avulsion sites inland on deltas, which can expose new communities to catastrophic flood risks. Climate change has increased flooding in many parts of the world. Human activities, such as converting forests to farmlands, are also increasing sediment loads. It’s a fact! • • Avulsions on China’s Yellow River killed over 6 million people in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. A river does not change course more than once over many decades, or even centuries. Do you know that the Mississippi River in USA has changed course many times over the last 7,000 years. Today, a multi-dam keeps the river from joining with the Atchafalaya River. However, scientists have warned that a megaflood could overwhelm these barriers and cause widespread economic damage across southern Louisiana. Aerial view of the Indus River Delta bed in Sindh 12 Plains and Rivers: Assessment A Choose the correct answer: I. One of the world’s largest plains is the __________ a. Great Plains in USA b. Nile Plains in Egypt c. Eurasian Steppe II. Plains where the ground is frozen are called __________. a. Grasslandsb. Tundrac. Floodplains III. River __________ forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. a. Jhelumb. Nilec. Indus IV. A __________ is formed when ground water pushes its way to the surface through holes or weak places in the rock. a. Rapidsb. Springc. Gorge V. A __________ is a deep valley that has been cut by a river. a. Rapidsb. Canyonc. Gorge VI.The largest is the Tarbela Dam in __________. a. Sindhb. Punjabc. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa VII.River __________ is located at the border between Egypt and Sudan. a. Indusb. Nilec. Rosetta VIII. Pakistan has more than 780,000 hectares of __________. a. Grasslandsb. Plainsc. Wetlands B 1. What is a plain? 2.Draw a table like the one below for your answers: Type of grassland plain Climate Example a)Name four types of grassland plain. b)Describe the climate of each of these types of plain. c)Name an example of each type of plain. C 1. Refer to the map on page 4 and list a) Three countries that have tundra plains. b) Three countries that have desert plains. Consult your Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan. 2. a)In what ways are desert plains and tundra plains similar? Try to give three similarities. b)In what ways are desert plains and tundra plains different? 3. Locate the following plains on the map on page 4: a) The Great Plains of North America b) The Eurasian Steppe c) The Serengeti Plains of Central Africa U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s 4. Copy and complete the chart below in your notebook. a)Write the different names that you know for plains. b)Name any countries where each type of plain can be found. c)Write what you know about the vegetation of these plains. Type of plain Countries Vegetation Steppe Mongolia, Russia, Siberia Grass D 1. Write the words that have the following meanings: a) The place where a river begins b)A piece of rock that changes the direction of a stream or river c)A set of spurs that change the direction of a stream or river d)A deep valley cut by a river 2. Explain how a river can change the land it flows across in its upper course. 3. Explain how a floodplain is formed. 4. Draw a sketch of the meander as on page 7. Mark on your drawing: the directions ‘upstream’ and ‘downstream’, the right bank, and the left bank. E 1. Do all rivers not flow to the nearest coast? 2. Name two different types of river mouth. 3. Explain why a river deposits sediment in some places. F 1. Define the following terms a) Habitat b) Ecosystem c) Wetland d) RAMSAR e) Echolocation f) Biodiversity 2.a)Name and describe five different types of wetland. b)Write an explanation of why we should look after our wetlands. c)Find out about the nearest river to where you live. Look at maps and draw your own map of its course. On your map add details about the plant and animal life along the river. G 1. Copy and complete these sentences: a)In the middle course of a river there are often bends called _____________. The river might cut straight across one of these bends and form an ______________lake. b)The water flows faster on the ___________ of a bend than on the __________. c)When water erodes the bank on the outside of a bend it forms a ________. d)The material that the river erodes is called 13 U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s _________________. The river deposits this on the inside of a bend and forms a ____________. 2. Write a word for each definition. a)the place where a river meets the sea ________. b)the place where a river splits into smaller rivers before flowing into the sea ________. c)the place where a river is very wide when it meets the sea ________. d)fragments of rock and stone carried by a river ________. Overview Plains and rivers Plains • A plain is a large, flat, wide area of land. Types of plain The course of a river Grasslands receive enough rain to grow grasses. Examples are the Eurassian Steppes and the Great Plains of America. Different terms for plains are: • • Steppe Pampas • Deserts receive very little rainfall. There is very little vegetation, e.g. the Great Sahara and Thar Deserts. Tundra plains have permafrost. They receive very little rainfall. Only small plants can grow when the ice thaws in summer, e.g. the Arctic Tundra. The soild on river plains is very fertile due to sediment carried by the rivers. The land is used for farming, e.g. the River Nile and River Indus. • • • Savannah • Prairies Importance of IndusPlain • • • • • • 14 Rivers Farmland for food and raw material for industries Land for settlements Industrial setup Raw material, transport routes, electricity, labour, etc. Fresh water for inland fishing Irrgation canals for arid areas Source • A river may start from a spring, a lake, or a glacier. Upper course • Water flows very fast and carries sediment. • It cuts valleys, rapids, waterfalls, canyons, and gorges. • Dams are built to produce hydroelectricity. Middle course • Sediment is deposited at the banks of the river. • River water cuts meanders and oxbow lakes. Lower course • The river slows down and deposits sediment at the mouth of the river, forming a delta. • Where the water cuts a very wide mouth, it is called an estuary. Rural settlements • • • Farming Labour activities Small-scale businesses like tourism, fish farms, organic farming, etc. Urban settlements • • • • Variety of jobs for all sectors of industry Widely distributed transport routes Better healthcare Better and higher education opportunities UNIT 2 Water Resources and Management Knowledge • Identify the major sources of water on the Earth and in Pakistan. • Explain different types of precipitation. • Describe the process of Water Cycle in maintaining water supply of the Earth. • Identify different uses of sewage waste. • Identify biogas as a source of energy. • Identify various water purification methods before supplying it to cities and villages. Skills • Draw and label Water Cycle. • • • • • • • Evaluate the reasons for low water table in Pakistan. Devise ways to solve the shortage of water in Pakistan. Evaluate ways of using wastewater. Analyse methods of sewage treatment. Organise information about water purification methods into flow charts. Analyse the reasons for the scarcity of drinking water in cities. Enhanced use of vocabulary to describe physical, human, and environmental geography and economy related to them. Sources of water Do you know the Earth has the same amount of water as it did at its creation? The major exchange processes for water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface are evaporation and precipitation. Water evaporates from plant leaves through a process called transpiration. This is an important part of the water cycle. The main water sources in Pakistan include surface water, rainfall, and groundwater. Surface water resources include Rain is an important source of water for life on Earth. the River Indus and its tributaries. About 70% of the annual rainfall comes from the summer monsoon during the months from June to September. Pakistan has varied rainfall distribution ranging between 125mm in Balochistan in the south-east It’s a fact! to 750mm in the northwest. Most of the groundwater resources of the Indus Plain extends from Himalayan foothills to the Arabian Sea • Runoff is water that runs off the and are stored in its alluvial deposits. The Plain is about 1600 km surface of the ground and into long and is blessed with extensive unconfined aquifer, which is fast rivers, lakes, or the sea. becoming the supplemental source of water for irrigation through • Percolation means water soaking conventional methods such as tubewells, Karez system, Persian through the ground. wheel, etc. • The water table is the highest Where is water stored on the Earth? The Earth and the troposphere (the lowest layer of atmosphere) always contain about the same amount of water. This water can be in different states: liquid, solid, or vapour. level of the ground that is saturated with water. • Water table flow is an underground flow of water. • Water table can fill natural underground reservoirs. • Water table might find an opening where it can flow out of the ground as a spring. 15 U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt The ocean holds almost 97 percent of the Earth’s water; the remaining three percent is found in glaciers and ice, below the ground as water table, in rivers, and in lakes Pakistan has more area under glaciers than any other country (13,680 km2). The largest is Siachen glacier, which is 78 km long, in the eastern part of the Karakoram mountains. Water cycle Water is also stored inside plants or animals—including people! Water is always on the move—the same water keeps going round and round. This movement of water is called the water cycle. The water cycle is also known as the hydrological cycle. It describes how all the water in the hydrosphere continuously moves between oceans, lakes, rivers, land, and the atmosphere. The water cycle is driven by the sun. precipitation clouds condensation snow and ice air transpiration percolation evaporation run off ocean water table groundwater flow Look at the diagram and note how complex is the water cycle as it includes The water cycle many different processes. Water moves in different phases moves through the atmosphere (transportation). Liquid water flows across land (runoff), into the ground (infiltration and percolation), and through the ground (groundwater, also called the water table). Water table moves into plants (plant uptake) and evaporates from plants into the atmosphere (transpiration). Surface and groundwater evaporates into water vapour (gas) and rises high above the ground. It condenses at a certain height in the atmosphere to form clouds, and precipitates back to the Earth in the form of rain and snow. Precipitation Precipitation means any water that falls from the atmosphere. Cover the captions below and see how many different forms of precipitation you can name. Here are some examples of precipitation: rain 16 drizzle snow sleet hail U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt Look at the pictures on this page and think about the differences between each type of precipitation. • • • • • How is rain different from drizzle? How is sleet different from snow? How is hail different from snow? How are rain and drizzle alike? How are snow, sleet, and hail alike? Evaporate liquid to vapour (change from liquid to gas)liquid to vapour liquid to vapour vapour to liquid liquid to vapour Condense vapour to liquid (change from gas to liquid) vapour to liquid liquid to solid vapour totoliquid liquid solid Freeze liquid to solid solid to liquid (change from liquid to solid) liquid solidtotosolid liquid How are rain and drizzle different from snow, solid to liquid sleet, and hail? Water can be in any of three Melt solid to liquid states: liquid, solid (ice), or gas. Did you know (change from solid to liquid) that solid can convert to gaseous state with no intermediate liquid stage? This is called sublimation. Its most common example is the process of snow and ice changing into water vapor (gas) in the air without first melting into water. The opposite of sublimation is “deposition”, where water vapor changes directly into ice; such as snowflakes and frost. Sublimation occurs with certain weather conditions, such as low relative humidity, dry winds, stronger sunlight, and higher altitudes, where the air pressure is less than at the lower altitudes. For example, sublimation happens a lot at the south face of Mount Everest. It has low temperatures, strong winds, intense sunlight, and very low air pressure. You can see the results of sublimation by hanging a wet shirt outside in-O°C day. Eventually the ice in the shirt will disappear. Frozen precipitation Have you ever wondered why some water in the atmosphere freezes to form snow or sleet and some freezes to form hail? Snow forms in very cold, moist air. A snowflake is formed when water vapour freezes around a microscopic grain of dust. The diagram below explains what happens. If the air temperature is higher than 0°C, the snowflakes begin to melt and if the temperature is upto 2oC, they fall as sleet. The opposite can happen too: raindrops that fall from a cloud can freeze if they pass through colder air on the way down. The result is freezing rain—not hailstones. A hailstone is formed when a drop of water is sucked up into a storm cloud. The diagram below explains what happens. 4. The snowflake continues to grow. 5. The weight of the snowflake is greater than the force of the air moving it upwards, it starts to fall. 3. More water vapour freezes around it. 2. The speck of dust and air rise into the air. 1. Water vapour freezes around a tiny speck of dust. How a snowflake grows storm cloud 3. The raindrops are now hailstones. 4. They grow as more ice forms on them. 2. The air is colder up here, so the raindrops freeze. 1. Raindrops are sucked up into the storm cloud. cold air 5. Hailstones fall to the ground. warm air How hailstorms are formed 17 U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt Fog Fog and mist are caused by water in the air. When droplets of water hang near the surface it causes fog. Some parts of Pakistan have thick fog in the winter. Sometimes in Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and upper Sindh, cold air from the north keeps the temperature cold during the day. If the cold air moves back, warm, humid air comes in from the sea. If this warm, humid air cools, the water vapour in it changes into droplets, causing fog. If the droplets freeze, we have freezing fog. Winter fog in Islamabad mist When you heat water in a kettle, it boils. The water evaporates: it changes into water vapour. You cannot see water vapour. What you see are droplets of water that have condensed from the water vapour. These droplets have formed a mist. This is just like a cloud. Parameter of Comparison Clouds Fog Altitude Clouds are present at any altitude. Fog is present at ground level only. Significance Clouds are significant because they contribute to the water cycle. Fog is not so significant. Existence Throughout the year. Winters only. Density 0.5g/m3 0.05g/m3 – 0.5g/m3 Occurrence of condensation Precipitation of Water back Condensation occurs high in the atmosphere. Clouds precipitate water back in the form of rain. Uses of water Life on the Earth is dependent on air and water. It sustains biodiversity on land and in water through minerals for fishes and supporting habitats in forests. For humans, It is essential for many domestic purposes like drinking, cooking (boiling, steaming, and simmering food), cleaning, to maintain hygiene, recreational purposes, and for linear plantations along roads to avoid soil erosion. Condensation occurs close to the ground. Fog doesn’t precipitate water back. Is fog not the same as humidity? No. Humidity means the amount of water vapour in the air. You cannot see water vapour. Fog is like a cloud near the ground. It is made of tiny drops of water, so you can see it. Water is also used for irrigation to grow crops and in making of agricultural products like fertilisers, pesticides, insecticides, etc. Industries use water to generate electricity, making of iron and steel, chemicals, medicines, textiles, leather, processing of food, etc. Water supply of Pakistan If you look at the climate distribution map of Pakistan in the Oxford School Atlas, you will notice that most of the land is arid. Do you know where your water supply comes from? Most of Pakistan’s water comes from 18 U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt rivers, mainly (65%) from the Indus River system. Northern Pakistan has more of the world’s highest mountain peaks per square kilometre than any other country. The water comes from glacier melt, snow melt, rainfall, and runoff from the mountains. Some of our water also comes from below the ground. This is water that has soaked into the ground and collected in aquifers. Pumps and wells bring it up to the surface. Pipelines carry water from reservoirs to cities, towns, and some villages. Pipelines and canals carry water from reservoirs and storage tanks to fields for irrigation. It’s a fact! • • According to UNICEF, four billion people, which is almost two thirds of the world’s population, experience severe water scarcity for at least one month each year. Over two billion people live in countries where water supply is inadequate. Only 3% of the world’s water is fresh water, and two-thirds of that is tucked away in frozen glaciers or otherwise unavailable for our use. • However, even with all this water, there is not quite enough for all our needs. Our population is growing faster than the water supply can keep up with. The water table in Pakistan is getting lower, so wells have to be dug deeper and deeper. In 1947, Pakistan had 5600 m3 of water per year for each person. By 2020, we had less than 1000 m3 per person. Scientists are working on ways to look after our water so that we will have enough in the future. Common reasons for this shortage is the increasing population, overuse of water, water pollution, conflicts over water resources, droughts, global warming, and ground water polution. Scarcity of water affects the lifestyle of people everywhere, be it plains, deserts, and mountains. Construction of dams, reservoirs, barrages, etc. to meet the agricultural, industrial, and domestic needs of people leads to deforestation, mining for raw material, and large scale displacement of people. The Khanpur Dam is built on the Haro River in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The reservoir provides water for homes and industries in Rawalpindi and Islamabad, and irrigation for agriculture around the twin cities. A tube well that uses solar power to pump water from under the ground. This saves using electricity or diesel and makes good use of the sunshine. Indus floods When the River Indus floods, it leaves a rich layer of sediment that creates fertile farmland. Embankments have been built to protect land and buildings from floods. An embankment is a high bank made from materials such as stone, the Earth, or wood. It makes the riverbank higher and stronger. In 1947, 1958, 2010, and 2022 the embankments gave way, and floods destroyed large areas. There is plenty of water in the summer from monsoon rain, but much less in the winter (only 10% of the summer flow). However, climate change has disturbed the patterns of monsoon and increased the rate of intense heat waves in the country. 19 Warsak INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR Khanpur (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) Rawal Tanda U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n aKurramg g e m earhi nt Mangla Upper Jhelum 2006 CanalIrrigation, Marala Workin How can Pakistan solve its water mproblems? g Boun Chashma 6 d er C an a i Bar b Doa Sidhnai Ca na l 23° al j ³ A LEGEND l I Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR njn D ³ ³ Ra in e e Ca nal 68°E 23°N 24°N SIR CREEK 68° 24°N 68°E of Greenwich s du In ek Mud 24° A 68° E. of GREENWICH. 69° R J U S E A A 69° 23° A 22° A N A G A D H OF LF B A JUNAGADH B I N A A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. G A S E 70° E. of GREENWICH. 71° 21° LF OF CA GU 72° Y BA M F I A RA A B NI A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. A 71° D H L GU 69° OF CA S E AE S 71° 21° A 72° 72° Reduce wastage of water Water is wasted when it leaks from pipes, tanks, or reservoirs. The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority helps the water supply companies to manage water more carefully. We can all help. Does your family wastewater? Do you have leaking pipes or equipment? Do you leave taps running? Stopping pollution Most of our water pollution comes from sewage. This spreads disease through drinking water and through vegetables and other crops irrigated with polluted water. It pollutes rivers and kills plants and animals, including fish. 20 Y BA M BAY M CA 22° GU 72°E R J U 21° A I JUNAGADH D 21°NI N D71°EH A R A B21°I A N BANTVA 68° E. of GREENWICH. International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek 68°E of Greenwich BANTVA I AR Sir Cre 24° A G A DH G A N D 22°N AR tch J UN AD AV Ku Mud DAR MANAVA 70°E I 22°K U T C H AN Mud of N A International Boundary along Eastern Bank 69°E of Greenwich of the Creek O F M Mud Rann 24° 22° 22° 23° 72° 23°N K U T C H O F G U L F H INDIA JUNAGADH G U L F J U 21°N TC AD AV 21° GUL F O F K U 71° AN 68° 70° M 24° Fu le 23° BANTVA 22°N International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek SIR CREEK Pinyari Canal GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED 23° 69° SIR CREEK Jamrao Canal Kotri Hab Darwat A River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JUNAGADH &72°EMANAVADAR 70°E 71°E 69°E l Nara Cana ³ ³ ³ Gaj Nai I Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2019-2020 26°N # D GOVERNMENT OF & PAKISTAN JUNAGADH MANAVADAR COPYRIGHTS 69° 70° RESERVED 71° 72° AR ARABIAN SEA International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek 150 miles N S Ind Indus ³ Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . us N I R A 22°Sukkur ³ Darwat Hingol Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I AD AV Gaj Nai 24°Kotri # S E A 68° E. of GREENWICH. an concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute. *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. AN Hub Chur na Island 250 km Up p 11 Taunsa-Panjnad appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities 3 4 Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD nal 100 200 en ab C al al er C Up p al n Ca l na l Ca wa ha Ba Ca nal 150 Ch j henab C anal an en ab C Ch ³ Lower 8 li Ca 100 mC Ind us njn Ra in e e Ca nal l ³ ³ an a mC Lo we r Jhelu Ra 11 ³ Panjnad l na Ca li Scale 1: 7,500,000 72° The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED 30°N in the vi AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. ³ Taunsa ow er l ³ na Thal C a L *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined Balloki j ke IrrigatedSulaiman Area by LEGEND Source of Irrigation 2019 Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD 9 In Mithan Kot Barrage Islam Canal H e 31% O F SKutl U T C Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR F L U G Guddu Well International . . .47% Boundary; ............ Panjnad # P Mithan Kot na Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P Tube Well Abbasia hi Canal Barrage ad Ca Kach Canal Bolan 2% Boundary; 72°E Pa OthersWorking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sukkur Desert Canal N of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20% Line .... Guddu Begari Canal N River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . # W E I hri Ro Hub Hingol Hing ol Mirani A R A B I A N 50 Nara Cana ³ ³ ³ ³ h Ch ³ ³ ³ Ind us tle M ht 64°E 0 ³ & J ³ ³ ³ A ³ ³ ³ s du In Su s du # S I N D H # Astola Island 50 5 Qadira-Balloki 6 Rasul-Qadirabad 7 Trimmu-Sidhnai 1 2 Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . # 24° 0 us Rice Can al Ind A A HW N K at Sw ³ TU H ³ K A ³ ³³ R ³ ³ ³ ob Zh Bolan 68° l na Das 10 Trimmu # # Islam Sidhnai7 N 23° Worki lum Balloki6 Jhe l Qadirabad i 8 Sidhnai-Mailsi-Bahawal P Gomal U N J A B Chesettlement nab dispute. 9 Kashmir Mailsi-Bahawal 5 of Jammu & 69° 70° 71° # 10 Chashma-Jhelum Sulaimanke Sidhnai Sabakzai Rice Can al IRAN Mirani J & N I R A T v Ra ³ H C N A 2 Bambanwala-Ravi-Bedian-Dipalpur 3 Balloki-Sulaimanke I Jhelum Canal Marala Rasul ng Boun 4 Balloki-Sulaimanke II Actual boundary in dathe Khanki ry area where remark FRONTIER # UNDEFINED would ultimately be decided by JUNAGADH &appears, MANAVADAR the sovereign authorities concerned after the final Khushdil Khan S I H B 26°N nal Sidhnai Ca na l A D N I A G Taunsa A l Nara Cana O SIR CREEK A L # Lo we r Jhelu pp wa ha Ba ³ F ³ Ind us # S # Jinnah I A AR S # # F A 64°E I ab Baran en Chashma Gomal Trimmu Zam Zam Tank Zam (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) Kashmir and is yet to be decided through Rawal # its accession GOVERNMENT OF a# plebiscite thePAKISTAN relevant Link canalsUnited Nations Security # under RESERVED COPYRIGHTS 1 Marala-Ravi Council Resolutions. Upper Mangla Khanpur Tanda # # #A T Khanki AD AV G Kurram Tangi Kurramgarhi SabakzaiN W MUZAFFARABAD ork ing Marala The red dotted line represents approximately the line of SRINAGAR Bo un Tarbela 76°E River . e.l u . . . . . . .control . . .#. . . .in . . Jammu . . . d.ar.y . INDIAN . .&. .Kashmir. . . . . . . OCCUPIED . . .The . . .JAMMU .State . & KASHMIR ILLEGALLY of Jammu & WarsakJ Qadirabad m D JUNAGADH N A A B I G A A D H N 70° E. of GREENWICH. 69° ED 1 Marala-Ravi 2 Bambanwala-Ravi-Bedian-Dipalpur 3 Balloki-Sulaimanke I Khushdil Khan 4 Balloki-Sulaimanke II P P 5 Qadira-Balloki 6 Rasul-Qadirabad 7 Trimmu-Sidhnai 8 Sidhnai-Mailsi-Bahawal 9 Mailsi-Bahawal 10 Chasma-Jhelum 30°N 11 Taunsa-Panjnad R FIN A H Link canals Gomal Zam G o m al Gomal Rasul A DE E (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED * K H Y BTank Zam 68°E Diamir Upper Swat Canal Canal J U UN ¯ N W 34°N Amandarra Line of Mangla Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Line . . . of . . Con . . .trol ...... #Lower Swat Jinnah Kab Chashma ul E N 21° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek JAMMU & KASHMIR ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED 68° INDIAN Bhasha E. of GREENWICH. Khanpur BANTVA R I Baran NA Boundary; Working . . . . . .IN. .LINE . . . .WITH . . . . RELEVANT . . . . . . . . .UNSC . . . . .RESOLUTIONS) Rawal Tanda Kurramgari S Tarbela O F I 24° In nal T tubewell Ca N hill torrent flood irrigation Line of Control Pinyari GILGIT # Canal Boundary; Province .............................. P # Kurram Tangi K s. . . . . . Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C . d u.H I Warsak A dam (proposed and under construction) International Boundary Province Boundary District Boundary Working Boundary Line of Control Coastline River Data not Available ul G U L F 22° 24° Fu le 71° K U T C H Karakoram Pass Kotri Darwat li small dam S EK ab A N 34°N karez Amandarra ARABIAN dam diversion canal 68° 70° 23° Diamir Bhasha Hab Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR barrage, weir or headwork Legend Thal C a & A UJ ar ag I Mu zaffa rga rh M ul ta n Mud Irrigation, 2006 canal IN AN Sir Creek tch Mud 68°E of Greenwich GWoI L G I GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED M Ku Hingol S A T - LEGEND rkin SIR CREEK B Jamrao gB A LCanalT oun dary ISTA ISLAMABAD Capital of Country N Gaj Nai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 72°E Mirani Mud of Rann l en ab C K S UN Ch PA YB H n Ba rk ha al ln ob Zh N A j ha ng la Torgh ar KHT N A ow er ER T S Umerkot Thar Indu s 21°N S E A 71°E River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JUNAGADH & MANAVA 69° FRONTIE l A GADH 70°E Badin Mud Abbasia Canal njn 69°E of Greenwich Sujawal Data Source: Development Statistics 2019 of all Provinces J UN 21°N DAR Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D Thatta MANAVA CH 76°E Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED Sukkur IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) 72°E 22°N Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N E Tando Allayar Karachi INDIA A R A B I A N Tando M. Khan Hyderabad TAJIKISTAN H LEGEND Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR F I A TC N W INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR l na Ca E 72°E 23°N 22°N 68°E of Greenwich 26°N 71°E Panjnad Mithan a trol Kot Abbasia hi Canal onBarrage an Hill Flood Irrigation CTorrent Kach ad fC Canal a Line o PTube Well MUZAFFARABAD Desert Canal Guddu Begari Canal SRINAGAR hri Ro S 24°N International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek Sanghar 70°E G U LF O F K U SI R C R E E K s N 23°N Kha A 69°E 24°N Karez K 72°E Khairpur S I N D H Jamshoro Constitution Act, 1974. Bolan 68°E Islam Naushero Firoz Sulaimanke ur I La rkan a Sidhnai Ca na l IRAN 9 Lasbela 30°N *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the Constitution Act, 1974. lC wa River ha 8 Ba 9 Canal Islam le *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined Diversion Canal Sut in the AJK Interim Rahim Yar Khan Ghotki Sakkar Mirp B Shikarpur l na l Ca Shaheed Benazirabad Churna Island 64°E A Panjnad wa ha Ba ffa le Vihari Lodhran appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kash 3 D E Sut s Sohbatpur Kashmor P d P raba Jacobabad Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER U anJ A B 4 Bahawalpur Indu d ba ira Nas Ja Dadu N bC Doa The red dotted line represents approximately the line Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and i is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the rele Nations Security Council Resolutions. U N Hingol Rajanpur Dera Bugti Kambar Shahdad Kot K h u z d a r A w a r a n K e c h T S I 8 H C Balloki orki I E R L O B A Jhal Magsi U Layyah Kohlu Kachhi Sakandarabad R Duki Sibi Bhakkar P Upper Jhelum F R O N T Mastung Kalat W a s h u k Dera Ghazi Khan Loralai Harnai Nushki Kharan A i Bar Lower M Ziarat 64°E C h a g a i kh usa Pishin 30°N 11 ra De el Qilla Saifullah Quetta al an Lo we r Jhelu I N A G F Qill A 0 Zhob h lla du b aA 4 Balloki-Sulaimanke II 5 Qadira-Balloki 6 Rasul-Qadirabad 7ng Trimmu-Sidhnai Bo 76°E 8 unSidhnai-Mailsi-Bahawal da ry 9 Mailsi-Bahawal al rowChasma-Jhelum 10 Na 11 Taunsa-Panjnad W Gujrat Mandidin Sialkot Khushab Bahud b Gujranw na ala Sargodha Che ad fizab Ha Shiekhupura Chiniot Nankana Lahore Sahib i ad Rav Jhang ab Kasur isal Fa Toba Tek Okara Singh al Sahiw tan Khanewal kpat j Pa tle Su Mangla ow er henab C anal an a mC Ind us H 7 Sidhnai 100 miles n IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC mbe r Jhelum elum Jh ha al il K a m Is Chakwal Rawal Canal Marala Baran The red dotted line represents approximately the line ofRasul control in Workin Jinnah Rain Fed g Boun Chashma 6 dary Khanki lum accession (1.5%)of Jammu & Kashmir andJheits Jammu & Kashmir. The Nstate 1 l A Flood Gomal Zam Zam Tank Zam Qadirabad 2 T through is yet toIrrigated be decided a plebiscite under the 10 relevant United (18.5%) S (80%) I Council Resolutions. Gomal b a Nations Security Chen 5 N Irrigation A L H Barrage, Weir, or Headwork Trimmu G Balloki ActualF boundary in the area where Sabakzai remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED Dam vi 7 a Total Cultivated AreaKhan n Khushdil R Ca 3 4 Sidhnai A ab Small appears, would ultimately be decided byDam the sovereign authorities i Do Bar Taunsa GILGIT Lower 11 Sulaimanke or & Under Construction) concerned after the final settlement ofDam the(Proposed Jammu Kashmir dispute. l ana D 200 km vi Ra Tank Gom * MirpurBhi s du In Mianwali Lakki Marwat INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHM (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECID IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) Khanpur Tanda Kurramgarhi NE 100 Karakoram Pass N Ghanche EFI 0 STA Shigar Link canals Kotli Rawalpindi Karak K az W LTI Skardu Astore Tarbela Warsak Kurram Tangi UND th Sou 68°E Attock Kohat Hangu Bannu an irist 5K ar aw L an irist Waz th Scale 1: 12 ,500,000 H Diamer Kohistan A W Kohistan Lower Line of Con trol MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR Upper Swat Canal Lower Swat Canal Kab ul A Kharmang Kolai Pallas Neelum Lo wer Batgram l Dir Line of Contro Indu hra Bajur se s Malakand an Mohm M Buner Kab and ul Muzaffarabad Mardan 34°N Hattian Bala Charsadda 1 Marala-Ravi Abbottabad Swabi Bagh Haripur OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR INDIAN2ILLEGALLY Haveli Nowshera Bambanwala-Ravi-Bedian-Dipalpur Poonch - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED TERRITORY (DISPUTED 3 Balloki-Sulaimanke I Islamabad Sudhnoti RESOLUTIONS) Khyber m Orakzai Kurra ni Ra in e e Ca nal IN tubewell R 34°N Nor Dir T-BA Gilgit Swat er Upp GILGI sh Trimmu 10 or less Ghizer Chitral Lower iari Mat Rice Can al Chitra Chena 11–30 Hub i Ca Barrages help to control the flow Kotri Hab in a river. A barrage is a of water Darwat Fu le type of dam with many gates that can be opened and closed. It helps to prevent floods and it can direct Pinyari Canal canals. A dam or river water into barrage can also direct water to a hydroelectric power station. 76°E C hill torrent H flood irrigation Nagar Pe 51–70 Astola Island Gaj Nai Amandarra karez Hunza per at Sw 71–90 Dasht Jamrao Canal 72°E FRO N TI E Above 90 G w a d a r Controlling the flow of water diversion canal TAJIKISTAN l Up 31–50 26°N We can build water tanks to hold Mithan Kot na water. We can also dams Canal hibuild Barrage ad Ca Kach Bolan across rivers to make reservoirs. Pa Desert Canal solid wall A dam is a very thick, Begari Canal can Guddu across a river. People use the reservoir for boating and fishing. The water can also beSukkur used for fisheries. Dams can control the flow of water and so help to prevent floods. 1 2 canal Qadirabad Rivers, barrages,b and dams in Pakistan Irrigated Area, 2019 As a Percent of Cultivated Area (%) P a n j g u r hr Ro Hingol Storing water Diamir Bhasha small dam l Shera I Gomal These N problems can be solved by: • A Storing water from the times H when there is plenty of water. G Sabakzai • Controlling the flow of water F Khushdil Khan A from rivers. • Not wasting water or letting itTaunsa become polluted. 10 CH I NA GILGIT ary Khanki dam (proposed and under construction) lu Jhe Tank Zam nal Gomal Zam Zam Thal C a S T barrage, weir or headwork dam N A Rasul Jinnah henab C anal Baran er C Kurram Tangi 21° S 71° U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt Water supply Does your water at home come from taps? This is more likely if you live in a city where water is supplied through pipes. In rural areas, the main supply of water is from hand pumps and tube wells. Many people also have to carry water in buckets from ponds, lakes, and ditches to their homes. Building Skills ollect and present data in a C Powerpoint presentation digitally on how water pollution has affected people and environment in your neighbourhood. In cities with a large population, there is not enough water to be supplied all the time. Therefore the water supply is turned off in some areas so that it can be supplied to others. People store water in tanks so that they can still have water even when the supply is turned off. In many Middle Eastern countries where fresh water is scarce, water is supplied to homes and industries through desalination plants. Desalination is a process in which salts are separated from sea water to make it drinkable. There are also nature-based systems for treating sewage, such as specially designed wetlands and reed beds. A canal bridge over water in rural area is supplying water from the river to farmlands far away from it. Recycled water To improve the quality of water, wastewater is carried through sewage pipes to sewage treatment plants where it is recycled to obtain clean water. It is then carried back into the rivers. But most sewage in Pakistan is not treated and many of the drains that take sewage away are open. If open drains get blocked, they overflow. This leads to the spread of germs and disease. In the Orangi district of Karachi, the open drains became blocked with plastic bags and other rubbish. The local people got fed up with having pools of sewage near their homes. A non-governmental organisation, named the Orangi Pilot Project, helped the people to lay an underground sewer and drains to their homes. The main way of treating sewage is to take it through drains and sewers to large tanks. Light material floats in the tanks, while heavier material sinks to the bottom. A rotating arm skims material off the top. Solid material is separated from liquid. The liquid goes through filter materials such as pumice, gravel, or sand. Other treatments, such as adding chemicals, help to make the waste harmless. It can then flow back into the rivers or the sea. Bacteria are added to solid materials called sludge which break them down. Chemical treatments help to make these harmless. Sewage treatment works at Karachi 21 U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt A village water supply—from drains! Have you heard of a village in Sindh called Majeed Keerio? It is on the outskirts of Nawabshah in the centre of Sindh province. Most of its people are farmers or livestock herders. Their crops and animals suffered as the water supply became less and less. The nearby forests began to die. This raised the local temperatures. Conditions became worse and worse. Building Skills The open drains in the village became blocked with rubbish, and waste collected in pools and ran into people’s homes. Using the Internet, find out about the impact of scarcity of water on people’s lifestyle, economy, weather, and the environment. With the support of UN-Habitat and WWF-Pakistan, an NGO built Pakistan’s first biological wastewater treatment plant at Majeed Keerio. The drains take wastewater to a special wetland that treats it in a natural way. The wetland is shaped like a shallow basin. The basin is filled with a filter material such as sand or gravel. Then it is planted with plants that grow well in very wet conditions and polluted water. The wastewater flows into the basin from a pipe. Microbes in the water break down the sewage. The liquid then filters through material such as gravel and sand in the wetland. The water that flows out can be used for most purposes except drinking and cooking. Now the farmers can water their crops and grow food for their animals. The treated wastewater also irrigates the local forests, so the environment has become healthier, too. emergent wetland plants It’s a fact! • Microbes are tiny living things, such as bacteria. • Biogas is like natural gas. It is made up of methane, carbon dioxide, and other gases. • Biogas can be burned in boilers and stoves. • Biogas can be burned to produce electricity and heat. • After treatment, biogas can be used as vehicle fuel. water level inlet structure collection chamber pretreated waste water final disposal (reuse) waterproof basin distribution zone (coarse gravel) Water Pollution wetland surface filter material (finel gravel) collection zone (coarse gravel) outlet structure How a wetland treats sewage All over the world rivers are filled with harmful substances. There are forms of this pollution, such as rubbish that people throw away: shoes, clothing, paper, plastic, shopping trolleys and even bikes and cars. As well as blocking waterways and injuring wildlife and people, some of these contain harmful materials. Plastic is very harmful to wildlife; animals become trapped in plastic bags or other containers or tangled in fishing lines, netting or cord. Many starve because their stomachs fill up with tiny pieces of plastic or because birds and mammals mistake these for food, and feed them to their young. 22 U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt When plastic reaches the sea, sunlight, wind, and waves break it down into small particles called microplastics. These have been found all over the world, even in the Mariana Trench – the deepest part of the Pacific Ocean. Other pollutants that we might see include chemicals from factories, which colour the water, and oil, which floats on it. You may have noticed blue or green algae on water. Algae grow in water that contains a lot of nitrogen, which can come from fertilisers and other waste materials. Plastic dumped in the environment tends to bind with environ- mental pollutants. Many animals mistake it for food. There are also pollutants that we can’t see. These include pesticides, weedkillers and fertilisers, drugs such as antibiotics from medicines, and radioactive waste that has escaped from nuclear power stations. These pollutants also soak into water table – underground water deep in the Earth that collects when rainwater seeps into cracks and Building Skills into an aquifer (an underground store of water). Water table is very important; 99% of all liquid freshwater on the Earth is water table. It is usually pure and needs very little treatment before it can be used. It makes up about half of the volume of water used in homes around the world. Most people who live in rural areas depend on water table for their drinking water. They use wells or pumps to get their water supply. Water table also makes up around 25% of all water used for irrigation. Design digital inforgraphs to explain causes of low underground water in three countries: Pakistan, Qatar and Greece. Sustainable water management Sustainable water management will meet the current environmental, social, and economic needs of people and other living beings dependent on it without compromising the ability to meet those needs in the future. Energy from biogas Biogas can help to solve two problems at once. More than four thousand small biogas plants have been set up in rural areas of Pakistan. They need warmth to work well, so places with a warm climate are ideal. Human and animal waste goes into the tank. Microbes digest the materials. This produces gas. The waste material left over is safe to use as a fertiliser. Building Skills Using the Internet, do class presentations on water conservation and its value for sustainable development. Cleaning the rivers Local authorities in many places around the world are working hard to help people to make changes so that they stop polluting rivers: for example, helping farmers and enforcing strict measures so factory owners to improve their drainage and dispose of waste materials and prevent runoff. 23 U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt In some places there are floating barriers that trap rubbish such as plastic bottles and cans in areas of the river where it can be taken out before it reaches the sea and breaks into tiny particles. There have been trials for swarms of tiny self-propelling robots called microbots that can remove poisonous materials such as lead, arsenic and mercury from river water. And microbes have been used for removing some pollutants by digesting them. Sewage Treatment Sewage contains water from drains, rainwater running off buildings and roads, and even liquid waste from factories and farms. Sewage contains materials that can harm vegetation, animals, people and their habitats. These include: • Organic material such as human and animal waste Harmful bacteria Harmful chemicals Fertilisers or pesticides. • • • Sewage treatment in Karachi The drains it runs into take it to sewage treatment centres, but in some places the drains empty into rivers, streams and seas, and pollute them. It can also seep into the ground and be washed into streams when it rains; eventually it can get into water table. Building Skills There are different types of septic tanks. Some have separate Make a 3D model for a smallscale water treatment project chambers. the sewage enters the first chamber, where solids settle to raise awareness among your and scum floats. Microbes are used to digest the settled solids; school community. this reduces their volume. The liquid flows into the second chamber, where any remaining solids settle. In some systems the liquid then drains into the drain field which is specially prepared to absorb it. But in many it just soaks into the ground. By this time the water is fairly clear. If the septic tank starts to fill up with sludge, this is removed and taken away in tankers. After that it can be dried out and used as fertiliser after treatment as in the main sewage treatment plants. 2. Grit removes smaller pieces of material. 3. Tiny particles separate from water and settle at the bottom of sedimentation tanks. 4. In the aeration tank oxygen is pumped into the water. Bacteria break down the remaining waste. 5. The sewage sludge is separated from the water. 6. E ffluent is water that is now safe to release into waterways. 7. T he sewage sludge is dried out. It can berecycled and used as fertiliser. 1. Screens remove large objects. 24 U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt Our water supply: Assessment A Choose the correct answer: I. _________ has more under glaciers than any other country in the world. a. Canadab. USAc. Pakistan II. The hydrologic cycle describes how all water in the _________ continuously moves between oceans, lakes, rivers, land, and the atmosphere. a. Hydrosphereb. Stratosphere c. Lithosphere III. _________% of the world’s water is fresh water, and two-thirds of that is stored in glaciers. a. 3b. 5c. 7.5 IV. The Khanpur Dam on the _________ River provides water for homes and industries in Rawalpindi and Islamabad. a. Hubb. Sutlejc. Haro V. _________ valley are formed when fast flowing water cuts through mountains rocks. a. V-shapedb. U-shapedc. Rift VI.Climate change has disturbed patterns of valley and increased the rate if heat waves in Pakistan. a. Mistb. Monsoonc. Fog VII.The _________ helps the water supply companies to manage water more carefully in Pakistan. a. KESCb. WTOc. WAPDA VIII. _________ are used to digest settled material in a septic tank. a. Biofuelb. Microbesc. Fertilisers B1. a)Which layer of the Earth’s atmosphere contains most of the planet’s water? b)Discuss with a partner how water moves around the Earth. 2. Match the words to the definitions: Words a) Runoff Definitions The highest level of ground that is saturated with water b) Percolation Water vapour changing to liquid c) Water table Water soaking through the ground d) Transpiration Water changing from liquid to vapour e) Evaporation Water in any state that falls from the air f) Condensation An underground flow of water g) Precipitation h) Freezing i) Sewage j) Sludge k) Microbes l) Biogas Water given off by plants Liquid water changing into solid A natural gas made when microbes digest waste material Human waste from toilets and drains Tiny living things such as bacteria Solid waste from sewage C1.List some things people can do to help to keep their water supply clean. 2.List three ways in which dams and barrages are useful. a) ____________________________________ b) ____________________________________ c) ____________________________________ 3. What problems can open drains cause? 4. a)Name three systems for treating sewage before it flows out into waterways. b)Which of these systems do you think are the most useful, and why? 5 a)What kind of sewage treatment turns sewage into a useful gas? b)What kind of sewage treatment produces water that is safe for irrigation? c)What are the advantages of biogas plants? D. Draw a table like the ones in Sections A and B. Include rows and columns where you can list the different pollutants that harm rivers, where they come from and the harm that they do. E1.a. What are agricultural uses of water? b.What are industrial uses of water? c.Suggest ways to store water in a water scarce country like Pakistan. 2. Find out 2 ways to treat polluted water for drinking and industrial purposes. F1. Copy the passage and write the missing words. a)The water supply in Pakistan comes mainly from the River __________. There is plenty of water in the __________ season but very little in the _________ season. Three solutions to this problem are: _________, _________, and 25 U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt _________. b)Most of our water pollution comes from __________. This spreads disease through __________ water and through __________ and other crops irrigated with __________ water. It pollutes rivers and kills plants and animals, including __________. c)Plastic is very harmful to __________; animals become trapped in plastic bags, other containers or tangled in fishing lines, __________ or cord. Many __________ because their stomachs fill up with tiny pieces of plastic or because birds and mammals mistake these for food, and feed them to their __________. When plastic reaches the sea, sunlight, wind, and waves break it down into small particles called ___________________. Overview Our water supply Water cycle • Water occurs in three states: solid, liquid, and vapour. It keeps changing its form and the same water goes round and round in the Earth’s atmosphere. This is called the water cycle. Scarcity of Water • 3% of the world’s water is fresh water • Two-thirds of water on Earth is tucked away in frozen glaciers • Two-third of the world’s population faces water scarcity for at least a month every year Water pollution • Sewage • Chemicals from mining, farming, and factories • Rubbish from industry • Animal and human waste Managing wastewater • Wastewater can be treated in sewage treatment plants. • Biogas can be produced from human and animal waste. • Wetlands can be used to treat wastewater as in the Majeed Keerio village where Pakistan’s first biological waste treatment plant has been built. 26 Precipitation • Rain • Drizzle • Snow • Sleet • Hail • Fog • Mist Water supplies • Glacier melt • Snow melt • Rivers • Rainfall • Aquifers Preventing floods • Embankments along the banks of the rivers can protect the land and buildings from floods. • Excess water can be stored in tanks and reservoirs. • Dams can control the flow of water and produce hydroelectricity. • Barrages can direct the flow of river water into canals or hydroelectric power stations. UNIT 3 Settlements and Land Use Knowledge • Classify different types of settlements. • Identify the functions of a settlement. • Describe how towns are different from cities • Explain the conditions that are suitable for a settlement. • Compare two major types of settlements. • Identify the major types of settlements in Pakistan. • Identify the advantages and disadvantages that people of rural settlements face. • Identify the advantages and disadvantages that people of urban settlements face. • Describe the difference between conurbations and megapolis. Skills • Use maps, GIS or Google Maps to identify different types of settlements of the world. • • • • • • Gather, organise, and interpret data to investigate the different patterns of settlements and their impact on the lifestyle of people living in them. Investigate how the pattern of the settlement determines the lifestyle of the people living in it. Inquire how commercial land use is different from residential land use. Reflect on why few cities in Pakistan are growing bigger every year. Predict that there will be no land left on Earth if settlements will keep growing at the current pace. Enhanced use of vocabulary to describe physical, human, and environmental geography and economy related to them. What is a settlement? A settlement means any place where people live, from an isolated dwelling to a huge urban area. A dwelling might be a permanent place to live or a temporary home, such as a tent, hut, caravan, or any type of shelter. Geographers classify settlements according to their size. They call this the ‘settlement hierarchy’ (say ‘hi-rarky’). The settlement hierarchy can be used for classifying settlements all over the world, although a settlement called a ‘town’ in one country might be called a ‘village’ in other countries; or a ‘large town’ in some countries might be a ‘city’ in others. The pyramid diagram shows that the smaller the type of settlement is, the more there are; the larger the type of settlement is, the fewer there are; for example, there are more villages than towns, more cities than conurbations, and so on. megalopolis Increase in size of settlement, higher population and more services conurbation metropolis city More people, fewer settlements large town small town village hamlet isolated dwellling The settlement hierarchy 27 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Settlement type megalopolis conurbation Description a settlement where conurbations have joined up to form a huge urban area a group of large cities and their suburbs that have joined up or have strong links connecting them a city and its surrounding towns that have begun to join up a city that has a large population and many services, such as several hospitals, banks, large businesses, large shopping centres, high schools, colleges/universities, sports centres, theatres, and cinemas, as well as factories and other industries Approximate population 10 million + 3–10 million city has many of the services a large city has but not in such large numbers 100,000–300,000 large town town has some of the services a city has; a greater variety of shops than smaller towns some of the services a large town has; usually at least one supermarket and a greater variety of shops than a village has; at least one secondary school, a few primary schools, police station, medical centre, and a market a few services: perhaps a shop and a workshop hardly any services—perhaps none usually in a rural area, for example, a farmhouse 20,000–100,000 1000–20,000 metropolis large city village hamlet isolated dwelling Services The larger a settlement is, the more services it provides. Small settlements provide low-order services such as a small shop and dispensary. Large towns, cities, and conurbations provide high-order services such as leisure centres, chain stores, and hospitals, as well as the low-order services. Services such as department stores need more people to support them than small shops, so they are only found in larger settlements. The range of a product or service is the maximum distance people are prepared to travel for it. For example, the range of a washing machine is much larger than the range of a newspaper; so there are more small shops selling newspapers than there are large shops selling washing machines. The influence of a settlement 1–3 million 300,000–1 million 100–1000 <100 1 family How can I decide whether a settlement is a village or a town, a town or a city, a city or a conurbation? Think about the size of its population, the services it has, and whether it is made up of other settlements that have joined up. A larger settlement influences more people over a larger area than a smaller one. This means that it has business and trade connections over a larger area than a small one as more people visit large settlements and more people trade there. Hyderabad is the second-largest city in Sindh. People from the surrounding villages and small towns use its shops, banks, hospitals, and other services who cannot afford to go to a bigger city. Tourists visit because of its historic surroundings, but mainly it influences people within 80 km. 28 Karachi is the financial and industrial capital of Pakistan. It is home to Pakistan’s Central Bank and the State Bank of Pakistan. Nearly all banks that operate in Pakistan have their corporate headquarters in the city. It influences people all over the world. U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Megalopolis (or megacity) What a word! Split it up to say it: ‘meg-a-lop-o-lis’. A megalopolis is where the urban areas are close but not completely joined up. There are few true megalopolises in the world. Here are some examples: • • • The Karachi metropolitan area, with a population of 16.094 million, is large enough to be called a megalopolis, but the settlements have joined up to make one large urban area, and they are not conurbations. Gauteng City Region in South Africa, includes the cities of Pretoria and Johannesburg, with several other cities, and has a population of 15.2 million. Manila, the capital city of the Philippines, also known as the ‘Mega Manila’ includes conurbations across more than half of Luzon Island (almost 14 million people). A photo of the ‘Mega Manila’, Philippines, taken from the International Space Station Building Skills ake a 3D model or a diorama of a rural and urban area in Pakistan and in UK. Explain key differences between M rural and urban areas. Conurbation In a conurbation, nearby settlements have developed because their populations have grown and the settlements have expanded to cover more land. They have joined up to form a continuous urban and industrially developed area. In Pakistan, an example of a conurbation is the ‘twin cities’ of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, with a population of almost 3.5 million. The centres of these two cities are only 14 km apart and after Islamabad was built in 1960, Rawalpindi joined up with it, so that it is hard to tell where Islamabad ends and Rawalpindi begins. Main roads and railways link the two cities. Conurbations in other countries include: It’s a fact! • The situation of a settlement is its location in relation to other settlements and the physical features around it. • A settlement’s situation is a very important factor in how it develops; for example, whether it grows into a town, city, conurbation, and so on. • Frankfurt Rhine-Main in Germany, with a population of almost 5.8 million, combining the city of Frankfurt with Offenbach and surrounding towns. • Greater Boston in the USA, whose population of around 4.8 million includes the cities of Boston and Providence. Each of these conurbations has large areas of fairly flat land and good road and rail links between the settlements that have combined. 29 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Metropolis A metropolis or a metropolitan area is a large important city. It is economically and socially closely connected with its surrounding area through commuting. Here are some examples: Building Skills • Faisalabad in Pakistan, was built at the end of the 19th century as a planned city for about 20,000 people. Its population is now around Illustrate differences between 3.462 million. conurbations and megapolis by using an organogram. • Greater Manchester in the United Kingdom, with a population of more than 2.78 million. • Rabat-Salé in Morocco with a population of almost 1.9 million. All large settlements need suitable land and good transport routes in order to develop, so megalopolises, conurbations, and metropolises usually develop on plains. Barriers such as mountains inhibit the expansion and joining up of cities. Settlements in Pakistan Let’s compare the sizes and services of some cities and towns in Pakistan. Quetta: a city A population of nearly 2.3 million in the 2017 census makes Quetta, the capital of Balochistan, a large city. It is located near the Pakistan-Afghanistan border, and is a centre for trade and communication between the two countries. Quetta has all the services of a large city: several universities, colleges, secondary schools, hospitals, sports centres, stadiums, and shopping centres. The city has numerous hotels, including some four star hotels. It has road, rail, and air links to many major cities of Pakistan and international destinations. The city has spread across two main valleys and some narrow river valleys—and even some of the slopes of the surrounding mountains and has joined up with nearby towns and villages. It has become a metropolis according to settlement hierarchy. Quetta is Pakistan’s only high-altitude major city, with an average altitude of 1680 m. An aerial photo of Quetta 30 An market place in Quetta U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Kotri: a large town Kotri, in Sindh, is near Jhirk, which was Sindh’s busiest river port in the 19th century, when the Indus River was an important route for steamships to and from Karachi. Nowadays, the railway is the main route for goods, but river steamers to Sukkur and Multan go from Kotri. Kotri is called a city, but with a population of 437,561, it would be classed as a large town in the settlements hierarchy. Kotri has more services than most large Kotri railway bridge on River Indus towns, with part of Mehran University, several high schools, and three hospitals. It has a railway station with links to major cities such as Karachi and Hyderabad. Kotri is close to the N5 and N55 motorways and the M9 Hyderabad bypass. Rasool Pur: a village Rasool Pur lies to the west of Hafizabad, in Punjab. It is called a village, but its population of 5548 people and the range of its services make it a small town in the settlements hierarchy. The main road to Rasool Pur has a tarmac surface but the smaller roads and tracks are made from bare Earth. The town has primary schools, high schools, various food shops, and services such as car/motorbike repairs. In Rasool Pur everyone is literate—all adults have completed matriculation. This is because when they settled in this area in the late 19th century, one of their ancestors was very well educated and he persuaded the others of the value of education. By 1935, they had built a boys’ school and a girls’ school. They had no land for farming but their education helped many of them enter professions such as medicine, engineering, and banking. Advantages of living in rural areas The centre of Rasool Pur Disadvantages of living in rural areas Fewer vehicles and industrial pollution lend to less noise, light, air, and other forms of pollution. They do not have a wide network of metalled and all-weather roads connecting far away areas. Scenic beauty that also attracts tourists and supports cottage scale industry in the region. There are few opportunities for higher and better standard of education and widespread healthcare. It is easier to maintain law and order in small communities. Some areas do not have access to basic infrastructure such as electricity, tap water supply, sewage, and public transport. There is less competition for jobs. Less variety of goods and services in the market. Small towns or villages provide opportunities for affordable and a subsistence lifestyle. Some rural areas offer poor Internet and phone reception that hinders communications for trade. 31 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Siddique Roonjho: a hamlet Siddique Roonjho is a hamlet on a piece of land almost surrounded by water on the bank of the River Indus in Sindh, with a population of 140. It has no services. The land is not suitable for farming because of salt water in that part of the river. So—why did people settle there? The people of Siddique Roonjho migrated from Sokhi Bander near the Indus Delta many years ago because there was no longer any freshwater there. They now face the same problem once again, but the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Pakistan has helped by building a reservoir to store rainwater and fresh river water from the monsoon season. The reservoir has bio-sand filters that help to purify the water. Village women and young children outside a house in Siddique Roonjho. They are wearing hand embroidered dresses. There are two fishing boats in the village and the people make a living mainly from fishing and the food they grow. They have built their own houses and a mosque from wood. The village has no electricity and no one has a car. The nearest doctors and dentists are in the outskirts of Karachi—a journey that takes more than seven hours by public transport. To reach Gharo, the nearest town with shops, takes more than an hour, by boat and then on foot. Villagers have to make this journey to buy anything they Siddique Roonjho village men with cannot produce for themselves, or to buy bottled one of the village’s two fishing boats water if the reservoir runs dry before the monsoon. The women rarely leave the village. They make their own clothes, including beautifully embroidered dresses. The village has no school or teacher and the nearest school is far away, so the children do not go to school and hardly anyone can read or write even their names. What makes a place suitable for settlement? People started to build settlements where they could farm, rather than just hunting or gathering food. They chose places that had suitable land for raising livestock or growing crops. They needed water, shelter from severe weather, and wood for fuel and building. Can you think of anything else a settlement might need? Well, other people might like the look of the settlement and its valuable items such as livestock—or, a place that was easy to defend. A hilltop was ideal because the settlers could see anyone approaching and prepare to defend their settlement. An island was preferred for the same reason, and because it was difficult for others to reach. Settlements in valleys, such as the Indus Valley, were more sheltered than on hilltops, and if they were surrounded by mountains, it would be difficult for attackers to reach these settlements. 32 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e The main factors that influenced where an early settlement developed were: • Wet point: a supply of water in a dry region. • Dry point: little risk of flooding on low or marshy land. • Defence: high ground, island, or difficult land around them (e.g. mountains or marshes). • Aspect on the sides of valleys: that face the Sun (south in the northern hemisphere and north in the southern hemisphere) • Shelter: shelter from rain and prevailing winds. • Trading point: where natural trading routes meet, such as along rivers or natural pathways • Access to resources: close to where natural resources could be found. When people began to trade, they needed good routes to reach their markets. Their regular paths and tracks became trade routes, and settlements developed along them, where they joined other routes, and where bridges were built across rivers. These settlements became resting places for travellers, trading posts, and market towns. When people began trading overseas, ports began to develop in natural harbours such as bays or the mouths of rivers. Many modern settlements are on the sites of these ancient hamlets and villages. Later settlements needed other features: • Raw materials for industry (e.g. Coal, metal ores, precious metals and minerals, or oil). • A nearby port for transporting materials or manufactured goods. • Fast and convenient land transport, e.g. Railways, roads (and later, motorways), and air transport. • An attractive setting or landscape Size and variety of products in a market are an important factor for that makes people want to live settlements there. An aerial photo of Karachi, a coastal metropolis in Pakistan 33 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e The functions of settlements The function of a settlement means its main economic activity and purpose. Most settlements initially have a single main function, but over time they might take on other functions. Countries focused on improving their economies work on manufacturing goods for exports and find ways to attract investors. This is possible through building and investing in modern infrastructure, educated work force, and adopting technological advancement. An educated workforce, widespread access to markets through land and air routes, and advanced communication and technology can help attract investors and build sustainable economies. Small towns are easy to plan and manage Market town Amboise, in the Loire Valley, France, is a market town with a population of 13,119. It had a busy agricultural market by medieval times (mainly cattle, grapes, and cheese). Agriculture is still the main industry there, but the warm summers, beautiful scenery, and historic castles also make it an important centre for tourism. Port Karachi, with a population of over 16 million, according to the census of 2017, was a fishing village that developed into an important port and industrial centre. Keamari Port has been functioning since the late 19th century. Port Qasim was built as a port in the 1970s in an old channel of the River Indus. This provides a long navigation channel with a safe approach for very large ships. Port Qasim is very close to major shipping routes and has excellent transport connections: a railway in the terminal, it is 15 km from the national highway, and 22 km from Jinnah International Airport. Kemari Port in Karachi. Industrial town Industrial towns develop where useful raw materials, such as minerals, metals, or coal are available. Salt was discovered at Khewra, in Punjab, in ancient times but it was not mined until the 16th century CE. The salt mining business grew in the late 19th century when the roads to the region were improved. The town grew with it. Nowadays Khewra Salt Mine is also a major tourist attraction and the town has a population of more than 34,000. 34 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Khewra, in Punjab Resort Resorts are settlements whose main industry is tourism. Some resorts develop near historical sites, or around another industry such as forestry. Others develop because of their attractive landscape, such as coasts or mountains. Malam Jabba, Pakistan’s only ski resort, is in the Swat Valley, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, with beautiful scenery and snow. The remains of Buddhist monasteries from at least 2000 years ago, and 19th century European colonial buildings can still be seen there. Good transport connections enable the tourists to reach the resort. A road links Malam Jabba to the Islamabad Highway, and it is only 51 km from Saidu Sharif Airport. Malam Jabba ski resort The pattern of settlements Settlements have different shapes, sizes, and functions. Why do settlements develop particular shapes? The shape of a settlement is influenced by its situation and function. The main patterns are: Nucleated or cluster The homes and other buildings are close together around a centre. The centre could be a marketplace, place of worship, where two routes meet, a river crossing, or a harbour. Nucleated Linear Linear or ribbon As homes and other buildings are built, the settlement spreads along a valley, road, railway, coast, or the banks of a river. Dispersed Isolated A diagram showing settlements that have developed into different shapes because of their situations 35 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Planned cities of Karachi Planned cities of New York Dispersed Homes are quite far apart in their own useful situations—perhaps surrounded by farmland or forest. Isolated Single dwellings that are very far apart, sometimes because the land is not suitable for building on. Nucleated settlement Planned settlement house shops cropland river guest house basic health unit terraced cropland karez school union council forest plam graveyard mosque flour mill date road Key Linear settlement Maps showing linear, planned, and nucleated settlements in Pakistan Planned settlements The shape of this type of settlement is planned. It does not develop naturally like other settlements, but it has to fit into the shape of the situation. Many planned settlements have a grid pattern for their roads, so that all the land is used well. Planned settlements have different purposes: for example, a new capital city, such as Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan; Astana, the capital of Kazakhstan, and Brasilia, the capital of Brazil. 36 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e It’s a fact! With a population of 8 billion, the landforms have changed drastically in the last 50 years. Population density places a pressure on the limited resources of Earth, like land, minerals, water, etc. Overcrowding has led to unsustainable deforestation on a large scale for settlements, farming, industry, roads, etc. The remains of Mohenjo-Daro, built around 2500 bce, in Sindh. Others have been planned to provide homes for workers in a large industry, such as Port Sunlight in England, UK (soap and detergent industry); and Barhill, New Zealand (sheep farm). Pakistan has the world’s oldest planned settlements at Harappa, Lothal, and Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley. The streets were planned in a grid layout, like many modern planned cities. Mohenjo-Daro also had a planned water supply and drains, with wells throughout the city, and most of the houses had a bathing area and a drain. The ancient Greeks also planned their cities, as you can see from the plan of the city of Miletus from around 470 BCE. N Brasilia Brasilia was founded in 1960 to replace Rio de Janeiro as the capital city of Brazil. If you turn the book clockwise to look at the aerial photo from the east instead of the south, you will see that it has an interesting shape! Can you tell what the shape is meant to be? Yes—it’s either a bird or an aeroplane! The site chosen for this new capital city had no natural settlement because it was mainly forest, and it had a good underground water supply. Unlike Rio de Janeiro, the site is inland, where the city could not be attacked from the sea. A main road runs along the centre of the ‘bird’ or ‘aeroplane’ shape. This road is the Monumental Axis. The city’s other main roads cross the Monumental Axis at intersections. This road splits the city into the north and south sectors. Each of these sectors is split into numbered sectors. The map of Miletus 37 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Each type of human activity has its own sector of the city, with the government sector in the centre. Other sectors include: the diplomatic sector, the banking sector, the north and south hotel sectors, commercial sectors, and residential sectors. Brasilia even has an artificial lake that covers 48 km2. You can see how big the lake is in the satellite photo. The lake was planned to add surface water to this very dry place, and for recreation. Brasilia was planned mainly as a city for government authorities and staff—a population of about 4.646 million. However, in 2020, there were 4.6 million people in Brasilia and its metropolitan area. Its population grew much more rapidly than expected, mainly because Brazilians from all over the country, as well as immigrants, migrated there for work. Many migrant workers who came to build Brasilia have stayed, but they cannot afford to live in the city itself. Some of them live in small settlements around it—but many live in the wooden houses in the workers’ camp that they built when they arrived. They have built their own community with fruit trees and vegetable plots, and they fish in the lake. A satellite photo of Brasilia, the capital city of Brazil The Monumental Axis—the main road through Brasilia Islamabad Karachi was the first capital city of Pakistan after it gained independence in 1947. Karachi had become a centre of commerce and industry, but it was located in the far south of the country. The site for the new capital was selected nearer the centre of the country, near the army headquarters in Rawalpindi, and close to the Margalla Pass, which has long been a gateway between Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Islamabad, on the Potwar Plateau, has a Faisal Mosque—one of the main landmarks of Islamabad cooler climate than Karachi and is sheltered by the Margalla Hills. Also, away from the coast, it cannot be attacked from the Arabian Sea. Simly Dam was built on the Soan River to provide water. There is also water table from tube wells in the national park area, and diverted springs at Saidpur, Nurpur, and the Shahdra Hills. Like Brasilia, the new capital of Pakistan was built in the 1960s. Its shape is roughly triangular. 38 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Islamabad was planned with eight main zones: administrative, diplomatic, residential, educational, industrial, commercial, rural, and green areas. It attracted migrants from all over Pakistan; some of them came to work on the construction of the new city, and others have continued to migrate to the capital for work. The current population of Islamabad is 1.129 million, mainly aged under 64, and the total migrant population is around 35,000. Building Skills sing the Internet, explain the adverse U effects of excessive urbanisation and how it can be avoided without stopping social development. Settlement for workers Port Sunlight village is near Liverpool, in the north of England, UK. It was built in 1888 by a soap manufacturing company to provide homes for the workers in their factory. The site was flat marshy land between the River Mersey and a railway line and main roads to Liverpool and Manchester, with space for the factory and village to expand. The village had 800 houses, for a population of about 3500. Nowadays, families are much smaller, so fewer than 1500 people live in those houses. In the 19th century many workers lived in poor houses—some in slums in the cities and towns. The company wanted to provide good quality houses that workers could afford to rent. All the houses had gardens, and large houses were mixed in with the smaller houses so that all parts of the village were equal. The village was planned so that the workers had opportunities for education and leisure as well as good healthcare: there was an art gallery, a small hospital, schools, a concert hall, an open-air swimming pool, and a church. Why is overuse of land bad for human and environment? The rise in population has led to the excessive use of land for settlements, agriculture, industry, and communication. It has increased soil erosion, global warming, disturbing water cycles, causing droughts and floods. Workers’ houses in Port Sunlight 39 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Mombasa: a large settlement in Kenya, Africa Mombasa is the second largest city in Kenya, with a population of around 1.3 million. (Nairobi, the capital, is the largest.) It has an average elevation of around 50 metres and its climate is tropical, with very little rain between January and March and an average of around 7–14 mm for the months from April to December. There was a trading settlement on Mombasa Island in ancient times. Different groups of people ruled the island but a very learned Muslim settler named Shehe Mvita was the first to build a town there, in around 900 CE, and the people there are still mainly Muslims. By medieval times it was an important trading centre for spices, gold, and ivory. It traded with places as far away as the Indian subcontinent and China. From about 1600 CE Mombasa was exporting ivory, millet, sesame, and coconuts, and by the 19th century, it was exporting tea and coffee from the plantations. Nowadays the ivory trade is banned. Diani beach, Mombasa Let’s have a look at how Mombasa has grown from a small settlement to a large industrial city that is becoming a metropolis. Mombasa is on a flat island that is linked to the flat mainland by a causeway—a narrow strip of land. The city has spread onto the mainland, now linked to the island by a bridge and a ferry as well as the causeway. Mombasa has a natural harbour at Kilindini Port, a large, natural deep-water inlet of the sea. This large harbour has berths for cruise ships as well as cargo ships. A map of Mombasa and its surroundings Wetlands in Pakistan C Haller Park H IGILGIT N A N GILGIT rol Cont Line of Pass Karakoram Pass Karakoram MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR J & E R ER RIV N T I U N INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR D E (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) F I A US IND F R O Changamwe 1 Astola (Haft Talar Island) W E GI LG I T2 Chashma Sarrage Causeway B Aea K L S 3 Dah Akro-II Desert Wetland Complex gow T I S T A Mombasa N Kon 4 Drigh Lake Moi International Marine Park 5 Haleji Lake Mombasa Niyali Airport Port Reitz 6 Hub (Hab) Dam 7 Indus Delta 8 Indus Dolphin Reserve 9 Jiwani coastal Wetland Kili ndi ni P 10 Jabho Lagoon ort N 11 Kinjhar (Kain) Lake * A T 12 Miani Hor S 13 Nurri Lagoon I Scale 1: 3,000,000 N 14 Ormara Turtle Beaches A 15 Runn of Kutch H G 16 Tanda Dam F A 17 Taunsa Barrage The mainland part of Mombasa includes settlements such as Nyali, with large houses, hypermarkets, 18 Thanedar Wala a multiplex cinema, shopping malls, banks, schools, post offices, and private schools. Not far from 19 Uchhas Complax (including —aJahiar) densely populated area that includes 15 villages. Farther north is Bamburi, with its Nyali is Kongowea Khabbaki. Uchhali and l ing US D Wo rk IND Line of Contro MUZAFFARABAD N E * Bou ndar y RIV ER SRINAGAR INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TRRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) UM EL JH R E IV R R RI VE R VE AB RI P Wo rkin g VE RI VI R Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute. Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED IN DU S R VE EN AB RI appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities EJ TL CH Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession LEGEND is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Nations Security Council Resolutions. RA SU Bo un dary P EN CH The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. R VE RI *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED supermarkets, department stores, salons, and boutiques. Its cafes, beach, and wildlife park attract tourists. JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 69° 70° A LEGEND 71° 72° 23° 23° I Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .G .U .L .F . O. .F IKSULT A C HMABAD SIR CREEK R VE I N D I A 22° 22° N Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24° Boundary; Province . 24° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .BANTVA ...... AD AV I RI AN S Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR M U ND D Some townships to the north-west along on the Nairobi Highway still have mud houses with corrugated iron roofs, and problems with services such as electricity, water, and drains. However, they have health clinics, shops, some public primary schools, and handicraft cooperatives. 68° Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . 21° .................. Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J U AR I P N A International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek P JUNAGADH G A Y BA D H LF OF CAM 21° GU A R A B I A N S River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69°. . . . . . . . . . . 70°. .E..of.GREENWICH. 71° 68° E. of GREENWICH. E A 72° GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED I R A N JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 40 69° 70° 71° 72° 23° SIR CREEK 68° 23° G U L F O F K U T C H I N D I A U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Changamwe is the main industrial area, with power generation projects, an oil refinery, and housing estates. Nearby Port Reitz has a beach, oil refineries, Moi International Airport, a hospital, and housing estates. To the south, Likoni is the terminal for the ferry, taking vehicles and pedestrians from the mainland to Mombasa Island. Not far from Likoni is Diani beach with several hotels. Mombasa’s call centre industry is developing fast because the main intercontinental undersea telecom cables reach the shore there. Wildlife part in Mombasa Container and tanker vessels in port of Mombasa Advantages of living in urban areas Disadvantages of living in urban areas Regular and well-connected transport system in different forms (public and private) facilitate trade and recreational activities. It is densely populated and polluted due to mismanagement and strain on limited resources. There are restaurants, cafes, malls, shops, mobile vendors, e-markets, etc. to buy a variety of goods and avail services. Life in urban areas can be stressful due to competition for jobs and maintaining a good lifestyle. Basic facilities (electricity, water, gas, sewerage, etc.) are provided for a variety of low to high income households. Crime rate and corruption is higher in urban areas. There are plenty of job opportunities for skilled and low waged labour in primary, secondary, and tertiary sector of economy. People living in cities have very little sense of community due to their lifestyle. There are variety of places to avail best healthcare and education at different price rates. Climate change is felt acutely in urban areas such as heat islands, smog, accumulation of waste lending to diseases, and urban flooding. 41 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Naro Moru: a small settlement in Kenya, Africa Naro Moru is a small town on the Naro Moru River in the Rift Valley near Solio Game Reserve and Mount Kenya National Park, with a Location of Naro Moru population of 9000 in the 2020 Kaongo Mount Kenya Burgurer census. 5199 m GILGIT D Pass Karakoram Pass Karakoram und IND Line of Contro l US RIV ER SRINAGAR The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir ILLEGALLY and its accession is yet to be decided through INDIAN OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TRRITORY - FINAL STATUS BE DECIDED a plebiscite under the relevant United NationsTO Security Council Resolutions. IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. * A Another crop is eucalyptus trees. T SLivestock such as cattle and I N chickens—even ostriches—are A H farmed, too. The main industry of G Naro Moru is tourism, especially for walking in the national park and watching the wildlife, and of course, climbing Mount Kenya. It has several hotels and many holiday tour organisers bring groups of tourists. Most of the tourists arrive at Nairobi Airport and then travel by road (mainly in buses or minibuses) to Naro Moru. This takes about 2¼ hours. The town has girls’ and boys’ secondary schools as well as a Roman Catholic secondary school, and primary schools. It also has a home for children with disabilities, and a private mixed primary school. In Naro Moru, the people have worked together on projects to improve their town, including helping to build new classrooms for one of the primary schools. P P UM EL JH R VE un dary LEGEND Scale 1: 3,000,000 Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . red . . . . dotted . . . . . . line . . . .represents .. The approximately the line of control in Line of Control . .Jammu ......& . . Kashmir. . . . . . . . .The . . . .state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession a plebiscite under the relevant United River . . . . . . . . . .is. .yet . . . to . . be . . . decided . . . . . . . through ... RI VE R R VE AB RI S EN VE RI VI R R G U L F SIR CREEK 23° N D I A 22° AD AV J U VE I D A N 69° LEGEND JUNAGADH AR A AN BANTVA N A 21° 68° E. of GREENWICH. Y BA D H Capital of Country O.F .C . . . 21° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD AM G A LF GU R A B I Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR A N S E A 71° 72° Boundary; International ... ....................... 70° E. of GREENWICH. Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I D IN *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. M R VE Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 69° 70° O F K U T C H I A J U JUNAGADH AR RI V BANTVA AD AV DU S D 22° AN 68° E. of GREENWICH. N M ER I 22° 24° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek 72° 23° G U L F 68° 24° 71° 23° SIR CREEK IN 4500 m 4000 m 3500 m 3000 m 2500 m 2000 m 1500 m 1000 m 500 m K U T C H I 24° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek RI Embu 70° 71° 72° appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities O F 22° 24° US Fort Hall Ena concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute. 23° VE I J R E Kathunguri Nations Security Council Resolutions. RI AB EN CH 68° Chickarige GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED 69° TL SU Nithi Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR RA R IN DU CH Githunguri *A J W &oK rkinstands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined gB in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. o RI hi Manyata ary MUZAFFARABAD N Magutuni N E Wo rkinR E RIV g Bo di A F I US IND uc D E GILGIT * Th U N INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) Nyanan J & Co E R mplex ntrol N T I Line of MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR Chogoria F R O The town has an average elevation Naro Moru N i C of around 2200 metres and is K ob H ain a I N classified as having a tropical G n N W E ga IL A GI Sa savannah climate with a winter dry T- B AL Kahigaini TI S ST season. There have been projects AN to help people to farm in this dry Karatina Key Nyeri area, and now there are farms cities growing vegetables such as beans, main town peas, chillies, and safflowers which river are pressed for their oil. N A G A 21° LF OF CA GU A 69° R A B I A Y BA M D H N 70° E. of GREENWICH. S 71° E A 72° 21° A school in Naro Moru Building Skills Using secondary sources and GIS maps, gather and organise data about the diversity in rural and urban areas of Pakistan and Kenya. 42 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Impact of settlements on landforms Human activities have contributed to changes in geological landforms as much as natural factors. Urban Geomorphology studies the impact of urbanisation, farming, forestry, fishing, mining, industries, communication etworks, etc. on the natural terrain. The increasing global population has put an immense pressure on land. Forming settlements can impact the Earth systems in a variety of ways. • • • • • • • It can cause loss of habitats and biodiversity due to deforestation. It can alter or disturbe evolution of life cycles and traits that help species survive and reproduce in ecosystems. For example, some bird populations living in urban environments have altered their beak shape to be able to more effectively eat the seeds in human-made bird feeders. It accelerates transmission of diseases and epidemics in densely populated areas. It increases the transport of invasive species, Building Skills either intentionally or by accident, as people travel and import and export supplies in and out of cities Use a range of multiple sources as Google maps, disturbed environments where invasive species satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, often thrive and out compete native species, e.g., GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps or field trips to find out how high population and human many invasive plant species thrive along strips of activities has changed landforms in Pakistan. land next to roads and highways. It increases regional temperatures from the use of asphalt that can create urban heat islands. It increases land erosion and decreases soil quality from pollutants in rivers and streams. It changes water cycles through the biosphere and atmosphere. Sustainable settlements It’s a fact! The world is developing at an unprecedented scale. According to World bank estimates, over the next twenty years, urban population in developing countries will double to four billion, while the urbanised land area will triple. Such rapid growth will create serious social, economic, and environmental challenges. Local leaders also have a responsibility to create equal opportunities for residents to earn livelihoods, be economically productive, and engage in social and leisure activities in a sustainable and secure environment for all, with no one and no place left behind. Governments can help plan, invest, and build sustainable settlements by taking the following eco-friendly initiatives as an alternative city infrastructure plan: • • • • • According to the World bank, today one billion people live in urban slums. • In the past decade, the number of people affected by natural disasters tripled to two billion. • Low-income countries have accounted for only 9% of the disaster events but 48% of fatalities since 1980. • Studies show that political conflicts, crime, violence against communities, and even natural disasters affect the poor most around the world. • In 2014, 54 % of the world’s population was classified as urban. Plan cheap and environmentally sustainable settlements in terms of cleanliness and efficiency. Promote organic urban farming that can help reduce food insecurity and reduce food imports. Planting trees along transport tracks. Promoting carpooling, planning a cheaper public transport system accessible for all, and helping pedestrians by making walk and bike lanes on main roads. 43 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Solar farms help reduce GHG emissions and create jobs for people • • • • • • • • 44 Switch to clean energy by making it accessible and cheaper through solar farms and increasing the price on energy from fossil fuels. Using smart technology as heating and cooling systems that do not use as much electricity. Promote green infrastructure, for example, use natural building material rather than manmade (cement, concrete, etc.) which has low greenhouse gas emissions, promote green roofs to reduce heat island effect, reduce stormwater runoff, and supports biodiversity, etc. Plan for water conservation through rainwater harvesting and adopting the 3Rs to reduce unnecessary buying of goods. Enforce regulations and fines to reduce waste and promote cleanliness. Ensure that existing and developing settlements are well prepared for natural disasters, which are increasing in intensity and frequency due to climate change. Promote inclusive community building to bring all diverse groups of society into their markets, services, and development benefits. Ensure that private sector also complies and not develop anything which will change landscapes drastically and harm the environment and its biodiversity. Vertical garden is a passive cooling and eco-friendly strategy to control air pollution and provide ventilation Solar panels on a green rooftop with flowering sedum plants to reduce heat island effect in urban areas U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Human settlements: Assessment A. Choose the correct answer: I. Geographers classify settlements according to their __________. a. Gendersb. Ethnicityc. Size II. A __________ is where the urban areas are close but not completely joined. a. Megalopolisb. Conurbationc. Town III. Historically, people preferred living on __________ to avoid attacks. a. Megalopolisb. Islandc. Deserts IV. Barriers such as __________ prevent the expansion and joining of cities. a. Riversb. Valleysc. Mountains V. Industrial towns develop where __________ is available. a. Raw material b. Waterc. Gas VI.__________ on the Potwar plateau, is sheltered by the Margalla Hills. a. Lahoreb. Islamabadc. Rawalpindi VII.Mombasa is an island linked to the mainland by a __________. a. Railwayb. Highwayc. Causeway VIII.__________ was Sindh’s busiest river port in the 19th century. a. Ketib. Kotric. Karachi B 1.List these types of settlement in order of size (smallest to largest) Metropolis town Village Megalopolis Conurbation City Hamlet 2. Name the type of settlement: a) Islamabad b) Siddique Roonjho c) London d) Quetta e) Kotri f) Rasool Pur g) Faisalabad 3. List the factors that influenced the sites of: a) Early settlements b) Settlements built after 1800 CE C 1. Name a planned settlement built in: a) Around 2500 BCE b) Around 470 BCE c) 1880sd) 1960s 2.What similarities have you noticed between the sites chosen for the planned capital cities, Islamabad and Brasilia? 3. a)What factors are important for a settlement to develop into a large city? b)Describe a large city that has developed because it has these factors. D 1.Look at the aerial photo of Karachi on page 33 and make notes about the features that might have been useful for an early settlement. 2. a) Why did people first settle in Karachi? b)What helped Karachi to grow from a village into a city? 3. a)Explain why three other settlements are developed in these situations. b)Discuss this with a partner. Then discuss your answers with your teacher. E 1. a)First discuss with a partner the advantages and disadvantages of living in Siddique Roonjho. b)List these advantages and disadvantages on a chart like this: Life in Siddique Roonjho Advantages Disadvantages 2.In a newspaper report one of the villagers living in Siddique Roonjho said that they did not want to go to a city such as Karachi to find work because all they know is fishing. a)Do you think the villagers’ lives would improve if they went to live in a city? b)Explain your answer. (Think about what they might gain and what they might lose.) FCompare Mombasa and Naro Moru with the settlement where you live. You could write your answers in a table like this: Where I live Mombasa Similarities Naro Moru Differences Similarities Differences a)Which place is more like the place where you live: Mombasa or Naro Moru? b)Why do you think the settlement of Naro Moru developed in this place? c) What has helped the town to grow? 45 U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e Overview Human settlements Settlement hierarchy • Shows the types of settlements according to their size Types of settlements • Isolated dwelling • Hamlet • Village • Town • City • Metropolis • Conurbation • Megalopolis Planned settlements • Early planned settlements: Indus Valley (Mohenjo-Daro), Ancient Greece (Miletus) • Post 1800: Port Sunlight (UK) • Modern capital cities: Islamabad, Brasilia, and Astana Services and influence The functions of settlements • Larger settlements provide high-order services and have a greater influence on people. • Smaller settlements provide low-order services and have very little influence on people. • The main economic activities or purposes of settlements The patterns of settlements • isolated • dispersed • linear/ribbon • nucleated/clustered Comparing two settlements in Kenya, Africa Mombasa Naro Moru • Large city/metropolis • Port • Trading centre • Industrial city • Resort • Small town • Agricultural land • Livestock • Market town • Tourist centre 46 Original purpose • Market town • Industrial town • Resort • Port Additional purposes • Industrial town/city • Tourist resort • Technological centre Why settlements developed in certain situations Needs of the early settlers were: • Water • Food • Shelter • Flat land for farming • Safety • Fuel Needs of the later settlers were: • Raw materials for industry • A nearby port • Road and rail (later air) transport • Attractive landscape U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e UNIT 4 UNIT Agriculture Knowledge • Explore the broader meaning and types of agriculture. • Recognise that Pakistan is an agricultural country. • Recognise the value of agriculture in terms of Pakistan’s economy. • Name the main crops of Pakistan. • Describe different methods of agriculture. • Identify methods to evaluate agricultural projects. • Identify a few impacts of livestock (cattle) farming on the environment. • Describe that raw materials from farming and fishery help generate revenues. • Relate export of raw materials from farming and fishery to the global economy. Skills • Compare and contrast different methods of farming. • Differentiate between cash and staple crops. • Use maps to locate agricultural areas and products. • Develop links between population growth and agricultural automation. What is agriculture? Agriculture or farming means cultivation of crops, growing crops, and rearing of animals on a farm. When a country’s production is calculated, forestry and fishing are usually included with agriculture. Agriculture is dependant on favourable weather conditions, availability of water, and work force. Pakistan: An agricultural economy • • • • Differentiate between subsistence and livestock farming. Analyse the factors (challenges) that affect agricultural yield. Analyse challenges related to livestock farming in Pakistan. Predict changes in the structure of agricultural production in the future. • Evaluate the impact of agriculture on the environment. • Evaluate the effectiveness of the concept of 3R (reuse, recycle and reduce) for farmers. • Evaluate the importance of agriculture for Pakistan in terms of information and technology. • Evaluate the importance of agriculture for Pakistan in terms of Pakistan’s economy. • Suggest ways for agricultural improvements in Pakistan. • Conduct surveys and interviews to gather data about the agricultural products and their utilisation. Agricultural output, to 2019 to describe physical, • Exceeding use1961 of vocabulary human, and environmental geography and economy related to them. $70 billion $60 billion $50 billion $40 billion $30 billion $20 billion $10 billion Pakistan is still mainly an agricultural country. About 47% of the land in Pakistan is used for agriculture and more people work in this sector than in any other type of industry. In 2022, Pakistan was the world’s 42nd largest GDP and fifth most populous country in the world. Agriculture accounts for roughly 25% of its GDP and it is among the world’s top producers of wheat, cotton, sugarcane, mango, dates, rice, and oranges. Pakistan exports rice, cotton, fish, vegetables, and fruit (mainly oranges and mangoes), and imports vegetable oil, wheat, and pulses. $0 1961 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2019 Source United States Department for Agriculture USDA Economic Research Service. Agricultral output of Pakistan (1961-2019) Pakistan’s agricultural exports Rice Fish and Fish preparations Fruits Wheat Sugar Meat and Meat Preparations Raw Cotton 47 U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e Food import, although less than export, is substantial due to varied and unreliable rainfall in Pakistan as well as needs of the increasing population. Methods of farming Farming can be subsistence or commercial. Subsistence farms are small, and produce just enough for a family to live on and sell any product that is not needed. Commercial farms are much larger and make a profit. Commercial farms usually have one main crop or type of livestock. Subsistence farms grow small crops of different plants and rear small numbers (perhaps just one) of different animals. Farming can be manual or mechanised (using machines). Manual farming is still used on some smaller farms where the farmers cannot afford machinery. They plough fields with a plough pulled by animals, harvest crops using sickles, and gather them by hand. But more and more farmers now use tractors and combine harvesters. If they cannot afford to buy these, they hire them when needed. Similarly, education and research in agriculture promotes use of modern methods for higher yields. These machines are large and therefore can only be used on large farms. Most landholdings in Pakistan are small. Pakistan’s agricultural imports Milk & Milk food Wheat Unmilled Dry Fruits Tea Spices Edible Oil (Soyabean & Palm) Sugar Pulses Other Food Items A modern farm where combine harvester is used for farming Organic farming in Pakistan Building Skills Nearly all farmers now use chemical fertilisers and pesticides to increase their crop yields. Since the 1960s, the Pakistan government has provided subsidised pesticides and fertilisers in order to increase the country’s food production. However, more and more people are choosing foods that have not been treated with chemicals. Organic farming is not a new idea: in the past all farming was organic. Farmers used natural fertilisers such as manure, compost that they made for themselves, and natural methods of pest control, such as crop rotation. The Pakistan Agricultural Research Council supports organic farming by providing training, bio-fertilisers, and indigenous seeds (seeds from plants that have been grown in Pakistan for many centuries). They believe that organic farming produces safer food, does not pollute the environment, uses water economically, and protects the land for the future. Although organically grown 48 Make a video to show the contrast between traditional and modern methods of farming. Mechanised harvesting uses machinery but very few workers. U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e plants produce smaller crops than those from other farming, they sell for much higher prices. Some agricultural experts think that if farmers were subsidised for organic farming instead of for using chemicals, many might switch to organic—and earn more money. Building Skills List the advantages and disadvantages of using chemical fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides, and biomedical engineered seeds. Do you think Pakistan should use these to increase its agricultural output? Smart farms By 2030, global food demand is expected to rise by 35%. With a shortage of arable land due to making settlements, setting up industries near water, mining for raw material, setting up infrastructure for transport, etc. switching to modern methods of farming has become unavoidable. Smart farming includes the use of technology in automated farming. This helps farmers in many ways: • • • • It’s a fact! • Pesticides are chemicals that kill insects and other small creatures that eat or damage plants. • Fertilisers contain chemicals that help plants to grow larger or more quickly. • Crop rotation means changing the crops planted on a piece of land each year instead of planting the same crop every year. • Compost is made up of rotting plant material that contains useful foods for plants. They get up-to-date information about the market for their produce. This helps them to plan what to grow. They can also sell their produce through online stores or markets. Even better, they can advertise through these, so that as soon as the crops or livestock are ready they will have buyers. They get news of any likely diseases or pests, so that they can protect their crops or livestock. They can also use mobile phone apps to detect diseases, and sensors on animals to check their health. They can use hydroponic systems to help cut down on fertilisers and pesticides. These are often used Vertical farming 49 ILG GILGIT IT-B ALT IST U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e K f Co A J & Line o in ‘vertical farming’ that uses IT systems MUZAFFARABA to control lighting, temperature, water SRINAG and carbon dioxide. Land that was once INDIAN ILLEGALLY (DISPUTED TERRITO unsuitable for traditional farming can now be IN LINE WITH RE used, with the help of technology. * Technology can also be used to control irrigation through automated sprinklers. There are even robots that can clean out buildings, grade and pack eggs. IT can control the amount of food given to livestock. Use of technology also lowers the costs of Smart farms save water, increase efficiency and reduce Scale 1: 3,000,000 the environmental impacts of plant production wages of labour, as fewer workers are needed. High-quality satellite imaging can be used for inspecting farms; so fewer inspectors are needed. • • W ork ing Bo un da ry The red d Jammu & K is yet to be Nations Se Actual bou appears, w • • concerned *AJ&K stan Constitutio Irrigation The climate of Pakistan is arid to sub-tropical with unreliable and scanty rainfall. Over half of the country receives less than 200mm of annual rainfall, and rainfall in excess of 400 mm in the northeast. Most of the agricultural output is dependent on irrigation. The two largest storage dams in Pakistan are Tarbela and Mangla Dam. Building Skills JU 69° Using GIS or Google Earth maps, make a presentation on the agricultural regions SIR CREEK around the world. Can you trace why some areas have a higher output than others? 23° G U L F 68° 24° 22° 24° The Tarbela Dam is located on the Indus about 47 km upstream from Attock. It is a multi-purpose project designed to store 11.6 million acre-feet (14.3 km3) A RABIof ANelectricity. It irrigates part of the Potwar Plateau, but its of water and to generate 2.1 million kilowatts S EA main function is to supply water to the Chashma-Jhelum Link Canal through which the Trimmu-SidhnaiMailsi-Bahawal Link System is also fed. The Tarbela Dam also feeds the Taunsa-Panjnad Link Canal, and the Jinnah, Chashma, Taunsa, Guddu, Sukkur, and Kotri Barrages built on the Indus are supplied with water from Tarbela Dam in winter when the flow is low. International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek 68° E. of GREENWICH. The Mangla Dam, which was completed in 1969, is located on the Jhelum River and has a storage capacity of 5.5 million acre-feet (6.8 km3) that can be raised to 9.6 million acre-feet (11.9 km3). The dam feeds canals irrigating the Chaj and Bari Doabs. Much of the land used to be a desert before the canals were built. Farms in the area only had seasonal rainfall and tubewells for water. Now there are farms in Thal desert and even fish farms where farmers wish to make an income in seasons when they are not farming. Tarbela Dam in KPK, Pakistan 50 21° A 69° U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e Irrigation system of Pakistan on a map 70°E Irrigated Area by Source of Irrigation 2019 74°E 72°E 31% Well GILG 47% 36°N Tube Well 2% ³ A Ch e # Su tle In du 74°E j 30°N s # I P A ³ ³ P 28°N 72°E D ³ I N Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. Indus *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. ³ ³ 26°N Gaj Nai Kotri # JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 69° ³ ³ Hub Hingol A B I A N S E A # SIR CREEK I N D I A 22° s du 250 km 24° In 200 ek 150 miles 64°E Sir Cre 100 66°E 68°E Rann M ud of K h utc 24° BANTVA M ud J U 24°N International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek 68° E. of GREENWICH. N A 21° G A Y BA M D H LF OF CA GU A M ud JUNAGADH AR 150 AD AV 62°E of Greenwich 72° K U T C H AN 50 O F 68° M ud 0 71° 23° G U L F M 100 70° 23° 22° Scale 1: 7,500,000 50 Darwat ³ ³ Hub 80°E The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. # S I N D H # # 32°N 78°E Mithan Kot Barrage Guddu Bolan ht ry Link canals 1 Marala-Ravi 2 Bambanwala-Ravi-Bedian-Dipalpur 3 Balloki-Sulaimanke I 4 Balloki-Sulaimanke II 5 Qadira-Balloki 6 Rasul-Qadirabad 7 Trimmu-Sidhnai 8 Sidhnai-Mailsi-Bahawal 9 Mailsi-Bahawal 10 Chashma-Jhelum 11 Taunsa-Panjnad vi ³ S I da 76°E ³ Islam un ³ # ³ Balloki Bo # A H ³ C Chur na Island 0 ing Panjnad # Astola Island 24°N ork Khanki ³ s du In ³ # T s ³ ³ # # b na # P U N J A B # Sidhnai Sukkur A R W Marala Sulaimanke # du & J ³ ³ m Qadirabad ³ ob Zh Taunsa In 34°N A at Sw H ³ K ³ h elu Ra ³ 30°N 66°E H ingo l 36°N Karakoram Pass (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) # Trimmu # # L #O B A IRAN Das A INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR Rasul J # # # Sabakzai G A P ³ ³ ³ 32°N Khushdil Khan 64°E 28°N AN Line of Control ³ A 62°E IN * E K H Y BTank Zam Gomal Zam G o m a Gomal l Rawal Mangla # Jinnah Chashma N F Khanpur Tanda Kurramgari Baran 68°E Tarbela ³ A H Hill Torrent Flood Irrigation Kurram Tangi # ³ Karez N Warsak K # ³ River Canal Diversion Canal l ³ I Dam (Proposed or Under Construction) bu ³ S Small Dam A T Dam N R ³³ Barrage, Weir, or Headwork 34°N Ka ³ TU Amandarra Irrigation Data not Available TIST Diamer Bhasha N K Data Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2019-2020 Tube Well BAL 80°E HW 20% IT- ³ Others Mirani 78°E CH ³ Canal 26°N 76°E TAJIKISTAN 69° R A B I A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. S 71° E 21° A 72° 70°E Arable farming © Oxford University Press Modified Secant Conical Projection Arable farming means the systematic use of land to grow crops. These could be cereal crops, fruit, or non-food crops. The world’s main food crop is wheat—a cereal. Farmers invest capital (money) and labour to have a consistent supply of their products. They monitor the fertility of their land is and prepare it after the previous year’s harvest. Physical Inputs Land; soil; climate; relief; water; drainage. Human Inputs Labour; capital; government policies; transport; buildings; machinery; fertilisers; animal feed; skills; knowledge; electricity Processes Milking; seeding; harvesting; ploughing; feeding; shearing; fertilising; dipping; digging; spraying Positive Outputs Feedback Profits; manure; animal feed; seeds; knowledge. milk, meat; eggs; wool; animals; hay; straw; namure; fruits; vegetables; cereals; money Negative Outputs Soil erosion; water pollution from pesticides; dead animals 51 U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e Top ten wheat-producing countries Country million metric tons (2019) K JAMMU & KASHMIR INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR F I A D E (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) N E ing D Wo rk Bou ndar y The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. 3000 P Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. P 4000 *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. 5000 LEGEND Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wheat 71° 72° 23° G U L F O F K U T C H 68° I N D I A 22° 24° 22° 24° BANTVA AD AV J U International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek N A 21° Y BA D H LF 69° R A B I A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. Young wheat seedlings growing in a soil. Stalks of wheat G A OF CAM GU A 68° E. of GREENWICH. JUNAGADH AR Wheat is Pakistan’s main crop, followed by sugar cane, cotton, maize, and rice. These five crops make up more than 23.6% of the value of Pakistan’s crops. But Pakistan produces many other food and non-food crops. The climates of most parts of Pakistan allow winter (kharif) harvesting of some crops and summer (rabi) harvesting of others. The dates of planting and harvesting depend on the climate and whether the land is on hills, plateaus, or plains. 70° 23° SIR CREEK AN Pakistan was ranked 8th for wheat production in 2019, but it is much smaller than many of the other countries, so it produces more wheat per hectare than many countries. Wheat is grown in every province of Pakistan. Punjab and Sindh are the main growers, because they have the most suitable climate and land. Their plains have rich soil brought by the Indus and other rivers. They do not have enough rain, but they have one of the world’s largest linked-up irrigation systems. GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 69° M In most countries wheat is a staple—a food we eat every day. Wheat is a crop that requires flat or gently sloping land in temperate climates. It needs plenty of water while it is growing and sunshine while it is ripening. It can grow in different soils but grows best in a well-drained clay/loam that has plenty of humus. The map here shows the total weight of wheat grown in a year in the top ten wheat-growing countries. 52 U N * 2000 1000 rol Cont E R J & Boundary Scale in km 0 Line of MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR Line of Control OCCUPIED TO BE DECIDED INDIAN ILLEGALLY - FINAL STATUS (DISPUTED TERRITORY UNSC RESOLUTIONS) IN LINE WITH RELEVANT Working N T I 133.6 103.6 74.5 52.3 40.6 32.3 28.4 24.4 23.1 19.5 F R O China India Russia USA France Canada Ukraine Pakistan Germany Argentina GILGIT S 71° E A 72° 21° U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e Some of the kharif crops are rice, sugar cane, cotton, maize, GILGIT and millet. Planting starts in February for sugar cane, March to May for cotton, June and July for rice, and July and August for maize. Harvesting crops starts in September and continues up to K December, butosugar cane harvesting can continue to March ntrol of C LineRabi or even later. crops include wheat, barley, peas, gram, MUZAFFARABAD and mustard. Rabi crops are sown from October to December SRINAGAR and are INDIAN harvested during March ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIRand April, but this depends on the climate and when the monsoon ends, so it could begin in September and continue to April. It’s a fact! F R O Pakistan is eighth worldwide in farm output and is one of the world’s largest producers and suppliers of the following crops: • Chickpeas (4th) • Cotton (5th) • Mangoes (5th) • Milk (4th) • Date palm (5th) • Sugar cane (5th) • Apricots (6th) • Kinnows, mandarin oranges, and clementines (6th) • Onions (8th) • Wheat (7th) • Rice (10th) N T I J & E R U N D (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) I N A E F * E D W ork ing other crops include oilseed rape, sunflowers (for oil), Pakistan’s Bou nda ry tobacco, canola, potatoes, onions, pulses such as mash and masoor, and chillies. Pakistan’s other wheat-growing areas are the parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa that have irrigation canals, parts of the Potwar Plateau where there is enough rain, and the flat land of the plateaus and valleys of Balochistan. Use the oxford school atlas to find out more crop areas in Pakistan Wheat growing areas in Pakistan GILGIT K tro f Con Line o MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR A J & * I * The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in ER UM EL JH V RI Wo rkin g concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute. Scale 1: 3,000,000 *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim in the AJK Interim Act, 1974. ConstitutionConstitution Act, 1974. R R VE RI AB S EN CH LEGEND The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in LEGEND Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession ISLAMABAD Capital of Country . . . . .. . .. . ... . .. . ... . .. . ... .under of Countrya. . .plebiscite . . . ISLAMABAD is yet to be decidedCapital through the relevant United Headquarters; Province . . . . PESHAWAR Headquarters; Province . . .. . ... . .. . ... . .. . ... ... . . PESHAWAR Nations Security Council Resolutions. Boundary; International.. ... ... . . . . . ... . . . . ... . . . . ... . . . . ... . . . . Boundary; International Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UNDEFINED . appears, would ultimately be .decided authorities Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . .by . . . . .the . . . . . . sovereign ..... Boundary; Working . . . . . .of. the . . .Jammu . . . . &. .Kashmir . . dispute. concerned after the Line final settlement of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of ControlRiver . .. . .. . ... . .. . ... . .. . ... . .. . ... . .. . ... ... . ... ... . ... ... . ... .. . . . *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim River . . . . . . . . . . . . . .GOVERNMENT .COPYRIGHTS . . . . .OFRESERVED . PAKISTAN ......... Constitution Act, 1974. R VE RI VI RI VE R RA R VE RI EJ TL SU GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR COPYRIGHTS RESERVED AN AD AV N SIR CREEK Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 68° N D I 22° Boundary; Working . . . .I. . . .N . . . . .D . . . . .I. . . .A ........ P A 24° 22° BANTVA 24° E 21° 21° Y BA OF CA Y BA M M LF F 21°L GU GU OF CA 21° JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR A R SN E A A AR BA I B A I N A S E A A 69° 71° J U NOF J U A GPAKISTAN GOVERNMENT N A A D G A H COPYRIGHTS RESERVED D H AR S JUNAGADH River . . . . . . . . . .BANTVA . . . . . . . . . . . .JUNAGADH .................... 21° International Boundary International Boundary alongEastern EasternBank Bank along ofthe theCreek Creek of A R A B IA N B I A N S EA 22° 24° 24° AR LF CA 23° 23° Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M OF AD AV D H AN G A 70° E. of GREENWICH. 69° K U T C H K AD AV A O F G U L F M 68° E. of GREENWICH. R O F G U L F Boundary; International ... ....................... U T C H AN A 68° Y BA P GU R A N 23°Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR SIR CREEK M 21° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek N A R 72° 22° AR J U S 71° 69° Capital of Country . . . 70° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71° . . . . . ISLAMAB72°AD 23° I M DU IN JUNAGADH E IV 70° GEND LE 69° JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR D R BANTVA Actual boundary in theThe area where Jammu & Kashmir. state of Jammu &remark Kashmir andFRONTIER its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by Nations Security Council Resolutions. the sovereign authorities concerned after the final Bo un Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED dary settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities VE RI 22° 24° The Wred dotted line represents approximately the line of B A 22° 4° INDIAN ILLEGALLY JAMMU & KASHMIR INOCCUPIED DU l (DISPUTED TERRITORY -S FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANTRUNSC IVE RESOLUTIONS) R A D A Control Line ofN I N ST a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. 68° I TI ou (DISPUTED TRRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED nd ary its accession is yet to be decided through Kashmir and IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) DU K U T C H S ry ork INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR ingin Jammu control & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & IN O F A SRINAGAR CH EN 23° G U L F Pass Karakoram Pass Karakoram S Line of Contro MUZAFFARABAD 72° 23° K E W MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR AB 71° AL W D 70° ER RIV E N E US IND D E 69° -B GILGIT N N U N H -BA I * GILGIT LTI N GI Wo rkin STA A LG gB oun IT N da P P C INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) GIT F I GIL I E R J & l Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER Wetlands in Pakistan UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final Astola (Haft Talar Island) Chashma Sarrage settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. Dah Akro-II Desert *A Wetland Complex J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined Drigh Lake in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. Haleji Lake LEGEND Hub (Hab) Dam Percentage of the total area Indus Delta Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Indus Dolphin Reserve Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Jiwani coastal Wetland Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jabho Lagoon Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kinjhar (Kain) Lake Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . A. . N. . . . . . . Miani Hor Line of Control . . . . . . . . . S. .T. . . . . . . . . . . Nurri Lagoon River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N Ormara Turtle Beaches Scale 1: 3,000,000A GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN Runn of Kutch H COPYRIGHTS RESERVED G Tanda Dam F JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR A Taunsa Barrage Thanedar Wala Uchhas Complax (including Khabbaki. Uchhali and Jahiar) SIR CREEK F R O N T The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. GREENWICH. 68°E.E.ofofGREENWICH. 68° 72° 70° 69° 70° E. of GREENWICH. 71° E. of GREENWICH. 71° 70° 69° 72° 72° 71° 72° 23° 23° G U L F SIR CREEK O F K U T C H 68° I N D I A 24° AN 24° BANTVA IN DU S J U A B I A N S E A 53 International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek JUNAGADH AR R AD AV RI VE 22° M R 22° N A G A 21° LF OF GU A R A B I A Y BA M D H N S E A CA 21° U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e Rice Rice is a traditional Asian crop: 90% of the world’s rice is grown and eaten in Asia. It is the staple food for around 50% of the world’s population and the main food for 75% of the world’s poor people. You can see from the map above that the world’s top rice-producing countries are in the tropical regions. Rice is a tropical plant that grows best on flat land or terraced valley sides. It needs temperatures no lower than 21°C during the growing season, and an annual rainfall of at least 1000–1200 mm. A close up of yellow green rice field Rice is an important food in Africa, and some African countries grow enough, or almost enough rice to satisfy their own needs without having to import any, for example: the Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Burundi, and Cameroon. Rice is even grown in Europe. This is a short-grained rice, used in puddings and for making risotto. Italy is one of the world’s leading exporters of this type of rice. A rice farm near Islamabad 70°E Rice growing areas in Pakistan (2010) 72°E 74°E tral Chi er Upp Nagar Ghizer GILGI Chitral Lower 36°N CH Hunza T-BA LTI STA Shigar Gilgit Legend j g u A w K e c h a r a w a d a Churna Island S E A A gla W har an & Torg Sh KH J & KH A J A PA ER ar ag ln wa YB arh n arg ul zaff M Mu ha A Ba I D a rka n ek Sir Cre *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act,1974. 68°E GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED 23° G U L F O F JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR K U T C H 69° 70° 71° 72° 23° 68° I N 22° SIR CREEK Umerkot D G U L F I 23° A K U T C H O F 22° 68° 24° 24° Thar BANTVA 24° Badin M ud ut of K Rann ch 22° N A A 24°N 68° E. of GREENWICH. 69° I JUNAGADH N A 21° LF OF A Y BA M CA 21° U G G A Y BA D H LF OF CAM GU R A B I A A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. 69° 70°E Modified Secant Conical Projection D 22° BANTVA D H M ud Data Source :Pakistan Agricultural Census 2010 N JUNAGADH G A J U International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek M ud 68° E. of GREENWICH. I J U 24° 21° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek AR Actual Boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the soverign authorities concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute. 66°E Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of ...................... JUNAGADH & Control MANAVADAR 69° River . . . . . . 71° . . . . . . . . . . . .72°. . . . . . . . . . . . 70° AD AV The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions 64°E ta n kh a Ba r N Tando Allayar 26°N Sanghar M ud 62°E of Greenwich LEGEND *A J & K stands for AzadCapital Jammu & Kashmir of Country . . . . . .as . . .defined . . ISLAMABAD in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR SIR CREEK Sujawal 24°N N of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. Actual boundary in thesettlement area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears,*Awould ultimately be decided by J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined the sovereign authorities concerned after the final in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. AN 200 miles The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The The red dotted line represents approximately theState line ofofJammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Kashmir and its accession is Resolutions. yet to be decided through Council a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER Council Resolutions. UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by 23° Tando M. Khan Hyderabad Karachi Thatta 32°N 80°E 78°E 76°E M N y Nar AR A ndar AD AV I Bou owal Khairpur Shaheed Benazirabad Jamshoro ing y AN B Wo rk dar M A un s R Bo the sovereign authorities concerned after the final ha A ing Sukkur Naushero Firoz rK 300 km 30°N I 28°N 72°E Ghotki pu Mir Astola Island P Rahim Yar Khan S I N D H Lasbela Hingol r ork B Vihari Shikarpur ri tia Ma G Dadu n Dasht Scale 1: 10,000,000 J Kambar Shahdad Kot K h u z d a r r b n I Hu Main a H C L O B A P 26°N k Kashmor P ad rab Jacobabad P a aff A Bahawalpur us Ind ad Sohbatpur ab Jhal sir Na T Magsi La u J Lodhran P us s h S di Man in Sialkot dd Khushab Bahu b Gujra na nwala Sargodha Che d ba fiza Ha Shiekhupura Chiniot Nankana Lahore Sahib i ad Rav Jhang lab Kasur isa Fa Toba Tek Okara Singh al iw Sah ttan 74°E a Khanewal p k Pa tlej Su Rajanpur Ind IRAN Secondary W a KH ob Zh Kohlu Dera Bugti A Sakandarabad Maize 54 TU N N A T S I N A H G F A Kharan 28°N lum W D Rice r N E Kalat i be Gujrat F I a Jhelum D E g Chakwal IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) * im U N Duki Sibi Kotli 34°N E R Harnai Mastung Kachhi a Dera Ghazi Khan * MirpurBh N N T I us M Loralai Nushki h U Layyah F R O 66°E 64°E C Bhakkar P h ak Rawalpindi Jhe K m el Pishin 30°N 100 ra De ail s du In Mianwali n ha i Qilla Saifullah Ziarat 62°E Rice and Maize Regions, 2010 0 l Is ar 32°N Attock Karak Lakki Marwat Tank Go ma ran Ab Quetta 200 a W She ah N K aw uth Zhob la 100 n ta is zir ll du 36°N Karakoram Pass GILGIT K sh No 68°E Qil 0 ir Kohat Hangu tan iris az Bannu hW rt Insufficient or Negligible Secondary Up Pe 34°N So A Diamer Kohistan Ghanche Skardu Kohistan Lower Astore Kharmang Neelum Kolai Pallas we Batgram rD rol Cont a of Ind r t ir Line Bajur wa h us S rol se Cont an Malakand Buner M Mohmand Line of Ka bu MUZAFFARABAD Muzaffarabad Mardan l Hattian Bala Charsadda Abbottabad SRINAGAR Swabi Bagh Haripur KASHMIR & JAMMU OCCUPIED Haveli Nowshera INDIAN ILLEGALLY INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR er Poonch (DISPUTED TERRITORY FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED Khyb Kurr DECIDED TO- BE (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINALIN STATUS LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) Islamabad Sudhnoti am Orakzai Lo International Boundary Province Boundary District Boundary Working Boundary Line of Control Coastline River Data not Available Swat IN 80°E rD pe Main 78°E 76°E TAJIKISTAN © Oxford University Press R A 71° S B 70° I E A A N S E. of GREENWICH. 72° 71° E A 72° 21° 70°E 72°E 74°E 78°E 76°E TAJIKISTAN CH Hunza r pe l Up Rice2010 is the second most important cereal GILGI ugarcane Regions, T-BA L a Chitr Nagar Ghizer Chitral Lower 36°N crop for Pakistan. Pakistan ranks 10th Secondary in world production of rice; basmati rice K Minor from Pakistan is sold in many parts of the world because of its flavour and quality. Gilgit Main TIS Shigar Swat IN U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e 80°E A 36°N TAN Karakoram Pass Diamer Kohistan Ghanche Skardu Kohistan Lower Astore Kharmang Kolai Pallas Neelum Lo we Batgram rD trol a Con r of ir Ind Line Bajur h us se an Malakand Buner M Mohmand Ka bu Mardan Muzaffarabad l Hattian Bala Charsadda Abbottabad Swabi Bagh Haripur INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR Haveli Nowshera Poonch er Khyb Kurr (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED Islamabad Sudhnoti am Orakzai IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) Kotli Attock Kohat Hangu Rawalpindi B n Mirpur h im Karak s ista ir b W z er ork du Chakwal Bannu Jhelum Wa In ir rD pe & 34°N KH ar aw sh Pe TU N S K Hwat W Sh an gla Torg har A Up ER Legend International Boundary Province Boundary District Boundary Working Boundary Line of Control Coastline River Data not Available ob Hu b Cotton A w a r a arh n arg ar ta wa ha N na I N D I A 22° 26°N Sanghar Tando M. Khan Hyderabad 22° s Ind A 68° E. of GREENWICH. M ud ek Sir Cre ut of K Rann G A Y BA M D H LF OF CA R A B I A N S 70° E. of GREENWICH. 69° E 21° A table showing the numbers of bales of cotton produced by the world’s main cotton-producing countries. ‘480 lb’ means 480 pounds (about 218 kg). A 71° 2019/20 bales 29.5 25.8 14.9 11.2 9.1 72° M ud 24°N M ud 70°E & 68°E ch N A GU Badin M ud AR J U 21° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek Thar JUNAGADH AD AV BANTVA Umerkot Sujawal 66°E AN 24° ha Tando Allayar Karachi M 24° rK Churna Island A Thatta Haveli 70°E 72°E 74°E 78°E 76°E TAJIKISTAN CH A Bh im Chitr r Chitral Lower W a s h u ffa Ja Kambar Shahdad Kot j g u r A w a r a A gla J & Torg S Sh har an K Hwat W TU KH A PA ER YB KH J A 100 n arh ta 30°N ar ag ln wa ha A I I 28°N 72°E 100 N Actual boundary in the area where remark Capital of Country . . . FRONTIER . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . ............ the sovereign authorities concerned after the. . final Boundary; Province . . settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . as . . . defined ............ *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED M ud utc of K Rann Ind ek Sir Cre 68°E N A 21° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek BANTVA J U 68° E. of GREENWICH. h M ud I A JUNAGADH 22° AR 66°E 24° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek Badin D A AD AV 24° Thar M ud 64°E BANTVA J U Umerkot Sujawal 24°N I AN Tando Allayar Karachi N 22° I 24° 22° G A Y BA D H LF N A A 69°G 21° A D R A B I A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. H S 71° LF R A B I A N S E E CAM CA 21° A Y BA M OF GU A OF GU JUNAGADH AR A D I 24° AD AV E N 23° K U T C H 22° 68° AN S 72° 23° O F M Churna Island N O F s A G U L F 68° G U L F K U T C H ha I 26°N Sanghar Tando M. Khan Hyderabad rK B SIR CREEK pu A 71° 72° 70° 23° 23° SIR CREEK Mir R Jamshoro 71° 69° Khairpur S I N D H Lasbela Hingol r 70° M a 200 miles the sovereign authorities concerned after the final JUNAGADH &JUNAGADH MANAVADAR & MANAVADAR Shaheed Benazirabad n 300 km LEGEND Ba Rahim Yar Khan 200 control in Jammu & Kashmir. Theof State Jammu & settlement Jammu of & Kashmir dispute. Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. Council Resolutions. Sukkur Naushero Firoz y da 0 P Vihari Bahawalpur Ghotki ndar Scale 1: 10,000,000 B ul P Lodhran Shikarpur ri tia Ma d Dadu Thatta 62°E of Greenwich J D T us Ind Sohbatpur Kashmor P ad rab Jacobabad P us n b a Astola Island A S Hu a I K h u z d a r Dasht w Dera Bugti d ba s Na Bou un 69° K e c h G H C L O B A P 26°N k N a Sakandarabad 28°N Mu Kohlu ira Jhal Magsi Bo ry di Man din Jh Sialkot Khushab ud 32°N Bahb al Gujra 80°E na nwala Narow Sargodha Che 78°E ad b a 76°E fiz Ha Shiekhupura Chiniot Nankana Lahore Sahib The red dotted line represents approximately the line of d vi ba Ra Jhang control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & la Kasur isa Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through Fa a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Toba Tek Okara Council Resolutions. Singh l a iw Sah an tt 74°E a Khanewal Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER kp Pa tlej u UNDEFINED appears, wouldthe ultimately be decided by S The red dotted line represents approximately line of Rajanpur A Kharan ing 0 zaff arg n rk ha Kalat i N a rka n g La a ork Gujrat m elu M Zh ob Ba Sibi Kachhi h N N A T S I N A H G A Mastung Nushki C Dera Ghazi Khan ing D Duki Wo rk W N E 66°E 64°E l Loralai Harnai U Layyah (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH* RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) F I Ziarat Quetta 30°N 62°E Bhakkar P he ak us M & KASHMIR WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) JAMMU INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIEDIN LINE D E Qilla Saifullah Pishin n ha l il K a m Is 34°N INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR U N Ab ra De * Jhelum E R la Qil Tank Go ma Chakwal rol Cont Ind Line of us MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR Kotli Rawalpindi K Mirpur s du In Mianwali Kharmang Line of Control ar ah ll du az W Lakki Marwat Attock Kohat Karak Ghanche Skardu Astore K aw ir uth So i ran She Insufficient or Negligible n ista 32°N Zhob rD 36°N Karakoram Pass N T I we A S GILGIT TAN Shigar F R O Lo Bannu rt 68°E Up IN 80°E LTI Swat ir rD pe Hangu tan iris az hW No T-BA Gilgit sh International Boundary Province Boundary District Boundary Working Boundary Line of Control Coastline River Data not Available GILGI Pe Legend Nagar Ghizer Diamer Kohistan Kohistan Lower Kolai Pallas Neelum Batgram a ir Bajur hr se an Malakand Buner M Mohmand Ka bu Mardan Muzaffarabad l Hattian Bala Charsadda Abbottabad Swabi Bagh Haripur Nowshera er Poonch Khyb Kurr Islamabad Sudhnoti am Orakzai 34°N The table on this page shows the world’s main cotton-growing countries. See if you can name the countries that grow the most cotton per hectare. One of these countries is Pakistan where cotton is the main cash crop. A cash crop is grown for sale for profit and not for the farmer’s own use. Cotton has been grown in Pakistan since ancient times for making cloth and for trading. Hunza r ppe al U be 36°N IRAN 64°E 23° pu I 72° K U T C H O F G U L F 68° Mir B 71° 23° SIR CREEK ri A 70° Cotton needs plenty of sunshine and moderate rainfall (usually N S E A around 250 to 1200 mm per year), or irrigation. This plant grows best in alluvial soil (soil deposited by rivers). It can grow in places that have some salt in the soil and can survive short droughts, so it can be grown in arid and semi-arid areas. The places that grow the most cotton Cotton growing areas in are tropical and Pakistan (2010) subtropical regions, but you can see from Cotton Regions, 2010 the map that cotton Main Secondary also grows in colder Minor places of the world. Astola Island R Jamshoro million 480 lb. China India The USA Brazil Pakistan JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 69° tia r *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. 28°N Khairpur Ma a Rice farming in the Democratic Republic of Congo Sukkur Naushero Firoz 32°N 80°E 72°E S I N D H Lasbela da Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. Rahim Yar Khan Shaheed Benazirabad n Hingol un F K e c h Dasht d Dadu Ind Ghotki rka K h u z d a r Bahawalpur us Shikarpur La L O B A Kambar Shahdad Kot us IRAN ffa Ja W a s h u k P a n j g u r enwich ad Sohbatpur Kashmor P ad P rab Jacobabad ab sir Na Bo Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. 30°N Ba N Jhal Magsi Sakandarabad A Rajanpur Dera Bugti A Kharan Vihari Lodhran Kohlu Kachhi Kalat ul Ba rk ha n Duki Sibi Nushki g a i Dera Ghazi Khan zaff Harnai Mastung Layyah l Loralai M M he ak us Pishin Mu Qilla Saifullah Zh ll Quetta a Bhakkar ag i ran She ah 30°N 66°E ra De an h l il K a m Is ing Gujrat ry di Man din Sialkot Khushab ud Bahb al Gujra na nwala Narow Sargodha Che d 78°E ba 76°E fiza a H Shiekhupura Scale 1: 10,000,000 Chiniot 100 200 300 km 0 Nankana Lahore Sahib i ad Rav Jhang lab Kasur isa 0 100 200 miles Fa Toba Tek Okara Singh l The red dotted line represents approximately the line of iwa n Sah 74°E atta Khanewal p control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & k Pa tlej Su lum Jhe ln 32°N Zhob Ab Tank Go ma Mianwali D 68°E Lakki Marwat I A uth 64°E h YB a W So Ziarat C n ta is zir du 62°E KH rth No la a * Most of Pakistan’s rice is grown in the north-eastern regions because they have more rain than the rest of the country U N J A B and favourable soil. But evenP here the Insufficient or Negligible plants need irrigation to provide enough slow-flowing water in the growing season. When the plants mature they need less water, and while they are ripening, the T field needs to be almost dry to makeI S I H easy. harvesting C Qil w A J PA 34°N 72° 21° A 24°N 68° E. of GREENWICH. 69° 70° E. of GREENWICH. 71° 72° M ud 70°E 55 U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e A cotton plant Majority of cotton in Pakistan is grown in Punjab and Sindh Southern Punjab and central Sindh are Pakistan’s main cotton-growing areas. There is not enough rainfall, but their arid climate protects the plants from attacks by microbes that cause disease, and pests that damage them. Irrigation It’s a fact! provides enough water to make up for the low rainfall. The hot summer weather (32°C average in June) is just right for the growing season. • A useful plant Did you know that every part of the cotton plant is used? The main part is the lint (fibre), used in making cotton textiles. The short fluff on the seed is used for making cushion fillings, paper, plastics, and many other products. You might be surprised to hear that cotton seed oil can be purified for making foods such as margarine and salad oil. The meal that is left after the oil is removed is not wasted; it is used in feed for livestock. Other leftover materials are used in making soap and floor coverings. Even the stalks and leaves are used, as farmers plough them into the soil as humus. • Economies dependent on manufacturing goods than just raw materials have higher revenues and less dependent on imports. Finished goods or specialised goods involve many processes making them of higher value. They are standardised and of higher quality due to the competitive market. Sugar cane Sugar cane is Pakistan’s second most important cash crop. Sugar cane is a tropical plant that can survive short periods of frost. It needs plenty of water in the growing season, and soil that is rich in nutrients. It is grown all over Punjab and Sindh, a small area in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa that has rich alluvial soil and good irrigation, and a little is grown in Balochistan. Bagasse 56 Sugar cane Crops and Cultivated Area Pakis U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e A useful plant 70°E 72°E 74°E tral Chi U Nagar Ghizer GILGI T-BA LTI Gilgit Main CH Hunza pper Chitral Lower 36°N Shigar Swat ir A Sh an gla J & & Torg S har K Hwat W N TU Sakandarabad IRAN W a s h u n j g u r A w K e c h a r a A J YB n ar ag ln wa ha Tando Allayar Karachi us N Ind ek Sir Cre 66°E 68°E M ud B I G A I N D I D H A A Y BA M CA OF LF N J U 21° 22° 21° 70° E. of GREENWICH. 24°N A 68° E. of GREENWICH. JUNAGADH S E AR 64°E ch A AD AV 62°E of Greenwich M ud ut of K N A BANTVA R International Boundary 69° along Eastern Bank of the Creek 68° E. of GREENWICH. M ud J U 23° JUNAGADH 24° A Rann 72° GU 24° Badin Sujawal 24°N 22° 21° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek 71° A 22° BANTVA 68° Thar 70° AN Thatta I K U T C H M A D O F G U L F AR Umerkot N 23° SIR CREEK 24° AD AV E 69° I 22° 24° AN S JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR M Churna Island N GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED K U T C H O F G U L F 26°N Sanghar Tando M. Khan Hyderabad s A D Ba SIR CREEK 68° ha I 23° Khairpur rK B I A KH rh ul rga zaffa M 23° Naushero Firoz Jamshoro Line70° of Control .71°. . . . . . . . . .72°. . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69° pu A Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JUNAGADH & Working MANAVADAR Boundary; .................. Sukkur Mir R 72°E Ghotki S I N D H Lasbela Astola Island A Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28°N Shikarpur Shaheed Benazirabad n Hingol r I Rahim Yar Khan ri a Dadu settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined UNDEFINED appears, *A would ultimately be decided by in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. LEGEND tia d J Kambar Shahdad Kot Ma a Kashmor P ad P rab Jacobabad a aff da Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by Council Resolutions. the sovereign authorities concerned after the final 30°N Bahawalpur us Ind ad Sohbatpur ab Jhal sir Na T Magsi K h u z d a r Dasht G w I b a H C L O B A P 26°N k S A KH PA ER A Kharan 28°N Dera Bugti un A B Vihari Rajanpur N Kalat i Bo na a rka g La a J P Lodhran P Kohlu Kachhi h Mu Sibi Nushki N ta Zh ob an Duki Ba rk h Mastung 64°E Dera Ghazi Khan Loralai Harnai D 66°E Layyah l N E M Ziarat Quetta 30°N 62°E Bhakkar P U he ak us F I Qilla Saifullah Pishin ail ing Gujrat ry di Man in Sialkot dd Khushab 32°N Bahu b wal Gujra 80°E na nwala Naro Sargodha Che d 78°E ba 76°E fiza Ha Shiekhupura Scale 1: 10,000,000 Chiniot 0 100 200 300 km Nankana Lahore Sahib i ad Rav Jhang lab Kasur The red dotted line represents approximately the line of isa 0 100 200 miles Fa control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Toba Tek Okara Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through Singh l The red dotted line represents approximately theUnited line ofNations Security iwa a plebiscite under the relevant Sah ttan 74°E Khanewal CouncilThe Resolutions. control in Jammu & Kashmir. State of Jammu & kpa Pa tlej Su lum Jhe a Kh m Is D E Ab * Mianwali n l ra De 34°N U N 32°N ni la Qil Lakki Marwat Tank Go ma ra She ll du Insufficient or Negligible C n ista ir az W E R rth No ah N N T I Legend Zhob 36°N Karakoram Pass K K ar aw sh Pe 34°N 68°E A F R O Minor So STA 80°E Diamer Kohistan Ghanche Skardu Kohistan Lower Astore Kharmang rol Kolai Pallas Neelum Cont we Batgram Line of rD trol a ir Ind Line of Con Bajur hr MUZAFFARABAD us se an Malakand Buner SRINAGAR M Mohmand Ka bu INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR Mardan Muzaffarabad l (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED Hattian Bala Charsadda Abbottabad IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) Swabi Bagh Haripur INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR Haveli Nowshera Poonch er Khyb Kurr (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED Islamabad Sudhnoti am Orakzai * UNSC RESOLUTIONS) RELEVANT IN LINE WITH Wo Kotli Attock rkin Kohat gB Hangu Rawalpindi oun dar y n MirpurBh im Karak s ista be W zir ork r du Chakwal Bannu Jhelum Wa In Up Lo uth IN GILGIT rD pe Secondary International Boundary Province Boundary District Boundary Working Boundary Line of Control Coastline River Data not Available 78°E 76°E TAJIKISTAN Sugarcane Regions, 2010 Hu Sugar cane is used mainly for making white sugar and gur, as well as products such as alcohol for the pharmaceutical industry, and press mud, used in organic fertilisers for crops and in animal feed. You might not have heard of bagasse. This is a very useful waste product from sugar cane. Bagasse is fibre from the cane. It is used in making paper and chipboard. Bagasse can also be used as biomass (a fuel from plant or animal material for producing energy, such as electricity). Bagasse could help to reduce the amount of plastic we throw away, for example in disposable cups and plates. Sugarcane growing areas in Pakistan (2010) N A G A 71° R A B I A D H A 72° LF CAM 21° GU N 70° E. of GREENWICH. 69° Y BA OF S E A 71° 72° M ud 70°E & Livestock farming Haveli 70°E 72°E A TAJIKISTAN be tral Chi r h u n j g u r A w b a a r a r A gla an har S TU KH PA ar ag ln wa ha N Khairpur SIR S I N D H Jamshoro 26°N Sanghar Tando M. Khan Hyderabad 68° Churna Island N S E A Tando Allayar Karachi Umerkot 24° as A Kh I ur B Thar Ind Thatta Badin Sujawal 24°N ek M ud Sir Cre Buffaloes are kept on farms as labour to plow the land and as a vehicle for transport 62°E of Greenwich Ba N Naushero Firoz p Mir Astola Island A 72°E Ghotki Sukkur us a I 28°N Shikarpur ri d R Rahim Yar Khan Shaheed Benazirabad Lasbela Hingol t kpa Sut Pa Vihari tia a Dadu a al iw Sah P Ma w A Ja Kambar Shahdad Kot n Dasht G I K h u z d a r Hu P H C L O B A K e c h 26°N k Bd lab isa Fa Bahawalpur us Kashmor P d ba Jacobabad ra ffa A Lodhran Ind ad Sohbatpur ab Jhal sir Na T Magsi J na IRAN s S Ma Bah na Sargodha Che fi Ha Toba Tek Singh Rajanpur rka Sakandarabad Jhang Khanewal Kohlu Dera Bugti A Kharan W a YB ha rk Ba Sibi Kalat i La a Dera Ghazi Khan Jhe Chiniot N Mu zaffa rga rh M ul ta n Duki n A g KH kh a us Kachhi a U Layyah Loralai Harnai Mastung Nushki h Bhakkar Jhelu lum Khushab n P Rawalpind Chakwal ha l il K a m Is el M Ziarat Quetta 66°E 64°E s du In Mianwali ob Zh Qilla Saifullah Pishin 30°N 62°E C ER T S I N A H G F A ar la Qil ra De rani Insufficient or Negligible 28°N Cattle are often left to graze on large expanses of grassy land that is unsuitable for growing crops. On smaller farms, cattle have to be moved to new pastures when they have eaten about 50–70% of the grass or it has been grazed to 5–6 cm high. Zhob h lla u bd Lakki Marwat Tank Go ma 32°N se an M Islamabad S Attock Karak Bannu n She Cattle are farmed mainly in temperate climate zones. They are also kept in tropical and subtropical regions but not in arid or cold climates. Even some temperate climates, such as Scotland in the UK, are suitable only for very hardy breeds. uth So 68°E Malakand Buner Kohat ta iris az W Kohistan Kohistan Lower Kolai Palla Batgram aw Cattle ir Mardan Charsadda Abbottabad Swabi Haripur Nowshera er Khyb am Orakzai ir z Wa rth Swat N Mohmand Ka bu l Hangu No rD K Hwat W Bajur A N we Kurr n ista ir rD pe Up Lo sh International Boundary Province Boundary District Boundary Working Boundary Line of Control Coastline River Data not Available Ghize Pe 34°N Legend er Upp Chitral Lower 36°N Torg im Regions, Livestock means animals that are kept for produce, such as meat, milk,Cotton skins, and2010 so on. You might be Main surprised to learn how many products come from livestock. Livestock are kept on most parts of the world. Secondary The table on the next page shows the numbers of the main types of animalsMinorthat are farmed. You can see that chickens, cattle, and sheep are the main livestock around the world. Sh Bh 64°E 66°E 68°E Rann M ud ut of K M ud 70°E 57 ch M ud 24°N 68° E. of GREEN U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e Sheep Sheep can graze on shorter grass than cattle, but they need drier conditions, as very wet ground can cause a disease called foot rot. They can graze on hills and mountains where the land is unsuitable for growing crops. Goats Goats are an important sector of livestock farming around the world. The countries with the most goats per sq km2 are in Asia and Africa, particularly India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Somalia, and Sudan. The main livestock farmed in Pakistan are goats; others include cattle, buffalo, sheep, camels, horses, asses, and mules. Many small farms are mixed (arable and livestock), where farmers might keep just one cow and/or goat and some poultry (hens, cockerals, ducks, and geese) to produce food for their own use. Sheep provide us with food and fiber All provinces of Pakistan have livestock farming, with Punjab having by far the largest numbers, followed by Sindh. The main type of livestock in a region depends on the land and climate: for example, buffalo need large plains, sheep can survive on short grass on steeply sloping land, and camels are well suited to hot, arid regions. Poultry includes any birds that people keep for their eggs, meat, feathers, or just as pets. The main poultry are hens and chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, and quails. Goats are sure footed animals Native chickens on subsistence farms used to be the main source of eggs and chicken meat in Pakistan. In the 1960s, the government began to support commercial poultry farming because the population was growing, and poultry is a good source of protein that need not be imported. The government cut taxes, provided training for Animal populations in Pakistan, farmers, and gave other help, such as subsidised feed. Poultry 2019–2022 are now an important part of agriculture in Pakistan, including 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22 meat exports. (Million. Nos) Problem from livestock farming Here are some of the main problems: • Overgrazing makes the grass too short for cattle to eat. • Cattle trample the soil, squeezing out air, water, and nutrients, so grass cannot grow and the soil is more easily eroded by wind and water. Their hooves leave 10 cm deep holes that fill up with water that does not drain away easily. These conditions kill grass. After the water evaporates, weeds grow in the bare • 58 Buffalo 41.2 42.4 43.7 Camels 1.1 1.1 1.1 Cattle 49.6 51.5 53.4 Goats 78.2 80.3 82.5 Sheep 31.2 31.6 31.9 Horses 0.4 0.4 0.4 Asses 5.5 5.6 5.7 (Million Nos.) Chickens 33.40 33.65 33.90 U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e patches. It generates nearly 15% of the total global greenhouse gas emissions, which is greater than all the transportation emissions combined. This can increase the rate of global warming and climate change. Livestock farming uses almost 70% of the agricultural land, which can lead to deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and water pollution. • • Building Skills Find out about the economic importance of livestock products in Pakistan. Use maps, economic data, and other sources to support your evidence. Forestry The estimated forest area of the world is 4.06 billion hectares. This was about 30% of all the land on the Earth. You can see these forests in the map, which shows the percentage of land that was covered by forest in each country in 2020. You can see from this map that a very small part of the land in Pakistan is covered with forests— only 5.01%. However, these forests are a very important source of income. You probably know about timber and fuel wood, but did you know that our forests also provide income from materials for papermaking, latex for rubber-making, ingredients for medicine and food, and tourism? When a forest is managed for timber and other products, it does not mean that the forest will be destroyed, because new trees are planted to replace those that are cut down. More than 60% of the forests of Pakistan are coniferous and scrub forests on the northern hills and mountains. Here there are alpine forests at unusually high elevations—up to 4000 metres above sea level. Also on high land (2000–3000 metres) in the Suleiman Mountains are the juniper forests of Balochistan. A small fishery: lobster pots on the harbour on Lindisfarne Island, off the coast of Northumberland, England, UK Forest area by country in 2020 GILGIT J & A D ing Bou nda ry The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. P 5000 Wo rk N E * 0–10 10–30 30–50 50–70 70–100 F I 3000 (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) D E 1000 4000 INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR U N 2000 0 Cont E R Scale in km rol N T I Key F R O K Line of MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR P Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. LEGEND Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 69° 23° 70° 71° 72° 23° U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e The other 40% of Pakistan’s forests is made up of: • Riverine forests (primary forests along riverbanks, with new trees being planted). • Irrigated plantations along the river indus and its tributaries on the plains. • Planted forests such as changa manga near lahore, chichawatni near sahiwal, punjab, and khipro reserve, near sanghar, sindh. These were planted to provide timber for building the first railways. • Mangrove forests on the indus delta (primary forests along riverbanks that are disappearing very quickly, but the government is taking steps to protect them, and new trees are being planted). • Trees planted on farmland. A mangrove forest in the Indus Delta Problems in Agriculture Mechanised and smart farming has been successful in producing large quantities of food. However, the future of food production is in jeopardy due to the loss of agricultural land to meet other human needs, such as clearing land for houses, industries, mining, and other amenities like parks and malls, etc. This has led to scarcity in the varieties of crops produced and livestock produced. According to World Bank reports, 2022 faced increasing food insecurity. Approximately 30% of the world’s population lacked access to adequate food in 2020 and 2021. According to Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN (FAO), global emissions due to agriculture were 9.3 billion tonnes of CO2. Industrial scale agricultural processes can lead to climate change, land degradation, and water pollution. For example, large-scale deforestation for farmland can decrease biodiversity, increase global temperatures, and disturb hydrologic cycle by changing in the amount and distribution of rainfall. Unreliable and varied rainfall can negatively impact the soil by reducing its moisture content, lowering its output, and increasing the chances of flooding in other areas. Did you know, farming releases significant amounts of methane and nitrous oxide. For example, livestock farming is responsible for 14.5 percent of all global greenhouse gases globally. Agricultural land damaged by aggressive agriculture, in the danube delta, Romania Fishing Most countries of the world have a fishing industry. This could be sea fishing or inland fishing (in lakes or rivers). The fish could be caught wild or from aquaculture (fish farming). The people who catch wild fish could be individuals who fish alone in a small boat, or employ one or two others, using a larger boat; or they could be large commercial fishing companies that have large ‘factory’ ships. Fishing is the most important economic activity along the coast of Pakistan; the Fisheries and Agriculture Department of Pakistan estimated that around 400,000 families depend on fisheries for their livelihood. Fisheries make a large contribution to Pakistan’s export earnings. 60 U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e Pakistan has a coastline of about 1058 km. It has sheltered bays and a broad continental shelf (shallow area) near the Indus Delta that are ideal for fish and other sea creatures, especially shrimps and prawns. The Arabian Sea near the coast of Sindh and Balochistan is also a rich source of fish that have commercial importance. As well as shrimps and tuna, other catches from the Arabian Sea include sharks, rays, herrings, sardines, anchovies, croakers, grunters, snappers, groupers, ribbonfish, and pomfrets. The main fishing ports are Karachi, Gwadar, and Pasni. Pakistan’s fishing industry is mainly along the coast, but there are also inland fisheries along the rivers and around the lakes, and aquaculture, mainly for freshwater carp. A fisherman weaves a large fishing net to be used by the locals of the coastal town to hunt for fishes in the adjacent Arabian Sea Globalisation and agriculture Since 20th century, the world has come to rely more on political and economic cooperation than before. This state of interconnected and interdependence is achieved through collaborations in social, economic, technical, political, cultural, and ecological spheres to achieve common goals of providing economic progress and technological advancment for their citizens and businesses. Fishing Boat with Nets at Wadden Sea in Evening Light, North Sea, Germany Globalisation in agriculture aimed to curb food insecurity around the world. Sharing of human, mineral, technical, and other such resources has helped improved availability of food for the poor, flexible trade for exchange of food crops, created employment opportunities in different economic sect, and enabled countries to earn foreign exchange from cash crops. Building Skills Using the Oxford School Atlas, find out the location and importance of the shipping ports in Pakistan. According to Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN, Pakistan is also amongst the world’s top ten producers of wheat, cotton, sugarcane, mango, dates, and oranges. According to United Nations COMTRADE database, Pakistan’s export of meat, fish and seafood preparations was worth US$26.25 million in 2021. Major crops (wheat, rice, cotton, and sugar cane) contribute around 4.9 per cent, while minor crops contribute 2.1 percent to the country’s total GDP. Pakistan exports rice, cotton, fish, fruits, vegetables and imports vegetable oil, wheat, pulses, and consumer foods. It is also Asia’s largest camel market, 2nd-largest apricot & ghee market & 3rdlargest cotton, onion, and milk market. The Pakistan Bureau of Statistics reported that main exports during 2022 were Knitwear worth Rs. 90,096 million; readymade garments worth Rs. 64,669 million; bed wear worth Rs. 51,398 million; cotton cloth worth Rs. Abundance of multiple food types from globalisation 61 U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e 38,763 million; towels worth Rs.19,974 million; cotton Yarn worth Rs.18,016 million; Basmati rice worth Rs.15,198 million, and Surgical goods worth Rs.8,067 million. However, there are negative impacts to such overuse of land. Clearing of the land, mechanisation, use of chemical fertilisers, burning of fossil fuels, and using genetically engineered (GM) seeds has degraded the land, cause waterlogging, salinity, disturb our food chain, polluted our enviornment, and global warming. Sustainable agriculture Building Skills Innovative farmers and scientists are developing new farming systems Find out the differences between the agricultural that are environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable. Such methods and output of Pakistan methods include farms in different sizes, producing a diverse range and Bangladesh. of foods, fibers, and fuels that are adapted to local conditions and their regional markets. Dependent on educated work force, research and technology, it maximizes productivity and profit while minimizing environmental damage. Sustainable farming methods are resilient to droughts and floods. These methods include: • • • • • • • Crop rotation and embracing diversity. For example, rice-wheat rotation is practiced in north-eastern districts of Punjab and northwestern and southern districts of Sindh. The maize-wheat rotation is found in most of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa districts, four districts of Punjab, and three districts of Balochistan Province. Crop diversity, e.g. intercropping. In Pakistan, maize-soybean, wheat-soybean, and sugarcane-soybean intercropping is being included to efficiently increase the agricultural output. Planting cover crops and perennial crops. Zero tillage planting can improve crop yield, reduce production cost, and GHG emission. Researchers in Pakistan attempted field trials at six locations in Punjab and found that zero tillage produced 13% and 9% higher wheat and mung bean yield in comparison to conventional tillage practice. Organic pest management through botanical oils can save the land from soil erosion, soil degradation, improve soil fertility, and enhance its moisture conservation. Integrating livestock and crops for efficient and profitable farms. Adopting agro-forestry practices to discourage water logging, salinity, create jobs, and carbon sinks. WWF and its partners have co-funded an agroforestry project in Khanewal and Bahawalpur districts, Punjab. Sprinklers are storehouses for water and a smart irrigation tool 62 Pivot farming in USA has a lower labour cost and reduced soil tillage U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e Agriculture: Assessment A. Choose the correct answer: I. Pakistan exports more _________ products than it imports. a. Medicinalb. Industrialc. Agricultural II. Organic farmers use manure, _________, and natural methods of pest control. a. Fertiliserb. Compostc. Herbicides III. Global food demand is expected to rise _________% by 2030. a. 25b. 30c. 35 IV. Pakistan’s main crop is a kharif crop, _________. a. Sugar caneb. Wheatc. Rice V. _________ is a sensitive crop that needs ample sunlight and water from rainfall or irrigation. a. Riceb. Cottonc. Tobacco VI.Most of Pakistan’s _________ is grown in northeastern regions because they receive more rainfall than the rest of the country. a. Riceb. Cottonc. Wheat VII.The main livestock farmed in Pakistan are _________. a. Sheepb. Cattlec. Goat VIII. Pakistan has a coastline of about _________ km. a. 1000b. 1023c. 1058 B 1. Using the graphs on page 45, find out: a)Between which years did the output of agriculture go up very gradually? b)Between which years were the steepest increases? 2. Between which years did the population go up very gradually and increase sharply? 3. Compare different methods of farming. 4.How well has the output from farming in Pakistan kept up with the growth of the population? 5.What could be done to increase the output from farming? 6.Differentiate between cash and staple crops. C 1. a)Pakistan is a net exporter of food. What does this mean? b)Explain why it is good to be a net exporter of food. 2.Use your Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan to help you to find the countries. a)Name two countries in Africa that grow cotton. b)Name two countries in South America that grow cotton. c)Use what you know about the land and climate to explain why China is among the leading cotton-growing countries. d)Which parts of Pakistan are the main cottongrowing areas, and why? e)List as many products of the cotton plant as you can think of. f)Choose three parts of the cotton plant and describe what they are used for. 3.Find out the meaning of ‘eco-friendly’. Which product of the sugar plant is especially ecofriendly, and why? D1. a) What is the relationship between population growth and agricultural automation? b) Describe the factors which effect agricultural output. 2. a) Name the Pakistan’s six main types of livestock in order, beginning with the largest population. b) Explain why cattle are very useful animals to farm. c) Describe some of the problems caused by overgrazing. 3. a) Which climate zone is the main one for cattle farming? Explain why this is. b) Which province of Pakistan is the main one for livestock farming? 4. What is the difference between subsistence and livestock farming? 5.Describe the three main types of fishing industry. E1.Refer to the map on page 55 and answer the following questions: a) Which parts of the world have no forests? Explain this. b) Name three countries where approximately 70–100% of the land is forested. c) H ow much of the land in Pakistan is forested? i) 4–5% ii) 10–20% iii) 30–40% iv) 50–60% 2. a) List four products from forests. b)Describe three other ways in which forests are important in any country. c)What is an alpine forest? What is unusual about the alpine forests in the north of Pakistan? 63 U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e F1.Some farmers think it is good to use chemical pesticides and fertilisers; others do not. Use a table like this to list the reasons: for each of these views: for using chemical against using pesticides and chemical pesticides fertilisers and fertilisers 2. Describe the economic importance of agriculture for local and global economy. 3. Describe ways to improve agricultural output. G 1. Describe these different types of farming: a)Subsistence b) Commercial c) Manuald) Mechanised e) Organicf) Arable 2. a)Why is wheat a very important crop worldwide? b)Which country is the world’s leading wheat producer? c)Which provinces of Pakistan are the best for growing wheat? What makes these areas good for wheat? 3. a)Which country is the world’s main rice-grower? Explain why this country is the main rice-grower. b)Which parts of Pakistan are the main ricegrowing areas, and why? 4. Explain how agricultural methods affect the enviornment. 5. Evaluate the effectiveness of the 3Rs for farmers. Overview Agriculture Types of agriculture Arable • Kharif crop is grown in winter. • Rabi crop is grown in summer. Livestock • Livestock animals are raised in different parts of Pakistan to produce meat, milk, leather, and other products. Fishing • Main catches in Pakistan are shrimps and tuna. • Karachi, Gwadar, and Pasni are the main fishing ports of Pakistan. Forestry Different types of forest in Pakistan are: • Riverine • Irrigated plantations • Planted forests • Mangroves trees • Trees planted on farmland Poultry • Chickens were reared on subsistence farms up until 1960, after which the government supported commercial poultry farming. 64 Main agricultural products Methods of farming Livestock products • Small scale farming to support a family • Cattle • Sheep • Horses • Mules •2 Buffalo •2 Camels •2 Donkeys Crop products • Wheat • Cotton • Mangoes •2 Rice •2 Sugar cane •2 Milk Importance of agriculture in Pakistan’s economy • Pakistan is mainly an agricultural country. • About 47% of the land in Pakistan is used for agriculture. • Pakistan is a net exporter of food. Subsistence Commercial • Large scale farming to earn profit • Increased use of machinery and chemical pesticides and fertilisers Manual • Fields are ploughed by animals and all farm work is done by hand. Mechanised • Tractors and machinery are used to do all farm work. Organic • Use of natural fertilisers such as manure and compost, and natural pest control with crop rotation UNIT 5 Climate change Knowledge • Recall the difference between climate and weather. • Define climate change. • Explain the greenhouse effect. • Identify changes caused by the greenhouse effect. • Describe the importance of the Ozone layer. • Identify global warming and the greenhouse effect as the main causes of climate change in the world. • Explain the main causes of climate change in the world and some particular areas. Skills • Investigate how human activity is causing climate change. • • • • • • • Investigate the effects of global warming on Polar Regions. Analyse the effects of climatic change on flora and fauna. Analyse the effect of climatic change on people, lifestyle, and economy. Analyse the effects of climate change on the Earth. Evaluate the health and environmental effects of the Ozone layer. Investigate and suggest ways to reduce the greenhouse effect. Enhanced use of vocabulary to describe physical, human, and environmental geography and economy related to them. Climatology is the study of the Earth’s regional climates whereas meteorology is the study of shortterm atmospheric phenomenon that makes the weather. To understand the distinction, weather relates the current atmospheric conditions, whereas climate covers the long-term, aggregate weather and seasonal conditions of a particular place. Weather is changing all the time while climate changes over a period of 35 years. What is climate change? Climate change means a change in the Earth’s normal weather patterns for different climates. It is normal for climates to change little by little over the years. The Earth has had cooler and warmer times. It is now getting warmer. This phenomenon is also known as global warming. Since the 1980s, each decade has been warmer than the previous one. The warmest seven years have all been since 2015, with 2016, 2019, and 2020 making the top three. (Source: World Meteorological Organisation) Scientists collect weather data from weather stations, weather balloons, and weather satellites. They record thousands of land and ocean temperature measurements each day around the world. These show that the average temperature of the Earth’s land and oceans increased by 0.65°C to 1.06°C between 1880 and 2012. The average air temperature in the lower part of the troposphere has increased by 0.13°C to 0.22°C per decade since 1979. What changes the Earth’s temperature? There are different causes for these changes such as: • Changes in the amount of heat that oceans transfer from one place to another. • An increase in the number of volcanic eruptions that can send out dust, thus blocking out the Sun’s radiation over large areas. • Changes in the amounts of different gases in the atmosphere. Heat waves have become common due to climate change 65 U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e Greenhouse effect Do you know what a greenhouse is? This picture of a greenhouse will help you to understand the greenhouse effect. A greenhouse is made from glass or clear plastic. It is very useful for growing plants in the winter in cooler climates. The air in a greenhouse warms up because the Sun shines through the glass and warms the air and the ground in the greenhouse. The air becomes warmer, but it cannot escape from the greenhouse. The ground takes a while to heat up, but it retains the warmth for a longer time than the air. It keeps the air trapped in the greenhouse warm, even during the winter. This is called the greenhouse effect. A greenhouse. If the doors and windows are closed, the air is trapped inside. It’s like the inside of a car on a hot day. Which gases are called greenhouse gases? There are greenhouse gases in our atmosphere, e.g. water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. These act like the glass walls of a greenhouse by trapping the heat in our atmosphere. They absorb heat from the Sun’s rays and radiate it in all directions, which warms the Earth. Warm air cannot escape from the atmosphere because the heat is radiated back to the surface of the Earth. The Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is essential to keep the Earth warm enough to support life. But if greenhouse gases increase too much, the Earth could become too hot. Mainly water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and ozone. Ozone is fine when it’s in the stratosphere, but too much of it in the lower part of the troposphere is harmful. 1.2 It’s a fact! Increased greenhouse gases since the early 1900s are causing the climate to warm quickly. The increase comes from vehicle exhaust, pollutants released from smokestacks at factories and power plants, emissions from agriculture, and other sources. 66 °C anomaly, 1981-2010 baseline 0.8 0.4 0.0 -0.4 -0.8 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 NASA Global surface temperatures recorded by 1970-2022 by NASA 2030 U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e The greenhouse effect Sun Solar radiation Some of the solar radiation is reflected by the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface Solar radiation passes through the atmosphere Some of the infrared radiation passes through the atmosphere and out into space atmosphere greenhouse gases Radiation is converted to heat energy, causing the emission of longwave radiation back to the atmosphere Earth’s surface Some of the infrared radiation is absorbed and re-emitted by the greenhouse gas molecules. A diagram to show how the greenhouse effect works in the Earth’s atmosphere. Where are the extra greenhouse gases coming from? Most scientists think that human activities such as urbanisation, burning fossil fuels, using cars and other vehicles, and clearing forests have increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Most of the methane comes from raising livestock such as cows, goats, and sheep, decaying landfill, and peat bogs. greenhouse effect and climate change Building Skills Collaborate with someone from a different climatic zone of Pakistan. List the challenges you both face and what individual and community actions can be taken to address it. NASA and other climate observatories have noted an increase in greenhouse gases and think it is directly responsible for accelerating the rate of climate change. Too much of the greenhouse gases can trap heat in the Earth atmosphere and cause global warming. Many scientists think that in general, the dry regions of the Earth will become even drier and most of the wet regions will become even wetter. So dry places are more likely to have droughts, and wet places are more likely to have floods. There could be more tropical cyclones. Extremely high sea levels could become more common. Fires (such as bushfires) are more likely where the climate becomes warmer and drier. The amount of freshwater flowing into the oceans has increased. This is partly because global warming is melting the ice around the Poles. In wet regions, there has been an increase in rainfall because water from the oceans evaporates more quickly in higher temperatures. For example, the mean yearly rainfall in Singapore increased by more than 400 mm between 1980 and 2015. A drought-striken area 67 U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e It’s a fact! • The permafrost is the soil below the surface that normally stays frozen, even in the summer. • Peat bogs are ‘carbon sinks’. These are areas that store carbon and help to keep carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. • A trend is a gradual change towards something, for example: higher or lower rainfall, higher or lower temperatures, more or fewer storms, or higher or lower sea levels Higher temperatures have begun to melt the permafrost in Arctic regions, such as parts of Canada, Alaska, and Russia. The permafrost stores carbon, but if it melts, it gives off carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. If it continues to melt, it will also give out methane from peat bogs that are normally frozen. What is the ozone layer? You might have heard of the ozone layer, but do you know what it means? Ozone is a gas in the Earth’s atmosphere. It is created by a reaction between ultraviolet light and oxygen. Ozone has a pale blue colour but we do not notice this because there is so little ozone in the air around us. Some people can smell ozone, even when there are very small amounts in the air. It smells similar to chlorine, which you probably know, as it is in bleach and is sometimes used to disinfect swimming pools. Scientists have given ozone the symbol O3. The symbol for oxygen is O2. There is a very tiny amount of ozone in the atmosphere—about 0.3 parts per million. Most of it is in the ozone layer (in the lower part of stratosphere). Sun hole in the ozone layer ozone layer ultraviolet rays Earth Earth’s atmosphere A diagram that shows how the ozone layer blocks out some of the Sun’s radiation. It shows how this radiation can pass through a hole in the ozone layer. Why is the ozone layer important? The Sun’s radiation keeps the Earth warm enough for plants and other living things to live. Part of the Sun’s radiation is called ultraviolet radiation. Some of this is necessary for life, but higher amounts of this radiation are harmful. The ozone layer keeps out most of the harmful ultraviolet radiation. Scientists have been measuring the ozone layer for more than half a century. It has become thinner and holes have appeared in it through which ultraviolet radiation can pass. Scientists have found that gases from human activities damage the ozone layer as well as cause global warming. Some of these gases can survive in the atmosphere for 50 to 100 years. Why is low-level ozone harmful? Which human activities can damage the ozone layer? The same activities that cause the greenhouse effect. Gases from many industries contain chemicals that can reach the ozone layer. Ultraviolet light helps these gases to break down the ozone layer. Ozone is a very active gas. When it is lower down in the atmosphere, it is closer to living things and can harm them. It can damage the leaves of plants and affect how they use sunlight to produce food. In humans, it can cause headaches, eye irritation, coughs, and chest discomfort. It is one of the active gases in ‘smog’ (polluted fog mainly found in cities). 68 U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e International action Scientists found that chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) damage the ozone layer. CFCs were used for many years in aerosols, insulation foam, fridges, and air conditioners. The good news is that 197 countries signed an agreement called the Montreal Protocol in 1987 to reduce the use of CFCs. Disappearing ice Scientists have found that higher temperatures are causing most glaciers to retreat. In some glaciated valleys, lakes are being formed by the melted ice. However, not all glaciers are retreating, and a few are even advancing. All the glaciers around Mount Everest are retreating. The chart shows how much each of these glaciers retreated between 1976 and 2007. A satellite photo of lakes formed in the Himalayas in Bhutan where glaciers have retreated Glacier or glacier region around Mount Everest Average distance retreated per year (metres) Rongbuk 20 Khumbu 18 Sikkim 13.02 Building Skills Make a poster and video about the cause of global warming and climate change. What happens to the ice from a retreating glacier? The glaciers in the Greater Himalayan region that have been measured are retreating by an average of between 18 m and 20 m per year. However, the glaciers in the highest parts of the Karakoram Range are advancing. In some places, melting ice from glaciers can cause floods. This happened in Chitral in 2015, when melting ice and heavy rainfall caused a glacial lake to overflow the Khanpur Dam on the Haro River in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In 2010, there was a landslide near Attabad that created a dam across the Hunza River. A lake formed behind the dam and flooded towns, fields, and roads, including part of the Karakoram Highway. Following this incident, a channel was dug to take away any water that overflowed the dam. This will help to prevent floods farther downstream if the glaciers melt. A satellite image of the ice cap over the Arctic Ocean in 1983 A satellite image of the ice cap over the Arctic Ocean in 2012 69 U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e The frozen water around the North and South Poles is called sea ice. Some of this ice melts in the summer, but some ice remains permanently. This permanent ice is the minimum size of the ice cap. In 2012, the permanent ice in the Arctic shrank to its smallest ever area. Does the melting of the sea ice matter? Well…when sea ice melts, it does not change sea levels because the ice is already floating in the ocean. However, sea ice is important in holding back global warming because its large white Melting ice in Greenland area reflects sunlight. You can test this by leaving a piece of white cloth and a piece of black cloth in the sunshine for about 15 minutes. You Building Skills can feel the difference in the warmth of each piece of cloth. However, scientists have found that the sea ice in Antarctica is Using GIS or Google Maps, not shrinking. They think this is because Antarctica is so cold make an illustrated PowerPoint that global warming has not yet melted the ice. They have even presentation to show the rise in found that the ice has become thicker in some places. Land ice global temperatures in the last decade. Land ice is found on Earth in the form of glaciers. Did you know that about 75% of all the Earth’s freshwater is contained in glaciers? If all this land ice melted, sea levels around the world would rise by approximately 70 metres! Greenland, near the North Pole, is not as cold as Antarctica, so the ice there is more likely to melt. Each spring and summer (April to October), some of the ice in Greenland melts. In autumn and winter, rain and snowfall freeze and replace the melted ice. From 1978– 2008, the total amount of ice that permanently melted grew from around 14 million km2 to nearly 22 million km2. In July 2012, there was a record-breaking melting of ice sheet surface in Greenland, when 97% of it melted. Some scientists think that the pattern of ice sheet melting in Greenland goes on for a while and then begins to return to normal. Others think it is a trend that might cause sea levels to rise and make the seas less salty. It’s a fact! • Average sea level around the world has been rising since the middle of the 19th century. • During the 20th century, sea levels rose about 1.5–2.0 mm each year. This is about 15 –20 cm rise in sea levels during the century. • Sea levels rose faster at the end of the 20th century than over the early part of the century. Causes of climate change The global climate is always changing. However, since around 1950 there has been a dramatic increase in global temperatures. This increase is known as global warming. The main greenhouse gases whose concentrations are rising are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and ozone in the lower atmosphere. Scientists and geologists have been calculating the potential of human activities to increase the temperature of the Earth. 70 U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e Causes Effects energy use food insecurity agriculture and land use loss of land industry and transport displaced people pollution growing demands for food and water natural disasters Global warming: causes and effects Energy from fossil fuels Generating electricity and heat by burning fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, and natural gas) causes majority of the Earth’s GHG emissions. These powerful gases blanket the Earth, trap the sun’s heat, and cause global warming. Today, only a quarter of electricity comes from wind, solar and other renewable sources which emit little to no GHG gases or pollutants into the air. Industry and transport Mining, manufacturing, and industry processes are responsible for global warming. They burn fossil fuels to produce energy and extract other raw material for making things like cement, iron, steel, electronics, plastics, clothes, and other goods. Most cars, trucks, ships, and planes run on fossil fuels. Overuse of land Large scale deforestation to create farms, pastures, settlements, making roads and railways, mining and industry adds to GHG emissions. This is because trees, when they are cut, release the carbon they have been storing. Each year approximately 12 million hectares of forest are destroyed. Agriculture also emits carbon dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases in various ways. Population and overconsumption Meeting the basic needs for an overgrowing population is one of the most important contributors of GHG gases. Deforestation, mining, and conventional industrial processes are adopted by most of the population to provide food, urbanise land, and boost economic growth. Over consumption from trends such as fast fashion discourages people from using the 3Rs and manage their waste in an environment friendly manner. Impact of climate change on animals and plants Changes in climate have led to unfavourable conditions for animals and plants. Their survival, growth, and reproduction have been affected to a great extent due to climate change. Many animals have begun to migrate towards the higher latitudes or to higher ground to find a habitat with a climate that suits them. This also happens because the plants or animals they feed on have begun to migrate. Some animals could become endangered because their food supply is dying out. 71 U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e Whales Some whales feed on plankton (tiny living organisms). Warmer water contains less plankton, so many whales that feed on plankton are dying from starvation. They travel farther in search of food and they are being found washed up on beaches where whales have never been seen before, such as on the east coast of England. Sea turtles Sea turtles lay their eggs on beaches in Brazil. The rising sea levels could endanger their eggs or very young hatchlings. Typically, higher temperatures are favourable to female hatchlings but cooler temperatures are favourable to males. Due to rising temperature in the world, the number of male sea turtles is dropping. This could threaten turtle populations. Climate change is diminishing amount of prey species for whales and dolphins Polar bears Polar bears live around the North Pole and feed mainly on seals. They live on the sea ice and hunt for seals in the sea around the ice. As the sea ice melts, they have to swim farther to find stable ice. This leaves them very tired, especially females who have cubs to look after. Many adults and cubs are also dying from starvation. Some polar bears in Greenland have adapted to hunt from blocks of ice from glaciers during summers Coral and shellfish Oceans are absorbing more carbon dioxide, which makes the water more acidic. Corals and shellfish cannot absorb the calcium carbonate they need for healthy skeletons or shells in highly acidic water. When the sea stays warm for longer than normal, corals become white and do not regain their pink colour. This affects their ability to fight off diseases. Coral that has lost its pink colour Fish Rising global temperature reduces the age, size, and the biodiversity of marine ecosystems. Inland fisheries are also threatened by changes in rainfall and water management. Temperature affects the metabolism, behavior, locomotion, and its desire to obtain food. In some places, floods in the spring have washed away salmon eggs laid in stream beds. This could wipe out entire salmon populations. 72 A 5ºC rise in average global temperature could wipe out 60% of all fish species U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e Birds Some birds that usually migrate to cooler climates during the summer are beginning to migrate earlier. Due to this early migration, they could starve if the insects they usually feed on have not yet hatched when they reach their destination. Plants Global warming has increased droughts, wildfires, and invasive pest outbreaks. This has led to the loss of some plant species and has also lowered productivity, made conditions for longer droughts and heat waves frequent. Some plants are producing flower buds earlier because of warmer temperatures. But overnight frosts can kill these buds and affect plant populations. Alpine plants grow on high ground. If their habitat becomes too warm to survive, there is nowhere higher for them to grow. Drought damaged cornfield Impact of climate change on people Climate change is affecting freshwater supplies. Pakistan is one of many countries that already has very little water. Higher temperatures and other changing weather patterns are changing the amount of water in lakes, rivers, and streams. Some regions are even facing droughts. Where there are floods, the flood water becomes polluted with sewage or other contaminants. The amount of water that seeps into the ground to fill underground reservoirs is also changing. In some places, temperatures could become too high for the crops normally grown there to survive. Changing weather patterns are also affecting the amount of water that can be used for irrigation. Stronger storms and floods can damage crops. As well as producing greenhouse gases, the burning of coal, oil, and natural gas produces air pollutants such as ozone, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen oxide. These can cause many health problems. Sunlight and low-level ozone can increase the effects of pollutants. For example, Tokyo, New Delhi, Riyadh, Onitsha (Nigeria), New York, and London already have high levels of pollution that are harmful for human health, especially the very young, very old, or people who have breathing problems. Heatwaves are becoming more common. These are especially dangerous to infants, older people, and people with poor health. In 2003, a heatwave in Europe caused about 50,000 deaths. Building Skills Give evidence that suggests how climate change has impacted your country’s economy, its agriculture, plants, and biodiversity in the last ten years. Air pollution has increased over the year. 73 U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e In the summer of 2022, parts of Europe experienced drought conditions, worsened by heat waves. The European High Commission researcher say it is Europe’s worst year in 500 years. In June 2015, the heat wave in southern Pakistan brought temperatures as high as 49°C. It caused the deaths of more than 1300 people, mainly from dehydration and heatstroke. As winters become warmer, ticks and mosquitoes that carry diseases can survive longer throughout the year. Settlements along some coasts and small islands, especially on lowland, will be threatened by floods if sea levels rise. Hundreds of millions of people around the world could lose their homes or businesses and face danger. As temperatures rise, more people need to use air conditioning during the summer, which uses a lot of electricity. However, during the winter, many people will use less energy for heating because of global warming. Improving our enviornment The Earth belongs to all of us and if countries work together they can do a lot to protect the Earth. Now that some of the sources of greenhouse gases are known, many countries have agreed to find ways of reducing them. Even better news is that the ozone layer is recovering. Here are some ways to reduce greenhouse gases. Power stations Many countries have agreed to reduce the use of fossil fuels by developing power from wind, solar radiation, and water (hydro and tidal). Another way to reduce this is by finding ways to use less energy. For example, many manufacturers are making energy-efficient electrical goods such as fridges that use less power. Hydel power station has low greenhouse gas emissions. 74 U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e Industry Many industries are finding ways to use less energy in manufacturing. They are looking for alternative energy obtained from non-fossil sources for producing heat and light in factories. Recycled materials are also being used in many industries, such as steel and aluminium manufacturing. It is also important to reduce waste and leakage of chemicals. There are many ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the industrial sector. This can be achieved through switching to alternative Industries have started to switch to renewable energy fuels, efficient use, and recycling of since it releases little to none greenhouse gases. materials. Some industrial processes which cannot switch from fossil fuels have decided to use carbon capture methods to move and then store used carbon below the Earth’s surface. Australia, Canada, Denmark, UK, and the United States are the only nations with this technology at the moment. Refineries and other chemical using manufacturers are regulated by law in some countries to forbid them from emitting pollutants. Fuels for transport Biofuels are being developed to replace fossil fuels, e.g. petrol and diesel. Biofuels are made from living things or their products, such as plant sugar and plant oils. The plants grown for producing biofuels also absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Electric and solar-powered vehicles do not produce greenhouse gases and could prove to be a viable alternative to vehicles powered by fossil fuels. We can form car-pooling groups in our school. Imagine how much fuel could be saved if a group of children living in the same neighbourhood share one car to be dropped at and picked up from school! Electronic cars have helped accelerate the world’s transition to sustainable energy by avoiding 5.0 million metric tons of CO2 emissions in 2020 75 U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e Buildings Insulating buildings can reduce energy consumption to a great extent. Many countries have regulations for new buildings to improve their insulation and so reduce the use of heating and air-conditioning. People in their workplaces are encouraged to switch off electrical equipment and lights when they are not being used. We can all do this at home and at school. Environment friendly infrastructure practices include rain gardens, permeable pavements, green roofs, infiltration planters, trees and tree boxes, and rainwater harvesting systems. Agriculture, forestry, and other land use The greenhouse gases can be reduced by better management of drainage, fertilisers, manure, and other waste products. Waste products can also be used to produce energy. Many countries are acting to prevent deforestation; however, 2.3 million km2 of forests around the world were cut down between 2000 and 2012. Only 6.2 million km2 are left of the 16 million km2 of forest that once covered the Earth. What else can we do to reduce greenhouse gases in our atmosphere? Building Skills Using primary and secondary sources to gather, organise, and interpret data that suggests the importance of afforestation to control the impact of global warming. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach to manage croplands, livestock, forests and fisheries to address the challenges of food security and increasing climate change. It focuses on methods to produce more food which is resistant to pest, droughts, and other vulnerabilities. It also aims to improve nutrition security, boost incomes, less prone erratic weather patterns, and climate related risks . Its research is also focused on finding ways to reduce the greenhouse emission, avoid deforestation, and identify ways to absorb carbon from the atmosphere. Afforestation can slow the impact of climate change as forests are carbon sinks 76 U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e Climate change: Assessment A. Choose the correct answer: I. ________ means a change in the Earth’s normal weather patterns a. Ozone layer b. Climate change c. Greenhouse gases II. Changes in the Earth’s average temperature happens because of different ________ in the atmosphere. a. Sulphurb. Phosphatec. Methane III. Settlements on lowlands are threatened by ________ due to climate change. a. Floodsb. Heatwavesc. Deserts IV. Most of the greenhouse gases comes in the atmosphere comes from burning ________. a. Woodb. Waterc. Fossil fuels V. Oceans have become ________ due to absorbing more carbon dioxide. a. Permafrostb. Ultra-violetc. Acidic VI.The symbol for ozone is ________. a. O2b. O3c. O4 VII. ________ stores carbon but at melting, gives off carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. a. Plantsb. Ozonec. Permafrost VIII________ bogs are a carbon sink that keep carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. a. Oceanb. Peat c. Glasshouse B 1.Copy the sentences and write the missing words. a)_______________________ means a change in the Earth’s normal weather patterns. b)The Earth’s average climate is getting warmer. We call this ________ ________. c)___________ gases radiate heat in all directions. They keep the atmosphere warm. d)Carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane are examples of _____________ gases. e)Most of the __________ in the atmosphere comes from agriculture, decaying landfill and peat bogs. f)Most of the _______________ in the atmosphere comes from burning fossil fuels for power. 2. a)What are the six main human activities that produce the highest amounts of greenhouse gases? b)Write these activities in order from highest to lowest amounts of greenhouse gases. c)Suggest four different ways of reducing greenhouse gases. d)What are some of the climate changes caused by the greenhouse effect? 3.Which of the following help to keep carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere? a)Healthy peat bogs b) Farm animals c) Forests d)3Deserts e) Permafrost 4. Using the internet, find out the impact of climate change on polar regions, plants, and animals. C 1.Why has the flow of freshwater into the oceans increased? 2.What will happen if the permafrost melts due to global warming? 3.Write True or False for each sentence. Correct the sentences that are false. a)All the world’s glaciers are retreating and forming glacial lakes. b)Melting sea ice does not make sea levels rise. c) The polar ice caps are shrinking. 4. a)Why is Greenland’s ice sheet melting more than the ice sheet in Antarctica? b)What would happen to the world’s seas if all the ice of Greenland and Antarctica melted? 5. a)Choose an animal and explain what might happen to it if climate change continues. b)Choose a plant and explain what might happen to it if climate change continues. 6. a) Explain three ways in which people could be harmed by climate change. b) Describe how climate change negatively affect the economy of an area. D 1. a)The melting ice of Antarctica and Greenland changes the oceans in more than one way. Describe any changes that you know about. b)Explain how global warming is affecting these: i) ii) iii) iv) E 1. a)Which layer of the Earth’s atmosphere contains the ozone layer? 77 U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e b)How does the ozone layer protect life on Earth? c)Name a gas that damages the ozone layer. d) Describe the health and enviornmental effects of ozone layer. 2. a)Write a short report about one way in which climate change could be a particular problem in Pakistan. Explain the harm it could cause and say who might be affected. b)What problems have melting glaciers caused in Pakistan? 3.Think about any reports of unusual weather that might be caused by global warming. a) Describe the weather. b)Write a sentence to explain how it was unusual. 4. Suggest three ways to reduce greenhouse gases in Pakistan. Overview Climate change Global warming • The temperature of the Earth is rising over time. This is called global warming. Reasons • Heat transferred from oceans • Increase in volcanic eruptions • Amounts of different gases in the atmosphere Ozone layer • Ozone is a gas in the atmosphere of the Earth. • Its symbol is O3. • The ozone layer keeps out the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. • Due to human activities, holes have appeared in the ozone layer and it has also become thinner. • Chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons damage the ozone layer. • Ozone is harmful for plants and humans. 78 Greenhouse effect • The greenhouse gases in our atmosphere trap heat and radiate it back to the surface of the Earth. This causes the temperature of the Earth to rise. Causes • Burning fossil fuels • Using cars and other vehicles • Clearing forests • Methane released during the digestive process of livestock • Decaying landfill • Peat bogs Effects • Dry regions of the Earth will become drier and wet regions will become wetter. • Tropical cyclones • Floods • Bushfires • Melting of glaciers, land ice, and sea ice at the poles Reducing greenhouse gases • Reduce the use of fossil fuels • Use biofuels • Opt for alternate energy solutions • Use recycled materials • Produce energy from waste • Control deforestation Effects of climate change Plants • Some plants produce flower buds earlier because of warmer temperature. Overnight frost kills these buds and affects plant populations. Animals • Animals have to migrate to places with a suitable climate in order to survive, grow, and reproduce. Humans Higher temperatures and changing weather patterns cause: • Decrease in freshwater supplies • Droughts • Floods • Crop damage • Pollution • Diseases as mosquitoes and ticks survive longer • Increase in consumption of electricity UNIT 6 Minerals and Power Resources Knowledge • Name minerals found in Pakistan. • Identify industries related to minerals and power in Pakistan. • Identify areas of Pakistan that are rich in mineral resources. • Name some rare minerals found in Pakistan. • Explore the use of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) to generate power in Pakistan • Differentiate between bituminous and lignite coal. • Describe the procedures of long-wall and surface mining. • Realise the risk factors associated with coal mining • Explore alternate sources of energy (solar, wind, and water) to generate power. • Describe the importance of alternative energy sources for the environment. Skills • Locate areas of Pakistan that are rich in mineral resources on maps. • Categorise the minerals found in Pakistan according to their use and importance • Analyse factors that make gemstone mining difficult in Pakistan. • • • • • • • • • • • Analyse the reasons that hamper the yield of gemstone mining in Pakistan. Suggest practical ways of getting high-income revenue from Pakistan’s gemstones resources. Investigate and suggest measures for improving the mining industry. Suggest measures to ensure the safety and health of the coal miners in Pakistan. Draw and label the procedures of long-wall and surface mining. analyse coal usage in Pakistan. Evaluate the usefulness of coal against the risk factors associated with it. Write an essay on the importance of alternate sources of energy. Explore reasons for the scarcity of electricity and gas in Pakistan during the recent years Enhanced use of vocabulary to describe physical, human, and environmental geography and economy related to them. What is a mineral? Geologists have a ‘five point test’ to decide whether a material is a mineral. It must: • be made naturally (usually through geological processes, such as volcanic action, heat, or pressure). • be inorganic (not from a living thing). • be solid. • have a chemical formula. • be made up of particles (atoms and molecules) that are organised in a pattern, usually crystals. Minerals can be metallic or non-metallic. They are non-renewable. This means that eventually we could use them all up as they took millions of years to form. Metal ores Most metals are found in ores that are made up of minerals. These are mainly taken from the ground by mining, or sometimes quarrying. The pictures below show some of the most common metal ores. A close up of the mineral haematite (iron ore), showing its crystal structure Cinnabar (mercury) Zincite (zinc) Cassiterite Ilmenite (titanium) 79 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Ore deposits in the world GILGIT ti lz i n a P t v s tu mn im t v c c J & A g y tu The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. a l me tu i s t mn ti t t Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. P LEGEND Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cr g JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 69° G U L F SIR CREEK K U T C H N 72° D I l z 23° A 22° 24° 22° 24° BANTVA AD AV J U N A 21° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek JUNAGADH AR cr AN 1000 O F I G A D H LF 69° R A B I A z Y BA OF CAM GU 68° E. of GREENWICH. 2000 71° 68° A 0 m 70° 23° v mn Scale in km ti GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED u c ndar *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. a i Bou D z me i mn z u a me a cr l mu ing N E m g c mn l Wo rk F I z i * M a c cr g i l m n s t ti tu u v z s v ore g u m alluminum ti c copper s l chromium gold iron lead manganese nickel silver tin titanium tungsten uranium vanadium zinc ngs ni i cr i a c n i z tu D E Key z symbol metallic th l c a U N l u l INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) E R g n z N T I s i v u rol Cont Line of MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR n F R O g K g N 70° E. of GREENWICH. S E 71° 21° A Krin j Chitral Dam mer Nissa 72° 4000 5000 3000 Shah Der Sh Maneri M ulla gori Gh Ta Metals with impurities in nature make up ores. These metal ores are found in the Earth’s crust all over KohatPes haw ar the world. Did you know that Pakistan has enormous deposits of many different minerals and natural Jatta B ahad ur K hel Kalabagh resources under the ground? These include metallic and non-metallic minerals, oil, natural gas, and K arak Padhrar Daud M akar wal Scale 1: 3,000,000 gemstones. K hel Is a K hel Kat Metallic minerals I S T A N W archa Sakesar Pezu N Both copper and gold are found in Pakistan. In some places these are A Zindapi r Muslim Bagh Spin Ka n found close together: for example, at Reko Diq mine in Chagai District, H It’s a fact! Qila Abdullah Balochistan. This is one of the world’s largest copper deposits. The F G Quetta Chamalong Harnai M ult an Global institutions, for A copper deposits stretch through central and south-east Europe, Turkey, Spintangi example the International Iran, and Pakistan, through the Himalayas into Myanmar, Malaysia, Koh-i-Maran Sainda k Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Chagai Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. There are also copper deposits in and Dilband K oh-iSanni Chilg azi S ultan World Bank, work to ensure a Daht-e-Kuhn, Nokundi, and Saindak in Chagai district. Excavators dig strong system of international the copper ore from open pits. Trucks take it away for the copper to be trade and payments between extracted. P P developed and underdeveloped Sukkur G un ga countries. By providing loans, Diji-Ranipu r expertise, and Kottechnology from developed nations to those in Kudni need, they attract investment B ankhri to boost its economy. Pakistan also has significant deposits of gold worth billions of dollars. I R A N Most of gold deposits are mainly located in the rocks of Kirana Group, Chagai District (Saindak, Reko Diq), Makran Area, Siahan Shale, Shardi, Shontar Nala along the Neelum river, Krinji Formation, Sewakht Formation, tributaries of the Indus and Chitral rivers, Jijal Ultramafic complex, and T han o B ula at different locations of Gilgit-Baltistan. The United States of Astola America K han Island Pir M an g ho holds the largest stockpile of gold in the world with over 8,100 tons of Churna Island K ara chi reserves. A R A B I A N S E SIR C 68° 24° G anjo Takka r Inte a N agar Parkar A 68° E. of GREENWICH 80 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Non-metallic minerals There are many non-metallic minerals. They are all slightly different, depending on how they were formed and the other materials they are made up of. Many of them are very useful. They are found all over the world and are mined or quarried and then treated in different ways, such as cutting, grinding, heating, mixing, shaping, and purifying. Some of the most useful mineral products include salt, lime, cement, glass, fertilisers, silicon products for computers, and ceramics (including china clay, pottery, and tiles). GILGIT C C J & S E A INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) D E Line of Control A N E * F I Shah Deri E N S K Dam mer Nissa r H U N GILGIT Chitral W E R GILGIT mer Nissa r Dam Krin j N trol f Con A Line o MUZAFFARABAD I W N SRINAGAR Krin j Chitral I N T I K N H Scale 1: 3,000,000 G F A H A F G H N Scale 1: 3,000,000 A N T A S T I N A N A Pes haw ar Jatta Kohat G hu nd ai Tara ko Daud K hel archa Sakesar M akar wal W Daud Khewra K hel Is a K hel Pezu l Katha-Pai Sargodha W archa Sakesar Pezu Sargodha Wo rk Lah ore Muslim Bagh Spin Ka n Quetta Qila Abdullah Quetta nda ry nda ry The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through is yet to be decidedActual through a plebiscite under the relevant United remark FRONTIER boundary in the area where Nations Security Council Resolutions. Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by appears, wouldthe ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities sovereign authorities concerned after the final r Zindapi P Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED P concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute. settlement of Jammu & Kashmir appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authoritiesdispute. concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute. Chamalong Harnai Bou Bou The red dotted represents approximately the line of control Nations in a line plebiscite under the relevant United Security Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession Council Resolutions. yet dotted to be decided throughapproximately a plebiscite the under thecontrol relevant Theisred line represents line of in United Nations Security Council Jammu & Kashmir. The state ofResolutions. Jammu & Kashmir and its accession Zindapi r Spin Ka n ing ing Lah ore Muslim Bagh Qila Abdullah Wo rk Manhiala * Kalabagh Khewra l Padhrar Katha-Pai Manhiala S I INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) * Kalabagh Padhrar Jatta A K arak hel ur Kwal B ahad M akar Is a K hel K arak Wo D M ulla gori JA & J & rkin Sherwan MUZAFFARABAD gB ou Kunhar SRINAGAR of Control ndary Maneri Line K Shah Deri M ulla gori G hu nd ai MUZAFFARABAD INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR ko Pes haw ar Sherwan Tara Kunhar (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED SRINAGAR Kohat Maneri IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) B ahad ur K hel F R O Mineral deposits in Pakistan *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim *A1974. J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined Constitution Act, M ult an Chamalong Harnai *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. Constitution Act, 1974. M ult an Spintangi LEGEND LEGEND LEGEND Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; ... ............ Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . International ................ Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Province ................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Working ................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spintangi Chagai Chilg azi K oh-iS ultan Chilg azi Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Sanni NN S ultan Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD DD Sainda K oh-i-k Koh-i-Maran Koh-i-Maran and Dilband and DilbandSanni II Chagai AA Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Sainda k P P II P P GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED COPYRIGHTS RESERVED GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN G un gaG un ga RESERVED JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR JUNAGADH & COPYRIGHTS MANAVADAR Sukkur Sukkur 69° 69° 70° 70° 69° I Kot Diji-Ranipu Kot Diji-Ranipu r r I R A N R A N 23° Kudni I along Eastern Bank of the Creek BANTVA 21° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek BANTVA J U N A A 21° 68° E. of GREENWICH. 23° I A 22° 22° R A A R 69° J U JUNAGADH N A JUNAGADH G A I H LF I A N B I A71° N 70° E. of GREENWICH. S E CA CA LF OF 21° GU Y BA M ECA S 71° OF GU 21° A 21° 72° A S 71° OF A GU N 70° E. of GREENWICH. B A 70° E. of GREENWICH. LF Y BA M R G AA D B Y BA M D H D H N A 69° A 69° 68° E. of GREENWICH. JUNAGADH G A J U 21° 68° E. of GREENWICH. D A AR A N agar Parkar N agar Parkar AD AV E A 23° 22° AN S K ara chi E 24° I R N S 24° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek International Boundary N A DA A N 24° 24° G anjo Takka r G anjo Takka r 72° M T han oKBhan ula I D BANTVA A I A I A AV AN R B I D N 24° M A B I AD AV R A N 22° AN A R O F M T han o B ula A G U L F K U T C H 22° K han Pir M an g ho ChurnaPir Island M an g ho K ara chi Churna Island K U T C H O F 22° 24° Astola Island 71° 23° K U T C H 68° 68° B ankhri Astola Island O F G U L F 68° B ankhri 70° 23° G U L F SIR CREEK SIR CREEK SIR CREEK Kudni 23° JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 71° 72° 71° 72° E 72° A 72° Cement Different types of cement have been made since ancient times. Modern cement is made mainly from limestone, clay, and gypsum. Cement is mainly used as a binder in concrete, which is a basic material for all types of construction. Its industrial uses include housing, roads, schools, hospitals, dams ports, as well as for decorative applications for patios, floors, staircases, driveways, pool decks, etc. China produces much more cement than any other country, followed by India. Both countries have large deposits of gypsum, which is also used in making fertilisers, plaster, wallboard, and toothpaste. Pakistan has twenty nine cement industries which play a vital role in developmental work and economic growth of the country. Other than local consumption, Pakistan also exports cement to multiple countries. It’s a fact! Pakistan’s mineral production (2020) Limestone 57,697,651 tonnes Rock salt 2,613,031 tonnes Gypsum 1,616,750 tonnes Clay 3,600,517 tonnes 81 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Potash Potash is a mixture of materials, including potassium. It is used for making fertilisers, which help plants to grow. The main potash-producing countries are Canada and Russia. Fertiliser industries in Pakistan use potash to make fertilisers and other mixtures to reclaim soil after over cropping or flooding. It is also used in the ceramics and cleaning detergent making industries. Phosphates Phosphates are minerals containing phosphorus. They are important for making fertilisers and chemicals used in industries. The main producer and exporter of phosphates is Morocco. Phosphate deposits are found in Kakul and Hazara in Pakistan. It’s a fact! The Earth has lost a third of its arable land in past 40 years. This is mainly due to population growth and unsustainable human activities that have led to increased soil erosion, pollution, and climate change. Salt Most of the salt we use comes from mines, but salt can also be obtained from sea water. The world’s main salt producing countries are China, the USA, and India, although the largest salt mine is in Goderich, Ontario, Canada, and the second largest is at Khewra, Punjab, Pakistan. You have learned about the Salt Range in Punjab, where one of Pakistan’s main non-metallic minerals are found. The Khewra Salt Mines are among the world’s oldest salt mines which was discovered in 326 BCE when Alexander the Great was fighting against Raja Porus in this region. They cover an underground area of around 110 km2 and have about 6.5 billion tonnes of salt deposits. Other salt mines are to the south of Islamabad: Warchi, Kalabagh (on the banks of the Indus River), Jatta (near Karak), and Bahadur Khel. Most of the salt is used in chemical industries, but some is purified for food use. Gypsum Gypsum is also mined at Khewra, and in several other parts of Pakistan: Other important non-metallic minerals are shown in the table below: Mineral 82 Where it is mined Uses Calcite Punjab Cement, glass-making, lime production, steel-making Kaolin Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Making china, toothpaste, cosmetics, medicine, soap, organic pesticides Potash Punjab Fertilisers, electroplating, medicine, cement, fire extinguishers, processed foods Phosphates Salt Range (Punjab), Pab Range (Balochistan), Hazara (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) Fertilisers, animal feed, plant foods, many industrial chemicals Vermiculite Kalat, Balochistan Moulded shapes for fireproofing, brake linings for vehicles, insulating boards, used instead of soil for plants, packing material Sulphur Balochistan Making sulphuric acid, textiles, fertilisers, pesticides, fungicides U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Gemstones A gemstone is a piece of mineral crystal that can be cut and polished for making jewellery or other ornaments. Some rocks (such as lapis lazuli) and organic materials that are not minerals (such as amber or jet), are also classed as gemstones, because they are used in jewellery. Gemstones are found all over the world. The world’s main producers of gemstones are shown in the table below. Other important producers of well-known gemstones are: Brazil (aquamarine and tourmaline); Sri Lanka (ruby, topaz, tourmaline, amethyst, garnet, peridot); and Tanzania (ruby, aquamarine, emerald, opal, peridot, topaz). It’s a fact! The world’s main gemstone producing countries Gemstone Country Diamond Emerald Sapphire Ruby Opal Russia Colombia and Pakistan Madagascar Myanmar and Pakistan Australia It’s a fact! •Since minerals have an increased demand and are a finite resource, its sustainable extraction is demanded by climate activists. This can be accomplished through specialisation of resources via education, scientific research, and environment friendly technology. •Minerals can be conserved by reducing wastage in the process of mining, recycling of metals using scrap metals, using alternative renewable as substitutes, etc. Gemstone mining in Pakistan Did you know that Pakistan is rich in high-quality gemstones? In fact, 30% of the world’s gemstone deposits are in northern Pakistan and nearby areas of Afghanistan. Pakistan ranks the 4th or 5th country in the world for the value of its gemstone deposits. These are in the mountains of Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Gilgit-Baltistan. But the gemstone industry has been very slow to develop, even in the province that has the largest deposits of gemstones—Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In some areas, particularly, many gemstone deposits are still to be identified. Peshawar is Pakistan’s main centre for gemstone trading. The gemstones are sold mainly to the jewellery trade in Pakistan and Afghanistan. The export of gems is now being developed, with gem bazaars in Quetta, Peshawar, Lahore, and Islamabad. On page 80 are some of the main gemstones mined in Pakistan (and where they are found). Imagine searching for gemstones in high mountains with steep cliffs rising to 1200 metres and even higher! When you find them, it is hard to tell what their quality is. Mining is very hard work high in the mountains, where everything has to be carried by horses or donkeys, or by the miners themselves. Some gemstone mines can only be reached by climbing ropes up the cliffs. Gemstone bracelets on sale 83 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Once you get all the equipment up there, you find that the ground is usually frozen and you have only a few months of suitable weather—from June or July to September or October. So most gemstone mining in remote places is run by small groups of miners using very simple methods. Large mining companies have not developed the mines in high places because it is too difficult to get modern mining equipment up there. Some modern equipment would not work up there because of the low air pressure. The miners use simple equipment: hammers and chisels, gas or gas-powered drills, and sometimes illegal explosives, which can damage the gemstones. The air in the mines soon becomes polluted with gas and dust; when it becomes too bad, the miners have to stop work. They wait until the air has cleared naturally overnight, and then they continue. These miners have no modern safety equipment such as breathing equipment, air filters, or ventilation—not even face masks. Nearly all the miners have lung problems and many suffer from carbon monoxide poisoning. But the main causes of death and injury are falls from cliffs, being buried when mines collapse, and being hit by falling rocks. So—do the miners who survive become rich? There are reports of some gemstone miners making a good living, but most of the precious stones are not properly mined and are damaged. Most miners sell their gems in their raw form—very cheaply. However, there are new projects to teach people in these mountain regions how to cut and polish gemstones and to set up proper trading centres where miners can sell their gems for better prices. On lower land, especially near the Karakoram Highway, mining is not so difficult, and large mining companies have opened mines and built roads to reach some of the mines in higher places. Rare minerals in Pakistan 84 Emerald (Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan) Sapphire (Balochistan, Gilgit-Baltistan) Ruby (Balochistan, Gilgit-Baltistan) Topaz (Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan) Tourmaline (Balochistan, GilgitBaltistan) Garnet (Balochistan, Gilgit-Baltistan) Amethyst (Balochistan, Gilgit-Baltistan) Quartz (Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan) Agate (Balochistan, Gilgit-Baltistan) Turquoise (Balochistan) Lapis lazuli (Balochistan) Corundum (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Economic benefits of mining Mining stimulates economic growth and provides the resources and raw-material that can be exported and used to make our cars, roads, bridges, railways, ships, planes, gadgets like computers and phones, solar panels, medical technology, weapons for defense, fertiliser industry, etc. They contribute to national income as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP). GDP and GNP are health indicators of a country’s economy. They measure the value of a country’s economic activity. The main difference between them is that the GDP measures productivity within a country’s geographical boundaries while GNP records economic activity by that country’s citizens and businesses, even outside their borders. Find out how economists calculate the GDP and GNP of a country. Since finished goods produce more revenue than raw materials, countries with economies dependent on manufactured goods are less dependent on other countries. Building Skills sing the Internet, find out why do U mineral rich countries like Pakistan are not able to mine more minerals to benefit their economy. With increased economic interdependence due to globalisation, countries that do not have means to mine but are rich in deposits of minerals are still an asset. They can attract investment for exploration and exploitation from other developed countries. This way these countries can create jobs and invest in human development through building research, developing rural areas, and modernise their infrastructure. Electronic gadget factory Cement factory Car factory 85 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Impact of mining on the environment Human life has become increasingly dependent on mining and its products. However, it is the direct cause of many problems that humans face today. Mining activities, include drilling, excavation, operation, maintenance and expansion. Sadly, most of the miners abandon the sites of exploration without rehabilitation (afforestation and water treatment) that can impact social and environmental systems in a range of ways: • • • • • • • • Large scale deforestation and erosion. Contamination of land, streams and wetlands. Changing biodiversity of wildlife and fishery habitats. Land, air, and water pollution. Disturbing local climates due to global warming. Diseases like cancer, hepatitis, tuberculosis, etc. Loss of fertile land. Increased surface runoff during rainfall. Blasting for mining Deforested land post for mining Building Skills sing the Internet, make a list U of environment friendly ways of mining minerals. Water pollution from a copper mine after rain Sustainable mining Through sustainable mining, we can extract essential resources while limiting environmental damage and improving social and economic outcomes. Such methods include: • • • • • • • • Modern methods of mining with little greenhouse emissions. Treatment plants for disposal of waste. Protective gear for miners. Rehabilitation of land after mining. Strict implementation of environmental laws to avoid air and water pollution. Using the 3Rs by reducing wastage, reusing resources for production, and recycling of metals using scrap metals. Use of alternative renewable substitutes. Use of mineral resources in a sustainable manner. Some minerals are only present in very tiny quantities. Many are used in today’s electronics devices, such as smartphones, and, increasingly, in renewable energy products such as solar panels and the batteries for electric vehicles (EVs). This scarcity in minerals can lead to increased price and shortage of products. Power resources Our social and economic well being revolves around the activities powered from energy. We use electricity and other sources of energy for lighting, heating, cooling, and refrigeration and for operating appliances, computers, electronics, machinery, and public transportation systems. 86 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s What is a fossil fuel? Fossil fuel is a non-renewable resource formed naturally over millions of years from dead trees and other plants. A fossil fuel power station generates thermal energy by burning a fossil fuel (coal, crude oil, or natural gas). The heat energy (steam) from this combustion is then turned into mechanical energy to move electricity generators called turbines. Since the invention of the first coal-fired steam engines in the 18th century, burning of the fossil fuels has steadily increased for electricity generation and other industrial processes. It’s a fact! Globally, humans are now burning over 4,000 times fossil fuels than we did during the 1776. Coal Coal is a fossil fuel. It contains mainly carbon; when dead plant material is converted into coal, this is called carbonisation. Pakistan produced over 7 million tonnes of coal. It has 175 billion tonnes of coal reserves—according to the Geological Survey of Pakistan. Major coal deposts GILGIT rol N T I Cont E R J & F R O K Line of MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR U N (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) F I A D E ing D Wo rk N E * Bou ndar y Line of Control INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) Working Boundary The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. P Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. P *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. Key Anthracite and bituminous coal Lignite Scale in km 2000 0 1000 3000 LEGEND Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4000 GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED 5000 JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 69° 70° 71° 72° 23° 23° G U L F SIR CREEK O F K U T C H 68° I N D I A 22° AN 24° AD AV BANTVA International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek N A 21° G A Y BA D H LF OF CAM GU A 68° E. of GREENWICH. JUNAGADH AR J U It’s a fact! Country 22° M 24° R A 69° B I A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. S 71° E 21° A 72° TOP COAL PRODUCING COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD (2019) Coal production Known coal reserves China 3.7 billion tonnes 142 billion metric tonnes India 783 million tonnes 106 billion metric tonnes Indonesia 616 million tonnes 37 billion metric tonnes Australia 550 million tonnes 149 billion metric tonnes USA 640 million tonnes 249 billion metric tonnes Russia 430 million tonnes 162 billion metric tonnes 87 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s How coal is formed Trees (even whole forests) and other plants died millions of years ago. The plant materials heated up as they sank deeper. More and more soil piled on top of the materials and compressed them. Peat can be burned as a fuel. When dried it is very useful for absorbing oil spills on land and water. It is also mixed with soil to help it retain water. Lignite (brown coal) is the lowest grade of coal. It is used as fuel for generating electricity. Mud and water covered the plant materials. This trapped carbon from the plant material in great peat bogs. The high pressure and high temperature converted some peat bogs into lignite. The plant materials were covered and buried deeply under sediment. Sub-bituminous coal is used mainly as fuel for heating water to produce steam for generating electricity. It is also used in the chemical industry. Bituminous coal is dense and usually black, but sometimes dark brown. It is used mainly as fuel for heating water to produce steam for generating electricity. It is also used to produce heat and power for factories and for making coke, which is used as a fuel for heating. Anthracite is a hard, shiny, black coal that is used mainly for heating. Graphite is difficult to light and so it is not used as fuel. It is mainly used for making pencils. Powdered graphite is used as a lubricant. The pressure and heat changed some lignite deposits into sub-bituminous coal, then some of this into bituminous coal, and then some of this into anthracite. Pressure and heat changed a few anthracite deposits into graphite. Coal mining in Pakistan Most of the world’s electricity is produced by coal powered generators. Most governments agree that this should be reduced because of the greenhouse gases it produces. Coal provides less than 1% of Pakistan’s electricity. Most of Pakistan’s coal (around 98%) is in Sindh, mainly in the Thar coalfield. There are much smaller coalfields in Punjab and Balochistan, and small quantity/production occur in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Coal has been mined here since the 1880s. 88 Building Skills Make 3D models to explain the procedures of long-wall and surface mining. U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s You might think that a country with large reserves of coal has many people working in the coal mining industry. But only 0.2% of Pakistan’s workforce was employed in all types of mining and quarrying in 2014. This is because the mining industry has not yet developed. Pakistan has mainly low-grade coal, such as lignite and some sub-bituminous coal, but some reserves of high-grade bituminous coal are being mined. Deep mining Pakistan’s coal is mainly from deep mining. There are two types of deep mining: Longwall Most of Pakistan’s coal is cut using longwall mining. This enables more than 75% of the coal to be mined. Hydraulically-powered supports hold up the roof while a machine cuts coal from the coalface. When all the coal in the area has been mined, the supports are taken out section by section, and the roof is allowed to collapse. The coalface can be 100–350 metres long. A coal miner in Punjab However, few of Pakistan’s coal mines have such modern equipment; miners cut the coal using pickaxes, and place wooden pit props to support the roof. Modern machinery is much safer. Room and pillar In room and pillar mining, miners cut ‘rooms’ into the coal seam and leave behind ‘pillars’ of coal to support the roof of the mine. The pillars of coal use up to 40% of the total coal in the seam, but sometimes these pillars can be taken out later. Room and pillar mining is used in some of the mines at Lakhra, Sindh. Modern mining equipment used in longwall mining Surface mining Surface mining (also called open pit or open cast) is used when the coal is near the surface. In a surface mine, more of the coal deposit can be mined than in an underground mine. These mines can cover an area of many square kilometres and use very large pieces of equipment, including power shovels, large trucks, bucket-wheel excavators, and conveyors. First, explosives are used to break up the soil and rock covering the coal. Next, the soil and rock are taken away. Machines or hand tools are used to drill and break up the coal. It is mined in strips and loaded on to trucks or conveyors ready for transport. After the coal seam has been mined, the land should be restored so that it can be used for other purposes. Opencast mining destroys landscapes, forest, and wildlife habitat at the mining site 89 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Safety A report by Industrial Global Union in 2016 says that workers in most mines in Pakistan have poor safety and working conditions. Most mines do not have medical help nearby, so when an accident happens, help is slow GILGIT to arrive. The union recommends that there should be more inspectors to check mines and to force mine K ntrol operators toLineimprove safety. At the new Thar coalfield of Co MUZAFFARABAD there areSRINAGAR plans for medical centres and good living conditions and education for workers and their families. Building Skills F R O sing the Internet, find out what kind of U problems do miners face from working in mines. Suggest ways to ensure the well being of miners in Pakistan. N T I J & E R U N INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR F I A D E (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) ing Advantages of using fossil fuels Disadvantages of using fossil fuels D Wo rk N E * Bou nda ry Cheap source of energy Limited reserves Efficient as it produces more energy than renewable sources Extraction leads to soil erosion Easy to transport Increases the rate of global warming The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu (plastics, & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Useful by-products fuel, etc.) Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through Few deposits lead to imports and a dependent economy GILGIT a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. J & A Wo rol rLi K kinne of Cont gB oun dar MUZAFFARABAD y SRINAGAR I N D I J & A 22° coal, oil, and gas Peshawar N M 24° 22° AN 24° AR oil and gas J U N A 21° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek G A Y BA D H LF OF A R A B hydroelectric I A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. 69° S 71° E A H AM C GU 68° E. of GREENWICH. A JUNAGADH AD AV BANTVA F A 21° G I S T A Wo rk ing Bou nda Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED The red dotted represents approximately the line of appears, would ultimately be line decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute. control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & *AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Kashmir its accession is yet to be decided through Constitution Act,and 1974. a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. Central Quetta Lahore Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D N *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I N Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . East Central Balochistan East Central Balochistan and Upper and Upper Sindh Sindh A Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P West Central Balochistan GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN COPYRIGHTS RESERVED JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR LEGEND 69° 23° I R LEGEND Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER ISLAMABAD UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. A West Central Balochistan I Central P Quetta B I A N S E 22° 24° BANTVA J U N A 21° International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek A JUNAGADH AR A K U T C H AD AV R 22° O F AN A Churna Island 72° 23° 68° 24° 71° M Karachi Astola Island Lower Sindh Karachi 70° Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I Working N D I .A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G U L F SIR CREEK Lower Sindh ry The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. Lahore Northern 72° INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) * Northern JAMMU AND KASHMIR (Disputed Territory) Islamabad D K U T C H N N E Key O F F I SIR CREEK 68° A 23° G U L F D E 72° 23° S * Peshawar GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN Scale 1:RESERVED 3,000,000 COPYRIGHTS 71° E (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) GILGIT JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR 70° W A INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR U N LEGEND Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N E R trol f Con LinCe o H MUZAFFARABAD SRINAGAR I N N T I K settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. 69° F R O Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER appears,regions would ultimately beof decided by MainUNDEFINED energy Pakistan the sovereign authorities concerned after the final A 68° E. of GREENWICH. R A Y BA AM GOVERNMENT OF F CPAKISTAN D H O 21° COPYRIGHTSGURESERVED LF G A JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR B 69° I A N 70° E. of GREENWICH. 69° S 70° E A 71° 71° 72° 72° 23° 23° G U L F SIR CREEK O F K U T C H 68° I N D I A 22° 22° M 24° AN BANTVA AD AV J U International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Creek JUNAGADH AR 90 24° N A 21° G A LF OF GU A R A B I A N Y BA M D H S E A CA 21° U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s It’s a fact! Reported mining accidents in Pakistan in January–March 2016 Date 8/1/16 19/1/16 30/1/16 19/2/16 12/3/16 Place Shahrig, near Quetta, Balochistan Chamalang, Balochistan Sor-range, Quetta, Balochistan Duki, Balochistan Orakzai, Balochistan Details 2 workers seriously injured 2 workers killed 3 workers killed 3 miners killed by poisonous gas 10 workers killed These figures were from IndustriALL Global Union, which collected information from news reports that showed from 2010 to May 2019 at least 414 coal miners were killed in about 93 accidents and that at least 104 mineworkers died in 2018. Crude Oil Crude oil is a viscous, inflammable, liquid fossil fuel with many hydrocarbons. It is the most valuable and wanted fuel across the world since treated crude oil can be used as gasoline (petrol) for cars, diesel fuel for diesel engines used in trucks, trains and ships, kerosene fuel for jets and as lubricants, and for the manufacturing of plastics. Mostly it is extracted by drilling down through rocks on land or offshore on the continental shelf. Oil is considered a highly flexible fuel that can accommodate increase and decrease in its demand. It is easy to store and can be transported by pipelines. According to NASDAQ, the top five oil-producing countries are the U.S.A., Saudi Arabia, Russia, Canada, and China. These producers provide 54% of the total global output. Pakistan has very little reserves of crude oil and is dependent on imports to meet its transportation, industrial, and power needs. Crude oil drilling pump It’s a fact! • Crude oil is measured in barrels, which is equal to 42 US gallons or 159 liters • Major reserves of crude oil are in the Middle East, the Americas, and Russia. • Crude oil is also used to create medicine, recreational sports items, and cosmetics. •People use approximately 100 million barrels of liquid fuels and oil per day, and this adds up to more than 36 billion barrels of oil yearly. •1 litre of oil can contaminate 1 million litres of water by spreading over its surface in a thin layer that stops oxygen getting to the plants and animals that live in the water. 91 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Natural Gas Natural gas is widely used for cooking and for heating homes. It is also used as a fuel for heating, generating electricity, and as a raw material (feedstock) to produce chemicals, fertiliser, etc. It consists mostly of methane and is found near oil deposits below Earth’s surface. Natural gas can be pumped out through the same wells used for extracting crude oil. According to IEA data, it releases 45% to 55% lower greenhouse gases than coal when used to generate electricity. It is easy to transport on land through pipelines or on water through A natural gas power plant ship. Large networks of pipelines quickly deliver natural gas on land to major processing facilities and end consumers. The Sui Gas Field in Pakistan is considered to be the largest natural gas field in the country with 1.6 trillion cubic feet Building Skills reserve estimates as of 2017. To meet the energy deficit, Pakistan also imports Liquefied natural gas (LNG), which is a natural gas that has been cooled down to liquid for safe transport. It is odorless, colorless, non-toxic and noncorrosive and takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state. When the shipment of LNG reaches its destination at the receiving terminal, it is re-heated and converted back to a gas via a process known as regasification Coventional Unconventional Where does the generator’s energy come from? Natural Gas rig Gas reservoir (sandstone) Seal Gas source rock (Shale, coalbed methane) Coventional and unconventional exploration of natural gas 92 Discuss and debate the impact of Pakistan’s dependence on energy from fossil fuels on its economy. Fuels—oil, gas or coal—are stores of energy. When they are burned they heat the water. As they burn they release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Alternative energy resources A power station is where electricity is made. Electricity is electrical energy. As you will know from science lessons, we can’t make energy: we can change one form of energy into another. You will also know that everything is made of microscopic particles called atoms. Each atom has even smaller particles called protons and electrons, which have an electrical charge that makes them move around the centre of the atom (the nucleus). Electrons have a negative charge; protons have a positive charge. When electrons flow from atom to atom they become an electric current – a flow of electrons. They need a source of energy to make them flow. A generator uses kinetic (movement) energy to start this flow of electrons. It does this by moving a magnet past a coil of wire. The magnetic force pushes electrons through the wires of the coil, like when a pump pushes water through a pipe. Biomass energy Wave energy Hydel energy Heat is a type of energy— so what energy is converted into heat? In thermal power stations heat is used to boil water to produce highpressure steam. The steam drives a turbine connected to the generator. Wind energy Building Skills Suggest ideas to reduce the dependency on fossil fuels and explore howa Pakistan can benefit from using alternate sources of power. Tidal energy Geothermal energy Solar energy 93 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Biomass energy Biomass energy comes from living or once-living organisms, such as plants, for example, wood, corn, soy or even food or animal waste. As with coal, oil and gas, we can burn these to create heat for producing electricity. It’s a fact! • According to International Energy Agency (IEA) global carbon emissions in 2021 from energy combustion and industrial processes reached 36.3 gigatonnes (Gt), its highest ever annual level. • According to BBC, China had the biggest carbon footprint in 2021, followed by USA, European Union, Japan, and Russia. Nuclear power stations Nuclear power stations use nuclear fission to heat water that produces steam to spin turbines for generating electricity. Nuclear fission is when atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms. This releases energy. Most nuclear power stations use rods of uranium to fuel nuclear fission because its atoms split more easily that those of other materials. This is not a fossil fuel, so it doesn’t produce greenhouse gases. But nuclear power stations produce waste that is radioactive. Pakistan uses nuclear power stations to help to provide energy for the country’s needs, and has uranium deposits in several places – mainly in the central and southern parts. Renewable energy sources Unlike thermal power, renewable energy doesn’t use up materials to produce electricity. It includes hydroelectric power, tidal power, wind power and solar power. Hydro-electric power At one time 45% of Pakistan’s electricity came from hydro power, but by 1991 this was down to 28 percent, although we have more than 80 hydro power stations. Together they can produce around 10,000 megawatts of electricity by converting the energy from the movement of water into electrical energy. However, many more hydro-power stations have been built, more are being built and others are planned with the help of ally countries and institutions, like the World Bank and the IMF. Of the top 20 countries that installed new hydro capacity in 2018, Pakistan came third, just behind China, then Brazil. Hydro power doesn’t use fossil fuels, so it doesn’t release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Water flows into a turbine and pushes against the blades. This makes the turbine spin a generator to produce electricity. Most hydro power comes from dams across rivers, for example: Tarbela Dam and Warsak Dam in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; Mangla Dam in Azad Kashmir; and Chasma Dam in Punjab. 94 Transmission lines Dam Powerhouse Reservoir Transformer Generator Penstock Intake Turbine Control of gate How a hydro- electric power plant works. Outflow U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Not all Pakistan’s hydro plants have dams or barrages across rivers: for example, the micro hydro power plants at Sabri waterfall, Chitral, Jabban and Chitral in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and in many places in the Neelum valley in Azad Kashmir. These use naturally falling water. There are some very small hydro plants that local people have developed from waterfalls so that they need not cut down so many trees for wood, which is their main fuel for cooking and heat. These small power plants have made great changes to people’s lives: for example, they have electric lights, so no longer need lamps or candles, they can use mobile phones and the internet, freezers for storing food and medicines, and many more benefits. Hydroelectric power is the most popular form of renewable energy due to its multi-purpose function Tidal power The power of moving water can be harnessed from tides in the sea. Pakistan has not yet developed any tidal power, but some sites are being explored off the coast of Sindh and Balochistan. Wind power Climate consciousness has pushed governments and organisations to lower their carbon footprint by reducing the waste released in the environment from energy generation. This is called energy conservation. Wind power plants use wind turbines to generate electricity. Without wind they stop generating electricity, so they need to be in places that are likely to be windy, for example, near coasts. Pakistan has wind power plants at Jhimper and Gharo in the Thatta district of Sindh, and is developing more in the coastal areas of Sindh and Balochistan. Tidal power Wind power Solar power Energy from sunlight is used to produce electricity. Solar power plants have panels made up of PV (photovoltaic) cells. These cells take in energy from sunlight. This energy starts electrical charges. No generator is used. 95 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Solar cells work whenever there is sunlight, even when the sky is cloudy – although they produce more electricity in sunny weather. Pakistan has plenty of sunlight – around eight and a half hours per day, and there are a few cloudy days even in the wettest regions. The country’s first commercial solar power plant was Aerial view of sunport in Delfzijl, Groningen. It is the largest park completed in 2015, and by 2017 there with solar cells in The Netherlands. were six, with four more due to open in 2022. Together they can generate 430 megawatts of electricity. There are some smaller, private solar Building Skills power plants that provide power for rural villages – and some homes have their own solar panels. Geothermal energy Discuss and debate whether solar energy is the resource of future. Geothermal energy is heat that comes from the below the surface of the Earth. The deeper you dig into the Earth, the higher temperature. That’s because the inside of the Earth is very hot. This energy can be used for heating buildings such as homes: • • • • For a house, flexible pipes run though a trench about 100 metres long and 1.5 metres deep (or down a borehole about 100 metres deep). Water flows through the loops of pipe. In cold weather the water heats up as it runs through the underground pipe. The water is pumped up into pipes in the house and transfers heat into it. The water cools down after its heat is transferred to the house. Then it is pumped back underground where it is heated again. Geothermal energy can be used instead of fuel in power stations, but this is only useful in areas that have tectonic activity such as volcanoes or where tectonic plates collide. Hellisheidi (Iceland) geothermal powerplant Pakistan has no geothermal power plants, but there are places where these could be developed, for example, where the Indian Plate meets the Eurasian Plate. Parts of Pakistan have geothermal energy in hot springs: for example at Garam Chasma in Chitral, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Advantages of using renewable energy Disadvantages of using renewable energy Can be set up in remote areas Expensive set-up and maintenance Independent economy Loss of land that can be farmed Less greenhouse emissions Unreliable (dependent on tides, absence of clouds, speed of wind) Inexhaustible resource Disturbs ecosystems 96 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Economic dependence on energy Historically electricity has been an enabler for human development. From industrial growth, improved social welfare, and healthcare, the importance and reliance on electricity has only been increasing everyday. We can divide the usage of energy into four sectors: • • • • Residential Commercial Transportation Industrial We require energy for all our daily life functions, for example, using electrical appliances, communication, heating and cooling our homes and offices, etc. All sectors of agriculture and economy are dependent on energy supply, for example, exploration of raw material, extraction, manufacturing, marketing, sales, and modernisation through research and development. Export of manufactured or specialised goods boost economic growth by generating greater revenue. Countries with shortage of energy supply face load shedding and rely on fuel imports to sustain their economic activity. Manufacturing and business transactions are delayed. It makes operating business challenging and losses in revenue. An energy crisis directly influences all the sectors of economy such as agriculture, industries, moving away of businesses that leads to unemployment, poverty, lower GDP and higher inflation. Electricity is a crucial to construction work. for equipment like excavators, bulldozers etc. Assembling at a car factory Worker assembling production at a line conveyor Much of the hospital machinery, labs, and surgical tools depend on electrical power Building Skills Using Google Spreadsheets, collect and present data on the most viable alternate energy resource (wind, water, solar, nuclear, etc.) 97 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Minerals and Power Resources: Assessment A. Choose the correct answer: I. Most of Pakistan’s coal is cut using __________ mining. a. Surfaceb. Long-wallc. Room and pillar II. A fossil fuel power station generates __________ energy. a. Thermalb. Kineticc. Carbon III. Most nuclear power stations use __________ rods to fuel nuclear fission. a. Copperb. Rhodiumc. Uranium IV. __________ energy comes from living or once-living organism waste. a. Nuclearb. Coalc. Biomass V. __________ is extracted by drilling down through rocks on land or offshore on the continental shelf. a. Coalb. Crude oilc. Natural gas VI.__________ can help in rehabilitation of land after mining. a. Afforestation b. Flattening of land c. Farming VII.Global institutions such as __________ ensure a strong system of trade and payments between countries. a. UNOb. IMFc. UNESCO VIII. __________ is Pakistan’s main center for gemstone mining. a. Gilgitb. Quettac. Peshawar B 1.Copy the table below and write the names of the minerals. 98 Mineral Type Where it is found What it is used for a) Metallic Balochistan Jewellery b) Non-metallic Khewra, Punjab Plaster, cement, toothpaste c) Non-metallic Khewra, Punjab Chemical industries, food d) Non-metallic Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh China clay, Toothpaste, Cosmetics, Medicine, Soap, Organic pesticides e) Non-metallic Balochistan Sulphuric acid, Textiles, Fertilisers, Pesticides, Fungicides f) Gemstone A blue/green gem used in jewellery Balochistan g) Gemstone Balochistan, A deep green Gilgit-Baltistan gem used in jewellery 2. a) List the countries that have important gold mines. b) Name two places where gold can be found in Pakistan. 3. a) List the countries that have important copper mines. b) Name two places where copper can be found in Pakistan. 4. Which metals are usually found together? C 1. a) Which are the main regions of Pakistan for metal ores? b) Some of the metals in these regions are only just being extracted. Why do you think this is? 2. a) Use your Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan or one of the maps in this book to help you to draw a map of Pakistan. b) Mark the borders of the provinces. c) Mark the capital city of each province. d) Use symbols to mark the provinces where different minerals and gemstones are found. e) Draw a key for your map. D 1.What problems do you think are faced by mining companies that extract metals in: a) Chagai and Khuzdar in Balochistan? b) Haripur, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa? 2.What problems do gemstone miners face in the mountains of northern Pakistan: a) in finding, mining, and selling the gemstones? b) for their health? 3. What could be done to improve a) the health of these gemstone miners? b) their income? 4. a) Give two reasons why Pakistan’s gemstone miners get very low prices for their gems. b) The mountains of Pakistan are rich in gemstones but few large mining companies have opened mines there. Explain this. 5. a) Discuss with a partner whether it would be good for the local people if large mining companies started mining gemstones high in the mountains. b) Write your answer, giving reasons. E 1. Using the Internet, find out what minerals are used as raw materials in the following industries: a) Cement b) Fertiliser c) Chemicals d) Plastic e) Detergents U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s 2. What steps can be taken by the following to reduce the harmful effects of mining: a) Governments b) Individuals F 1.Copy the table below and write the names of the minerals. Mineral Type Where it is found What it is used for a) Fossil fuel All provinces of Pakistan but 98% in Sindh Heating, Generating electricity b) Fossil fuel Tiny holes in rock underground, all provinces Heating, Cooking, Generating electricity c) Fossil fuel Underground reservoirs, first found at Sui, Balochistan, then Toot, Punjab; mainly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Vehicle fuel, Heating, Cooking, Generating electricity 2. Copy and complete the flowchart to explain how electricity is produced using coal. Coal is a store of energy. Coal is burned in a furnace. The coal’s energy is converted to ______________ Heat energy is transferred from the burning coal to ___________ under pressure to form _______ The generator uses ___________ energy to start a flow of ____ Movement energy turns _______________ G In recent years, Pakistan has had a shortage of electricity. a)Find out about the amount of electricity that is produced by all Pakistan’s power sources at the present time. b)Find out how this has changed in the last five years. 2. a)List any changes that you think have made people use more electricity. b)Use what you have learned to explain why Pakistan has a shortage of electricity. H 1. a)Make notes about how they are used for producing electricity. This should include the materials used, any waste products and how these affect the environment. b)Use your notes to help you to write an essay about why renewable energy sources are important for the environment. I 1. a) What is a fossil fuel? b) Why are gas, oil, and coal deposits often found close together? c) N ame and describe the types of coal mining. 2. a) Are Pakistan’s coal, gas, and oil industries developed? Explain your answer. b) Explain why Pakistan’s coal mining production is much lower than that of countries that have less coal. 3. a) What are the main differences between coal mining in Pakistan and in Germany? b) Explain why there are such differences. 4. a) Why are many European countries including Germany closing their coal mines? b) Why do you think Pakistan, like China, is developing a large new coal mine at a time when many countries are closing their coal mines? c) D escribe the ways in which the health and safety of coal miners in Germany are protected. J 1. a.Compare the economic advantages of using fossil fuels and renewable and nuclear energy. b)What are the disadvantages of using renewable and nuclear energy on the environment? 2. Explain how does load shedding of electricity affect the economic growth of a country? The ________ under pressure produces ______ energy. 99 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Overview Minerals Non-metallic minerals found in the world Metallic minerals found in Pakistan • Salt • Gypsum • Calcite • Kaolin • Potash • Phosphates • Vermiculite • Sulphur • Gold • Iron ore • Copper • Lead • Zinc • Chromite • Manganese • Bauxite • Ilmenite • Magnesium Environmental impact of mining • • • • • • • • Deforestation Erosion Water contamination Loss of biodiversity Pollution Global warming Diseases Loss of fertile land Sustainable mining • Research and development • Using eco-friendly methods • Eco-friendly waste disposal • Protective gear for miners • Rehabilitation of land after mining • Strict implementation of environmental laws • Recycling of metals Gemstone mining • Most gemstone deposits are found in Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Gilgit-Baltistan. • Access to gemstone deposits is difficult due to their locations at high altitudes and lack of modern mining techniques and equipment. • Gems are mainly exported to China, Europe, USA, Bahrain, Thailand, and Europe. 100 U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s Overview Power resources Alternative engergy Fossil fuels Renewable engergy Biomass energy Coal Oil • Comes from burning living or once-living organisms, such as plants, wood, food or animal waste • There are two types of coal mining: • The first oilfield in Pakistan was found in Sui, Balochistan. • Pakistan’s oil production increased to 75,575 barrels per day (bpd) in 2021. Nuclear power • Yses nuclear fission to heat water that produces steam to spin turbines for generating electricity • Most nuclear power stations use rods of uranium to fuel nuclear fission • Produce radioactive waste Deep mining • Longwall mining • Room and pillar mining Surface mining • Most coalfields in Pakistan are found in Thar, Sindh. Smaller coalfields have been mined in parts of Balochistan, Punjab, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. • Pakistan has greater coal reserves than many other countries in the world but it does not produce enough coal because the mining industry is not yet developed. • A comparison between coal mining in Germany and Pakistan shows lack of safety precautions, health hazards, and poor working conditions for miners in Pakistan. • European countries like France and the United Kingdom have closed down their coal mines and switched to renewable energy sources such as solar energy. Gas • The main natural gas deposits of Pakistan are found in Sui, Balochistan. • Pakistan produces 1,345,129 million cubic feet of natural gas per year. Hydel power • The power of moving water can be harnessed from water falling off a steep slope of a mountain and from tides in the sea. Wind power • Wind power plants use wind turbines to generate electricity • The power plants are set up near coasts Solar power • Energy from sunlight is used to produce electricity. • Solar power plants have panels made up of PV (photovoltaic) cells Geothermal energy • Uses heat from the below the surface of the Earth to generate electricity 101 Glossary Glossary Aeration Alluvial Bio-fertilisers Biogas Carbonisation Causeway Channel Climate change Compost Condense Continental shelf Conurbations Cover crops Crop rotation Crustaceans Delta Desalination Echolocation Effluent Erosion Estuary Evaporates Exports Fertiliser Grasslands Greenhouse gases Habitat Hydroelectricity Import Lubricant Meanders Megalopolis Microbes Mouth (of a river) 102 process by which air is circulated through, mixed with or dissolved in a liquid or substance fertile sediment deposited by flowing water on floodplains fertilisers with microorganisms that promote plant growth by improving nutrients any gaseous fuel produced by the bacterial decomposition of organic matter conversion of organic matters like plants and dead animal remains into carbon a raised road across water the hollow passage where a river flows change in the Earth’s normal weather patterns for different climates natural fertiliser made from plant material change state of matter from vapor to liquid area of seabed around a large land mass where the sea is shallow compared with the ocean a group of large cities and their suburbs that have joined up or have strong roadlinks connecting them crops that store nutrients from land until the following years’ crop can utilise them, reducing nutrient runoff and leaching planting different crops each year on a piece of land hard, jointed-shell arthropods that live in fresh or salt water the place near the coast where a river splits into smaller rivers and is shaped like the Greek letter delta the process of removing salt from seawater sensing position of objects by sending out sounds that objects reflect sewage or other liquid waste that flows into a body of water such as a river or lake when fragments of rock are worn away and moved from one place to another the wide part of a river’s lower end, where it joins the sea turn from liquid to gas in the form of vapor due to heat sell goods to other countries chemical or organic material for feeding plants large plains covered by grass one of the gases in the atmosphere, for example, carbon dioxide, ozone, water vapour, nitrous oxide, methane where things live and grow naturally a form of renewable energy that uses the power of moving water to generate electricity buy goods from other countries any material that is used to coat closely fitting moving parts to lower friction a curve in a river a very large, heavily populated city or urban complex a microorganism causing disease or fermentation the place where a river meets the sea Glossary Organic Oxbow lakes Pampas Peat Perennial crops Permafrost Pesticides Prairies Profit Quarrying Radioactive Range Reservoir Retreat Savannahs Sediment Septic tank Sludge Staple Steppe Subsidise Subtropical Sustainable Swarm Thaw Thermal Tributary Turbine Weathering produced naturally, without using pesticides or other added chemicals U-shaped lake or pool that forms when a wide meander of a river is cut off, creating a freestanding body of water large treeless plains soil from a wet area that is made up of decayed plants, can be used as a fuel or fertiliser crops that do not need to be planted each year) a layer of soil that is permanently frozen in very cold regions of the world chemical for killing living things that damage plants a large open area of grassland money earned by a business after costs have been deducted a large open hole or pit dug for mining emitting or relating to the emission of ionizing radiation or particles the greatest distance people will travel for a service or goods in a settlement a place where water is collected and stored when a glacier retreats it shrinks through melting a flat plain covered with grass that also has scattered trees. Savannas are found in Africa and other tropical regions solid material that settles to the bottom of a liquid an underground chamber made of concrete, fiberglass, or plastic through which domestic wastewater flows for basic sewage treatment dirt and sediment precipitated in a body of water one of the most important crops or products of a region a large area of flat unforested grassland pay some of the cost of a product or service being from the regions immediately north or south of the tropics can continue for a long time a large or dense group of flying insects become liquid or soft as a result of warming up related to heat small river that flows into a main river a machine that uses a moving stream of air, water, steam, or hot gas to turn a wheel to produce mechanical power when rock is broken into smaller pieces that stay in the same place 103 B ib l i o g r a p h y Bibliography • • • • • • • • • • • • • Survey of Pakistan CIA Factbook Britannica Encyclopedia National Geographic Physical Geography: The Global Environment Fifth Edition by Jason Burt, Harm de Blij, Joseph Mason, Peter Muller BBC Bitesize Geography NASA Earth Observatory Carbonbrief.org Climate.gov Pakistan GIS maps from Citypulse.com.pk Economic Survey of Pakistan Worldbank.org UN.org Footnotes of the Political map from the Survey of Pakistan 104 U N I T 6 F o o tn o t e s o f t h e P o l iti c a l m a p fr o m t h e Surv e y o f P a k i s t a n 106