Summary organization psychology
2.1
Science is the understanding, prediction and control of phenomenon’s of interest. IO
psychologists are interested in understanding and influencing behavior related to the
workplace. Science is usually based on a hypothesis and data. It should be communicable,
open and public. Science sets out to disprove theories or hypotheses. One other
characteristic of science is disinterestedness. That means that the scientist should be
objective and uninfluenced by biases when conducting research.
An expert witness is a witness in a lawsuit who is permitted to voice opinions about
organizational practices. He may give his opinion.
Good theories display the following characteristics:
-
Offer novel insights
Are interesting
Are focused
Are relevant to important topics
Provide explanations
Are practical
The operations that define research are complex and series of decisions need to be made
before the research actually begins (pag 51). Research design provides the overall
structure or architecture for the research study. Spector has reviewed research designs and
breaks designs down into three basic types: experimental, quasi-experimental and
nonexperimental. Experimental means that participants of the research are randomly
assigned to different conditions. A quasi-experimental research is when participants are
assigned to different conditions, but random assignment is not possible. For example when a
new pay plan is introduced at a factory. You can only research those people but no other
people at other factories because it would be too many people. Nonexperimental means that
researchers simply gather information about something without introducing any new
condition or a treatment. A treatment is called independent variable and behavior of the
research participant is called dependent variable. Two types of nonexperimental research
are the observational design and the survey design. With the observational design the
researcher watches an employee his behavior and makes a record about what is observed.
The survey design let the participants complete a questionnaire.
The essence of laboratory research is control over conditions. Another reason for doing no
fieldwork is because the experiments can be difficult to do in the field because workers can
seldom be randomly assigned.
Methods of data collection
Quantitative methods rely on tests, rating scales, questionnaires, and physiological
measures and results. Qualitative methods of investigations rely on observations,
interviews, case studies, and analysis of diaries or written documents and produce flow
diagrams and narrative descriptions of events or processes. Introspection is an early
scientific method in which the participant was also the experimenter, recording his
experiences in completing an experimental task, this is considered very subjective compared
by modern standards. The two methods can be used together to get better results.
Triangulation is the search for converging information from different sources. Context is of
great importance when researching. Many strange outcomes came because lack of context.
A very important issue is how widely results can be generalized. An investigator can
generalize results to areas that have been sampled in the research study. Job analysis is the
process used by IO psychologists to gain understanding of a job.
Control
Characteristic of research in which possible confounding influences that might make results
less reliable or harder to interpret are eliminated. Experimental control is often easier to
establish in laboratory studies than in field studies. Statistical control is that the researcher
uses statistical techniques to control for the influence of certain variables. Such control
allows researchers to concentrate exclusively on the primary interest. With this technique
factors as age and gender are not a problem. Ethical standards for IO psychologists are set
by the APA, SIOP and the society for human resource management.
2.2
Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics are statistics that summarize, organize and describe a sample of
data. Three measures that can be used to describe any score distributions are measure of
central tendency, variability and skew. A measure that shows the median (gemiddelde) or
the median of the graph is a measure of central tendency. This include the mean, the
mode, and the median. The mean is the average score in a distribution obtained by
summing all of the scores in a distribution and dividing by the sample size. The mode is the
most occurring score and the median is the middle score of all scores so for example
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 than the median is 4,5 because that is the middle of the scores. Variability is
the extent to which the scores in a distribution vary from each other and the skew is a tool to
show how easy/difficult something was. A negative skew means that the test was very easy
and when a positive skew occurs it was difficult.
Standard deviation is the deviation from the mean.
Inferential statistics are statistics that are used to aid the researcher in testing hypotheses
and making inferences from sample data to a larger sample or population. An inferential
statistic can also support a conclusion for example if you have a lower mean with high
school pupils than with university students than you can suggest that education is improving
mean but with a inferential test this suggestion can become a conclusion. The test that
investigate if the students are from high school or university is the inferential test.
Statistical significance means that the outcome of the test can’t be wrong because of
chance or error. A statistical significance is when the significance level is lower than 0.05 (5
percent) so less than 5 out of 100. If a statistical significance is found than this indicates that
the results found are unlikely to have occurred by chance.
The null-hypothesis indicates that there is no difference between. There can be slight
differences but no big differences between the tests.
Statistical power is the likelihood of finding a statistical significant difference when a true
difference exists. The power to detect true or real difference is getting lower when the
sample size is smaller. So for statistical significance it is important to have a big group.
Measurement is assigning numbers to characteristics of individuals according to rules for
example for the level of stress. Correlation coefficient is the correlation between a factor
and a test. Like IQ and the testing grade. If the IQ is getting bigger and the grade as well
than you have a positive correlation coefficient. A negative correlation coefficient means that
if x is getting bigger y is getting smaller. The coefficient can range from +/- 0.00 to +/- 1.00.
A scatterplot is a graph used to plot the scatter of scores on two variables. It is used to
display the correlational relationship between two variables. All scores are marked on the
graph. All these scores are the foundation for the regression line. This is the line that best
fit all the scores. So the line in the middle of the scores. A regression line is a linear line
(straight). But a correlation can also be nonlinear. The correlation coefficient can be 0.00
but there is correlation (65, fig 2.7). Multiple correlation coefficient is the statistic that
represent the overall linear association between several variables on the one hand and a
single variable on the other hand. When concluding things researchers have to be careful
because a correlation is not always the same as causation. It may be that people who earn a
lot will turn bold but this is because people who earn more are older people.
Two important criteria when evaluating measurement instruments are reliability
(consistency or stability of a measure) and validity (does the instrument actually measure
what it is supposed to measure?).
Big data is a term that describes using large data sets to make organizational decisions
based on such data. Meta-analysis is a statistical method for combining results from many
studies to draw a general conclusion. Statistical artifacts are characteristics (small sample
size, unreliable measures) of a particular study that distort (verdraaien) the observed results.
Researchers can correct for artifacts to arrive at a statistic that represent the “true”
relationship between the variables of interest.
Micro-research is the study of individual behavior. Macro-research is the study of collective
behavior and meso-research is the study of the interaction of individuals and collective
behavior.
2.3
Two important criteria when evaluating measurement instruments are: reliability
(consistency or stability of a measure) and validity (does the instrument actually measure
what it is supposed to measure?).
Reliability
A graph can show measurement 1 on the y-as and measurement 2 on the x-as. These two
should give the same results thus a straight line with dots in the middle. If this is true the test
has a high test-retest reliability. If the two measurements don’t match then the test-retest
reliability is low (72, fig 2.8).
Equivalent forms reliability means that a type of reliability calculated by correlating
measurements from a sample of individuals who complete two different forms of the same
test. Example: so the questions are different and the researchers investigate if the tests are
of equal level. Internal consistency reliability is a test that shows if the questions in a test
are of the same level. One group makes all the even questions and one all the odd
questions and if the grades are the same than we can speak of internal consistency. A test is
reasonable reliable if the reliability is between .70 to .80 or higher (until 1.00).
The Generalizability theory is a sophisticated approach to the question of reliability that
simultaneously considers all types of error in reliability estimates (test-retest equivalent and
internal consistency).
Validity
IO psychology gather validity evidence using three common designs. These are Criterionrelated validity, content-related validity and construct-related validity. (75, fig 2.9) A picture of
a validation process. A predictor is a test chosen or developed to assess abilities identified
as important for successful job performance. An outcome variable that describes important
aspects or demands of the job is a criterion. This is the value that we want to predict.
Criterion-related validity
Validity approach that is demonstrated by correlating a test score with a performance
measure. By correlating these test scores with the performance data you would be
calculating what is known as a validity coefficient. This is thus the correlation coefficient
between a test score (predictor) and a performance measure (criterion). A predictive
validity design is a criterion-related validity design in which there is a time lag between
collection of the test data and the criterion data. So you don’t look to the test data for months
and then you compare the criterion (performance) with the tests. The concurrent validity
design has no time delay between gathering the test scores and the performance data. This
design has a disadvantage because only people who scored good on the test will get hired
all others don’t have a chance and the company won’t know if they would be better.
Content-related validity
A content-related validation design is a design that demonstrates that the content of the
selection procedure represent an adequate sample of important work behaviors and
activities/KSAOs (worker knowledge, skills and abilities). So choices can be made by testing
applicants on important work behaviors and activities.
Construct-related validity
Construct validity is an approach in which investigators gather evidence to support
decisions or inferences about psychological constructs. Often begins with investigators
demonstrating that a test designed to measure a particular construct correlates with other
tests in the predicted manner. A construct is a psychological concept or characteristic that a
predictor is intended to measure. Examples are intelligence, personality, and leadership (78,
2.10) (79, 2.11).
3.1
Individual differences are dissimilarities between or among two or more people.
Psychology began in a laboratory in Germany in 1876. In 1890 an American called Cattell
developed the concept of a mental test. This is an instrument designed to measure a
subjects ability to reason, plan, and solve problems (intelligence test). Differential
psychology is the scientific study of differences between or among two or more people.
Cattell used the mental test to measure the intelligence of incoming college students. He
measured the ability to learn and adapt to an environment. He had learned to measure
mental ability (capability to reason, plan and solve) and placing it on a scale or metric
(standard of measurement). As a result the actual measurement of abilities became known
as psychometrics. Later the US introduced a intelligence test for the army.
These days there are psychometricians. This is a psychologist trained in measuring
characteristics such as mental ability. Cognitive ability (mental ability) is most important. ‘g’
is an abbreviation for general mental ability. This is the nonspecific capacity to reason,
learn and solve in any way.
Varieties of individual differences
From 1993 there was a tendency that Sternberg and Wagner called the g-ocentric model to
understand and predict the behavior of workers simply by examining ‘g’. Psychologists now
consider individual differences in physical abilities (bodily powers as muscular strength),
personality (individual behavioral and emotional characteristics), interests (preferences or
likings), knowledge (facts about topics) and emotion (an effect or feeling displayed in
reaction to an event).
3.2
Abilities
Edwin Fleishman made a comprehensive list (taxonomy) of mental and physical abilities.
This list can be divided in cognitive, physical and perceptual-motor abilities. Perceptualmotor abilities are physical attributes that combine the senses (seeing, hearing) and motion
(coordination). And this abilities do not cover personality, affect (the conscious, subjective
aspect of emotions), or interest.
IQ stands for intelligence quotient and that is a measure of intelligence obtained by giving
a subject a standardized IQ test. Meta-analyses show that there is a relation between “g”
and job performance. If the complexity of the job increases than a person with low “g” is less
likely to be successful than a person with higher “g”. But someone with high “g” can also fail
if interpersonal skills are needed.
Carroll proposed that there are three layers to intelligence. The highest layer is “g” the next
layer has the seven broad abilities. And the third layer includes abilities that are tied to the
seven broad abilities. (90, fig 3.1)
Physical demanding jobs require strength, flexibility and stamina. Hogan proposed a sevenmeasure taxonomy of physical abilities and combined these seven measure to form three
higher-order physical abilities: muscular strength, cardiovascular endurance and movement
quality. A physical test is not fair for female (because they have less muscle) and older
people because we lose muscle, stamina (ability to supply muscles with oxygenated blood)
and flexibility when we age. Fluid intelligence means that you are quick in understanding
things and crystallized intelligence is your data base of knowledge.
Sensory abilities
Sensory abilities are the physical functions of vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell and
kinesthetic feedback (feedback from your body about position etc.). Americans with
disabilities act says that an employer can’t test areas such as sensory or physical abilities
that may be considered disabilities. A division of sensory abilities is psychomotor abilities.
This is: reaction time, coordination, dexterity, arm-hand steadiness and wrist-finger speed.
An increased interest in personality measurement began with the development of the big
five or the five-factor model (FFM). The five factors are:
-
Conscientiousness (responsible, persistent, planful)
Extraversion (sociable, assertive)
Agreeableness (cooperative, trusting)
Emotional stability (secure, calm, relaxed)
Openness to experience (curious, imaginative, independent)
Certain combinations of the factors are good combinations for work. So this introduces the
idea of a functional personality at work. For example people who are more
agreeableness (easy to get along) and emotional stable (displaying little emotion) tended
to have higher integrity (quality of being honest, ethical and reliable).
Conscientiousness is most important in work situations.
Achievement is a facet of conscientiousness consisting of hard work, persistence and
desire to do good work. Conscientiousness is a combination of achievement and
dependability (being disciplined, well organized, honest and respectful of laws).
An important skill (practiced act) is the people skill, a nontechnical term that includes
negotiating skills and communicating.
Occupational information network (O*NET) is a collection of electronic databases based
on well-developed taxonomies. An other kind of knowledge is called tacit knowledge. This
is action-oriented, goal directed knowledge acquired without direct help from others to
achieve goals you value. Procedural knowledge) is knowing how to solve something (so
tacit knowledge) and declarative knowledge is understanding what is required to perform a
task (so having information like O*NET), knowing information about a job task.
Competencies are sets of behaviors that are necessary for a job. With a job analysis
competencies needed for the job can be investigated. Emotional intelligence (EI) is a kind
of intelligence focused on peoples awareness of their own and others emotions. Emotional
intelligence can be measured by an emotional intelligence quotient (EQ).
3.3
A test is an objective and standardized procedure for measuring a psychological construct
using a sample of behavior. The test score has a meaning after norming. Norming is
comparing a score to other relevant test scores. A group that is chosen to be compared with
is the norm group. A test can be a test battery, this is a collection of test that usually asses
a variety of different attributes.
Different kind of tests
A speed test is a test with rigid and demanding time limits. Most test takers will be unable to
finish the test in the allotted time. A power test is a test without time limit. Group test can
be handy to screen candidates simultaneously. It reduces the costs of testing. Individual
test can be handy if the company want to assess a candidates style of problem solving and
when the examiner needs to establish an interpersonal rapport.
A paper-and-pencil test is a test with only questions and the participant needs to fill them
in. A performance test is a test with a assignment. The better the assignment was done the
higher score.
In discussing test there are three terms bias, fairness and culture. A test can be biased for
example if it underpredict the job performance of women. Fairness plays a role as the
question can rise if making the decision based on the test alone is sufficient and culture
means that a test taker needs the opportunity to get familiar with the tasks/subject matter.
An other test is the cognitive ability test that allows individuals to demonstrate what they
know, perceive, remember, understand, or can work with mentally.
3.4
The cognitive ability test can also be a battery and then is known as multiple-aptitude test
batterie. If a test is a knowledge test than it only asses the extent to which you know things.
The psychomotor ability test is a test that also involves the coordinated movement of the
limbs.
Personality
Screen-out test is a test used to eliminate candidates who are clearly unsuitable for
employment. Tests of psychopathology are examples of screen-out test in the employment
setting. A screen-in test is a test used to add information about the positive attributes of a
candidate that might predict outstanding performance. A personality test is a example of a
screen-in test.
To test someone his integrity this can be done by a overt integrity test or a personality-based
integrity test. A overt integrity test asks directly about past honesty behavior as well as
attitudes toward behaviors. A personality based integrity test infers honesty and integrity
from questions dealing with broad personality constructs (social responsibility,
conscientiousness).
An integrity test predicts overall performance better than FFM but is worse at predicting
counterproductive work behavior than FFM.
Interviews
There are two types of interviews. The structure interview consist of very specific questions
asked of each candidate. This includes tightly crafted scoring schemes with detailed
outlines for the interviewer with respect to assigning ratings or scores based on interview
performance. The situational interview (part of structured interview) is an assessment
procedure in which the interviewee is asked to describe in specific and behavioral detail how
he or she would respond to a hypothetical situation. The unstructured interview is an
interview format that includes questions that may vary by candidate and that allows the
candidate to answer in any form preferred.
Assessment center
Assessment centers are collections of procedures for evaluation. It’s done in groups.
Multiple assessors. It’s a combination of different methods. Problems are inter-rater
reliability, that assessors do not always agree with each other and it’s expensive because
there are many assessors. Advantage is that it has a relatively high predictive validity.
Work sample tests
A work sample test is an assessment procedure that measures job skills by taking samples
of behavior under realistic job-like conditions. A form of this is the situational judgment
test. This is a test where the candidate get a written scenario and the candidate should
choose the best response from a series of alternatives.
6.1 – staffing decisions
Staffing decisions are decisions associated with recruiting, selecting, promoting, and
separating employees. The goal s to get the right person on the right time and right place in
the organization, in order to execute the planned activities and projects. High performance
work practices are practices that include the use of formal job analyses, selection from
within for key positions, merit-based promotions, and the use of formal assessment devices
for selection.
Stakeholders in the staffing process are the line managers and co-workers. The line
manager gathers information from applicants usually in the form of one or more interviews.
When the decision is made the line manager will be expected to supervise the new member.
The co-workers are of importance because they have to work with the new member. The
applicant him self also has a feeling about the staffing process. If staffing is taking place on a
big international scale than this is called multinational staffing.
Other persons are the personnel department, recruitment agency, society and applicant’s
family.
6.2
The selection ratio (SR) is a ratio that shows how many people are hired and how many
people are assessed. So a low SR is good because the company then has a lot of choice
and can choose the best candidate. The index has a range between 0 and 1 and the best is
0.01.
When validity coefficients are less than 1 there will be some error in the predictions. If the
error is a false positive this means that we falsely predicted that a positive outcome would
occur and it did not. The second type of error is a false negative this means that we falsely
predicted a negative outcome would occur and it did not, person succeeded. The hiring
manager can also make two correct decisions. The true negative is an accurate prediction
that someone will be a poor performer and a true positive is an accurate prediction that
someone will be a good performer and will succeed. A cut score is, is a score that separate
people who will be hired and which one will be rejected. So if the candidate is below the cut
score it will be rejected. By lowering the cut score we would reduce the amount of wrongly
rejected people but increase the percentage of poor performers among the candidates.
A criterion-referenced cut score is a cut score that has been adapted to the desired level
of performance. Norm-referenced cut scores are not tied to any expected level but are
based on the average of the test takers’ score. Norm stands for normal so the average of the
test takers. If a person feels unfairness about the staffing procedure he might take actions
and this cost the organization time and money.
A utility analysis is a technique that assesses the economic return on investment of human
resource interventions such as staffing and training. The base rate is the percentage of the
current workforce that is performing successfully. If the base rate is very high than a new
member is not capable of changing the rate a lot.
If you combine different test methods you can get the highest validity.
6.3
If the company has a very comprehensive staffing model than the model probably gathers
enough high-quality information about candidates to predict the likelihood of their success on
the varied demands of the job.
Combining information
Clinical decision making is a method that uses judgement to combine information and to
make a decision about the relative value of different candidates or applicants. Statistical
decision making is a method that combines information according to a mathematical
formula.
If several tests are used than a compensatory system is used. This is a model in which a
good score on one test can compensate for a lower score on another test. A hurdle system
is a non-compensatory strategy in which an individual has no opportunity to compensate at a
later assessment stage for a low score in an earlier stage of the assessment process. A
multiple hurdle system means that with every test a minimum should be achieved for
further consideration so no compensation is possible between tests.
Multiple regression analysis is a method of analysis that results in an equation for
combining test scores into a composite based on the correlations among the test scores and
the correlations of each test score with the performance score. Cross-validation is a process
used with multiple regression techniques in which a regression equation developed on a first
sample is tested on a second sample to determine if it still fits well.
Deselection
Termination for cause is job loss that occurs when an individual is fired from an
organization for a particular reason. The individual has usually been warned one or more
times about a problem and either cannot or will not correct it. Layoffs are different. Layoffs is
job loss due to employer downsizing or reduction in force. Often comes without warning that
the workforce will be reduced.
Lare-scale staffing projects will often require standard and well-established selection
strategies. In small staffing projects, managers are encouraged to choose a selection and
decision-making strategy that is rational and job related. Newer research suggest that
selection in the 21st centure should center less on the individual and more on work
performance in context.
4.1 – A basic model of performance
Performance are actions and behaviors relevant to the organizations goals. Measured in
terms of each individuals proficiency (bekwaamheid). Performance is what the organization
hires an employee to do and to do well. Effectiveness is the evaluation of the results of
performance (so the results). Often controlled by factors beyond the actions of an individual.
Like the total sales. Productivity is the ratio of effectiveness to the cost of achieving that
level of effectiveness. A profit margin is a index of productivity.
The Campbell’s determinants of job performance is a model of job performance. Declarative
knowledge (DK) is understanding what is required to perform a task. Knowing information
about a job or task. Procedural knowledge and skill (PKS) is knowing how to perform a
job or task. Often developed through practice and experience. Motivation (M) is the
conditions responsible for variations in intensity, persistence, quality and direction of ongoing
behavior (so if you like it).
DK, PKS and M are
determinants of performance. Campbell’s research identified eight basic performance
components (147, fig 4.1).
Criterion deficiency is a situation that occurs when an actual criterion is missing
information that is part of the behavior one is trying to measure. Criterion contamination is
a situation that occurs when an actual criterion includes information unrelated to the
behavior one is trying to measure.
If all aspects of performance are measured in an ideal world than this is called ultimate
criterion (theoretical criterion), but since we can never measure all aspects we settle for
an actual criterion (an actual measurement).
4.2
Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is behavior that goes beyond what is
expected. The investigation saw two types of OCB. Altruism is helpful behaviors directed
towards individuals or groups within the organization such as offering to help a co-worker
who is up against a deadline. Generalized compliance is behavior that is helpful to the
broader organization such as upholding company rules. OCB is largely a social
phenomenon. So OCB is beyond task performance (activities that are part of the job). OCB
can also be dangerous as initiative might increase the risk of an accident. There is
correlation between conscientiousness and OCB.
Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) is voluntary behavior that violates significant
organizational norms and threatens the well-being of the organization and its members.
Other models of CWB is the SOD model:
-
S, behavior done for self-gain
O, behavior done for organizational gain
D, behavior that is destructive
Dishonesty is not only theft of goods but also theft of time by arriving late or leaving early
and dishonest communications with customers, co-workers or management. Absenteeism
is a type of counterproductive behavior that involves failure of an employee to report for or
remain at work as scheduled. An employee can also sabotage the company. Sabotage is
an act that damage, disrupt, or subvert the organizations operations for personal purpose of
the saboteur by creating unfavorable publicity, damage to property or destruction of working
relationships. The Lordstown syndrome was sabotage to the general electric plant.
CWB can be cured with the following:
-
Punishment that is prompt
Quick and genuine apologies to individuals who are unjustly treated
Exposure to co-workers who do not engage in CWB
Training in social and communication skills for individuals who tend to interact in a
provocative manner.
Putting angry people in a better mood by using humor or expressing empathy.
Another performance component to consider is the adaptive performance component. This
component includes flexibility and the ability to adapt to changing circumstances. The eight
adaptive performance areas are:
An expert performance is a performance exhibited by those who have been practicing for
at least 10 years and have spent an average of four hours per day in deliberate practice.
Types of performance measures
Objective performance measure are usually a quantitative count of the results of work,
such as sales volume, complaint letters, and output. Judgmental measures are evaluations
made of the effectiveness of an individuals work behavior. Judgment most often made by
supervisors in the context of a performance evaluation and the personnel measures are
measures typically kept in a personnel file, including absences, accidents, tardiness, rate of
advancement, disciplinary actions, and commendations of meritorious behavior (goed
gedrag).
4.3
Job analysis is a process that determines the important tasks of a job and the human
attributes necessary to successfully perform those tasks. The results of a job analysis can be
used for many different purposes:
-
-
-
-
-
Job description
Recruiting
Selection
Training
Compensation
o If a job is very difficult to do than the company might pay more as a
compensation for the good and difficult work.
Promotion/job assignment
o By job analyzing the company can investigate if there is job ladder or job
family. This means that there are jobs that similar to each other. Accounting
jobs and budgeting is a job family/job ladder.
Job design
o A comprehensive job analysis can assist in design changes for eliminating or
automating tasks in a job.
Workforce reduction/restructuring
Criterion development
o Criterion is the behavior that constitutes or defines successful performance of
a given task.
Performance evaluation
Litigation
o When a lawsuit is ongoing it is important that the employer truly knows what
critical tasks are needed to perform the tasks.
Types of job analysis
The task-oriented job analysis is an approach that begins with a statement of the actual
task as well as what is accomplished by those tasks. The worker-oriented job analysis is
an approach that focuses on the attributes of the worker necessary to accomplish the tasks.
KSAOs are individual attributes of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics that
are required to successfully perform job tasks.
How job analysis is done
Subject matter expert (SME) is an employee who provides information about a job in a job
analysis interview or survey. Some common methods of job analysis include:
-
Observation
Interviews
Critical incidents and work diaries
o
-
Critical incident technique, an approach in which subject matter experts are
asked to identify critical aspects of behavior or performance in a particular job
that led to success or failure.
o Let workers keep a log of their activities over a prescribed period of time this
is called a work diary.
Questionnaires/surveys for workers a very famous questionnaire is the Position
Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ).
4.4
Electronic performance monitoring is the monitoring of work processes with electronic
devices. Can be very cost effective and has the potential for providing detailed and accurate
work logs. It’s cost effective because no SME has to work.
Cognitive task analysis
Experts have suggested that cognitive task analysis is a needed extension of traditional
job analysis. Cognitive task analysis is a process that consist of methods for decomposing
job and task performance into discrete, measurable units, with special emphasis on eliciting
mental processes and knowledge content. The think-aloud protocol is a precursor
(voorlooper) of the cognitive task analysis. This is an approach used by cognitive
psychologists to investigate the thought processes of experts who achieve high levels of
performance. An expert performer describes in words the thought process that he or she
uses to accomplish a task. To improve the job analyses the personality-related position
requirements form (PPRF) is handy. This is a job analysis instrument devoted to identifying
personality predictors of job performance. It is not replacing job analysis but examines
important personality attributes in jobs.
Dictionary of occupational titles (DOT) is a document that includes job analysis and
occupational information used to match applicants with job openings. O*NET is the
replacement of the DOT.
Just as job analysis seeks to define jobs ands work in terms of the match between required
task and human attributes, competency modeling seeks to define organizational units in
terms of the match between the goals and missions of those units and the competencies
required to meet those goals and accomplish those missions. Thus, competency modeling is
a natural extension of the job analysis logic rather than a replacement for job analysis.
8.1
Motivation is the conditions responsible for variations in intensity, persistence, quality, and
direction of ongoing behavior. The first idea of motivation came from instincts. Instincts is
an inborn tendencies that are thought to direct behavior. As well as instincts needs were
thought to be inborn and universally present in humans. Drives were the nonhuman
equivalent of motives and needs. The behaviorist approach placed the emphasis for
behavior directly on the environment rather than on any internal needs or instincts. Field
theory is an approach developed by Kurt Lewin, who proposed that various forces in the
psychological environment interacted and combined to yield a final course of action. Lewin’s
approach was also known as group dynamics.
There are two metaphors for motivation. The person as a machine metaphor is that
people’s behaviors/actions are reflexive and involuntary and are performed without
conscious awareness. Mostly response to needs and drives. The person as scientist
metaphor suggests that people are active information gatherers and analysts who seek
knowledge and understanding as a way of mastering their environment. Some people
conclude that people have limited rationality. This is the inability of humans to reason and
make decisions in perfectly rational ways. The person as judge metaphor says that
individuals seek information about the extent to which the person and others are perceived
as responsible for positive and negative events. The person looks for evidence of intention in
the action of others and considers those intentions in choosing a personal course of action.
The performance formula:
(motivation x ability) – situational constraints (the situation good/bad) = performance
So situational constraints is for example if the microphone quits than you leaf the course
because you can’t hear and learn properly.
Work-life balance is a field of research that investigates whether the satisfaction that one
experiences at work is in part affected by the satisfaction that one experiences in non-work
and vice versa, particularly to the extent that one environment has demands that conflict with
the other. Motivation is not unlimited.
Locus of control is the extent to which an individual views events as resulting from his or
her own actions (an internal LOC) or from outside causes (an external LOC).
8.2
Person-as-machine
Person-as-machine metaphor has for internal three theories. These are need theory from
Maslow, the two-factor theory from Herzberg and the ERG theory from Alderfer.
Maslow need theory proposed that all humans have a basic set of needs and that these
needs express themselves over the life span of the individual as internal drives. Identified
five basic needs sets: physiological, security, love or social, esteem and self-actualization.
The two-factor theory proposed by Herzberg suggests that there were really two basic needs
and that they were not so much hierarchically arranged as independent of each other. These
two needs are hygiene needs (Maslow’s physical and security needs) and motivator needs
(Maslow’s social, esteem and actualization needs). The hygiene needs are often factors
related to dissatisfaction and the motivator needs are often factors related to satisfaction.
The reinforcement theory proposes that behavior depends on three simple elements:
stimulus, response, and reward. Proposed that if a response in the presence of a particular
stimulus is rewarded that response is likely to occur again in the presence of that stimulus.
Learn the three pictures! They are important.
There are two different types of rewards. The intermittent reward means that a reward is
given for only some correct responses and the continuous reward is a reward that is
presented every time a correct response occurs. When a reward depends on a response like
intermittent reward and continuous reward it is called contingent reward.
Person-as-scientist
The four theories of the person-as-scientist metaphor are the path-goal theory from
Georgopoulos, the VIE theory from Vroom, the Dissonance theory (Festinger) and the
equity theory from Adams.
The path-goal theory is the first formal work motivation theory to suggest that people
weighed options before choosing among them. Reasoned that if a worker saw high
productivity as a path to the goal of desired rewards or personal goals, he or she would likely
be a high producer.
The Vie theory assumed that individuals rationally estimate the relative attractiveness and
unattractiveness of different rewards or outcomes, the probability that performance will lead
to particular outcomes or rewards (instrumentality) and the probability that effort will lead to
performance (expectancy).
Instrumentality means the perceived relationship between performance and the attainment
of a certain outcome. Expectancy means an individuals belief that a particular behavior will
lead to higher performance. Valence is the value of the outcome (reward). Thus
Motivation = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valence
The dissonance theory observed that tension exists when individuals hold dissonant
cognitions (incompatible thoughts). This approach assumes that individuals always seek
some sense of balance and that they will direct their behavior toward reducing the tension
resulting from dissonant cognitions (tegenstrijdige overtuigingen).
The equity theory suggests that individuals look at their world in terms of comparative inputs
and outcomes. Individuals compare their inputs and outcomes with others by developing an
input/outcome ratio.
Input is the training, effort, skills and abilities that employees bring to or invest in their work.
Outcomes are the compensations, satisfactions and other benefits. Comparison other is a
co-worker or idealized other person to which the individual compares himself.
8.3 Person-as-judge, person-as-intentional
The person-as-intentional approach assumes that individuals are intentional in their behavior
and the most representative theory is the goal-setting theory. This is proposed by Locke
and the theory says that the general concept of a goal is adapted to work motivation. In this
approach, a goal is seen as a motivational force, and individuals who set specific, difficult
goals perform better than individuals who simply adopt a “do your best goal” or no goal at all.
A feedback loop is a connection between knowledge of results and the intermediate states
that occur between goal commitment and performance.
If the goal is very hard to achieve than the performance is better than if the goal is easy to
achieve.
The control theory is based on the principle of a feedback loop that assumes that an
individual compares a standard to actual outcome and adjusts behavior to bring the outcome
into agreement with the standard.
A same sort regulation is the self-regulation process by which individuals take in
information about behavior and make adjustments or changes based on that information.
These changes, in turn, affect subsequent behavior.
The self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capability to perform a specific task or reach a
specific goal. If you think you can do it you will set a higher goal.
Self-efficacy can be raised with:
-
Mastery experiences (you know how to do it because you already did it)
Modeling (you see someone else who does it so you compare and think yes I can)
Social persuasion (someone says that you can do it!)
Physiological state (make sure that the environment to work is good)
Action theory (Frese, Gollwitzer) is about the action you planned and the execution. So you
establish a goal and then you plan everything. There is a difference between setting the goal
and implementing the goal. And action theory is not about setting but about implementing.
8.4 Motivational interventions
Job enrichment is a motivational approach that involves increasing the responsibility and
interest level of jobs in order to increase the motivation and job satisfaction of employees
performing these jobs. ProMES is the productivity measurement and enhancement system.
This is a motivational approach that utilizes goal setting, rewards, and feedback to increase
motivation and performance. Indicators are needed. This are quantitative measures of how
well each objective is being met in the ProMES approach.
5.1 Basic concepts in performance measurement
Objective performance measure is usually a quantitative count of the results of work such
as sales volume, complaint letters, and output. Judgmental performance measures are an
evaluation made of the effectiveness of an individual’s work behavior, most often by
supervisors in the context of a yearly performance evaluation. Hands-on performance
measurement is a type of measurement that requires an employee to engage in workrelated tasks, usually includes carefully constructed simulations of central or critical pieces of
work that involve single workers. Walk-through testing is a type of measurement that
requires an employee to describe to an interviewer in detail how to complete a task or jobrelated behavior. Employee may literally walk trough the facility, answering questions as he
or she actually sees the displays or controls in questions. Electronic performance
monitoring is a monitoring work processes with electronic devise. It can be very cost
effective and has the potential for providing detailed and accurate work logs.
Performance management is a system that emphasizes the link between individual
behavior and organizational strategies and goals by defining performance in the context of
those goals. Jointly developed by managers and the people who report to them.
5.2 performance rating – substance
Tasked based ratings is a way of rating where the rater is asked to indicate the effectiveness
of an employee on individual critical tasks often called duties. Duties are groups of similar
tasks. Each duty involves a segment of work directed at one of the general goals of a job.
Critical incidents are examples of behavior that appear critical in determing whether
performance would be good, average, or poor in specific performance areas. A graphic
ratings scale is a graphic display of performance scores that runs from high on one end to
low on the other end. So people can see how they should behave to get a good score. A
checklist is a list of behaviors presented to a rater, who places a check next to each of the
items that best describe the ratee. A weighted checklist is a checklist that includes items
that have values or weights assigned to them that are derived from the expert judgements of
incumbents and supervisors of the position in question (just when something is important).
The forced-choice format is a format that requires the rater to choose two statements out
of four that could describe the ratee.
The behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) is a rating format that includes
behavioral anchors describing what a worker has done or might be expected to do in a
particular duty area. The advantages are that it is based on job analysis, transparent and is
useful for feedback. The disadvantages are that it is time-consuming to construct good
scale, anchors represent expected behavior (not always observed) and the usefulness for
feedback is not high.
The behavioral observation scale (BOS) is a format that asks the rater to consider how
frequently an employee has been seen to act in a particular way.
Employee comparison method is a form of evaluation that involves the direct comparison
of one person with another. The simple ranking is when employees are ranked from top to
bottom according to their assessed proficiency. Paired comparison is a technique in which
each employee in a work group or a collection of individuals with the same job title is
compared with every other individual in the group on the various dimensions being
considered. The formula for calculating the number of paired comparisons is n(n-1)/2 with n
is the number of individuals to be compared.
5.3 – performance rating – process
360-degree feedback is a process of collecting and providing a manger or executive with
feedback from man sources, including supervisors, pers, subordinates, customers, and
suppliers. Different forms of rating are: self-rating, subordinate rating (evaluating the boss)
and customer and supplier ratings. Using these ratings together you get a 360-degree
evaluation.
Rating distortions
Rating errors are inaccuracies in ratings that may be actual errors or intentional or
systematic distortions.
A central tendency error means that a rater chooses a middle point on the scale to
describe performance, even though a more extreme point might better describe the
employee. This occurs when the rater don’t want to give more information about why it
wasn’t average if this is necessary.
A leniency error is an error that occurs with raters who are unusually easy in their ratings.
The severity error is an error that occurs with raters who are unusually harsh in their
ratings.
A halo error is an error that occurs when a rater assigns the same rating to an employee by
only looking to the overall impression and not to the actual performance in various
categories. This creates a halo or aura that surrounds all of the ratings causing them to be
similar.
First impression error means that the first impression determines the rating. Similar-to-me
error means that the supervisor judges employees that are similar to him more positively.
Contrast error is an error that develops when the rater is comparing the ratee with other
ratee’s.
Rater training
An administrative training is a training to get basic knowledge about how to conduct a
rating for different ratings like BARS or BOS. An psychometric training is a training that
makes raters aware of common rating errors (central tendency, leniency/severity, and halo)
in the hope that this will reduce the likelihood of errors. A frame-of-reference training
(FOR) is a training based on the assumption that a rater needs a context or frame for
providing a rating. This includes:
•
•
•
•
Providing information on the multidimensional nature of performance.
Ensuring that raters understand the meaning of anchors on the scale.
Engaging in practice rating exercises.
Providing feedback on practice exercises.
5.4 – the social and legal context of performance evaluation
Goals of a rater with an evaluation can be:
•
•
•
•
Task performance: using appraisal to maintain or enhance performance.
Interpersonal: using appraisal to maintain or improve interpersonal relation.
Strategic: using appraisal to enhance standing of the supervisor.
Internalized: using appraisal to confirm the rater’s view of himself as a person of high
standards.
Organizational goals can be:
•
•
•
Between-person uses: salary administration, promotion.
Within-person uses: identification of training needs, performance feedback.
Systems-maintenance uses: manpower planning, organizational development.
Constructive criticism used to describe negative feedback but has a dark side. Destructive
criticism is negative feedback that is cruel, sarcastic, and offensive. It usually is general
rather than specific and often directed toward personal characteristics of the employee rater
than job-relevant behaviors.
For 360-degree feedback there are 5 guidelines these are available to learn on page 215.
Reliability and validity of evaluation
Inter-rater reliability is low. Different raters have different perspectives and combination of
sources is needed to get a compete picture. Validity of evaluation requires including
important aspects of work behavior, requires good scales and require training of raters.
Module 7.1
Training is the systematic acquisition of skills that result in improved performance.
Improvement of performance results from learning. Three broad categories of learning
outcomes are:
•
•
•
Cognitive outcome: knowledge of rules, facts and principles.
Skill-based outcome: the development of motor or technical skills.
Affective outcome: attitudes and beliefs that predispose a person to behave in a
certain way.
Before a training can be done a training needs analysis should be conducted to know
where it is needed and how. This is normally a three-step process.
•
•
•
The organizational analysis is a component that examines organizational goas,
available resources, and the organizational environment. It helps to determine where
training should be directed.
The task analysis is a component that examines what employees must do to
perform the job properly.
The person analysis is a component that investigate where training is needed.
The learning process in training
Trainee readiness refers to whether the employees have the personal characteristics
necessary to acquire knowledge from a training program and apply it to the job. Performance
in training can be predicted by the general mental ability (“g”). “g” has a validity of +.56 in
predicting training outcomes.
An other indicator of trainee readiness is goal orientation. Individuals with a performance
orientation are concerned about doing well in training and being evaluated positively.
Mastery orientation means that individuals are concerned with increasing their competence
for the task at hand. They view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process. If the
trainee is low experienced he will benefit more from longer and more structured training so
experience level is important.
Trainee motivation is the extent to which trainees are interested in attending training,
learning from training, and transferring the skills back to the job. Expectancy framework is an
approach in which employees expectations about the relationship between how much effort
they expend and how well they perform are important to their motivation and learning (so if
too much time spend for too little performance than less motivation).
Positive reinforcement occurs when desired behavior is followed by a reward, which
increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated. This is part of the reinforcement
theory.
Cognitive and social learning theories
Social learning theory is a cognitive theory that proposes that there are many ways to
learn, including observational learning, which occurs when people watch someone perform a
task and then rehearse those activities mentally until they have an opportunity to try them
out. Part of the social learning theory is behavioral modeling.
Behavioral modeling is a learning approach that consist of observing actual job incumbents
who demonstrate positive modeling behaviors, rehearsing the behavior using a role-playing
technique, receiving feedback on the rehearsal, and trying out the behavior on the job.
Social learning theory is a broad approach including:
•
•
•
Self-efficacy: belief in one’s capability to perform a specific task.
Goal setting: motivational approach in which specific, difficult goals direct attention
an improve performance int training and the job.
Feedback: knowledge of the results of one’s action.
Principles of learning
Active practice is an approach that involves actively participating in a training or work task
rather than passively observing. Automaticity is a result that occurs when tasks can be
performed with limited attention when employee is overlearned. Likely to develop when
learners are given extra learning opportunities after they have demonstrated mastery of a
task.
Fidelity is an extent to which the task trained is similar to the task required on the job.
•
•
Physical fidelity: extent to which the training task mirrors the physical features of th
task performed on the job.
Psychological fidelity: extent to which the training task helps trainees to develop
the knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAOs) necessary to perform the job.
Whole learning is a training approach in which the entire task is practiced at once, effective
with high relation between subtasks. Part learning is a training approach in which subtasks
are practiced separately and later combined, effective when weak relation between
subtasks.
Massed practice is a conditions in which individuals practice a task continuously and
without rest. Distributed practice is a condition that provides individuals with rest intervals
between practice sessions, which are spaced over a longer period of time, results in more
efficient learning.
Learning organization is a company that emphasizes continuous learning, knowledge
sharing, and personal mastery.
7.2 – Content and methods of training
On-site training methods
On-the-job training involves assigning trainees to jobs and encouraging them to observe
and learn from more experienced employees. Apprenticeship is a formal program used to
teach a skilled trade, this is a form of on-the-job training.
Job rotation is an approach that involves moving employees to various departments or
areas of company or to various jobs within a single department.
Off-site training methods
Classroom lecture is a training method in which the trainer communicates through spoken
words and audiovisual materials what trainees are supposed to learn. Also commonly used
to efficiently present a large amount of information to a large number of trainees.
Programmed instruction is an approach in which trainees are given instructional materials
in written or computer-based forms that positively reinforce them as they move through the
material at their own pace. Linear programming is a type of programmed instruction in
which all trainees proceed through the same material. Branching programming is a type of
programmed instruction that provides a customized approach, enabling each learner to
practice material he had difficulty with when it was first presented.
A simulator is a teaching tool designed to reproduce the critical characteristics of the real
world in a training setting that produces learning and transfer to the job.
Distance learning & computer-based training
Distance learning allows trainees to interact and communicate with an instructor by using
audio and video links that allow for learning from a distant location.
Blended learning is an instructional approach that uses distance learning in combination
with face-to-face learning. Computer-based training is an instruction approach that
includes, text, graphics, and animation presented via computer for the express purpose of
teaching job-relevant knowledge and skills.
Adaptive guidance is an instructional approach that provides trainees with information that
helps them interpret their past performance and also determine what they should be
studying and practicing to improve their future performance.
Critical thinking skills are skills that require active involvement in applying the principles
under discussion. For example in the army with a lot of stress you have to make decisions.
Transfer of training
Transfer of training is the degree to which trainees apply the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes gained in training to their jobs. Transfer of training climate are workplace
characteristics that either inhibit or facilitate the transfer to the job of what has been learned
in training like access to essential equipment or resources, adequate working conditions and
regular feedback.
A horizontal transfer is a transfer across different settings or context at the same level of
the organization. Vertical transfer is a transfer across different levels of the organization.
Concerned with the link between individual training outcomes and outcomes at higher levels
of the organization, such as teams.
Module 7.3 – Evaluating training programs
Training evaluation is the systematic collection of descriptive and judgmental information
that can be used to make effective training decisions.
Training criteria
•
•
•
•
•
•
Reaction criteria are measures of trainee impressions of the training program.
Learning criteria are measures that assess how much was learned in the training
program.
Behavioral criteria are measure of how well the behaviors learned in training
transfer to the job.
Results criteria are measures of how well training can be related to organizational
outcomes such as productivity gains, cost savings, error reductions, or increased
customer satisfaction.
Internal criteria are measures that assess trainee reactions to and learning in the
training program. Generally assessed before trainees leave the training program.
External criteria are measures that assess whether changes as a result of training
occur when trainees are back on the job.
Utility analysis is a technique that assesses the economic return on investment of human
resource interventions such as staffing and training.
Pretest-posttest control group design is a design that generally includes random
assignment of participants to conditions, a control group, and measures obtained bot before
and after training has occurred. One group is control group and the other group is the group
who receives training. Before and after a test is conducted and this shows if the training was
useful.
9.1 Work attitudes
Job satisfaction is positive attitude or emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s
job or job experience.
The Hawthome effect is a change in behavior or attitudes that was the simple result of
increased attention. While changing light or brake time didn’t affect productivity.
Attitude is a stable feeling or belief that are directed toward specific persons, groups or
objects.
Job satisfaction depends
on the antecedents, the
correlates arise
simultaneously when the
job is satisfying and
consequences come
from high job
satisfaction.
Overall satisfaction is overall assessment of job satisfaction that results from
mathematically combining scores. Facet satisfaction, also called facet level is the level of
satisfaction on several aspects of the job but separated. So not an overall measurement but
parts of the job are measured for satisfaction.
Measurement of satisfaction
Job Descriptive Index (JDI) assesses satisfaction with five distinct areas: the work itself,
supervision, people, pay, and promotion.
Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ) is a commonly used job satisfaction
instrument that assesses particular aspects of work as well as scores for extrinsic
satisfaction and intrinsic satisfaction.
Extrinsic satisfaction is satisfaction that derives from aspects extrinsic, or external, to job
tasks, such as pay or benefits.
Intrinsic satisfaction is satisfaction that derives from aspects central, or intrinsic, to the job
itself, sch as responsibility.
Commitment is a psychological and emotional attachment an individual feels to a
relationship, organization. Affective commitment is an emotional attachment to an
organization, continuance commitment is the perceived cost of leaving an organization (so
knowing what you leave) and normative commitment is an obligation to remain in an
organization. Occupational commitment is commitment to a particular occupational field,
includes affective, continuance and normative commitment.
Job embeddedness is the many and varied types of commitment that individuals feel
toward co-workers, teams, organization.
Organizational identification (OID) is the process whereby individuals derive a feeling of
pride and esteem from their association with an organization. Individuals may also wake
pains to distance themselves from the organization for which they work also called
organizational disidentification (you don’t feel identical to company). See page 347.
Employee engagement is a positive work-related state of mind that includes high levels of
energy, enthusiasm and identification with work.
9.2 – moods and emotions
Mood is a generalized state of feeling not identified with particular stimulus and not
sufficiently intense so interrupt ongoing thought processes. Emotion is an effect or feeling,
often experience and displayed in reaction to an event or thought and accompanied by
physiological changes in various systems of the body and can interrupt ongoing thought
processes.
Affect circumplex is a figure in which opposite emotions
appear directly across from each other in the circle. Process
emotion is a reaction that results form consideration of the
tasks one is currently doing. Prospective emotion is a
reaction that results from a consideration of the tasks one
anticipates doing (going to do). Retrospective emotion is a
reaction that results form a consideration of the task one has
already completed.
Negative affectivity (NA) is disposition wherein individuals
are prone to experience a diverse array of negative mood
states. Positive affectivity (PA) is a disposition in which individuals are prone to describe
themselves as happy.
Emotions can come from:
•
•
•
External events
Predispositions
o Neuroticism – negative effect (het glas is half leeg)
o Extraversion – positive effect (het glas is half vol)
Core self-evaluations
o Self-esteem, zelfvertrouwen.
o Self-efficacy, knowing that you can.
o Locus of control, you can influence everything it is not luck.
o Low neuroticism
Withdrawal behaviors are absenteeism, turnover, tardiness and retirement can lead to
withdrawal. Work withdrawal is an action that represent an attempt by the individual to
withdraw from work but maintain ties to the organization and the work role (absenteeism).
Job withdrawal is an action that represent an individual willingness to sever (verbreken) ties
to an organization and the work role (quitting, retirement).
10.1 – stress
Fight-or-flight reaction is an adaptive response to stressful situations exhibited by humans
in which they choose to either fight or escape.
Eustress is a type of stress that provides challenges that motivate individuals to work hard
and meet their goals. Distress is a type of stress resulting form chronically demanding
situations that produces negative health outcomes. General adaptation syndrome (GAS) is
a identical response to almost any disease or trauma.
Alarm reaction is a stage of the general adaptation syndrome in which the body mobilizes
resources to cope with added stress. Stress hormone is a chemical released in the body
when a person encounters stressful situations.
Resistance is a stage of the GAS in which the body copes with the original source of stress
but resistance to other stressors is lowered. Exhaustion is a stage of GAS in which overall
resistance drops and adverse consequences can result unless stress is reduced.
Problem-focused coping is a type of coping directed at managing or altering a problem
causing the stress. Emotion-focused coping is a type of coping directed at reducing the
emotional response to a problem by avoiding the problem.
Stressor
A stressor is a physical or psychological demand to which an individual responds. Strains
is a reaction or response to stressors.
Psychological stressors
Lack of control can make a employee feel stressed. Giving more autonomy and the ability to
plan your work will give more control and the perception of control changes.
Interpersonal conflict can relate to stress. This is negative interaction with co-workers,
supervisors which can rang e from heated arguments to subtle incidents of unfriendly
behavior. Role stressors is a collective term for stressors resulting from the multiple task
requirements. The role is the expectations regarding the responsibilities and requirements of
a particular job.
Role ambiguity is a stressor that occurs when employees lack clear knowledge of what
behavior is expected in their job. Role conflict is a stressor that occurs when demands from
different sources are incompatible. Role overload is a stressor that occurs when an
individual is expected to fulfill too many roles at the same time.
Another thing related to stress is work-family conflict. It is a situation that occurs when
workers experience when they have not enough time for both.
Emotional labor
Emotional labor is a regulation of one’s emotions to meet job demands. Can be achieved
through surface acting and deep acting. Surface acting is emotional labor that consists of
managing or faking one’s expressions or emotions. Deep acting is emotional labor that
consists of managing one’s feeling including emotions required by the job.
Challenge-related stressors are work demands that have gains for individuals but can be
stressful. Hindrance-related stressors are job demands that tend to limit individuals work
achievement.
A burnout is a extreme state of psychological strain resulting from a prolonged response to
chronic job stressors that exceed an individual’s
resources to cope with them.
Emotional exhaustion is a burnout that occurs
when individuals feel emotionally drained by work.
Depersonalization is a burnout that occurs when
individuals become hardened by their job and tend
to treat clients like objects. Low personal
accomplishment is a burnout in which individuals
feel they cannot deal with problems effectively and
understand or identify with other problems.
Work schedules
Shift work is scheduling work into temporal shifts. Is common in particular occupational
groups such as nurses. Circadian cycle is the 24h cycle with people sleeping and being
active while it’s light outside. Fixed shift is a particular shift that is permanently assigned to
a worker. Rotating shift is a shift that changes over a certain period of time. Flextime is a
schedule in which individuals choose their own times to work.
A compressed workweek is a schedule that permits an employee to work for longer than
eight hours a day and fewer than five days a week.
10.2 – Theories of stress
The demand-control model is a model suggesting that two factors are prominent in
producing job stress: job demands (the workload of the job) and job control (the
combination of autonomy in the job and discretion (beschikking) for using different skills).
Person-environment fit model the extent to which a person experiences stress is
dependent upon the fit between person and environment. Person-job (P-J) fit is extent to
which the skills and interest of individual are compatible with the job. Person-organization
(P-O) fit is extent to which the values of an employee are equal to the values of most other
employees.
Type a behavior pattern (TABP) is a set of characteristics exhibited by individuals who are
engaged in a chronic struggle to obtain an unlimited number of poorly defined things from
their environment in the shortest period of time. Coronary-prone personality is an
alternative name given to TABP because of its links to the coronary heart disease and heart
attack. Hostility (feeling) is a subcomponent of TABP with increased secretion of stress
hormones.
Achievement striving (AS) is the tendency to active and to work hard in achieving one’s
goal (subcomponent of TABP). Impatience is a subcomponent of TABP that reflects
intolerance and frustration resulting from being slowed down. Time urgency is a TABP
behavior pattern that refers to the feeling of being pressured by inadequate time.
10.3 – reducing and managing stress
Occupational health psychology is the area of psychology that involves the improvement
of quality o work life and protecting wellbeing of workers.
Primary prevention strategies are stress prevention strategies concerned with modifying
or eliminating stressors in the work
environment. Secondary prevention
strategies are aimed at stress response so
if people are stressed. Tertiary prevention
strategies aimed at stress consequences
(people with burnout) to get people back to
work.
Cognitive restructuring is a type of stress intervention that focuses on changing
perceptions and thought processes that lead to stress. Stress management training is a
program useful for helping employees deal with workplace stressors that are difficult to
remove. Part of this is stress inoculation which usually combines primary and secondary
prevention strategies. Progressive muscle relaxation is stress relieve by relaxing the
muscles. Biofeedback is stress management technique that teaches individuals to control
certain body functions such as heart rate.
Social support is the comfort an individual receives through formal or informal contacts with
individuals. Buffer hypothesis is a hypothesis that social support moderates or reduces
health problems by protecting individuals from the negative effects of work stressors.
Employee assistance programs (EAPs) are counseling provided by an organization to
deal with workplace stress.
11.1 – Justice and fairness
Trust is the belief in how a person or an organization will act on some future occasion based
upon previous interactions with that person or organization.
There are three types of organizational justice:
•
•
•
Distributive justice is the perceived justice of the rewards allocated to
organizational members. Three types are:
o Merit: Fairness based on the view that those who work hardest or produce
the most get the best reward.
o Equality: Everyone should get the same reward as all persons are the same.
o Need: Definition of fairness based on the view that people should get rewards
in proportion to their needs.
Procedural justice is not about the rewards but about if the process by which
rewards are assigned is fair.
o Voice: is having the possibility to have objection to the process.
Interactional justice
o Interpersonal: the extent to which employees are treated respectfully.
o Informational: justice of communication concerning procedures and results.
12.1 – the concept of leadership
Leadership effectiveness is a study of which behaviors on the part of a designated leader
led to an outcome valued by the work group or organization. A leader is an individual in a
group given the task of directing task-relevant group activities or, in the absence of a
designated leader. Carrying the primary responsibility for performing these functions in the
group. They are emotionally stable, extravert, open to experience and a visionary.
•
•
•
Attempted leadership is a situation that occurs when a leader accepts the goal of
changing a follower and can be observed attempting to do so.
Successful leadership is a situation that occurs when a follower changes his or her
behavior as a function of the leader’s effort.
Effective leadership is a situation that occurs when a leader changes a follower’s
behavior, resulting in both leader and follower feeling satisfied and effective.
Leader development is a process that concentrates on developing, maintaining or
enhancing individual leader attributes such as knowledge, skills, and abilities. Leadership
development is a process that concentrates on the leader-follower relationship and on
developing an environment in which the leader can build relationships that enhance
cooperation and resource exchange.
Interpersonal competence is a type of competence that includes social awareness and
social skills, such as the ability to resolve conflict and foster a spirit of cooperation.
The motivation to lead
Power motive is the desire to attain control or power that results form people learning that
the exercise of control over others or the environment is pleasing. Activity inhibition is a
psychological term used to describe a person who is not impulsive. Affiliation need is a
need for approval or connections with others.
Leadership motivation:
•
•
•
Affective-identity motive: is the need for power and control.
Instrumental motive: personal advantages when being the leader.
Social-normative motive: being unselfish and feeling a duty to be a leader to save the
world.
A bad leader
Destructive leadership is a bad leader. Three terms are tyrannical, derailed and supportive –
disloyal. A tyrannical leader is a leader who is great at achieving the company goal but
does it in a very not social way and not pleasant. A derailed leader exhibits behavior himself
that is out of bounds so like fraud. The supportive – disloyal leader violate the company
rules and for examples gives big bonus to employees.
12.2 – traditional theories of leadership
The great man theories is a leadership theory developed by historians who examined the
life of a respected leader for clues leading to the person’s greatness.
Trait approach is the leadership theory that attempted to show that leaders possessed
certain characteristics that non leaders did not. Power approach is the leadership theory that
examines the types of power wielded by leaders. Types of power are:
•
•
Reward power: the potential of a supervisor to dispense valued rewards.
Coercive power: the potential of a supervisor to dispense punishment.
•
•
•
Legitimate power: the right of a supervisor to influence a subordinate and the
obligation of the subordinate to accept.
Referent power: the desire of the subordinate to be like the supervisor.
Expert power: the knowledge of the supervisor.
The behavioral approach begun by researchers at Ohio. It is a leadership theory that
focused on the kinds of behavior engaged in by people in leadership roles and identified two
major types: consideration and initiating structure.
Consideration is a type of behavior that includes behavior indicating mutual trust, respect,
and a certain warmth and rapport between the supervisor and group. Initiating structure is a
type of behavior that includes behavior in which the supervisor organizes and defines group
activities and his or her relation to the group.
Task-oriented behavior (similar to initiating structure)and relations-oriented behavior
(similar to consideration) are important behaviors identified by university of Michigan. The
participative behavior is a behavior identified by the Michigan studies that allows
subordinates more participation in decision making and encourages more two-way
communication.
The contingency approach is a leadership theory proposed to take into account the role of
the situation in the exercise of leadership. Job maturity is a subordinate’s job-related ability,
skills, and knowledge. Psychological maturity is the self-confidence and self-respect of the
subordinate.
12.3
Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory proposes that leaders adopt different behaviors
with individual subordinates. The particular behavior pattern of the leader develops over time
and depends to a large extent on the quality of the leader subordinates relationship. Ingroup members are people who have high-quality relationships with their leader and high
latitude for negotiating their work roles. Out-group members are people who have lowquality relationships with their leader and little latitude for negotiating their work roles.
The life cycle of a leaders follower relationship is a description of more recent versions of
the LMX theory, which includes a dynamic process in which the task of the leader is to drive
the relationship from a tentative first-stage relationship to a deeper, more meaningful one.
Transformational leadership
Transformational leadership is a leadership theory that describes the behavior of
inspirational political leaders who transform their followers by appealing to nobler motives
such as justice, morality and peace. Transactional leadership is a leader that shows
followers how they can meet their personal goals by adopting a particular behavior pattern.
The leader develops social contracts with followers in which certain behaviors will be
rewarded. Transformational leaders typically use one of the four general strategies:
•
•
•
Idealized influence: Leaders display conviction, emphasize trust, take stands on
difficult issues, emphasize the importance of commitment and purpose, and are
aware of the ethical consequences of their decisions.
Inspirational motivation: Leaders articulate an appealing vision of the future,
challenge followers with high standards, talk optimistically with enthusiasm, and
provide encouragement and meaning for what needs to be done.
Intellectual stimulation: Leaders question old assumptions, values, and beliefs.
Stimulate new ways of doing things, and encourage expression of ideas and reason.
•
Individualized consideration: Leaders deal with others as individuals. They
consider individual needs, abilities, and aspirations. Listen attentively and advise,
coach and teach.
Laissez-faire leadership is that a leaders provides little guidance to their followers. This is
the lowest level of leadership.
The full-range theory of leadership is a hierarchical model that ranges from laissez-faire
leadership through transactional leadership to transformation leadership.
Multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) is a self-report instrument used in the
development and validation of the theory of transformational leadership.
Authentic leadership is a leadership style that emphasizes the genuineness and integrity of
the leader, usually accompanied by a life story.
Charisma is a personal attribute of a leader that hypnotizes followers and compels them to
identify with and attempt to emulate the leader. Charismatic leaders is a leader that has
followers who are emotionally attached to this leader. They never question the leader’s
beliefs and see themselves as integral to the accomplishment of the leader’s goals.
Charismatic leadership theory is an approach to leadership theory with many different
versions of the notion that charisma is related to leadership.
•
•
In one version, in a crisis situation, followers perceive charismatic characteristics in
an individual and accept that person as a leader.
In another version certain leader behaviors continue to a charismatic aura.
For more information on group decision making watch 1JV00 lecture 07B from 15:00
minutes.
13.1 - Types of teams
A team is an interdependent collection of individuals who work together toward a common
goal and who share responsibility for specific outcomes for their organizations. There are
three different ways in how a team can work:
•
•
•
Pooled: everyone works independently and results are combined.
Sequential: output of previous tasks are needed to perform the next task. They build
on each other.
Reciprocal: output of each task is needed to perform the other task. All team
members use each other out and input. So not one way like sequential.
Type of teams:
Quality circles are work group arrangements that typically involves 6 to 12 employees who
meet regularly to identify work-related problems and generate ideas to increase productivity
or product quality. In the beginning many problems are solved but later when almost
everything is already solved the effectiveness lowers (honeymoon effect). Project team is a
team that is created to solve a particular problem or set of problems and is disbanded after
the project is competed or the problem is solved, it’s called a cross-functional team. The
autonomous work group is a specific kind of production team that has control over a
variety of functions including planning shift operations, allocating work etc. Higher job
satisfaction but more turnover and absenteeism. Virtual teams are teams that have widely
dispersed members working together toward a common goal and linked through computers
and other technology. So the employees can work in China or the US. There are challenges
like time difference or culture difference.
Virtual-collaboration behaviors are behaviors that characterize virtual team interaction,
including exchanging ideas without criticism, agreeing on responsibilities and meeting
deadlines.
Virtual-socialization skills are skills used in virtual team interactions, including soliciting
team members’ feedback on the work process used to accomplish team goals, expressing
appreciation for ideas and completed tasks, and apologizing for mistakes.
Virtual-communication skills are skills used in virtual team interactions, including
rephrasing unclear sentences or expressions so that all team members understand what is
being said.
13.2 – input process-output model
The input-process-output model of team effectiveness is a model that provides links
among team inputs, process, and outputs, thereby enabling an understanding of how teams
perform and how to maximize their performance.
Team composition is the attributes of team members, including skills and personality.
Shared mental model is an organized way for team members to think about how the team
will work. Helps team members understand and predict the behavior of their teammates.
Team diversity/team input
Demographic diversity is differences in observable attributes or demographic
characteristics such as age, gender. Psychological diversity is differences in underlying
attributes such as skills, abilities personality and characteristics.
Communication is important and coordination losses are reduced group performance that
occurs when team members expend their energies in different directions or fail to
synchronize or coordinate their work. Social loafing is reduced motivation and performance
in groups that occurs when there is a reduced feeling of individual accountability or a
reduced opportunity for evaluation of individual performance.
If the team is very close then the cohesion is high and this is the degree to which team
members desire to stay together. Group thinking is a mode of thinking that group members
engage in when they are deeply involved in cohesive group and when their desire for
agreement overrides their motivation to appraise alternative courses of action realistically.
Group polarization is the tendency for groups to make more extreme decisions than those
made by individuals. This is also called risky-shift phenomenon.
11.3 – diversity
Relational demography is the relative makeup of various demographic characteristics in
particular work groups. When managing diversity from the organizational perspective there
are a few models:
•
•
•
Assimilation model: model for addressing diversity that recruits, selects, trains
employees so that they share the same values and culture. (nowadays ineffective).
Protection model is the model for addressing diversity that identifies disadvantaged
and underrepresented groups and provides special protections for them. (nowadays
ineffective).
Value model is the model for addressing diversity in which each element of an
organization is valued for what it uniquely brings to the organization.
Inclusion is the degree to which individuals feel safe, valued, and able to be authentic at
work both as individuals and as members of various groups.
13.3 – special issues in teams
Cross-training is training that involves rotating team members through different positions on
the team so that they can acquire an understanding of the duties of their teammates and an
overview of the team’s task. Team leader training is training of the team’s leader in conflict
resolution ad team coordination. Guided team self-correction training is a team training
intervention in which team members learn to diagnose the team’s problems and develop
effective solutions. Team coordination training is a training that involves teaching team
members about sharing information, managing conflict, solving problems, and making
decisions. Used to help team members learn to employ the resources of the entire team
effectively.
The time horizon is a cultural dimension that affects whether managers and employees
focus on short-term or long-term goals.
14.1 – conceptual and theoretical foundations of organizations
Organization is a group of people who have common goals and who follow a set of
operating procedures to develop products and services.
The first grand theory is Taylorism and is officially called scientific management. Taylor
rejected the notion that manufacturing could only be performed by manual labor and
according to him, these production methods were highly inefficient and could benefit when
the execution of work is divided. So a collection of a large group does something together.
So division of labor is very important. This is division of tasks within a organization. Taylor
simplified work by standardization.
Span of control is a concept that describes the number of positions or people reporting to a
single individual – the width – in an organization. A narrow span means tight leadership
(supervision) and many managerial layers. Wider span means loose leadership (support)
and few managerial layers. An organizational chart shows the organization’s structure.
Centralization means that the decision-making power is concentrated within a group in the
organization. Decentralization means that the decision-making power is distributed across
the organization so more people can decide. Formalization is the extend in which protocols
are in place.
The classic organizational theory assumes there is one best configuration for an
organization, regardless of its circumstances, places a premium on control of individual
behavior by the organization. The human relations theory adds a personal or human
element to the study of organizations. Considers the interrelationship between an
organization’s requirements and the characteristics of its members.
Theory X is a theory developed by McGregor to describe managers who believe
subordinates must be controlled to meet organizational ends. Theory Y is developed by
McGregor to describe managers who believe subordinates are motivated to meet goals in
the absence of organizational controls.
The contingency theory of organization are theories proposing that the best way to
structure an organization depends on circumstance of the organization. Joan Woodward saw
three types of organizations:
•
•
•
Small-batch organization: organization that produces specialty products one at a
time.
Large-batch and mass-production organization: produces large numbers of
discrete units.
Continuous-process organization: organization that depends on a continuous
process for output or product.
Mechanistic organization is an organization that depends on formal rules and regulations,
makes decisions at higher levels of the organization, and has small spans of control.
Organic organization is an organization with a large span of control, less formalized
procedures, and decision making at middle levels.
Sociotechnical systems is the second grand theory (Taylor is first). It is a strong
propagandist of a minimal division of labor. Autonomy and performance is put central.
Integration of thinking and doing is important. It has many self-managed teams with
members who share leadership responsibility and are responsible for achieving goals.
A spaghetti organization is an organization without any formal hierarchy. There are no
individual working spaces. People work with many people and ideas can spread through the
company as you work with everyone.
14.2 – organizational theory, dynamics, and change
Climate is a shared perception among employees regarding their work entity: a particular
organization, division, department, or work group. Autocratic climate is an organizational
climate described by Lewin as highly structured with little opportunity for individual
responsibility or risk taking at the lowest levels. An democratic climate is an organizational
climate that is less structured, with greater opportunity for individual responsibility and risk
taking.
National culture is the culture of a country while the organizational culture is the culture of
a company. The national culture model consist of four dimensions:
•
•
•
•
Power distance: if low power distance then people want to equalize the distribution
of power. If high power distance then people accept a hierarchical order in which
everybody has a place and expect that power in distributed unequally.
Individualism (vs. collectivism): people take care for themselves and collectivism is
that you care for each other in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
Masculinity (vs. femininity): the society is competitive and want to win and achieve
things. Femininity stands for cooperation and work together.
Uncertainty avoidance: the degree to which the members of society feel
uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity.
When a culture relies heavily on subtle cues and non-verbal behavior in communication that
is called high context culture. If cultures rely on language to communicate it’s called low
context cultures.
Organizational culture
The dominant culture has core values that are shared by the majority of the members of
the organization. Sub cultures are mini-cultures within an organization, in general
determined by the department and geographical characteristics.
Core values are the dominant values that are accepted by the entire organization. When
there is a strong culture then the dominant values are widely supported.
Socialization is the process by which a new employee becomes aware of the values and
procedures of an organization.
Different stages of socialization are:
•
•
•
Pre-arrival stage (anticipatory socialization): before entering the organization.
Encounter stage (breaking in): the stage in which a new employee experiences the
values and finds out whether expectations are reality.
Metamorphosis stage (setting in): the stage in which a new employee accepts the
norms, values, and beliefs of the organization.
An organizational climate concerns the context where the activities are created. The main
focus is perception. It’s created on the lower levels by managers. Organizational culture
concerns the values. The main focus is believes. The culture is created from the higher
levels in the organization.
Realistic job preview (RJP) is a technique for providing practical information about a job to
prospective employees. Includes information about the task and context of the work.
Attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) model is a model that proposes that organizations and
individuals undergo a process of jointly assessing probable fit based primarily on personality
characteristics. Through a process of attraction, selection, and attrition, the goal is to make
the workforce homogeneous with respect to personality characteristics.
14.3 – Organizational development and change
Kurt Lewin introduced a model to change an organization. Step one is unfreezing:
individuals become aware of their values and beliefs and they accept the change, step two is
changing: individuals adopt new values, beliefs, and attitudes and step three is refreezing:
new attitudes and values of individuals are stabilized. This is the unfreeze-change-refreeze
model.
There are two types of change. Episodic change is characterized as infrequent and
intentional. Often launched with fanfare, with senior leaders clearly articulating pathways to
change and disseminating information about the process and desired end state. Ex) move
from one to another building (radical change). This change can be very stressful and timeurgent.
Continuous change is ongoing, evolving and cumulative organizational change
characterized by small continuous adjustments, created simultaneously across units, that
add up to substantial change. Ex) slowly optimizing, or growth of human. Often not planned.
The unfreeze-change-refreeze model is not good for continuous change. Continuous change
can use the unfreeze-rebalance-refreeze model. Rebalance is the stage intended to reframe
what has happened and produce a cognitive framework that gives change deeper meaning.
Two types of resistance are: organizational resistance (threats to the power balance,
resource allocation) and individual resistance (fear for losing job, fear for other tasks,
social relations).
Organizational development (OD) is a tool-box of various methods for initiating and
guiding organizational change processes. (intervention techniques).
Six Sigma systems is an approach to quality management that provides training for
employees and managers in statistical analysis, project management, and problem-solving
methods in order to reduce the defect rate of products. Lean production is a method that
focus on reducing waste in every form, including overproduction, lengthy waiting times for
materials excessive transportation costs unnecessary stock and defective products. The
total quality management (TQM) is a unique way of organizing productive effort by
emphasizing team-based behavior directed toward improving quality and meeting customer
demands.
A form of a life cycle graph is called a sigmoid curve. The growth period is the best time to
change things within the company as there is a high expectancy for growth still.
Just-in-time (JIT) is a system that depends on the detailed tracking of materials and
production so that the materials and human resources necessary for production arrive just in
time. Central to the reduction of waste in lean production processes.
Job characteristics model
Improving the five core job dimensions this increases critical psychological states and
personal an word outcomes.