Returning to Mother Earth
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Longchar, A. Wati
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PTCA SeriesNo. 4
Returning to Mother Earth
Theology, Christian Witnessand Theological Education
An Indigenous Perspective
A. Wati Longchar
PTCA – 2012
RETURNING TO MOTHER EARTH
Theology, Christian Witnessand Theological Education
An IndigenousPerspective
Unity in Diversity
ISSN : 1682-6086
Published by: Programmefor Theology and Culturesin Asia
C/o Chang Jung Christian University
396 Chang Jung Rd. Sec. 1
Kway Jen, Tainan 71101
Taiwan
SCEPTRE
Shrachi Centre
74B, A.J.C. BoseRoad
Kolkata-700 016
West Bengal
India
© PTCA/SCEPTRE, 2012
Reprint : October 2013
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CONTENTS
Foreword by Huang Poho
Introduction
vii
x
Part I : INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND
CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
1-128
1.
Land War Politics and Indigenous People
3-18
2.
The Spirituality of Indigenous People
19-42
3.
Ecumenical Responses to Ecological Crisis:
An Indigenous Peoples’ Perspective
43-68
4.
An Exploration of Indigenous Theological Framework
69-95
5.
Creation Centred Spirituality and Christian Theology:
Some Pointers
96-128
Part II : CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
6.
129-210
Mission Work among Indigenous Peoples:
What can we Learn from Orissa Attack?
131-146
Rethinking Mission Beyond Edinburgh 2010:
Implications for Indigenous People
147-162
8.
Globalization: A Ministerial Challenge
163-181
9.
Collective Resistance as Prophetic Witness:
Mission from the Marginalized Perspective
182-198
7.
10. In God’s World - Called to be One:
A Marginalized Person’s Perspective
199-210
Part III: CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL
EDUCATION
211-315
11. Development of Theological Education in Asia
and Ecumenical Theological Education Initiatives
213-233
12. Edinburgh 2010 Mission Conference: Continuing
Challenges for Theological Education in Asia
234-250
13. Beyond Four-Walled Campuses: Models of Ecumenical
Theological Education in Interfaith Issues in Asia
251-267
14. Commercial Tourism: An Agenda for Theological
Curriculum Development
268-282
15. Is God Disabled? - Teaching Theology from
Margin’s Perspective
283-300
16. HIV and AIDS: Can Theological Colleges/
Seminaries in Asia make a Difference?
301-315
FOREWORD
Understanding one’sown context isthe starting point of theology.
Theology outside of one’s context is not a theology. Theology
can bedoneonly in aspecific context and experienceof thepeople.
The context involves both historical and cultural contexts of the
people.
The church in Asia is predominantly a church of indigenous
people. To bea minority Christian in the context of a religiously
pluralistic context involvesmany sacrifices– lossof job, denial of
rights, persecution and so on. Being minority, first, wehave faced
the reality of being excluded (as a reaction to our exclusive
understanding of mission), discriminated against, and marginalized
from society, in some places even threatened with death. But
second, by struggling asaminority, theChristian churchesin Asia
havealso found an opportunity to usetheir dynamicsand creativity
to make acontribution to their people and society. Professor Wati
Longchar’s work, entitled, Returning to Mother Earth: Theology,
Christian Witnessand Theological Education, isan attempt to make
theChristian theology, Christian witnessand ecumenical theological
and ministerial formation programmerooted in thecultural setting
of the indigenous people’s context.
Church history hasdemonstrated that themodel of theological
arguments was changing constantly. There were three principal
theological paradigm shifts, in my point of view, which had taken
place in Christian history, which have to do with change of the
nature and scope of theology.They are:
1) Christian formation of theology generated from thereligion
of Judaism formatted by Jesus’community in theearly church. A
revolutionary transformation was made to both the doctrine of
God and faith community. The Judeo- absolute monotheism was
replaced by “a” God of Trinity, and a nation based religion and
religiousadherentswereradically extended to auniversal and cross
cultural faith tradition.
2) Modernization of Christian theology in reaction to theethos
of rationalism proposed by the enlightenment movement in 17th
to 18th century. In so doing, Christian theology was thus made
oneof thescientific disciplines, all religiousmysteriesand spiritual
momentum were neglected if not totally opposed.
3)Third world eruption of contextual theologies after the
Second World War. Thetraditionally considered pagan and profane
experiences and cultures are taken as substantial elements for
theology for thepurpose of transforming Christian theology into
a liberating power to the oppressed, the marginalized and the
discriminated.
It is along with the third wave of the theological paradigm
shift of theeruption of contextual theologiesfrom the third world
churches, that the “space” oriented Asian way of thinking in
contrast to the“time” (history) oriented western way of thinking,
accompanying the impact from the global ecological crisis, that a
new paradigm of “theology of creation” has been proposed and
advocated as a rediscovery of an authentic Christian theology in
reaction to traditional theology of “salvation.” Longchar has
extensively elaborated “space” centered theology exploring
indigenous people’s spirituality. Today’s ecological threats and
continuing marginalization of vulnerablecommunitiesaregrowing
due to unjust global economic and political structures which
challenge the paradigm shift from traditional anthropocentric
theologies, which turned out is also Euro-androcentric and
hierarchical, to a creation centered theology. A theological
construction giving prominence to “creation” correctstraditional
theology not only in its falsehood of viewing nature and other
creaturesbesidehumankind speciesindifferently (if not neglecting
them totally), but also to enhance Christian theology to reclaim
its roots more comprehensively and faithfully, to include the all
three persons of the triune Godhead instead of just stressing on
the single second person of Christ, the Son of God. This
recollection of Christian roots of theology gives lights also to the
weaker partiesof human community who arestruggling with the
power distortion of traditional theologies that re-enforced the
inhuman exploitation and oppression of themarginalized sex, race,
classand other minority ethnic groups.
Even if we continueto read theBiblewith theconfession that
the human specieswascreated with a particular distinction in the
creation order, they arenot to claim thisasaprivilegeto dominate
over the rest of creatures, but to responsibly work with God for
theconsummation of thewholecreation. They arethus, deserving
special mission to be partners of God for the divine continual
creation, and areentrusted asstewardsto bring reconciliation and
healing to the broken world and the devastation of the planet
which we are living in. This theological paradigm shift thus, will
not simply be atheoretic alternativediscovery, but aradical spiritual
renewing experience. In the change of the model of theology we
have to change also our self understanding and life styles, and as
well asrediscovery of our relation to the“others” inclusiveof Nature
and all the other species of God’s creation.
Wethank Rev. Dr. Wati Longchar for thiscreativeand scholarly
work and I hopethiswork will immensely contribute to new way
of doing theology, Christian faith practice, Christian witnessand
ministerial programmes of the churches. We also thank the Just
and InclusiveCommunitiesProgramme of theWorld Council of
Churchesfor thesupport and theSenateCentrefor Extension and
Pastoral Theological Research (SCEPTRE) of the Senate of
Serampore College (University) for publishing this work.
Huang Poho
Dean, PTCA
Taiwan
INTRODUCTION
Everywherethemarginalized communitieshaveawakened and are
demanding their right and justice. Theassertion of their rightsand
identity areall connected to control of their land and itsresources,
their culture and traditions. They continue to challenge our
thoughtsand actionsasChristians. Globalization hasopened the
door for many indigenouspeople to leavetheir home countriesto
work asdomestic workers, factory workers, entertainersin tourist
destinations. There are many storiesof violence, and even killing
of these migrant workers. This is happening because of unequal
distribution of wealth. The global competition to control earth’s
resourceshasled to war and conflict. Thegreed for capital leadsto
control and manipulation of strategic economic locationslikeIraq,
Palestine and so on. The uncontrolled and one-sided exploitative
economic development projectshave brought with them various
ecological crises. The rape of M other Earth manifests in
uncontrolled logging, indiscriminateuseof chemicalsin agriculture,
inconsiderate disposal of non-biodegradable waste, and human
beings’many other ‘ecocidal’actsdue to negligence, ignorance or
greed which are destroying the ecosystem. The indigenous
communities who depended on earth’s resources are the most
affected people.
With the increasing influence and impact of materialism,
secularism, and liberalism in the postcolonial era, the indigenous
people continue to experience challenges and stagnation in
spirituality. Theseincludelossof focusin discipleship and spiritual
formation, loss of indigenous wisdom, character and values, and
infiltration of western culture and ideology through the neoPentecostal and new religious movements’ influences. The
information technology that promotes a consumerist life-style
also contributesto the fast decline of the indigenousculturesand
discrimination against minorities.
All these issues are complex and are interrelated to culture,
spirituality, power and proper management of earth resources.
Theology has to take a stand for the victims of hegemonic
structures of oppression and other dominant powers. The future
of contextual theologiessuch asindigenouspeople’stheology will
also bedetermined in itsability to createcounter movementsand
theology against hegemonic powers and life threatening forces.
All these problems challenge us to search for a new way of doing
theology, Christian witness and theological and ministerial
formation programmeof thechurches. Thiswork makesahumble
attempt to responding to those issues and concerns.
Except for a few articles, most of the papers have been
published in different journals. Sincethepaperswerepresented on
different occasions, thereisa bit of repetition hereand there, but I
haveretained the original documentsso as to enablethe reader to
see the connections and comprehend the arguments with ease.
However, I have made substantial revision in most of the articles.
I would like to thank the editors of the following Journals for
giving permission to reproduce the articles in this book: (a)
International Review of Mission, No. 388, April 2009 (Pages 6476), (b) Clark Journal of Theology, Vol.II, No.1, January-June2010
(pages, 38-50), (c) Asian Journal of Theology, No. 26, Vol, 1, April
2012 (pages29-43), (d) Journal of Theologiesand Culturesin Asia,
Vol. 11, 2012 (pages, 141-158, 159-174).
I would also like to pay homage to the lateMs. Maria Chavez
Quispe’s contribution to this work. She inspired me much in
understanding therich resourcesof indigenousspirituality in doing
theology. Shehasmadeseveral valuablecommentson several articles
which helped me to sharpen my thoughts. Due to delay in
preparation of themanuscript, I could not giveher the document
on time for writing the “Foreword”. The book would have been
greatly enriched had she been still alive. We pray for her soul to
rest in peace.
I would like to record a special word of appreciation and
thanksto my friend Dr. Deenabandhu Manchala, the Programme
Executive of Just and Inclusive Communities Programme of the
World Council of Churchesfor journeying with usin our struggle
for justice and peace. Hissharp and critical intervention hasmade
a great difference in writing this book. We also thank Just and
Inclusive Communities Programme of the World Council of
Churches for making the resources available for publication of
this book.
I also like to thank Dr. Huang Poho, the Dean of PTCA for
writing the “Foreword” and encouragement to publish this book
aspart of PTCA Seriespublication. Poho hasbeen agreat colleague
and friend in theological journey.
Thanksalso to Dr. IrisDevadason for thelanguagecorrection,
Dr. M .T. Cherian, Associate Dean of SCEPTRE, Dr. Atola
Longkumer, Rev. Khayaipam Khanrang, Dr. Moa Tzudir, and
Rev. Dr. Limatula Longkumer, my wife, for going through the
manuscript and giving valuablesuggestions. Thanksto Ms. Aparna
Biswas, Ms. Mary Chang and Mr. Premanshu Sinha for helping
with typesetting and proof reading. A big thank you to Ms.
Debabani Basu for the attractivecover design.
I hopethishumble work will be found to enrich usall in our
faith journey.
Wati Longchar
Kolkata
November, 2012
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
Part -I
Indigenous Spirituality and
Christian Theology
1
2
Land War Politics and Indigenous People - Part I
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
3
1
LAND WAR POLITICS AND
INDIGENOUS PEOPLE
A World of Contrasts
Weoften hear through themassmediaof thefarmer’stragic suicide
just becausethey cannot repay their loans; parentsforcingor selling
their girl(s) to commercial sex work to earn their living; a mother
killing her child to death by throwing from a high balcony or
throwing in thepond, river, etc. just becauseparentsareuncertain
of their future. Such tragic killingshave become everyday affairs.
But in contrast, we hear rich people competing for construction
of sky-high private houses, e.g. Mukesh Ambani’s 27-storey
mansion, Gautan Singhania’s-30 storey building, Kasliwal brothers’
Palis Royale – 67-storey building, etc. One of the buildings, it
says “It will have two Olympic size swimming pools, a gym with
a spa, recreational centre, and a helipad at itshighest point.”1 The
yawning gap between the rich and poor today remindsusof Jesus’
time. The parable of the Rich man and Lazarus (Lk. 16: 19-25),
speaks of “a poor man named Lazarus, covered with sores, who
longed to satisfy his hunger with what fell from the rich man’s
table; even thedogswould comeand lick hissores”. Thisillustrates
thehugegap between therich and poor and theconsequencesof it
in Palestine at the time of Jesus. Today’s situation is very similar.
The global market economy operatesin such a way that the poor
are pushed to abject poverty. While some rich people have
accumulated so much wealth that they do not know how and
where to invest their wealth, some poor people die of hunger in
1
TheTelegraph, Kolkata– Monday, 9th April, 2012, p. 5
4
Land War Politics and Indigenous People - Part I
the street. It is said that some rich Indians get more than about
Rs. 2,30,000 per second when many poor people do not get even
Rs. 10 a day.
The reality of today’s world values is that human beings,
especially thepoor and marginalized onesareforced to livein misery
dueto unjust systems. They aretreated like commodity and beasts.
Power, military, economic and social benefitsareso unevenly shared
and used that a vast majority of the world’s population is left
excluded and abused. The factsare:
●
Global military expenditure and arms trade form the
largest spending in theworld at over US$780 billion. That
is about US$2.1 billion every day.2 The US alone is
spending morethan $1 billion aday on their giant military
machine.
●
USinvasion of Iraq, which led to theexecution of Saddam
Hussein, hasso far claimed thelivesof morethan 104,000
people including more than 92,000 civiliansaccording to
US Army documents. The casualty of civilians still
continuesin Iraq.
●
20 per cent of theworld population consumes83 per cent
of the global resources.
●
5 per cent of the world population consumes 25 per cent
of the world’s oil.
●
Top 10 rich Indians get US $ 5000 in a few second or
minutes; while millionsof people get lessthan one Dollar
a day.
●
While India has 410 million or 40% of its population
living in poverty, the Defence budget of India has been
increased from Rs. 1,41,704 crore in 2009-2010 to Rs.
1,47,344 crore in 2010-11.
●
Less than one per cent of what the world spends on
2
An International Codeof Conduct for ArmsTrade, Earth-Action 2001, Anup
Shah, ArmsTrade– A Major Causeof Suffering, October 12, 2003 (http://
www.globalissues.org/Geopolitics/ArmsTrade/ BigBusiness.asp)
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
5
weaponscan put every child into school.
There are more than 850 million people struggling with
food insecurity and itsdireconsequencesin termsof health,
education, productivity, and poverty.
●
Everyday 30,0000 people die of starvation, (that’s 1,250
people every hour, 20 people every minutesand 1 person
every 3 seconds).
●
Nearly one billion people in our world are unable to read
a book or sign their names.
●
The amount of money needed to meet all sanitation and
food needs in the world for one year is equal to about 12
days of US military spending or 6 days of global military
spending.
●
The amount of money needed to eradicatepoverty in the
world for oneyear isequal to about 37 daysof USmilitary
spending or 19 days of global military spending.
●
Being threatened of their livelihood, 150,000 farmershave
committed suicidein India during thelast decade.
●
Lack of clean drinking water leads to nearly 250 million
casesof water-related diseaseseach year and 5 to 10 million
deathsin theThird World countries.
This is the reality of the world today. The world is bleeding
for justice.
●
Indigenous People’s Dilemma
When the mountain disappears, what will be our identity?
If we leave our ancestral village, what will be our culture and
spiritual identity?
If you do not allow us to cultivate, what will we eat? Do you
want our children to die?
If you do not allow us to fish, how can we send our children to
school?
If you do not allow us to practice shifting cultivation, what will
be our religion and identity– our religion and identity are
centred on the soil! How can we worship God?
If you do not allow us to cultivate, what will we do the whole
day?
6
Land War Politics and Indigenous People - Part I
When all the trees have been cut down, where will be the animals
and birds find a home?
When all the waters are polluted, what will we drink? Do we
have to buy water?
When all the air is unsafe to breathe, can we buy air?
If we sell our land, the money we get will remain for just a few
years. If we have land, the land will feed us for more than 30005000 years. We know, we will live in dignity and peace aslong as
we have land.
Therefore, we, theindigenouspeople, say3
We will not leave our village, or our jungles, or our mother-earth.
We will not give up our fight.
They built dams, drown villages and built factories.
They cut down forests, dug out mines and built sanctuaries.
Without water, land and forest where do we go?
Oh, God of development, we pray, tell us how to save our lives?
Dry is the Jamuna River, the Narmada River and the Suvanrekha
River.
Ganga River is a dirty drain, Krishna River-but a black line!
You may drink your colas and bottled water, how shall we quench
our thirst with such polluted water?
Were our ancestor’s fools that they conserved the forest?
Made the land so green, made rivers flow like honey?
Your greed has charred the land and looted its greenery!
The fish are dead, the birds have flown, who knows where?
The minister hasbecome industry’sbroker, snatched away our lands!
Armed battalions protect them!
The officer is king and the contractor is a millionairre!
Our village is their colony!
Unite and break the silence!
Fisherfolk, dalits and adivasis (indigenous people) unite!
From fields and mines arise! Sound the nagara!
Listen, people of the country, struggle is the only way out!
3
Thisisasong composed by Bhagwan Maaji, leader of Adivasi struggleagainst
bauxitemining in Kashipur. Lyricsby: Meghnath with thesupport of Sunil
Minj and Vinod Kumar
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
7
Land isour identity and life. We will not give our land. The land
is a God-given gift to us. It is our life and mother. We will not
give our cultivable land. With our life and blood, we will protect
our homes. Thisisthe slogan of indigenouspeople in Asia, South
America, Africa, North America and Europe.
Land War Politics
Voice of Policy Makers
The policy makerswho stand for pro-rich development advocate
that:
Development is good for people
Industries are good for people and nation
Governments are encouraging development for the future
generation of the people
What will be the future of the youths?
What will they do if we do not bring development and industries?
People need industries to enhance their economy and living
standard
Sell your land. Government will give adequate compensation
Development alone can alleviate poverty
You are poor because of the lack of industry
People who oppose industry will always remain backward and
primitive
Industry will bring you more money and comfort
Your children will be given employment
You will have more money to send your children to better schools,
Electricity, roads will be improved
Your life will be more comfortable
You will no longer work in rain and scorching sun
Stand for development of the people
Development is a sign of progress and civilization
Europe, USA and China are the world economic power because
of industrialization.
This is the voice of neo-liberalism. It is cruel and cold-hearted.
The weak sectors of the society are being sacrificed. These voices
reflect absolutely dominant power of the hegemonic intellect in
8
Land War Politics and Indigenous People - Part I
society. They simply regard marginal peopleasnon-being and nonexistent; God’sgift of the land and itsresourcesasmere objectsto
be exploited. Neo-liberalism destroys communal solidarity and
spurscompetitionsamong individuals.
Voice of the Indigenous People4
●
Thisland isour mother, how can we leave her, where will
we go? What will we eat?This mother earth provides us
with crops and food. We won’t give her up so easily.
●
If we sell our land, money will remain just a few years. If
we have land, the land will feed usmore than 3000-5000
years. We know we will live in peace as long as we have
land.
●
We grow betel leaves. We sow paddy once a year and then
wegrow vegetableslikecabbages, potatoes, brinjal, etc and
harvest thecropstill themonsoon. Wealso grow mangoes,
coconuts and other fruits. This is sufficient for the
sustenance of our life. Money will not satisfy our hunger.
We do not want money. Our land, village, river, forest
alonecan feed us. Wecannot compareour land with money.
●
Today Governments are talking about development and
industries, what will happen to us. They will build five
star hotels - will they serve us?A golf club will come up,
what istheuse of it for us?They will build shopping malls,
golf courses, entertainment complexes, etc. what is the
use for us?Will we be able to send our kids to the kinder
garden that will come up here? Even if we give our land,
wewill not enjoy thebenefits. Only therich can enjoy the
benefit. We have not been the employee of anybody. We
do not want to be slaves of somebody in our land.
●
When we resist the Government to protect our land, we
are brutally tortured, women are raped and beloved ones
4
Extract from theDocumentary film of Goan Chodab Nahi and Nandigram
Genocide: A Living Testament, documented by Medical ServiceCentre.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
●
●
●
●
9
are killed by the state police. We have experienced firing,
tear-gas and ‘lathi-charge’many times. What fault have
we done?
Govt. officials are telling us that if an industry comes up
here all our children will get jobs. But our question
is… .where and what typesof jobsare there?We have also
worked in factories, polishing iron-rods, carrying oil-drums
etc. They told us that without ITI training, we can’t get a
job here. True, without having ITI training how can we
have knowledgeabout machinery parts?Only one or two
boys from here will pass from the Industrial Training
Institute, what about the rest of the villagers?It isnot our
children but the outsiders who will get the jobs. We will
be left joblessand landless.
Govt. officials are telling us that if an industry comes up
here they will provide jobs to the people. But to how
many persons have they provided jobs during the last 30
years?So many industries are lying closed. Let them first
open thoseclosed industries. After that wewill think about
their proposal. Till then, we will not give a single inch of
our land.
People who have lost their land have not received full
compensation till now. Those who have become refugees
are yet to be rehabilitated. No arrangements have been
made for their livelihood. If we giveour land about 65-70
thousand peoplewill becomerefugeesin Nandigram alone.
We do not trust that the governments will rehabilitate so
many people. We do not want to be landlesspeoplein our
own villages.
If electricity reachesthe villages, peoplewill automatically
start their own industry. Suppose I am a tailor, and know
embroidery work and if I can set up a few machines here
at home it means industry. When electricity comes here
we will start our own industry. Why do we need industry
from outside?
10
Land War Politics and Indigenous People - Part I
Weareahard working poor people, we till our land and it
isour occupation and if they want to takeaway our source
of food then we will resist with all our strength. We will
carry on our protest till the last drop of our blood.
●
We will give our blood, our life; we are the people of this
land since from the time of our great fore-parents. They
were buried here and their spirits live here. Our village
land issacred. Our religion, cultureand identity arerooted
in this land. How can we sell our life sustaining mother?
●
Why should agricultural land and our heritage bedestroyed
in the name of industry? We are determined to protect
our land and homeat any cost. Wearenot scared of bullets
and bombs.
●
Anyone who comesto take our land will have to first give
his/her life. It doesnot matter whether that person isChief
Minister, President, Prime Minister or anyone. Thisisour
last word. We have lost our father, mother and children
and yet we will continue our fight till the last drop of our
blood.
●
Wewant development for our motherswho haveto spend
winter nights without proper clothes. We want
development of hospitals for the sick people where they
can be treated. Establish a hospital/dispensary in every
village. We want development of drinking water in every
village so that people do not walk milesto fetch drinking
water. Wewant development of education in villageswhere
our children go for study. We went development of
irrigation to produce food for the people. We want
development of roadsbetween villages and towns. We do
not want thepresent pro-rich development. Our life and
our land aremore valuablethan industries.
The voices of policy makers and farmers oppose each other. We
see the tension between the oppressed classes and the dominant
ideology and structures; it speaks a lot of the uncertain future of
●
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
11
the people. It speaks of their suffering especially how they are
molested and threatened, when they demand for justice. In the
voice of the people in the marginsunderline the following vision
of life:
- Neo-liberalism will simply increase the suffering of the
poor people due to lopsided development; it challenges
the neo-liberation market fundamentalism;
- The life of self-sufficiency and eco-friendliness has to be
thevision of life; thereisno human security without water,
air, animals, plantsand all ecologically suffering beings;
- Thesevoicesaffirmed that people are thetrue subjectsof
thenation; without participation of peopleanation cannot
progress;
- For the security of life, the land should not be reduced to
a mere commodity. I f all the lands is turned to
commodities, it is global capitalists that will buy, and
control thewholeworld; Agrarian landsmust beprotected
from large-sized commercial farming;
- Privatization and commoditization isastrategy employed
by global capitalists and this strategy must be resisted at
any cost.
- Privatization, commercialization and commoditization of
public enterprisesand agrarian landsmust bediscouraged
in order to secure the fundamental base of the livelihood
of the nation.
- Wemust opposeany form of monopoly insideand outside
the nation. Monopoly islike acancer killing the lifeof the
whole body. Promotepeople’soriented development and
management of resources.
The unjust financial system, ever increasing ideology of
consumerism, materialism, individualism, competition and greed
erode life-affirming values, fragments communities and increase
poverty. Theglobal market turnshuman beingsand their cultural
activities and earth’s resources into commodities for profit. The
12
Land War Politics and Indigenous People - Part I
weak, namely the migrant workers, farmers, consumers, small
entrepreneurs and the whole eco-system are the victims of
globalization. An indigenous activist from India narrates his
experience of modern development activitiesas follows:
M any unfortunate tribes have already taken farewell
from the world. Civilization has squeezed them out of
this world. The rest are facing a serious threat of
extinction or a life of slavery. Our big brothers want us
to be their coolies; when we refused, they plan to finish
us. Ruthless exploitation, deprivation from human
rights, alienation from land, suppression of our ethnic
identity and derogation of our culture and traditions
has been almost paralyzing us.5
This is the common history of all indigenous people. Genuine
peaceand progresscannot berealized without addressing thepeople
who havebeen crushed and denied of their land, culture, language
and identity.
Therefore, indigenouspeople demand that
●
Stop violation of the indigenouspeoples’right to ancestral
domain and territorial integrity, including systematic and
massiveland grabbing;
●
Stop anti-people development aggression;
●
Stop militarization of indigenous communities and
violations of the human rights of indigenous persons;
●
Stop institutionalized discrimination and cultural
chauvinism;
●
Stop commercialization of culture; and
●
Rectify the long historical government neglect of basic
services, resulting in worsening marginalization, poverty
and food insecurity among indigenouspeoples.
5
R.J. Kr. Kootoom, “Tribal VoiceisYour Voice” in Tribal Voiceof thePersecuted
Tribals, 15, Nov. Premier Issue, p. 1.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
13
Theright to own, manageand develop their territory and
all resourcestherein;
●
The right to practice and develop their indigenoussociopolitical systems, includingcustomary laws, justicesystems,
rituals and beliefs, and other cultural practices, and to
maintain their cultural integrity and ethnicity;
To bring lasting peace, harmony and justice in our world today,
we need to recognize the collective rightsof indigenouspeople:
1) the right to the ownership of indigenous lands as the
territorial base for theexistence of their populations;
2) theright to use, manageand disposeof all natural resources
found within their ancestral lands;
3) the right to control their own economies, and the right to
economic prosperity;
4) the right to restore, manage, develop and practice their
culture, language, traditionsand way of life in accordance
with their worldview, and to educatetheir children in them;
5) the right to determine the form of self-government, and
to uphold indigenous political systems;
6) theright to engage in foreign relationsand trade if they so
desire;
7) the right to form alliances and federations with other
indigenous people for the attainment of common goals;
and
8) the right to a life of peace and security.
Due to unmindful development and land alienation, our life
sustaining earth and indigenouscommunitiesareat threat. Firstly,
never like before, the planet earth is on the verge of eco-suicide
mainly due to unlimited human greed, unmindful use of natural
resources. Secondly, it isnot only ecological crisis, human survival
isat risk. Thewestern concept of development isalmost universally
theaccepted paradigm which isrooted in theuni-linear concept of
history, atheory which projectsthemodern western society asthe
●
14
Land War Politics and Indigenous People - Part I
goal to be reached and followed. In this race, the criteria for
measuring human society areeconomic progressand the presence
of industries. The earth-centred life is considered as uncivilised
and primitive. This ideology justifies the oppression of the
indigenous people and abused earth’s resources. Thirdly, the
indigenous people who live and work closer to the earth are the
worst affected community by ecological degradation. They have
becomethevictimsof development activitiessuch asbig reservoirs,
mega projects, wildlife sanctuaries, mines, industries, etc. They
havebeen uprooted from traditional earth-centred lifeand culture
which eventually lead to an identity and spiritual crisis. Hence, the
survival of indigenous people is an integral part of the crisis in
creation. Fourthly, theecological problem createsproblemsof space
among the people leading to inter-state conflict and inter-tribal
and intra-tribal rivalries. Fifthly, it leadsto global war for resources.
The present American-led war on terror is an integral part of war
for oil resources. All theseproblemsdemand that werethink and
re-evaluateour development paradigm and Christian understanding
of earth and itsresources.
Whom do we Listen to?The Rich man or Lazarus
The church will not be able to realize what redemption, justice
and transformation mean unless we listen to the voices of the
people in the margin. We have to listen to the voice of Lazarus,
not that of theRich man. JesusmadeLazarussomebody by naming
him and making the Rich man nameless because of the unjust
system. The church has to take the side of Lazarus. From the
vantagepoint of thosepeoplein themargin, thepoor and excluded
have the epistemological privilege of knowing what affirms life
and deniesit; what helpscommunitiesand what hurtsthem; what
contributesto thewell-being and what circumventsit. They bring
firsthand knowledgeof thesuffering that accompaniesexclusionary
practices. They also bring giftsthat are under-utilized because of
the lack of opportunitiesand disempowerment. They also bring a
reservoir of hope, resistance, and perseverance that can empower
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
15
people to remain faithful to the promised reign of God.6 Kwon
Jin Kwan in hisbook, Theologyof Subject, explainsthat thecontext
of the oppression is the site of hope. He writes,
Minjung are the most oppressed; however, they are
the site where the life-giving and liberating Spirit moves.
The site and space of the truth is located in the subaltern
minjung. Their situation and their hope and aspiration
constitute the site. We are all invited to enter this space
so that we may become collaborators of truth and
resistance. At least we can affirm that the place of
subaltern people belong to is the site of truth and
resistance.7
One of the important tasks of theology is to make efforts of
find and create divine meanings in the events and stories of the
most powerlesspeople. Liberation startswhen theoppressed classed
become conscious of their being historical and social actors. The
poor become historical actorsas they become critically conscious
of the social structurethey find themselvesin. They become social
actorsin history asthey participatein creating justice, the“Koinonia
of equals.”8
We need to construct a structure that allows liberation of the
excluded. Thecurrent structureshinder thepoor from gaining full
humanity with dignity, and furthermoreeven kill or driveto death
theinnocent people. Thechurch in thepast often failed to challenge
theeconomic, social, religious, cultural, and political systemswhich
have marginalized some sections of the people in the society by
promoting universalism. It is not possible to achieve justice and
liberation unlesswe challenge and transform the institutionalized
and systemic injustics that are taking place in the church,
government and other public sectors.
6
7
8
Draft Document of WCC on Mission, p.12.
Kwon Jin Kwan, Theologyof Subjects: Towardsa New MinjungTheology, PTCA
SeriesNo. 1 (Kolkata: PTCA, 2011), p. 110.
Ibid, p. 98
16
Land War Politics and Indigenous People - Part I
The idea of sustainable development emerged from the
realization that there hasto be“limitsto growth”. Thisconcept is
also still very much tied to an anthropocentric vision of reality.
The dominant concern hereseemsto be thesurvival of humanity
which is not possible when the environment is damaged, or the
resources of nature are overexploited. Sustainable development
doesnot focuson thepresent situation of poverty in aworld where
20% of the population consumes80% resourcesof nature.9 The
concern here is more about intergenerational equity by which is
meant that theuseof natural resourcesbesuch that weleavebehind
for futuregenerationsresourcesand meansnecessary to fulfil their
needs. Hence the restraint on profit-oriented massive scale
development becomes imperative for human security. Such an
orientation does not ensure justice to creation. It still looks at
natureasan instrument/resourcefor thepresent and futurehuman
wellbeing and progress, but not having value in itself. For
indigenouspeople, Mother Earth is endowed with meaning and
value in itself and not in terms of its utility for human beings.
This vision of life needs to percolate among all relationships of
human beings and nature, including economic activity, and this
would ultimately enhance the quality of human life which is not
to be measured on the basis of the capacity to extract maximum
benefit from nature.10
We need to realize that the core of human suffering is
inseparably connected to violation of space: Our selfishness, greed
and exploitativeattitudetowardsour Mother Earth bringspoverty,
oppression, ethnic conflict and many other formsof injustice. The
moment we cut ourselves off from reverential relationships with
the land, we are uprooted from the world of mystery and we live
a life of indecency to many. The never- ending exploitation of a
limited earth’s resource ends up with a few economic affluent
individuals making majority of the poor to struggle with a life of
9
10
Ibid., p. 12.
Ibid, pp. 12-13.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
17
misery and hunger. This disparity makes everyone turn against
each other; everyone becomes a threat to the other’s peaceful
existence. This happens state wise, nationally and even locally.
Suspicion, doubt and selfishnesstake precedenceover trust, love,
careand acceptance. Our rootlessnessin theland makeslifewithout
meaning and purpose.11
We need to inculcate a right attitude towards the mystery of
nature. With theadvancement of knowledgein thefield of science,
people have begun to believe that there isnothing amazing about
the cosmos. The physical world is viewed merely as a sum-total
of many material components and energies. It is to be exploited
to extract profit. This wrong notion justifies manipulation and
domination of land and its resources. Without any religious
restraints, theland and itsresourcesareexploited, abused, denying
the right of everybody. Today the land and natural resources that
sustained lifefor centuriesarenow forcibly taken away in thename
of development without proper alternatives to live on. The
indigenous people have not only lost their soil-centred culture,
but also havebeen reduced to bonded labourersin their own land.
We need to explore all religious resources to provide proper
orientation to God who isthesourceand the sovereign Lord of all
creation. Today instead of affirming the Divine presence in the
universe, human beingsconsider themselvesasthelord and master
of all. Every person wantsto control and manipulate theland and
itsresourcesthreatening the rhythm of the universe. “Therefore,
theland mournsand all who dwell in it languish and also beastsof
field and the birdsof the air and even the fish of the sea are taken
away” (Hos. 4: 3). The attempt by the servant to take over the
place of the Master at home provokesother servants who are also
struggling for lordship and the home of everybody becomes a
battlefield. Nobody isat peacewith anybody. When wedo justice
to God’s world, people will find a healthier life.
11
Paulachan P. Kochappilly, CelebrativeEthics: Ecological Issuesin theLight of the
Syro-Malabar Qurbana(Bangalore: Dharmaram Publications,1999), pp. 348 ff.
18
Land War Politics and Indigenous People - Part I
Conclusion
I would like to conclude this presentation by summarizing the
observation made by Nirmal Minz on modern development.12
1. The earth, the environment, natural resources and ecosystem has been misunderstood as a machine that humans could
manoeuver them as they like. The mindless destruction of earth’s
resources, and marginalization and subjugation of themarginalized
people, liketribalsthrough war, cultural genocide, alienation, denial
and suppression aredeeply rooted in such aview of life. Thiswrong
notion must bechallenged and corrected.
2. Industries and mining of natural resources are necessary
but there has to be a limit. Balance in industry and mining are
necessary if humansare to live in on thisearth.
3. Rejection of this spiritual connection with earth’s family
in development activities will be a serious mistake for the future
survival of theworld. Unlesswerediscover our spiritual connection
of people with the earth’s family, it is not possible to talk about a
community whereall citizensaretreated justly. It islikeattempting
to liberate oneself after killing one’s mother. Progress is possible
only in relation to protection of the land and its resources.
4. We need to promote indigenous people’s way of life,
economic practicesof the community and spiritual connection to
land, and protect their control of and accessto their resourcesand
environment. This will protect large scale eviction from their
ancestral lands, economic dislocation, breakdown of traditional
values, and environmental degradation.
12
SeeNirmal Minz, “Tribal Perspectiveon Ecology” in Ecologyand development:
Theological Perspective, ed. by Daniel Chetti (Madras: United Evangelical
Lutheran Churches in India, Gurukul Lutheran Theological College &
Research Institute and BTESSC, 1991), pp. 9-10.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
19
2
THE SPIRITUALITY OF
INDIGENOUS PEOPLE
Spirituality isthe deeper dimension of the socio-ethical principle
that touches the life of a community and governs it. People
understand spirituality in different ways. For some it is a life of
contemplation and mediation, for some self sacrifice for the sake
of the gospel and for some it is a commitment to struggle for
justice. Whilean anthropocentric spirituality isstrongly emphasized
in other traditions, theindigenouspeoplesshareacommon spiritual
heritageand themost striking featureof thisistheir cosmo-centric
perception of spirituality.
Who are we?
It isgood to start by asking “who are we?” How are we defined by
others?How do wedefineourselves?Indigenouspeoplesconstitute
approximately asmuch as5-8 per cent of the world’spopulation.
Many peoplehaveconfusion over theidentity of indigenouspeople.
Thereisno universally accepted definition of 'indigenouspeople’.
They areidentified astribals, ethnic minorities, native, aborigines
or 'Indians’. These names are given by colonizers, western
missionaries and anthropologists. Sometimes indigenous people
in some countries are also identified as cultural minorities, hill
tribes, mountain peoples, forest/remote area dwellersand so forth.
All these identities are given by the dominant groups especially
people who live in urban or semi-urban contexts. These are all
imposed identity given by western missionaries, anthropologists
and colonial administers, urban settlers, and later by the respective
Governments. However, none of the indigenous community
identified themselveswith thosenames. Indigenouspeopleidentify
20
The Spirituality of Indigenous People - Part I
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
themselves by their own names, e.g. Hakka, Amis, Thao, Aos,
Changs, Chin, Laos, Mizos, Khasis, Ainus, etc. When we say
'IndigenousPeople’, it meansthefirst peopleor theoriginal settlers
of the land who gave names to their mountains, rivers, rocks,
animals, trees, flowers, etc. Naming is always connected to
ownership, caring and parenting, and thusindigenouspeoplehave
a special responsibility to protect all people, the earth and its
resources. Naming achild istheright of theparents. Each nameis
associated with an event and identity. Thosename-giversarecalled
indigenouspeople. Indigenousspirituality isrooted in thisspecific
name -giving responsibility.
The Myth of Origin
The indigenous people have a number of myths that explain the
primordial state of creation. Like the ancient Babylonian, Greek,
Jewish and Hindu mythologiestheindigenousmyth also saysthat
in the beginning everything wasin chaos, and there was no light,
or day, but only disorder.
The Creation of the Earth1
Long ago the gods Hempu and Mukrang took counsel together
for thecreation of theworld … . Thegodssent Helong Recho, the
king of the earth-worms, who worked up the piecesof the earth
… . Thegodssaid, “We must cause plantsto grow on it… .”
The Meeting of Animals2
There was a time when the day and night were not separated.
Sungkidong called a meeting and all the animals and birds
assembled to discuss the duration of day and night. Different
opinionswere expressed. Some wanted day and some night. No
one gave any satisfactory answer. The Owl said “if there is
1
2
See Sir Charles Lyall, The Mikirs(Gauhati: United Publishers, no year),
pp. 70 ff.
Imtilepden, Aor Takakrutsu (Mokokchung: Stephen Imti, no. year, reprint),
p. 23.
21
darkness, let there be always darkness; but if there is day let
therebealwayslight”. Theanimalswerenot satisfied with what
the Owl had said. Unhappy with the Owl’s opinion, the
gathering of right thinking birds began to strike on the Owl’s
head with their beaksthehead of theowl wasround and thick,
but from that time onwards, the head of the owl became flat.
In thesecond meeting, after a longdeliberation, a bird known as
Impang said, “let there be light and darkness alternatively and
let that processberepeated”. All themembersof thecongregation
were delighted with the Impang’s wisdom and congratulated
him. All touched hisbody in praiseof him and so hebecamevery
small. Beforehewasasbig asa cock.
The Sun3
In the beginning there occurred a great flood which submerged
all the vegetation. The Natsand the human beingswhich lived
on the earth suffered greatly for want of food. As there was no
light, men could not go out in search of food. Seeing thehelpless
condition of human beings, the Nats Khunsang and Khimlai
who possessed the bag of wisdom, sent the sun from the east to
give light and heat on the earth. The men therefore named the
sun Sorimittia (protector) for its coming to assist them in the
quest for food.
TheFire4
Long long ago fire and water had a fight. Fire could not stand
beforethewater, and fled and hid in bamboosand stones, where
it is to this day. When fire fled from water no one but the
grasshopper saw where it had taken refuge. His great staring
eyes, however, took in everything and he saw it and said go and
3
4
N. Talitemjen Jamir, Asen Sobalibaren (Mokokchung: the Author, 1992),
p. 9.
J.P. Mill, TheAo Nagas(London: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 100.
22
The Spirituality of Indigenous People - Part I
hidein stoneand bamboo. In thosedaysmen and monkeysalike
had hair. And the grasshopper told the monkey where the fire
waslying hidden, and the monkey made fire to come out of the
bamboos’fire thong. But men were watching and stole the fire.
So monkeys have no fire and so in order to keep themselves
warm used their fur asmuch asthey can with their fur. Man on
theother hand lost their fur becauseof that reason but then they
no longer needed it because they have fire.
TheWater5
A very long long time ago, people after emerging from six stones
found out that there was no water to drink. So they drank the
juice of cane and banana trees. One day Imsenperong and his
brothers saw a bird, known asTsukpo ozu, freeing her feathers
after a bath. Thebird told them, “Imsenperongsempironglongki
tzuyongtzumayong” (Imsenperongand Sempirongthereiswater
in theholeof thestone). After hearing thesong, they searched for
the water and found the water in a small hole in the stone.
Hearingthat thetwo brothers found thewater, thewholevillage
rejoiced and lived in peace.
TheRice6
There wasa time when men did not know what rice was. One
day a rat said totheman: “I will giveyou a present if you promise
to givemea decent funeral when I die.” Theman agreed to this
and the rat brought him a present of rice and showed him how
good it is to eat. A little later, the rat decided to test the man’s
good faith. So he lay down on the bank of a stream and feigned
death. As the man was coming along with his son, the son saw
thedead rat and pointed it to hisfather. But theman instead of
fulfillinghispromisesaid “what a dead rat?Pokea stick under it
and push it into thestream.” Therat who wasjust pretending to
5
6
N. Talitemjen, op. cit., pp. 9-10.
Imtilepden, Aor Takakrutsu, op.cit., p. 23.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
23
be dead jumped up in anger and said: In return for your
faithfulnessI will alwayseat your riceand leavemy droppingsin
it”. Saying this, the rat ran away jumping into the river.
The World7
Zirang – rangmei saw a squirrel carrying a sheaf. He threw a
tong at the squirrel and it dropped the paddy sheaf. Zirang
rangmei then picked it up and reported the incident to the
Mungkarung and Tangkarung who convened a meeting at Jami
villageasto what to do with thegrain?After much deliberations
in consultationswith theseersand alsoafter performingdivination
they decided that Samruitar keep the grain in a safe basket so
that the rats may not eat it away. When the sowing time
approached, theseer announced that only an honest person should
do the sowi ng, thus the choi ce fell on the shoulder of
Tangsaoakhalung. When they sow the paddy, the next problem
wasthemonkeysnear thepaddy. Maungkarungand Tangkarung
took the dogs and Tangsaoakhalung a dao (Naga sword) and
they all pursued the monkey to the end of the world and
ultimately the over ground world.
They reported the existence of a new world to the council and
decided to go. First, a cock wassent but did not return, then a
buffalo which returned with broken horns, then a bigwhich also
returned with broken lipsand lastly a bull which also cameback
hornless. The council again deliberately decided to send a black
mithun. Themithun wasableto go through. Tangsaoakhalung,
Zirang rangmei and Kharshi went up to explorethenew world.
At thegatethey saw a hugetiger wounded by an arrow. In order
tocheck whether thetiger wasdead or not, they sent a beethrough
thebody of thetiger. On seeing thebeepassing through thetiger,
they came to know that the tiger is dead. Then the rest of the
population followed and weresurprised to find thelimitlessspace
7
R.R. Shimray, Origin and Cultureof Nagas(New Delhi: P. Shimray, 1985),
pp. 17-18.
24
The Spirituality of Indigenous People - Part I
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
25
and finally found a virgin land. Thisishow Nagascameto their
present homeland.
The Creation of Human8
Before the earth came into being, there were two spirits, one
male and the other female. In course of time, the female spirit
gave birth to a son who was omniscient and all-knowing. He
introduced himself that his name was Ceining Cang Faning.
Later on the female spirit produced a discoid seed (Entada
Scandens) which in course of time became very large. Next she
bore a son named Mathung Mathwa. Hewasvery healthy and
possessed largelimbs. After sometime, sheproduced a watermelon
from where the human beings emerged. As their number
increased they were sent to stay on the discoid seed. They being
physically weak, needed someonetolook after them. So Ceinning
Cang Faning Cang asked Mathung Mathwa to stay along with
them and look after their welfare.
But men thought that theperiod of thirty would betoo short for
them and therefore, they borrowed twenty years from the cow,
twenty years from the dog and another twenty years from the
owl. Since then men began to utilize their own share of thirty
years of life in merry making and enjoyment, the next twenty
yearsin toiling like cow, the next twenty yearsin guarding the
house and reprimanding others like a dog, and the last twenty
yearsin sitting idly near the fire hearth like a owl.
Theindigenouspeopledo not haveascriptureor creed that provides
asystematic exposition about their worldview. Their wholereligious
ethosisembedded in myths, oral history and rituals. Mythsteach
how theSupremeBeing worksand reveal his/her mysteriesthrough
creation, the place of the animal kingdom in this universe and so
on. Thusmythsare the scriptureand creed. MirceaEliade defines
the myth as ‘a true story’and beyond that, a story that is a most
preciouspossession becauseit issacred, exemplary, and significant.
Hefurther elaborates,
The Responsibility of Humans9
God sent down seven families to earth in order to restore order
and neutralizetheeffectsof Jom and hismission. It wasbelieved
that there were sixteen families in heaven with God. So the
remaining nine families could visit the earth during the day
through a golden ladder or as some would believe, through a
rubber plantation. The earthly families were led by their leader
U Lakriah. Those human beings had godly qualities for which
other creatures accepted their mastery over the earth. The order
was restored.
Myth narrates a sacred history; it relates an event that
took place in primordial times, the fabled time of the
beginnings… ..M yth tells how through the deeds of
Supernatural Beings a reality came into existence, be
it, the whole of reality, the cosmos or only fragment of
realities – an island, a species of plants, a particular
kind of human behaviour, an institution. Myth, then,
is always an account of a ‘creation’, it relates how
something was produced, began to be. Myth tells only
what really happened, which manifested it completely.
The actors in myths are Supernatural Beings.11
The Life Span of Human10
Matham Mathwa prescribed only thirty yearsof lifetoall species.
8
9
10
Tapan Kumar M. Baruah, The Singphos and Their Religion (Shillong:
Government of Arunachal Pradesh, 1977), p. 74.
Ibid., p. 75.
Ibid., p. 65.
Similarly David Scott explains,
A myth is a story that is sacred to and shared by a
group of people who find thei r most important
meanings in it; it is a story believed to have been
11
Mircea Eliade, Myth and Reality (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.,
1963), p. 1.
26
The Spirituality of Indigenous People - Part I
composed in the past about an event of the past, or,
more rarely, in the future, an event that continues to
have meani ng i n the present because i t i s
remembered… Myth, then, is a story about the sorts
of question that religions ask, stories about such things
as life after death, supernatural/divine intervention in
their lives, transformations, the creation of the world
and of human nature and culture- and basically about
meaning itself.12
Therefore, the myth is the ground of religion. It contains the
religious truth of a particular community. However, if we apply
modern scientific methods of analysis while interpreting the
indigenousmyths, their true meaning tendsto be dissipated. The
use of scientific methods of analysis is crucial in the discernment
of the truth, but thisisnot adequate to uncover thefull truth. The
indigenous worldview transcends the sacred-secular dichotomy
peculiar to western thinking, and bringstogether in asinglesystem,
natureand supernatural, space and time, thisworld and theother
world. Therefore, one must go beyond systematization and
classification if we want to grasp the true meaning of the myths,
because for the indigenous people the whole reality is a totality.
A Common Heritage: Space13 - A Foundation of Indigenous
People’s Spirituality
Despite their cultural and ethnic diversity, the indigenous
communitiesall over the world uphold aspecial relationship with
their land. Land, for them, ismorethan just a habitat or apolitical
boundary; it is the basis of their social organization, economic
system and cultural identification. The understanding of
David C. Scott, “StoriesasMethodological Issuesin Primal Visions”, apaper
presented at theNational Seminar on Theological Implicationsof thePrimal
Vision, sponsored by BTESCC/Gurukul (9-12 September, 1993, Madras),
pp. 7-0.
13
When wesay ‘space’, creation’or ‘land’it should not benarrowly understood
asmere natural objectsoutsideof us. It meansa place, asacred placewhich
givesusan identity and sustenance. It includesall beings, including humans.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
27
indigenouspeople’s land isexpressed in different ways:
“The land is the Supreme Being’s land”
“One cannot become rich by selling land”
“Do not be greedy for the land, if you want to live long”
“Land is life”
“The one who does not have land always cheats others or cannot
become a good citizen”
“The land cries in the hands of greedy people”
“The land never lies; do not lie to the land”
“Anyone who takes another’s land by giving false witness will not
live long”
“The land is like a bird, it flies away soon in the hands of greedy
people”
“You can sell other things, but not land”
“You are a stranger without land”
Isit not the whole of creation that declares the glory of God! The
wholecreation expressesthespiritual relationship between theland
and people.
An Australian aborigine, Galarrwuy Yunupingu, maintainsthe
community’s relationship to land, thus:
Land gives us value, and our spirituality is in the land.
The goodness that is in the land – in the trees, in the
water, in the rocks, in the beauty of the landscape and
nature itself – enable us to breathe, live and enjoy.14
A Maori poem goes like this:
Woman alone gives birth to mankind.
Land alone gives man his sustenance
No man will lightly accept the loss of his beloved wife
Nor that of his sacred land. It is said truly that
Man’s destroying passions are the love of his wife
and the love of his land.15
12
Galarrwuy Yunupingu, “Concepts of Land and Spirituality” in Aboriginal
Spirituality– Past, Present, Future, ed. by Anne Pattel-Gray (Victoria: Harper
CollinsReligious, 2000 reprint), p. 7.
15
Alison O’Grady, ed. Inheritorsof theEarth (Hong Kong: URM, Christian
Conferenceof Asia, 1981), p. 1.
14
28
The Spirituality of Indigenous People - Part I
The above mentioned expressions of indigenous people express
the spiritual relationship between the land and people. The land is
a very complex spiritual component and occupies a very central
place in the worldview of indigenous people.
Indigenouspeople’sidentity isradically related to the land, to
mountains, rocks, theentirecosmic universeand everything therein.
Contrary to the colonizers description of the land as ‘wilderness’
or 'empty space’, theland isour temple(cathedral), our university,
our hospital, our sustenance, the vast hall where we congregate
and celebrate, our parent, our life. It isin theland that weworship,
heal the sick, educate our children, and feed our people. The loss
of land and thedestruction of theindigenouspeople’senvironment
is an affront to our identities, the loss of our spirituality and our
self-determining existence. If the land islost, the family, clan and
village and the tribe’s identity too will be lost. A person who is
not deeply rooted in the land cannot become a good citizen. He/
she islike a stranger without an identity and a home.
The indigenouspeople’smythsand rhetoric speak of the land
as belonging to the Creator. Like the Hebrews, [“the Earth is the
Lord’s and fullness thereof ” (Ps 24:1)], indigenous people also
affirm that theland belongsto the Creator. Thevillage, clansand
individualsmay own theland, but within thewider understanding
that the land belongs to the Creator. The Creator alone is the
ultimate owner of the land. Thus, the land equally belongs to all
with equal rightsand freedom to livein it, and no onecan claim it
exclusively for himself/herself nor can one sell it as though it is
one’sown exclusiveproperty. In thetruesense, human’sownership
is only temporary. The whole land is the home of the spirits and
humansareonly membersin it. Hence, the ownership of land by
village, clansand individualshasto beunderstood within thegreater
recognition that the land belongs to the Creator.
Even theSacred Power isunderstood in relation to land/space.
For example, theAosand Sangtamsof Nagaland (India) call their
Supreme Being, Lijaba. Li means‘land’and jaba means ‘real’. It
means the Supreme Being is ‘the real soil’. Sometimes people call
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
29
theSupremeBeing, Lizaba. Li means‘soil’and zaba means‘enter’,
meaning ‘the one who enters or indwells into the soil’. People
believed that theSupreme Being entersinto the soil with theseeds
and rises again along with the crops. Thus, the blooming flower,
bearing of fruitsand rice signify the presence of the Creator. The
Sacred Power is present in every iota of creation and the whole
creation becomes the manifestation of the Creator. This
understanding reminds us of the Prophet Isaiah’s vision. The
Prophet heard God’smessengersannouncing that “thewholeearth
isfull of God’sglory” (Isa. 6:1-3). For indigenouspeople, there is
no concept of the Creator without the land; the land and the
Creator are inseparably related. The Creator indwells not only in
human persons, but also indwells in the soil.
Theland isalso understood asthe symbol of unity of all living
creatures, the spirit(s) and the Creator. The land is the basis that
enables them to co-exist with other living beings, their ancestors
and the Creator. The land is the foundation of unity.
Many indigenous communities further perceive the land as
mother. Their myths speak of their fore-parents emerging from
stonesor emerging from abig hole of the earth.16 All these myths
symbolically tell that the land is the mother; we are born out of
the earth. It upholds and sustains life. It owns people. Thus they
compare the land as mother. The land not only sustains the
individuals, village, clansand tribe, but it also unitesthe Creator,
spirits, ancestors and living beings as one family. The land is the
symbol of unity for all life.
The experience of time and history is also related to land.
According to the indigenous people’s concept, it is the land that
creates time and history. People intimately move along with the
soil cycle and surrounding environment. All the festivals and
16
“Big holeof theearth” can also mean ravines, gorges, anarrow valley between
two hills– apath through which they migrated.
30
The Spirituality of Indigenous People - Part I
religious activities of the people are centred on the soil cycle.17
When theland and surrounding environment aredestroyed, people
experience a vacuum; the rhythm of life is seriously jeopardised.
Thewhole universeisthusperceived asareligiousuniverse. Rocks
and boulders, treesand riversarenot just empty objects, but religious
objects; the voices and songs of animals speak of a religious
language; the eclipse of the sun and of the moon are not simply a
silent phenomenon of nature, it speaks to the community that
observesit, often warning of an impending danger and misfortune.
It isin thismilieu that people experience history and time. Thus,
theconcept of history and timeisinseparably interlinked and rooted
in the soil.
Unlike other great religions of the world, the indigenous
religion does not have any founder(s) or reformer(s) or guide(s)
nor do peopledanceand sing adoring adivine historical person(s).
They too have traditionsof divine birthsand manifestations, but
they are not worshipped. They have priests, officiating elders,
divinersand other famousmen and women in thebody of beliefs,
and mythologieswhich are respected. These form an integral part
of their religiousmilieu, but they areneither worshipped nor adored
asdivinerepresentatives. Instead, peopledanceand sing along with
thecycleof seasonsof theland. A peculiar featureof theindigenous
religion is that the whole religious systems, ceremonies, rituals,
festivals and dances are all centred and deeply rooted in the land
itself.
Therefore, for many indigenouscommunities, theland isnot
just a source of life, but it is also a symbol of unity and identity.
The land holds family, clan and tribe together. It isalso a symbol
17
Someof theimportant festivalsare: Purification of forest, Purification of the
Soil, Dedication of Seeds, The Earth’s Day, and Festivals of thanksgiving.
Therearealso many regular and irregular ceremoniesthroughout the year to
invokedivineblessingsand to adorethe SupremeBeing and the land. In that
way thewholepattern of indigenousreligiousmilieu moveswith thesoil. All
thesecelebrationsaffirm that theplaceor spaceisvery central to theindigenous
people.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
31
of unity of all living creatures, the spirit(s) and the Creator.
Therefore, the preservation of land is not an issue of utility, but
life itself. Since protection of land is protection of life itself,
indigenouspeople preserve the land and itsresourcesasfollows:
a) By Observanceof Earth’sDay - Sincetheland isthefoundation
of all life, the indigenous people protect the land through
observance of ceremonies, rituals and ‘Earth’s Day’ or ‘Mother
Earth’s Day’. Earth’s Day was/is observed upto 3 to 6 days by
many communities. Theearth wasgiven completerest and treated
with much respect by abstaining from cutting of firewood, tree,
use of axe, knife, pointed objects, killing of animal, avoidance of
merry making, etc. Theearth washonored and treated assacred. It
wason thesedaysthat peaceand reconciliation initiativetook place
between individuals, clans, villagesand communities. The Earth’s
Day(s) wasalso a day of prayer and contemplation. Thiswas/isthe
culture of indigenouspeople.
b) By Affirmation of Interconnection - All the indigenous
communities, whether in Asia, Africa, North America or South
America, perceive the whole cosmos as one integrated and
interlinked experience. The earth is always brought to the centre
of their day to day life. For example, in some societies offering a
traditional shawl is the greatest honor to be offered to a guest. It
wasnever given to aperson in hand directly, but thegiver placesit
on theground and thereceiver takesit from theground. Meaning,
it comes from the soil and you take it from the soil. When a
person is offered a drink, a few drops are first dropped on the
ground giving honor to the ground.18 In this way the person is
connected with the mystery of the earth. The “space” is always
acknowledged and brought in between the persons’relationship.
Thisiscalled spiritual connection to space. These valueswere/are
not mere abstract concepts, but were/are part of people’s life and
18
Among some tribes, thedrink isoffered to the winespirit by pouring on the
ground.
32
The Spirituality of Indigenous People - Part I
existence. Thisprovidesa vision of life not based on the conquest
of nature, people and their culture, but isrooted in a harmonious
relationship with nature, preservation and protection of people
and their culture.
c) By the Practice of Simple Living - Nature was also conserved
through the practice of simple living and sharing. An Ao-Naga
myth goes like this:
Lijaba came disguised in the form of an old man, almost
naked, having sores all over this body … . He blessed the
rice field of the two orphan sisterswho were residing at the
outskirtsof the village. The old man instructed them to cut
a string or rope of their basket when they had enough
harvest. Then, he left them. The harvest time came. The
two sistershad such bountiful harvest that they had no place
to store their grains. Then, asinstructed by Lijaba they cut
the basket-strings and to their surprise the harvest was
completed.
For many indigenouscommunitiesricecultivation isthe hallmark
of their activities. The advice of “cutting thebasket-string” isvery
significant for conservation of earth’sresources. Without a string,
it is not possible to carry the rice grain in basket. The cutting of
the string implies that one should have a limit. An excessive
accumulation of wealth is not approved by God as well as by
community. In modern understanding ‘rich’means the one who
accumulates‘wealth’, but in theindigenouspeople’s understanding,
the onewho giveseverything for the sake of othersiscalled 'rich’.
In other words, one’s richness is measured not by how much one
accumulates wealth, but by how much a person shares with the
members of community. That iswhy one will see the observance
of ‘feast of merit’among many indigenous communities.
d) By the Practice of Responsible Ownership - The land
ownership system is practiced in such a way that the land and its
resources are protected. Among indigenous societies, each tribe
hasawell-defined territory. Within thetribal territory, every village
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
33
hasawell demarcated territory. Again, thevillageterritory isfurther
divided into two holdings: (a) Common village land – some plots
arespecifically kept for public institutionslike Morung,19 theplace
of worship, grave yard and so on. It is the responsibility of the
whole village to protect these common properties. (b) Clan’sland
– Each clan has a land earmarked for the construction of houses,
cultivation lands and woodlands within the village territory. The
eldest male person is the custodian of the clan’s land. The clan
members are free to cultivate, but the primary responsibility of
each clan is to preserve and protect their demarcated land from
exploitation.20 Assigning a plot of land doesnot mean exploitation,
but protection from exploitation and misuse.
Our Cosmology
Indigenouspeoplesperceived their cosmology in an organic way.
In thisorganic understanding, everything isorganically related to
each other. Everything islinked together and valued . All creation,
including the Sacred Power, affects each other. Humans see
themselvesasan integral part of the total cosmic life. Though the
Sacred Power and the Spirit(s) are understood as the Creator and
Sustainer of all living beings, they arealso perceived, though distinct,
aspart of the total cosmic life. Thisorganic relationship ispossible
because of the earth. The earth is the foundation of this cosmocentric spirituality. To have a clearer understanding of indigenous
people’sunderstanding of creation, I would liketo make arandom
comparison between the modern perception of nature and
indigenous people’s view of nature.
Modern View of Nature
Primeval View of Nature
N ature i s sacred to be
contemplated and revered. It is
beyond human comprehension
N ature i s an obj ect whi ch
maybe observed, analyzed and
controlled
19
20
Dormitory for boysand girls.
For detail, seeWati Longchar, TheTraditional Tribal Worldview and Modernity
(Jorhat: Eastern Theological College, 1995), pp. 64-73.
34
The Spirituality of Indigenous People - Part I
All God’s creatures are endowed
with distinct rationality which
has to be cared for, protected and
respected.
H umans alone possess rational
abili ti es and thi s disti ncti ve
human capaci ty j usti fi es
domination over other creatures
Humans do not have the right
to exploit and manipulate other
creatures. Each creature has
intrinsic rights and humans are
an integral part of creation.
H umans have got the right to
utilize nature in whatever way
they wi sh because thei r
rationality makes them superior
to other creatures.
There is no sharp distinction
between them. H umans are
dependent and i nseparably
related to nature.
T here i s a sharp disti ncti on
between matter-mi nd, bodysoul, religion-secular, etc. Nature
is separated from humans
All God’s creatures have mind,
feelings and emoti on. Life is
di recti onless wi thout other
creatures.
Ani mals are li ke machi nes
without minds and feeli ngs.
They are mere food to be eaten.
Nature is life, land is life.
N ature i s consti tuted by
impersonal masses and forces,
operati ng
accordi ng
to
deterministic laws.
Nature is an integral part of the
human community
Nature is alien to humans
Nature is mystery and human’s
reason is limited to comprehend
the mystery of nature.
Human’s reason can explain all
phenomena of nature.
N ature i s endowed wi th the
di vi ne and they are to be
worshipped
There is no mystery in the world;
everything can be explained.
Without nature, humans cannot
exist and thus reciprocity must
be maintained.
Nature has no inherent rights of
its own and we need not hesitate
to manipulate, exploit and use it
All creatures are different and
distinct in their own right, but
they are inseparably interrelated.
Spirit indwells all creation.
H umans are fundamentally
different from therest of creation.
Humans alone possess spirit.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
35
N ature i s beyond human
comprehension and the divine
being indwells in them.
Nature is seen in a mechanical
way that can be explained and
analyzed through scientific tools
The totality of creation (which
includes human creation) is the
centre, and the point of reference
must be understood in totality
H umans are the centre of the
world, and the point of reference
for everything in it
H umans can feel, but cannot
understand the law of nature
fully. It is divinely designed.
H umans have to follow the
rhythm of nature
Humans have power to grasp the
specific nature of the physical
matter constituting the earth,
and the changes within it.
God cannot be understood
without creation. They see God
i n creati on. Creati on i s the
exegesis of God.
God is detached from Nature.
God i s not mani fested i n
creation.
Both humans and creation are
active and dynamic
Human beings are active agents
while Nature is always passive
H umans and nature
are
mutually dependent on each
other
H umans are the M aster and
Nature is a slave
Every iota of creation is alive and
they
represent
di vi ne
manifestation
The world is merely a sum-total
of many material components
and energies
Natural resources belong to God
and they should not be exploited.
Nature is the sustaining power
Natural resources are given value
only in so far as they are useful
for the development of science
and technology
We cannot buy air, land, and
water. We cannot cook and eat
money
Natural resources are money
In the modernist’sview, it isassumed that one can understand
the specific nature of the physical matter constituting the Earth
and the changes using the toolsof mathematical calculations and
36
The Spirituality of Indigenous People - Part I
experimental data. Nature exists purely for human’s enjoyment
and exploitation. Humansshould conquer and manipulateNature
for thegood of society. Consequently, many peopletoday visualize
human civilization in terms of a highly mechanized and
industrialized society. The booming of economic progress, hightech mechanized life-styleis falsely perceived asthe attainment of
a higher quality of life.
Eco-Justice and Spirituality
Sincetheindigenouspeopledepend completely on naturefor their
sustenance – economic and medicinal needs, they maintain a close
balance between people and ecological needs in such a way that
both areprotected and preserved. Their culture, beliefsand practices
were developed to maintain a balance between human and
ecological needs. Such a balance was essential to protect nature
from thedanger of over-exploitation. Thisbalancewasmaintained
through the practice of taboos and totem. These controls were
legitimized by giving a religiousbasis through myths.
Taboo21 - Taboo is not a superstition, but a practice to protect
life. It simply means‘prohibition’or ‘forbidden’activity, something
that isnot permitted, something that standsagainst social approval
and is disallowed by norms of behaviour. The practice of taboo
21
Thisword ‘taboo’comesfrom the Polynesian dialect introduced into English
languageby Captain Cook in 1777. According to Henry H Presler, taboo or
taboosarethose“caution established to guard against supernaturally dangerous
thingslike plants, animalsor personsespecially thosepossessmana. Taboo
extendsto action aswell. Any act that violatesthe community norm brings
the supernatural penalty. Therefore, the taboo object is not to be seen or
violated, touched, heard, smelt and tested. If violated, theperson or community
will automatically lead to supernatural anger or penalty. A person could become
infected with theimpersonal supernatural power by touching aplant, animal
or any object containing mana. It isbelieved that such power istransmissible.
Thustheinfected person or object isasdangerousastheoriginal taboo object.
However, taboo can also be avoided by ritual performance. See Henry H
Presler, PrimitiveReligionsin India. (Bangalore: C.L.S., 1971).
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
37
covers the whole activity of the indigenous society. It applies
between sex, different age groups, household, different clan
members and village wise, and even according to the change of
seasons. A taboo isobserved with awarenessthat it affectsthewhole
community. When the observance of taboo is neglected, it is not
only thehuman community who suffersbut even theanimalsand
plantsare affected. Taboosare, therefore, the signsthat the whole
world isinterrelated and interconnected.
Some taboo practicesare: A husband isnot allowed to kill any
animal when hiswifeispregnant. Hemust also abstain from eating
honey. A warrior or priest isnot allowed to kill any animal while
observing restricted day(s);22 the whole village is not allowed to
kill any animal on restricted day(s). It is taboo for a woman to
hunt. Women are not allowed to eat fish that have no scales such
asthestinging cat fish and thebutter cat fish. Thisprudent use of
resources which protected nature from destruction allowed one
group or sex to utilize theresourceswhile the other wasrestricted
from doing so. This culture of restraint protected nature from
being over-exploited.
There arecertain tabooswhich prohibit thekilling of animals
at certain stages of their life. For example, hunting and keeping
trapsarenot allowed during thebreeding seasons. Thesameruleis
applied to huntingpregnant animals. Fishing and theuseof certain
poisonous roots and leaves that kill fishes in the rivers or springs
during thespawning season are restricted. If a calf isborn or there
is a new litter of pigs, or chickens are hatched in the house, the
wholehousehold observestaboo to preserve, dedicateand welcome
the lifeof thenew born calf, pigletsand chicken. A period ranging
from threeto six daysisdevoted to caring and welcoming thenew
born to the family as many societies attach great importance to
domestic animals. In fact, in many societies, domestic animalsare
22
In Naga language it is called, genna, a period of restriction. A person or
community isrestricted to kill any animal and indulgein any immoral activities.
38
The Spirituality of Indigenous People - Part I
also a part of the family. The observance of taboo is thus applied
to all beingsregardlessof whether they arehuman or animal. When
it comes to agriculture, taboo is observed to ensure good food
crops and bounteous harvests. The land is allowed to rejuvenate
itsfertility through theobservanceof ritualsand taboos. In addition,
it isforbidden to cut certain treesbecausethey areconsidered sacred.
Trees like the banyan, peepal, oak, etc. are protected throughout
the villages. Cutting these treesisconsidered to behighly taboo by
the people. Unless the priest performs the appropriate rituals to
gain divine approval these trees are never cut down. M any
communities believe that such trees are the dwelling place of
spirits.23 Young people are prohibited not only from cutting such
trees, but they are also not allowed to remove the outer bark of
those trees. If they do so, they would displace the indwelling
spirit that could causetheir sudden death or shorten their lifespan.
Young peopleareeven prohibited from transplanting treeslike the
oak, banyan, etc. believing that these trees would outgrow the
good fortune of the planter. Besides, many communitiesset aside
someplacesassacred space where thecommunity congregatesfor
different rituals, festivalsand ceremonies. Therefore, many societies
regarded trees/forest, sacred placesand animalsasnot mereobjects
to beused, but they arealiveand activeand thus, must berespected
and protected.
Thisprudent utility isreinforced by religioussanction. In the
indigenous religious system, taboo is observed in every religious
act. It isa sacred holiday from work, and a day of rest and prayer.
Taboo takesplacein different duration and intensity. Some are for
one day, othersfor a few days, a week or more. While some taboo
days are observed by the whole village, some are observed by the
clan and family only. While observing taboo, people do not talk
23
In Christian understanding, thespirit indwells the heart. It ispersonalized
and limited. However, the indigenouspeople alwaysperceived the spirit in
relation to preservation of nature. Thespirit worksnot only in human person
but also in wholeof creation.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
39
to strangers. Thedaily routine work comesto astandstill, nothing
goes in or out of the house, no animals or birds are allowed to be
killed, and sexual contact isto beavoided. Everything isleft to rest
completely. It is a period of rest for the land, family and
community. It isa period meant for the revitalization of the earth
bringing holistic benefit to the community. Taboo also provides
opportunities for people to be more charitable and kind to
themselvesand others, to the animalsand theplantsaround them
and to their rice fields.
Taboo period is also a time of reflection and contemplation.
Freefrom daily hard work and engagement, peoplereflect on their
approach to agriculture, animals, peopleand Sacred Power. Without
taboo with its ample rest, the indigenous people may not have
been able to develop a healthy God-world-human relationship.
Taboo, therefore, enriches the whole land and community along
with thefloraand fauna. Such an observance isessential to protect
nature from exploitation. In other words, this prudent way of
using resourcesallowsonegroup, clan or sex to utilizetheresources
while other wererestricted from doing so. Thisculture of restrain
bringsharmony, protection and carewith nature.
Totem24 - The totem isanother practice which ensuresbalance
and harmony in society aswell aswith environment. Theindigenous
people restricted certain animalsand plantsfrom being exploited
by maintaining atotemic relation with natural objects. A totem is
usually “a species of an animal or of a plant or insect or bird and
very rarely a class of inanimate objects, very closely related to a
group in that the group of people isbelieved to descend from the
24
The word ‘totem’comesfrom the language of the Ojibway Indian tribe of
North American simply mean ‘brother-sister kin’. Emile Durkheim in his
book, TheElementary Formsof theReligiousLife, described different aspectsof
totem manifestationsand arrived at aconclusion that totemism isan elementary
form of religiouslife. Heseesthisasasocial and religiousinstitution through
which divisions of tribe are believed to be systematically and permanently
associated with speciesof animals, plantsand inanimateobjects.
40
The Spirituality of Indigenous People - Part I
animal or any of the species.”25 Some of the common totem
animalsaretiger, tortoise, cobra, monkey, jackal, deer, dog, buffalo,
cock, peacock, owl, fish, and so on, and the plants totem are like
rice, cereal, cucumber and mushroom. A common phenomenon
of totem belief is that the clan which traces its origin to such a
totem sometimesisnamed after the totem and ascribesthe totem
with a supernatural power. It gives a form of social and religious
practice.
The practice of totem has a great ecological manifestation.
For examples, while some clans kill certain animalsand consume
them, the othersdo not. While oneclan eatsbeef, theother clan is
prohibited. Whilesomeclanskill birds, theothersdo not. Almost
all the clans do not kill monkeys, tigers, bears, elephants and
pythons. Some clans would kill and eat the totem animals and
plantswithout any restrictionsto gain blessing and protection from
the deity. Some clans will kill and eat only on certain occasions,
which may be followed by a period of mourning. People look
upon thiseating asre-establishment of the bond between theclan
and its totem. For some clans, the totem is so sacred to the clan
bearing its name that it becomes the focus of reverence and awe
that they do not kill and eat. This practice is common to many
indigenouscommunities.
Theindigenouscommunitiesmaintain avery strong symbiotic
relationship with the environment because of their totemic roots.
Thesurroundingsarepersonified by attributing personality. Each
clan considered it an obligation to protect their totem. Because of
this totemic relationship and the myths related to animals and
plants, the indigenous communities revere them greatly. In that
way, all natural resourceswereprotected and preserved from being
over-exploited.
25
J.H. Thumra, “ThePrimal ReligiousTradition”, ReligiousTraditionsof India,
eds. by P.S. Daniel, et.al. (Kottayam: ITL, 1988), p. 51.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
41
Conclusion
I would like to conclude this presentation thus:
1. The organic relationship of all realities is the core of
indigenous spirituality. Everything is organically related to each
other. Though theSupremeBeing and Spirit arecreators, they are
perceived, though distinct, as part of the total eco-system.
2. Though the indigenous religion is the oldest religion of
the world, it does not have a written sacred scripture like other
religions. The whole religious ethos is written in people’s hearts,
minds, oral history and rituals and in the whole of creation. In a
sense, the whole world of nature and people themselves are the
living sacred scripture.
3. The world of creation or space is the exegesis of the
Supreme Being. Creation declared the Supreme Being. In other
words, indigenous people religious meanings cannot be grasped
without creation. Creation isthebasic component of their religion.
People see the self of the Supreme Being in creation, and the
Supreme Being speaksand reveals itself to them through creation.
4. Unlike other religions, indigenous religion does not have
any founder(s) or reformer(s); it isnot centred in any great historical
person(s). Rather, indigenousreligion iscentred on the earth itself.
The religious practices, rituals, ceremonies, festivals, dances, etc
are all centred on the earth.
5. Creation isthecentreand key for understanding all realities
in the indigenous religion. The whole of reality is approached
from the perspective of creation. Human selfhood isalso defined
and perceived in relation to creation.
6. In the indigenous spirituality, history and time are also
not separated from the cosmic realm. Creation is the basic
component of the indigenous people’s interpretation of history
and time. In other words, history and time cannot be conceived
without the world of creation. They are also experienced in an
organic realm. It isexperienced asbeing cyclical and rhythmic rather
42
The Spirituality of Indigenous People - Part I
than linear and progressive. Thiscyclical modeof history and time
is derived from the flow of creation. They move along with the
earth.
7. Though distorted to a certain extent, there is also a very
strong femininedimension in indigenousspirituality. The earth is
conceived as mother. The Mother Earth is the symbol of unity,
identity and lifeof all living creatures, including theSupremeBeing
and the Spirit.
8. Creation is the foundation of ethics. It ensures a balance
and harmony between the Supreme Being, creation and humans.
Thepracticeof prudent utility protected naturefrom exploitation.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
43
3
ECUMENICAL RESPONSESTO ECOLOGICAL CRISIS:
An Indigenous People’s Perspective
Introduction
The impact on the earth of the greenhouse effect through gas
emission, rising sea levels, global warming, thealarming pollution
of air, water and other essentials isdue to the life style of the rich
peopleand rich countries.1 Can the life-styleof the rich bechanged
to save the earth?Eco-justice has to do with the dominant model
of market economy and liberal capitalism; it is the root cause of
social inequality and ecological injustice. Thus, eco-justiceand social
injustice are interconnected. Relating the two isa great challenge
before humanity. TheChristian theology of creation also bearsto
a certain degree the responsibility for bringing about today’s
ecological destruction. Our uncritical and partial interpretations
of the Bible have supported the modern domination of nature.
Weneed atheology that promotesrespect and a caring attitude for
all of God’screation. Recognizing thisinterrelated issue, thispaper
attempts to discuss the ecumenical responses to ecological issues
from the experienceof indigenouspeople.
Looking into the Roots of Ecological Crisis
Many thinkers point to two major factors that have contributed
to the present ecological crisis. They are:
A) Non-theological factors
a. The one-sided industrialization of economic development is
1
For example, theUSA which with only 4% of world population, emits30%
of all greenhousegasemissions.
44
Ecumenical Responses to Ecological Crisis - Part I
the root cause of this ecological crisis. Every country wants to
improve the living standards of its population by massive build
up of industrialization. This puts tremendous pressures on nonrenewableresources.
b. Consumerism and industrialization go hand and hand.
Production for sale and expansion of market are the key factorsto
sustain the capitalist system. Industrialization can be sustained
through the creation of a consumeristic society, a class of owners
and aclassof non-owners, endlessaccumulation, reinvestment for
profit, manipulation of mass-media, political machinery,
competition, exploitation, militarism and colonization of thepoor,
and exploitation of land and itsresources. K.C. Abraham saysthat
the present ecological crisis is the direct product of modern
industrial and technological growth, and modern life-style. He
writesthat,
A paradigm of development, the western industrial
growth model, is almost universally accepted. It is a
process whereby we use enormous capital and exploit
natural resources, particularly the non-renewable ones.
Ruthless exploitation of nature and fellow-beings is the
inevitable consequence of this pattern of development.
Decisions about the kind of goods to be produced and
the type of technology to be used are influenced by
the demand of consumeri st economy where the
controlling logic of growth is greed and not need. It
creates imbalances between different sectors and allows
massi ve exploi tati on of the rural and natural
environment for the benefit of the dominant classes.2
c. Against the capitalist ideology of privatization of capital and
competition, the socialist model of economy emerged as a
substitute, but failed. Socialism could not provide an alternative,
2
K.C. Abraham, Eco-justice: A New Agendaof Church’sMission (Bombay: BUILD,
no year), pp. 4-5.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
45
conducive environment for upholding theecological balance and
could not liberate the poor from the yoke of exploitation. Karl
Marx upheld that, nature is a reservoir of raw materials, and
nothing more, which are to be transformed through the building
up of an industrialized society.3 A basic differencebetween industrial
capitalism and socialistic model of economy liesonly in themeans
of ownership. Marx assumed that theexploitation of humanswould
be eliminated once the private ownership of the means of
production iscontrolled by the producersthemselves.
d. The problem lies in the perception of nature. Many scientists
view nature asa machine. It hasno inherent rightsof itsown, and
we need not hesitate to manipulate, exploit and use it. With the
scientific and technological revolution, the whole cosmos is
perceived in amechanical way. Humansarethecentreof theworld,
and the point of reference. The value of other segments of God’s
creation isdetermined on thebasisof their usefulnessto humans.
e. Scientific and technological revolutionshavein a way destroyed
the sanctity of nature. Thescientific method of reductionism thus
took away the mystery out of creation. People began to believe
that there is nothing amazing about the cosmos. By detaching
God from natureand regarding it assecular, humanity haschanged
the relationship between humansand nature. Instead of perceiving
nature as a subject to which we are inseparably related, nature is
seen asobjectsfrom which we are totally detached and separated.
Nature is something “out there” apart from us and apart from
God. Thisdetachment leadsto an objective study of all, and then
it leads to manipulation and domination. Without any religious
restraints, it was presumed that this external material of creation
can beexploited and abused.
B) Theological Factors
Theology does not contribute directly to ecological crisis, but it
3
GeorgeMathew, Dignityfor All: Essaysin Socialism and Democracy(Delhi:
AjantaPublication, 1991), p. 5 ff.
46
Ecumenical Responses to Ecological Crisis - Part I
influencesand shapestheattitude of humanstowardsnature, and
our relationship with other segments of God’s creation. The
confluenceof four streamsof thought hascreated aforceful current
in dominant Christian traditions that set aside the truth of the
communion of human beingswith God’screation. It isimportant
to see how they have influenced the attitude of humans and
contributed to exploitation and abuse of Mother Earth.
a) Mechanical view and secularization of creation
This stream of thought is rooted in Western Enlightenment
tradition which makesasharp contrast between natureand history.
The advancement of the knowledge of science and secularization
of nature is interconnected. The advancement of knowledge in
thefield of scienceand technology in thesixteenth and seventeenth
centuries brought industrial capitalism, market economy, mass
production, democracy and rationalism. Thewholecreated order
began to be viewed objectively. Using the tools of mathematical
calculations and experimental data, humans began to claim that
one could understand the specific nature of the physical matter
constituting the Earth, and the changes within it. Thus, Nature
was seen purely from utilitarian perspective and lost its mystery
and sacredness for thewestern worldview. Peoplebegan to perceive
that there is nothing amazing and sacred about the world; it is
merely a sum-total of many material components and energies.
Humansarecapableof understanding, predicting, and controlling
everything related to theworld; weareseparated from, and masters
of, the earth. Natural resourcesare given only in so far asthey are
useful for thedevelopment of scienceand technology. Hence, this
materialistic attitude of humans today is greatly shaped by such
ideologies. Many peoplevisualize human civilization in term of a
highly mechanized and industrialized society. The booming of
economic progress, high-tech mechanized life-styleisperceived as
attainment of higher quality of life. ‘Growth’is seen as the only
principle for liberation. The growth driven and consumerist
economic system and one-sided development pursuitshave led to
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
47
colonization of others and laid ideological justification for
subjugation and exploitation of non-renewable earth’s resources
on a massive scale. The concepts of ‘care for one another’, ‘just
economy’and ‘(sabbath) rest for creation’are considered as nonproductive and the root of all human problems from poverty to
sicknessto political instability. Any attempt to slow down economic
growth is labeled as immorality. Right to have dominion over
God’s creation is a biblical mandate and exploitation is seen as
exercising human’s creativity bestowed on them in the “Image of
God’(Gen 1:27,28). ThisEnlightenment paradigm of euro-centric
modernity rooted in the conquest of nature is the major cause of
today’sworld crisis. Christian theologieshaveplayed their role in
justifying this exploitation of Mother Earth.
b) Hierarchical structure of creation
In the Hebrew thought, man is the helm of the hierarchy, ruling
over the family, the women, the slaves, etc. Several Christian
theologians have explained God’s creation within such an
hierarchical structure. According to Thomas Aquinas, God, the
Creator, in the beginning, simultaneously created a hierarchy of
creatures, ordered according to their degree of perfection. In this
hierarchical order, angelsareat thehighest peak. Angelsarecreated,
but purely spiritual beings and they are above human beings.
Humansarethehighest among thecreated materialsbeingshaving
ultimate right over the other creatures. This hierarchal order is
divine design because “the imperfect beingsare for the use of the
perfect.”4 Imperfect beings are created to serve the need of more
noble beings, for instance, plants draw their nutrients from the
earth, animals feed on plants and these in turn serve human use.
Therefore, lifelessbeingsexist for the sake of living beings, plants
for animalsand animalsfor humans. Havingaffirmed that, Aquinas
4
ThomasAquinas, SummaTheologia, ed. by the English Dominican Fathers
(Burns, Pates, Wshbourne, Ltd., 1922), Part I, QQ LXXV-CII, p. 237.
48
Ecumenical Responses to Ecological Crisis - Part I
went one step further and said that material creatureswerecreated
that they “might beassimilated to the divinegoodness”5 For him,
those creatures lower than the rational human creature in the
hierarchy simply assimilate divinegoodnessby fulfilling theneeds
of the human creatures. The whole material nature exists for
humans because humanity alone possesses rationality. Human
beingsareaboveall creatures. Theother non-human creaturesare
protected, preserved, sustained by God to servehuman needs. This
theology gives justification for manipulation and exploitation of
other segments of God’s creation.
c) Anthropocentric view of creation
Hierarchical and anthropocentric viewsof lifeare interrelated and
they assume asimilar theological position on creation. They view
humanity as the point of reference for everything. Creation has
meaning and values by serving the interests of humankind.
According to Robert Borrong this view of life underlines nine
assumptions:
(1) Humansareseparated from nature;
(2) Prioritizing the rights of human beings over nature, but
not emphasizing the responsibility of human beings;
(3) Prioritizing the feelings of humans as centre of their
apprehensiveness;
(4) Policy and management of natural resourcesin theinterests
of human beings;
(5) Solution to the ecological crisis through population
control, especially in the poor countries;
(6) Adherence to the philosophy of economic growth;
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
49
(9) Adjusting oneself to the prevailing political and economic
system.6
Thisview hasbecomethebasisfor greedy exploitation and depletion
of nature’sresources.
Protestant theologies added a theological justification to this
view of life. Luther saw the whole creation of God as something
which existsfor thebenefit of humans. Herecognized naturesimply
as an existential springboard for grace. The ultimate purpose of
creation is for the service and benefit of humans. Karl Barth also
advocated a similar theology. For him, God isthe “wholly other”,
thetranscendent Lord, who can be known only when He chooses
to reveal himself, as He did preeminently in Jesus Christ. Barth
said that theWord isnot the foremost principle of creation which
givesall things; rather theWord isthe first and foremost of God’s
address to humanity in Jesus Christ. God is not known through
Hiscreation, but only through Christ. Barth isvery explicit that
salvation history beginsfrom the incarnation of JesusChrist, but
not from thecreation. Barth further argued that thisgreat history
of salvation cannot be actualized if thereisno place or space for it
to occur. It needsa “showplace” or a “theatre” outside of God and
humans.7 This is the reason why God brought the created world
into existence. It isvery clear that Barth conceivescreation simply
asa showplace/theatrefor the saving worksof God. Everything is
created solely for the sake of the realization of God’s covenant
with humanity in Jesus Christ. For the sake of election, nature is
sustained, protected and upheld. Creation ismerely astage. It has
no history, is not to be redeemed, but merely used. Bultmann
also held a similar position. God is not to be perceived in the
phenomena of nature but known and experienced in the ‘cave of
(7) The main norm is profit-lost;
(8) Prioritizing short-term planning; and
6
7
5
Ibid. p. 59.
Robert Patannang Borrong, Environmental Ethicsand Ecological Theology:
EthicsasIntegral Part of Ecospherefrom an Indonesian Perspective(Geboren te
Sandana, Indonesie, 2005), pp. 73-74.
Karl Barth, Church Dogmatic(Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1936-1961), 3.1.
p. 97.
50
Ecumenical Responses to Ecological Crisis - Part I
theheart’, in theinner personal experience.8 This theology places
creation in the secondary position.
d) Dualistic view of creation
This stream of thought is of Greek origin with its dualism of
body and soul. The soul finds its true destiny by escaping from
nature, creation and the world. Marcion taught that the visible
world as the creation of the God of Israel, and a creation out of
matter, was an evil work destined for destruction. The world is
evil because a lesser god created it. This view stressed that God is
absolutely different and distinct from His created nature. The
world wasunderstood to be thecreation of demonic powersfrom
thechaosof thedarkness. Thecreated world ispurely material and
fleshly, afull expression of evil. Origen held that God created the
world because of a spiritual rebellion in heaven. The creation of
the world was related to the fall into sin. The fallen spirits were
put into the material world that had been created for them. Thus,
the material world was created to become a place of purification
where fallen humankind could be educated through suffering to
regain the state of pure spiritual realm.9 Origen valued the soul
over thematerial world. Theinfluenceof dualism isevident among
the Reformers. Natureand other material objectsdo not take part
in the salvation and redemption of Christ. According to Luther,
nature is not a witness to the glory of God. Nature is only a
supplementary item which isthebackground to thesalvation drama
of human beings. Thisdualistic view of life led humansto believe
that humankind are called upon to control nature and that the
nature and the function of religion isto aid human beingsin the
execution of their task. This view contradicts biblical testimony.
8
9
W.S. Ariarajah, “World Religionsand theWholenessof Creation” in Ecumenical
Movement Tomorrow: Suggestion for Approached and Alternatives. Eds. Mare
Reuver, Friendhelm Silms, Gerrit Huzer (Geneva: WCC Publications, 1993),
p. 163.
Robert P. Borrong, op.cit., p. 98.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
51
God’screation isredeemed when human beingsrespect therhythm
of nature and itsdynamic.
M ost of the nineteenth century Evangelicals10 took this
dualistic position. TheEvangelicalsalso recognized God’srevelation
only in the Word of God, but not in total creation of God. One
can know God only through theWord but not through creation.
The teaching of heaven and hell further reinforced undermining
of God’s creation. The world is coming to an end, all materials
will bedestroyed, but only soulswill be saved and live eternally in
heaven; other materialswill perish. Thisdoctrinemade people to
think that “Thisworld isnot our home. We are just a passenger”.
If this world is not our home, why should we take care of it?
The aim of this discussion is not to argue that theologians in
themainlineChristian traditionshaveanegativeattitudeto creation.
What we are trying to say is that because of their great interest in
the uniquenessof God’saction in history for human redemption,
they were indifferent to God’s creation. It is understandable that
serious attention was not given to creation theology as they did
not face the ecological crisiswe face today. Moreover, one should
not assume that Christianity does not have a creation theology.
Paul Santmire in his book, The Travail of Nature,11 has shown
convincingly that it is not fair to blame Christianity and its
tradition like Lynn White, 12 to be ‘ecologically bankrupt’.
Santmire’s book shows a long historical study in which he has
demonstrated ecological promises in Christian theology. He has
shown immense ecological insights in the theology of Irenaeus,
Most of theAsian churchesareproduct of Evangelical movementsin theWest
and wehave inherited avery strong dualistic theology.
11
TheTravail of Nature: TheAmbiguousEcological Promiseof Christian Theology
(Philadelphia: FortressPress, 1985).
12
Whiteaccuseswestern Christianity asthemost anthropocentric religion and
arrogant towardsnaturethat Christianity bearsahugeburden of guilt for the
ecological crisis. Criticsof Whiteargued that histhesisdoesnot account for
recklessattitudestowardsnatureevident in variousnon-Christian cultures,
and that he ignored the ways in which the forces of industrialization,
10
52
Ecumenical Responses to Ecological Crisis - Part I
Augustine and especially of Francis of Assisi. But the fact is that
these voices have never become part of the dominant Christian
traditions. Their voices are still unheard and have not been
integrated aspart of Christian praxisand ethos.
However, it isclear that thedominant Christian theology have
been too anthropocentric, hierarchical, mechanistic and dualistic
in itsapproach and content. We need to acknowledge that
The Judeo-Christian tradition bears to a certain degree
responsibility for today’s ecological destruction. … But
there can be no doubt that Christians have for too long
neglected the theme of Creation in their theological
reflection and teaching and have accepted values and
perspectives which are foreign to the Biblical tradition.
They have uncritically supported modern domination
of nature.13
The dominant Judeo-Christian perceptions of life continue to
promote greedy exploitation and depletion of nature’s resources.
Today we realizethat such theologiesof creation aredestructiveto
life. The mindless destruction of earth’s resources, and
marginalization and subjugation of theindigenouspeoplethrough
war, cultural genocide, alienation, denial and suppression aredeeply
rooted in such a view of life. It has contributed in reducing the
indigenous people and nature as mere commodities. Such
theologies are not adequate to respond to the present ecological
crisis. We need a theology that promotes respect and a caring
urbanization, and thecapitalistic driveto increasewealth havecaused alarge
measureof the world’secological crisis. They seetheproblem aspolitical and
economic, rather than religious. White’sresponseisthat the‘roots’of thecrisis
can be traced to Western Christendom’s blessing of the methodsand tools
that have unlocked themodern world’sconquest of nature. SeeLynn White,
Jr., “The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis” in Western Man and
Environmental Ethics, ed. Ian Barbour (reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,
1973), pp. 55-65.
13
Listening to Creation Groaning, John Knox Series 16 (Geneva: Centre
International Reform John Knox), 2004, p. 11.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
53
attitude to all of God’s creation. In this search, the indigenous
spirituality may provideanew theological perspective.
Ecumenical Responses
Thereisan enormousvariety of communiqués, reportsand policies
on climate justice, water, forest, land, etc. There is no single
ecumenical response on eco-justice. Theologians however, who
upheld the ecumenical vision of life, have made serious attempts
to correct the dualistic, anthropocentric, androcentric and
hierarchical view of life by affirming creation asan organic, interdependent, coherent and comprehensivewhole. Asit isnot possible
to highlight thesevariousstrandsof thought, only afew individual
perspectivesareunderlined here:
1. Non-dualistic view of life – Eco-feminist theologians identify
that dualism rooted in patriarchy is the major cause of injustice
which leadsto war, militarism and the rape of theearth. Speaking
on theinter-relationship between patriarchy and modern science,
Vandana Shivacriticizesthat,
Modern science was a consciously gendered, patriarchal
activity. As nature came to be seen more like a woman
to be raped, gender too was recreated. Science as a male
venture, based on the subjugation of female nature and
female sex provided support for the polarization of
gender. Patri archy as the new sci enti fi c and
technological power was a political need of emerging
industrial capitalism. While on the one hand, the
ideology of science sanctioned the denudation of nature;
on the other, it legitimized the dependency of women
and the authority of man. Science and masculinity were
associated in domination over nature and femininity,
and the ideologies of science and gender reinforced each
other.14
14
VandanaShiva, StayingAlive: Women, Ecology and Survival in India (New
Delhi: Call For Women, 1988), pp 17-18.
54
Ecumenical Responses to Ecological Crisis - Part I
Just aswomen are seen asbeing appropriately dominated by men,
so also theearth isseen asan object to beconquered and dominated
to fulfill thegreed of humans. Theearth isseen merely asausable
object, to be treated in an exploitative manner. This concept of
domination, of reason (male) ruling over creation (earth, female)
is carried to the extreme under capitalism with the development
of technologiesthat are capable not only of dominating the earth,
but also of destroying all living organisms and the plant itself.15
Therefore, eco-feminists argued that the oppression of women
and theoppression of creation areinter-connected. Then, how do
the eco-feministstheologiansrespond to the eco-crisis?
They ‘reimage’ the concept of God. For example, Sallie
McFague, an eco-feminist theologian, contends that the JudeoChristian traditionswhich project God asking, ruler, lord, master,
governor, and the conceptswhich accompany them, such asGod
isabsolute, transcendent and omnipotent are patriarchal concepts.
It permitsno sense of mutuality, shared responsibility, reciprocity
and love in terms of relationship between God and the world.
Such a theology developed in the patriarchal language creates an
attitude that God is far away from the world. He relates only to
humansand controlstheworld through domination.16 Thus, the
wholeJudeo-Christian traditionsthat project God with patriarchal,
imperialistic and triumphalistic metaphorsneed to bereimaged in
a more holistic and relational mode. Sallie McFague in her book,
TheBody of God: An Ecological Theology,17 attempts to develop an
organic model of theology. Shecallsfor aradical changein human’s
attitudetowardsother creatures. Humansshould not act asnamers
of and the rulers over creation, but rather act as gardeners,
Rosemary Ruether, Sexism and God-Talk: TowardsaFeminist Theology(London:
SCM Press, 1983), pp. 44 ff.
16
Sallie McFague, Models of God: Theology for an Ecological Nuclear Age
(Philadelphia: FortressPress, 1989), p. 69.
17
Sallie McFague, The Body of God: An Ecological Theology (Minneapolis:
Augsburg Fortress, 1993).
15
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
55
caretakers, parents, stewards, trustees, lovers, priests, co-creators
and friends of the world. For instance, the image of God as the
lover of theworld givesadifferent relationship. Being in love does
not mean sex, lust and desire. But the crux of love has to do with
value. It isfinding someone valuable and being found valuable.18
God as lover is a moving power in the universe. God’s love is the
desire for union with that which is valuable. God as lover needs
the world asthe lover needs each other. God as lover is interested
in saving the entire cosmos that has become estranged and
fragmented, sickened by unhealthy practices and threatened by
death and extinction. Similarly, reimaging God asparent and friend
of the world gives a feeling of friendship, care and love in a work
that is sustained by a common vision.19 McFague feels that this
model would offer new possibilitiesof revisioning the God-worldhuman relationship. If wereflect on thecharacteristicsof thelover,
parents, loversand friends, thewordsthat cometo our mind include
‘fidelity,’ ‘nurture,’ ‘attraction,’ ‘self-sacrifice,’ ‘passion,’ ‘care,’
‘affection,’‘responsibility,’‘respect,’and ‘mutuality.’20 Thesewords
suggest a power which isquite different from that associated with
the models of lord, king and patriarch. It calls for a new way of
interpreting Christian faith. Thisway of looking at the world isto
find new meanings that God loves bodies. God suffers and that
this world is a sacrament.21
2. Inter-connected view of life. Some of the contemporary
theologians are involved in developing a pattern of Christian
thought that buildsupon amoreconnected view of therelationship
between God, humanity and creation using thecategoriesof process
philosophy. Taking the process of philosophical framework,
thinkers like John Cobb, CharlesBirch, and others have adopted
aunified perspectivein which God doesnot livein a“second world”
18
19
20
21
Ibid., pp. 162-190.
Ibid., pp. 171-172.
Ibid., p. 176.
SallieMcFague, Modelsof God, . pp. 68 ff.
56
Ecumenical Responses to Ecological Crisis - Part I
abovehistory, but on thecontrary, helivesand inter-actsashumans
do in thehistorical realm. It isthrough inter-action that the world
becomes the body of God. Each organism touches and changes
theorganism that influencesit. Likewise, weact on God and God
receives things from us.22 It is an attempt made in the West to
change the dualistic, anthropocentric and hierarchical view of
creation and history, creation and redemption. Unless we build
upon a more connected view of relationship between God,
humanity and creation, we cannot make our cosmossustainable.
3. Sacramental view of creation and priestly function of humanity.
This view is rooted in the Orthodox tradition. It affirms that in
thebeginning, theHoly Trinity created theworld ‘out of nothing’,
not out of pre-existent matter. Humanity, creation and the visible
world, including angelsand powers, areequally dependent on the
power of God, both for their coming into being and for their
continued existence.23 The whole cosmic order, in the Orthodox
tradition, is created not out of compulsion, but out of God’s free
will, goodness, wisdom, love and omnipotence. Since creation is
the work of God, Orthodoxy sees the world as a created order
having itsown integrity. It isthusapositivereality and sacred.24 It
is the good work of the good God. Everything that God had
madewasvery good because“first Heconceived and Hisconception
was the work carried out by His Word, and perfected by His
Spirit.”25 As such, the world is a revelation of God (Cf. Rom.
1:19-20).
In the Orthodox view, humanity occupiesthecentral place in
creation. It isheld that thecreative energy of God took a gradually
E.H. Cousin, ed. ProcessTheology: BasicWritings(New York: Newman Press,
1971), p. 123.
23
GennadiosLimouris, ed. Justice, Peaceand Integrityof Creation: Insightsfrom
Orthodox (Geneva: WCC, 1987). Hereafter “Insightsfrom Orthodox”, p.1.
24
Ibid., p. 2.
25
Ibid., p. 3.
22
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
57
ascending path with humanity emerging as the last stage. The
emergence of Adam as body-soul was a terminal event in the
evolution of the universe. Becauseof body and soul in thehuman
person, he/she is a citizen of two worlds; the human person
becomes an active participant in both the intelligible and the
sensible worlds. In other words, humans are members of both
families– God and matter; they aremade to enjoy both thedivine
and theterrestrial worlds. Thismeansthat humansare part of the
material world and without the material world, humans cannot
survive. God hascreated the humansin such a way that they exist
only with thehelp of material world. Thisisthereason why “Christ
became man and assumed a material body.” Therefore, humanity
standson theboundary between the material and spiritual worlds
as a connecting link. Human beings are directly related to the
earthly aspectsof created existenceaswell astheuncreated existence
of the Creator.26
Creation has neither the adequate consciousness nor the
necessary freedom to respond to thesanctifyinggraceof redemption
and salvation. It isonly thehuman person who freely respondsto
the saving work of Christ. It isin thiscontext that humansassume
the role as priests over the material creation. Humanity, through
the priestly function, leads creation to its completion and
fulfillment in God.
Since God enters into total communion with all creation
through Christ and theHoly Spirit, we celebrateEucharist for the
salvation of the whole world, and thus the Eucharistic bread and
wine symbolizetheuniverse, thewholecreated order. Creation is
also called to share in thelifeand glory of the Creator. In the form
of bread and wine, aselementscoming from creation molded into
new form by human hands and offered to God with the
acknowledgement that all of creation is God’s and that we are
26
PaulosGregorios, TheHuman Presence: An OrthodoxView of Nature(Geneva:
WCC, 1979), p. 4.
58
Ecumenical Responses to Ecological Crisis - Part I
returning to God what belongs to God. When believers partake
of the body and blood of Christ, God meets us in the very being
of our biological existence.27 Therefore, for the Orthodox, the
call to participate in the Eucharist is extended to the whole of
creation through human beings. Asall creation suffered from the
human fall, so thereturn and restoration of creation arealso through
human liberation, and participating in God’slife.
4. Justice, Peaceand Integrity of Creation – a call for unity beyond
the boundary of churchesand humanity. TheWCC programme
on Justice, Peace and Integrity of Creation (JPIC)28 attempts to
show that justice, peace and theintegrity of creation isone whole.
The call has a threefold purpose: the first concern was to show
27
28
“Insightsfrom Orthodox,” p. 4.
Between 1969 and 1983, thinkerslikePaulosMar Greogorios, Roger Shinn,
CharlesBirch, and othershavehelped theWCC to organizeamajor enquiry
on theissueof scientific and technological revolution of our time. TheWCC
conferenceon “Scienceand Technology for Human development” (Bucharest
1974), and on “Faith, Science and the Future” (Boston 1979) have raised
many of theassumptionsof growth, resourcesand theuse of technological
power, suggesting theneed for a“sustainablesociety” in theecumenical forums
provided for new perspectives: from `development’to `liberation’; from
`modernization and economic growth’to thedefence to `right to life’for all;
from `overcoming crises’to `struggleagainst unjust structures’; from dialogue
with expertsand appeal to thosein positionsof responsibility to the`promotion
of independence and empowerment of the marginalized majority of
humankind’. When the WCC made the call to its member churches `to
engage in a conciliar processof mutual commitment to justice, peace and
integrity of creation,’theworld of that timewasfacing oneof theworst crises
events in history. There were reports of wars and rumors of wars, causing
untold suffering and misery to millionsof people who were displaced and
turned into refugees. Militarization of the world had reached alarming
proportions and the threat of nuclear war and destruction loomed large.
Moreover, with the ideology of an every-growing consumerism, urbanization
and industrialization, thedisintegration of creation wasgoingon at an alarming
rate. It was in thiscontext that theVancouver Assembly of WCC called its
member churches to engage in a conciliar processof mutual commitment
(covenant) to justice, peaceand integrity of creation.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
59
that justice, peaceand integrity of creation areessentially onewhole;
they are inseparable and indivisible. The second concern was to
articulate theologically our understanding of the human
predicament and spell out our specific Christian responsibility.
And the third concern was to respond to the central question of
themodern ecumenical movement, that is, theunity of thechurch.
Theologically, it was a radical shift from the earlier assumption.
Thetheological emphasisisnow on the unity of thewhole world,
not only thechurch and humanity. JesusChrist isseen asthecentre
of the whole cosmos. The Christ-event is viewed from the
Trinitarian perspective. Instead of Christ `from above’who isabove
all, oriented towards a belief in the divinity of Jesus Christ as the
second person of the Trinity, a Christology ‘from below’is taken
seriously. With this change in emphasis, Jesus of Nazareth is
perceived as the one who paid his life for the liberation of the
poor, the oppressed and the whole cosmos. The whole earth is
seen asahabitable homebecauseGod hasestablished hiscovenant
with the whole creation, and it is guided by the hope that God
himself will dwell with humankind, with God’s people. Thusthe
ecumenical movement is seen as a movement that attempts not
only to bring the churchestogether but also “the wholeinhabited
earth.” It is a movement wherever Christiansand othersone way
or the other seek to work for the unity of humankind and of the
whole world.
Being-in-relationship becomes the core of the theological
paradigm. Oikoumene is the order of relationships within this
household. What is decisive is ‘habitability,’the sustainability or
capacity for the survival of the inhabited earth. In other words,
oikoumeneis understood as the one household of life created and
preserved by God, and thus it extends beyond the world of
humankind, of one human race, to creation asa whole. Thisnew
paradigm ‘the household’supersedes the narrow vision that sees
human history asthecentral category of interpretation. It reminds
us that human history is bound up with the history of all living
things and that the human household is incapable of survival
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without being related to other households, that is, the natural
environment.
‘Integrity of Creation’– the concept of ‘creation’or ‘integrity
of creation’ is a theological term that provides a fresh way of
approaching theissuesof justiceand peace. ‘Creation’isatheological
term that relates justice and peace. Preman Niles points out a
two-fold theological significance of the term:
Firstly, by giving prominence to the doctrine of creation, we
begin with the totality of all that God has created, and continues
to create and sustain. An important thrust that hasemerged from
thisshift isthat, “we view creation theologically not simply asthe
initial divineact which set creation and history on thecourse,” but
rather as“aresponse to a continuousdivineactivity within which
the struggle for justice, peaceand the preservation of creation are
located and within which they have meaning.”29 Thus it is to be
seen as a theological term that helpsus to recover the meaning of
creation in our time, not simply as an ecological issue. To confess
God astheCreator isthereforeto affirm thetruth that God created,
and continuesto maintain creation and thusthewholeof creation
belongsto God. Thisperspectiveon creation providesanew vision
of eschatological metaphorsof the ‘new heaven and earth’and the
Kingdom of God.”30 They are not seen merely as temporal
metaphorsthat impinge upon history, but asthose signifying the
space for justice and peace in creation now.31 In short, it is a
powerful symbol of hope.
Secondly, it impliesthat in maintaining theecological balance,
it providesacertain moral valueor worth theCreator hasbestowed
on the whole of creation.32 It thus draws our attention “to the
relationshipsthat haveto bemaintained not only between human
Preman D. Niles, ResistingtheThreat of Life: Covenantingfor Justice, Peaceand
theIntegrityof Creation (Geneva: WCC Publication, 1989), p. 59.
30
Ibid., p. 59.
31
Ibid., p. 60.
32
Ibid., p. 61.
29
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
61
communities, but also between humansand the earth and things
of theearth.”33 It further emphasizesthe inter-dependence within
creation and the need to maintain it. The violation of this moral
order or integrity leadsto injustice and exploitation. The concept
of ‘creation,’therefore, isanother way of affirming about the need
for “maintaining the justice of God in creation.”34 It is an
affirmation of the goodness of God’s creation and the intrinsic
worth of all beings.
This understanding of creation enables us to reject the
anthropocentric, hierarchical and patriarchal understandings of
creation and all the forces that lead to the alienation of humans
from each other; from creation, and also from God, the Creator.
It calls us to move towards an eco-centred theology of creation
which emphasizesthepresenceof God’sSpirit in creation (cf. Gen
1;2, Ps. 104), and humansastheintegral part of creation. Instead
of dominating creation, men and women have the responsibility
to preserve, cultivate the earth and to work with God for the
sustainability of theplanet. Moreover, it bringsusto therealization
that without ajust and equitabledistribution of resourcesand the
liberation of people from all forms of bondage, humans cannot
celebratetogether thegraciousloveof theCreator and thegoodness
of creation.35
This paradigm shift in the theological emphasis of JPIC
(Justice, Peace and Integrity of Creation) callsthe churchesto reexamine our earlier theological assumptions:
i) It challengesusto redefine our understanding of unity of
church and mission. Oikoumene embraces the whole
inhabited earth. It goes beyond unity of churches and
human community; it extends beyond the world of
humankind, of onehuman race, and to creation asawhole.
Moreover, the mission of God is no longer limited to
Ibid., p. 61.
Ibid., p. 61.
35
Ibid., pp. 61-62.
33
34
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conversion and planting of churches. Mission isinclusive.
It involvescalling personsto commitment to thekingdom
of God, justice and peace, and ecological health of the
land.
ii) It challenges usto affirm creation in a new way. Creation
is not just things to be exploited. Every living creature
possesses intrinsic value and right. Therefore, preserving
the integrity of thewhole inhabited earth and promoting
an ecologically responsible development are a matter of
faith and also a survival issue for the whole world.
iii) This new way of approach to creation raises the issue of
justice. Justiceisnot an abstract reality to berealized within
human community alone, but it ishow welive in theweb
of life in reciprocity with people, other creatures and the
earth, recognizing that they are part of usand we are part
of them.
iv) The JPIC programme challenges us to search for a new
ethical principle. Human communities must bear the
responsibility towards the earth and its wholeness. The
earth, with its diverse life forms is functioning as one
coherent whole. Thewholeearth isGod’screation and we
need to respect itsinherent value and rights. A lifestyle of
high material consumption is unethical. Learning to live
in anew way, not based on exploitation and injustice, would
allow all to flourish in health and wholeness. In short, it
demandsa reciprocal life-style valuing all lives.
A Response from the IndigenousPeoples’Perspective
The indigenouspeoplesall over theworld see a closeaffinity with
all theecumenical theological responsesbecauseof their emphasis
on theright relationship with thewholeof creation. Theindigenous
peoplesthroughout their history havebeen affirming thegoodness
and worth of creation as created and valued by God: its interdependenceand inter-relatednessamong humans, other creatures
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
63
and the rest of creation. The following theological affirmations
enrich the indigenous peoples’search for a new relationship with
God’s creation:
i. The eco-feminist theology reinforces not only a new
perception of God’sinvolvement in the world, but it also
discoversthat theoppression of the poor, women and the
oppression of creation are inseparably related. The threat
to creation and injusticeagainst thepoor, women and their
dependent children are closely inter-related. The two are
one issue. Thus they challenge us to re-examine the
relationship between human beings and the non-human
world, between humans and God and among human
beings.
ii. Through affirmation of theinter-relatednessof all creation,
the Orthodox tradition enables us to discover the whole
creation as an organic whole, a totality of reality in an
integrated, coherent and comprehensivemanner. Both the
spiritual and materialsworldsarenot opposed to each other.
They have a common origin, a common God, and
therefore have a common destiny. They form one total
reality of creation. In other words, the created world,
including humanity isin perfect unity, in thesame way as
thehuman body isperfectly harmonized. Thisfurther leads
usto view creation in itsintegrity asa positive reality, the
good works of God. It has got its own intrinsic right and
worth. It is through the energia of God that creation
continuesto be sustained, upheld and perfected. Second,
theaffirmation of thecentral and uniqueroleof humanity
in the wholecreation of God isimperative. Being created
in God’s own image, humanity transcends the material
world becausethehuman person participatesin God both
spiritually and physically unlike other segments of God’s
creation. Creation finds its completeness and fulfillment
in God, theCreator and Sustainer of all living being. This
ideahelpsusto reflect on human’secological responsibility.
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Ecumenical Responses to Ecological Crisis - Part I
Third, the ‘dominion’of the human over creation is not
only a right, but also a mission. The relationship between
humanity and environment cannot be reduced to mere
need and usealone. It demandsaharmoniousrelationship.
It includestheresponsibility of care, loveand respect. This
theological affirmation needsto be integrated in our faith
practice, if we want to make our cosmos sustainable.
iii. Process theology brings the inter-connectedness of the
whole human family within the totality of the whole
network of the biological system which supportsall forms
of life. Creation isseen asan open system having itsclimax
in Christ. The whole universe is caught up in the
manifestation of God’s acts in history.
iv. The JPIC programme of theWorld Council of Churches
helps us to affirm that justice, peace and creation are a
whole. ‘Creation’ as a theological concept relates all
realities. At theheart of these affirmationsof theuniverse,
we see three theological insights: (a) the redemption of
humanity isan integral part of theredemption of thewhole
creation, (b) theChrist-event transcendsthehuman realm,
and all of creation is reconciled with Him as one, and
(c) the Holy Spirit is inseparably related to the whole
cosmic order by creating, redeeming and by finally
fulfilling it in the last great consummation.
Similarly, theindigenouspeoplealso affirm the following cosmic
vision:
1. The land isthe basisof all realities– human selfhood and
identity. It perceives all realities from the creation
perspectives.
2. There is no clear cut distinction between the sacred and
the secular, religion and non-religion, etc., nor is there a
dualism. It is holistic thinking.
3. With no creed or written scripture, the sacred truth is
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
65
contained in their folklore, myths, dances, songsetc.
4. The Self of the Supreme Being is seen in creation and an
inseparably relationship ismaintained. The Sacred Power
comesout from thesoil. Onecannot perceivetheSupreme
Being apart from creation. God is in creation.
5. No historical person enjoysthecentral part of their religion.
The earth is the focal point of reference and all religious
activitiesare centred on the soil.
6. The spirit is present and active in all life including trees,
rocks, rivers, and not just in the individual heart.
7. It isnot time -oriented, but event and person-oriented.
8. The land is sacred. It is our mother.
9. It ishighly group/community oriented.
10. The whole world is the temple of God.
It is not surprising to note that there is a basic difference in the
perception of reality between the indigenous peoples worldview
and ecumenical responses. One will note that in all ecumenical
responses, humanity is the central point of reference and norm.
But it isthe other way round in the indigenouspeoples’tradition.
Creation is the key and the central point of reference and norm.
The whole reality, including humanity, the Supreme Being and
the Spirit or spiritsisapproached from theperspectiveof creation.
In short, whilethedoctrineof creation isthe subordinatecategory
in themainlineChristian traditions, ‘creation’isthecentral category
for understanding all realitiesin theindigenouspeoples’cosmology.
In other words, the affirmation that “the Supreme Being created
heaven and earth and it belongs to him/her,” isthe starting point
of their faith. Thisaffirmation of the centrality of creation makes
the indigenous peoples cosmology different from others.
Therefore, for the indigenouspeoples, a theology of creation
isnot merely ajusticeissueto beset alongsideother justiceconcerns.
It isthefoundational theology of self-understanding out of which
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Ecumenical Responses to Ecological Crisis - Part I
justice, and then peacewill flow naturally and necessarily.36 Thisis
thereason why GeorgeTinker, anativeAmerican theologian, argues
that theWCC programmeof JPIC should bereversed asCreation,
Justice and Peace (CJP). He writes:
I consistently argue in the WCC ‘Justice, Peace and
the Integrity of Creation” process that it should have
been titled, ‘Creation, Justice and Peace’. Such a
theological prioritizing of creation on my part is far
more than a prioritizing of environmental concerns.
Rather i t functi ons to provi de a spi ri tual and
theological foundation for justice. Respect for creation
must necessarily result in justice, just as genuine justice
necessarily in the achievement of peace.37
It isthereforetrue to affirm that, theindigenouspeoples’culture,
religion and spirituality cannot beconceived without creation/land.
Humansalwaysunderstand themselvesasan integral part of creation
and not apart from it. That harmony with creation is the starting
point of the indigenous people’s spirituality. For the indigenous
peoples, commitment and dedication to the harmony of creation
springsforth in love, nurture, care and acceptance. When there is
justice in the land, the fieldsand forest and every living thing will
dance and sing for joy (Ps. 96:11-12). An awarenessof being one
with the whole of creation is the spiritual foundation of the
indigenouspeoples.38 Such an acknowledgement of sacrednessand
inter-relatedness of all creation are reinforced through the
observanceof taboo, totem, divination, festivals, and ceremonies.
Such practiceshelp them to connect spiritually with the earth and
Cf. GeorgeTinker, “TheIntegrity of Creation: restoringTrinitarian Balance,”
in theEcumenical Review, vol. 41, No. 4, October, 1989), p. 535. Hereafter
“Integrity of Creation.”
37
GeorgeTinker, “Spirituality and Natureof American Personhood: Sovereignty
and Solidarity”, Spirituality of the Third World, ed. By K.C. Abraham &
Bernadetta Mbuy-Beya (Maryknoll: New York: Orbis Books, 1994), pp.
127-128.
38
GeorgeTinker, “Integrity of Creation,” p. 536.
36
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
67
thesurrounding environment. Hence, atheology of creation must
begin with aself-understanding of theindividualsand communities
aspart of creation.
All the ecumenical responses– theOrthodox, the process, the
eco-feminist and JPIC – seem to view reality mainly from the
anthropocentric perspective, but not from the perspective of
creation itself. That is why, for them, the integrity of creation is
one item of the agenda along with the other justice concerns.
Humanity and their liberation is the central focus. Liberation of
creation follows when humanity attains liberation. For example,
the Orthodox tradition affirms that creation participates in God
only through human beings. In other words, creation attains
liberation and perfection in God only through human beings;
creation is imperfect without humans.39 Similarly, the ecofeministsthough they seetheoppression of women and eco-justice
asonewhole, their main thrust isliberation of women. The JPIC
process also approaches the issue of creation in the same way.
Human liberation is the focus of all concerns.
In all the ecumenical responses, the indigenous peoples’view
of creation is not adequately integrated in spite of their closeness
to creation/land. For example, the Seoul documents, Now is the
Time has no reference to the creation spirituality of indigenous
peoplesexcept for this statement:
We commit ourselves to j oin in solidari ty with
indigenous communities struggle for the culture,
spirituality and rights to land and sea … 40
Likewise in several documents and policies of the ecumenical
movement, the insights of the indigenouspeoples spirituality are
Cf. K.M. George, “Towardsa Eucharist Ecology”, in Orthodox Perspectiveon
Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, eds. By Gennadios Limourisand Nomilos
Mecheal Vaporis (Brookline, Massachusetts: Holy Cross Orthodox Press,
1985), p. 51.
40
Final Documents of World Convocation on JPIC, Seoul, 1990 (Geneva:
WCC Publication, 1990), p. 19.
39
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Ecumenical Responses to Ecological Crisis - Part I
not integrated. Such an insensitive attitude towards the rich
creation-centred spirituality of the indigenouspeopleswithin the
ecumenical family givesan impression that all Christian theologies
of creation are approached from the perspective of the western
progressive and linear interpretation of history and philosophy.
Thus, thetheologiesof creation developed within theecumenical
family may not be directly relevant to respond to the aspirations
and the problemsof the indigenous people.
Seeking liberation from the anthropocentric framework will
continue to marginalize the indigenous peoples who work and
live close to the soil; they will still be looked down upon asobjects
of liberation. They will always be treated as inferior, uncivilized
and primitive. Liberation therefore has to be found from the
‘creation’perspective. Justice concerns of creation should not be
made as one of the justice concerns, but it should be made as the
foundation of all justice concerns.
Conclusion
It is clear that the traditional Christian theologies have been too
anthropocentric, patriarchal, hierarchical, mechanistic and dualistic
in their approach and contents. The dominant Judeo-Christian
perceptionsof lifecontinue to shape people’sview of creation and
promoteagreedy exploitation and depletion of nature’sresources.
Today, we realize that such theologies of creation are destructive
of life. The mindless destruction of earth’s resources, and
marginalization and subjugation of theindigenouspeoplethrough
war, cultural genocide, alienation, denial and suppression aredeeply
rooted in such a view of life. It has contributed in reducing the
indigenous people and nature as mere commodities. Such
theologies are not adequate to respond to the present ecological
crisis. A new theological orientation that cares for and protects
God’screation isimperative. In thissearch, theindigenouspeople’s
spirituality providesa new theological paradigm by affirming the
centrality of creation.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
69
4
AN EXPLORATION OF INDIGENOUS
TH EOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
To explore a theological framework, we need first to understand
our common historical context asthe context isthe starting point
of doing theology. We also need to review some of the dominant
theological strands which we have inherited and see how far they
are relevant or irrelevant for indigenous people. On the basis of
these discussions, an exploration will be made to suggest a
theological framework for indigenous theology considering our
own spiritual traditions.
Indigenous Peoples in Today’s World
Let me start with a story –
A group of indigenous theologians assembled in a consultation
from 21-26 October, 2008 at Baguio, Philippines. When wearrived
at Baguio city, we were informed that one of our indigenous
brothers, JamesBalao wasabducted for speaking for justice. Balao
is an active researcher and trainer of Cordillera People’s Alliance
(CPA). Hewasengaged in research work of the Oclupan clan and
hewasableto traceasfar back asninegenerationstwo of the clan’s
family trees. This research gave them a sense of identity and
solidarity among them. Balao’s research fed into the work of the
Cordillera People’s Alliance campaigns against multinational
companiesto exposegovernment misdoingsand to assert the land
and resources rights of the indigenous people. As a result of his
research and activeinvolvement in community organization, Balao
wasseen asathreat by theGovernment. Thefamily membersand
friends of Balao believed that his disappearance was perpetuated
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An Exploration of IndigenousTheological Framework - Part I
by the state. The CPA also believes that Balao has been targeted
especially becauseof hisvocal campaignsagainst thegovernment’s
anti-people and anti-indigenouspeople’spolicies.
Some of us joined the International Solidarity Team in
surfacing theabducted advocateof indigenous’rights, JamesBalao.
We were surprised to discover that the community were so afraid
of thepolice and military becauseof the long history of Philippine
leadersusing the state security forcesasa tool of repression which
hasbred deep mistrust amongst the population. In Lower Tomay
thismistrust hasbeen further compounded by suspiciousfacesin
the community since the abduction, assumed to be plainclothes
intelligent officers. It was shocking to see how real the fear of
retaliation is within the community. We were even denied of
meeting with the Military Intelligence Group (MIG) even after
prior information, which suggests an arrogance and a feeling of
impunity which is unhealthy within the state security forces of a
democratic country. After meeting several officials- PNP officials,
Baguio City Councilors, Governor, Mayor, Commissioner of
Human RightsCordillera Adm. Region – we found that some of
them werenot willing to providethefacts, sometimescontradicting
each other and willfully ignoring the fact in order to protect the
state. Till today people do not know whether James Balao is alive
or killed.
Thisis not an isolated incident. The global history of human
rights abuse against indigenous peoples and indigenous people’s
activitieshasalwaysbeen an element of corporateand government
collusion. Such thingsarehappening everywherewhen indigenous
peoplesstand up for their individual and collective rights.
A friend of mine wrote an excellent article on Indigenous
people’s struggle in Myanmar. I wanted to publish it in Journal of
Tribal Studies. He wrote me saying “You are permitted to publish
it, but change my name to an Indian name. Otherwise, I will be
arrested.” People fear elimination, arrest and killing when they
raise a critical and constructive voice for justice, particularly to
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
71
speak about indigenouspeople’srightsand justice. Theindigenous
people oncewith rich cultural tradition are now reduced to ‘NO’
people in many countries.
Hiding one’s identity or imposition of someone’s identity is
common among indigenous communities all over the world. A
friend of minein Taiwan isknown as‘Kapi’by hisparents, villagers
and friends. Each namehasameaning – ameaningalwaysconnected
with an event cherished by thecommunity. Onemorning aChinese
teacher came to class and started taking the roll call. He started
calling “Ching Ming-Sheng”. Everybody, including Kapi turned
around looking for the person. The teacher pointing his finger
said, why are you turning around?What areyou looking for?Your
name is Ching Ming-Sheng. From that day onward he was asked
to identify himself with that name. Thisishow indigenousidentity
iscrushed by the dominant societies.
Whether they arein Australia, Taiwan, India, or United States,
all indigenouspeoplesexperiencesimilar stories. Weneed to accept
the fact that indigenouspeopleare a defeated community all over
the world. Their history is a history of defeat, suffering, and
oppression. Their foreparents have suffered discrimination,
genocide, exploitation and alienation in different stages of their
history. Theinvasion began even earlier than European invasion in
some countries, for example, thehistory of the defeat of dalit and
adivasi (tribals) begun in thehandsof Aryan invadersalmost 3500
yearsago. In the course of history, the indigenouspeople became
hewers of wood and drawers of water, and the nomads became
kings and princes, masters and aristocrats.1 In some contexts, it
began with thewaveof European contact, then thewaveof western
colonization, waves of western religion and education, wave of
militarization, wave of constitutional democracies, wave of aiddependency and wave of economic globalization. They are a
1
JamesMassey, “Historical Roots” in IndigenousPeople: Dalit (Delhi: ISPCK,
no. date), p. 27.
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An Exploration of IndigenousTheological Framework - Part I
defeated people in all spheres of life. Today they are further
marginalized through the processesof global capital regime.
Indigenous people are so thinly distributed in most of the
Asian countriesthat they areunableto organizeastrong resistance/
political movement. Any resistance movement for justice by
indigenous people is labeled as anti-national and a terrorist
movement by the dominant groups. Such justice movements are
often suppressed with iron rodsand leadersareeliminated. In many
countries, they are treated like a second-class citizens even in
democratic countries. Thesearecommon experiencesof indigenous
people all over the world. Therefore, indigenous theology takes
the contexts of individual and collective oppression, denial and
abuse of power. To understand indigenouspeoples’contemporary
context in Asia, let me cite a few more concrete examples:
1. In Medan city in Indonesia, an indigenous community
known asParmalin isstruggling to construct their worship place.
They are being denied the right to construct on the ground that
their religion isnot registered under theGovernment becausethe
Indonesian Government recognizes only Islam, Buddhism,
Hinduism and Christianity asreligions. It isargued that indigenous
people’s worship places have been forests, not cities or towns; so
they should go back to the forest. Interestingly, people who are
opposing the construction works are mainly Christians. The
construction of the worship place still remains half done. Again,
there is a minority indigenous religion called Sundan. Since the
Indonesian government doesnot recognize it asa “religion”, they
do not get official marriage certificatesand their children areseen
as illegitimate. The indigenous religion is still considered as
“animism”. It is violation of the right of indigenous people, their
religion, culture, spirituality and customary lawsand practicesand
an act of ignorance on the part of the dominant society.
2. A major function of languageisto act asreservoir of people’s
identity and self-expression. It helpspeople to dream their dreams
and assists them to articulate their hopes and visions of a new
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
73
future. Languageisalso one of themost important social agencies
that creates feelings of community by providing identity.2 In the
nameof national integration, theruling government doesnot allow
to teach children in their ethnic languagesin Myanmar. Children
are being denied of learning, writing and speaking in their own
mother tongue. Someindigenouscommunitieshaveintentionally
adopted the language of the dominant community out of fear of
discrimination. In Thailand many indigenouspeoplecontinue to
struggle to obtain Thai citizenship. In their ancestral home, they
are being denied of citizenship because they cannot speak the
dominant language, Thai. In Australia alone some 500 languages
have been lost sinceEuropeansarrived on thecontinent. Even the
names of the towns, cities, street names have been changed to
Western names, especially to English names. Confiscation of the
Bible in a local language and prohibiting the printing of the Bible
in local languagesasa contravention of the policy to promote the
useof theNational languagein Taiwan testify to how thedominant
society attempts to destroy people’s right to language. The use of
local languages was not only forcefully denied, but people were
also led to believethat the useof and command of a local language
implied an inferior position in society. Can we expect survival of
indigenouspeople’sculture and value system without a language?
With the loss of language, the indigenous people are fast losing
their distinct social and cultural values.
3. Most indigenous people have lost their land due to a
manipulative legal system, pro-rich development activities and
political manipulation. The land struggleof the aboriginal people
in Asiahasa long history. The ongoing conflictsin Assam (India),
and Mindanao (the Philippines) are struggles for the right of the
people to self-determination and the right to their ancestral lands.
Likewise, many indigenous people are forcefully evicted;
sometimesdominant communitiescreate fear and tension to drive
2
M.P. Joseph, “Introduction: Searching Beyond Galilee” in From Galileeto
Tainan: TowardsaTheology of Chhutpthau-thin (ATESEA Occasional Paper
No. 15) by Huang Poho (Tainan: ATESEA, no year), p. 6.
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An Exploration of IndigenousTheological Framework - Part I
them away. Theminority indigenousChristiansin many countries
are alwayson the run. Today land has been forcefully taken away
from them and many people do not have land for cultivation.
With the lossof land which isthe main source of their livelihood
and culture, indigenouspeopleconstitute thebiggest labour force
in today’s world. Many of them are the illegal or unaccounted
migrant workers in different countries, and they are the poorest
section of every society.
4.TheJapaneseGoverment hasdeclared that thereisonly one
homogenous community in Japan denying the existence of
indigenous people like Ainu and other indigenous communities.
Japan is yet to recognize that the Ainu “are an indigenous people
with adistinct language, religion and culture.” It issaid that more
than 10 tribes in Taiwan who have been living in the island for
more than 2000-3000 yearr, but they are denied of their identity.
Similarly more than 100 tribeswith distinct cultureand tradition
in Nepal have been living for centuriesbut they are being denied
of their identity, spirituality and culture in the name of national
integration. Morethan 500 indigenouscommunitiesin India are
categorized as Hindus. Likewise, most of the indigenous people
have been assimilated into the dominant society in the name of
national integration - Chineseculturein Taiwan, Hindu castesystem
in India, Burmeseculturein Myanmar, Hinduism in Nepal, Islamic
culturein Bangladesh, Indonesia and in Malaysia.
5. The Government of Nepal denied not only the existence
of the indigenous people, but they also tried to wipe out the
indigenouscultureand traditionsby declaring the“slash and burn”
(shifting) cultivation illegal. With thisimposition, theindigenous
peoplelikeChepangwhosecultureand traditionsaredeeply rooted
on the rotation of agriculture and soil cycle would be gone. Only
a few rich in Nepal and India would be benefited in the name of
reforestation. Theindigenouspeoplewho depended on theforest
for centuries would become landless, foodless, waterless and
homeless soon. The intention is to create a labour community to
meet the growing demand of industrialization especially in the
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
75
developing countries like India, China and other South Asian
countries. As in the case of Nepal, the indigenous people in
Thailand, e.g. Laos, Karen, etc have been living for centuries in
their homeland. Therecent government policy of increasing forest
land has affected the people. They have been forced to move out
of their ancestral place. Their forestshave been taken over by the
government. They cannot hunt, fish and cultivatein their ancestral
land/water. If peoplecontinueto stay on, they arearrested and put
in thejail. They arearrested for living on their own ancestral village!
An indigenousperson cried, “Thisistheplacewheremy ancestors
were buried. This is a sacred place for us.” The cries were just
ignored all in thenameof development. In thisway, theindigenous
peoplearemadestrangersand foreignersin theown land. Moreover,
people like Lahu cannot go to cities to look for jobs since they do
not have a Thai Identity Card. Instead of getting a job, they are
arrested. Thishelpstheexploitersto manipulateindigenouspeople’s
land and resources and labour forces. In Cambodia some ethnic
groups(for exampleCham) are not given equal opportunitiesfor
jobs and education. If they want a job they have to change their
name to a Khmer’s name, otherwise it is difficult to get a job.
They hide their own identity in order to survive. Even though
some indigenouscommunitiesare given official recognition, they
are still discriminated in employment, political and economic
opportunities. Hiding one’s identity is common all over Asia.
Adoption of four or five personal names corresponding to the
different colonial mastersby Taiwanese people isa good example.
They aretreated likesecond-classcitizens. The only option for the
second-classcitizensis to sell their labour for living.
The indigenous people in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Nepal, and
North East India arebeing killed each day by thearmy and among
themselves by the divide and role policy of the dominant
community. Poverty driven and illiterate people are very easy to
be manipulated by money power.
6. Tourism is a human’s self seeking satisfaction or pleasure
driven enterprise by objectifying others as commodity or means
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of one’ssatisfaction.3 Studies show that a majority of the tourists
are military personel and industrial workers. Tour packages are
consciously organized by the ruling and owning class to avoid
unrest, protest and rebellion. Tourists who travel under these
circumstances arrive at the destinations merely for enjoyment,
relaxation and pleasure. They objectify everything ascommodity
for enjoyment and pleasure. Consequently, women are reduced to
flesh market, natureisreduced to amerescenic object, beachesare
reduced to mere sun-bathing places, culture is reduced to
performance, etc. Commercial tourism being driven by profit,
pleasure and enjoymentsputsimmensepressureon environment,
women, children and indigenouspeople. Exploitation isrampant
and beyond measure. Thesanctity of worship places, sacred groves
and shrinesareviolated, and sacred music and dancesturned into
cabaret performances for enjoyment. The development of
ecotourism is causing wide scale eviction of indigenous people
from their ancestral lands4 leading to breakdown of traditional
values and environmental degradation. The continuity of
indigenous people’s spirituality, cultural and traditional ways of
life is at risk.
Wearetalking of such exploited peoplein indigenoustheology.
Without addressing thoseissuesthechurch will remain astranger
to indigenous people; our theology will remain irrelevant and
rootless. Then, the task of theology today is to locate the
incarnation of Jesusin thesituation of conflict, barbaric atrocities,
human rightsviolation, ethnic conflict, poverty, injustice, low selfesteem, inferiority complex, alienation from earth-centred lifeand
spirituality, local culturesand traditionsof the people.
3
4
‘Travel’for human needsand ‘pilgrimage’for spiritual renewal should not be
confused with tourism which isconnected with soleenjoyment and pleasure.
For the indigenous people, land issacred and life. It is the land that holds
family, clan, village and tribeasonecommunity. Theidentity of thepeopleis
deeply rooted in thesoil. It isthelife sustaining power.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
77
Theological Development: An Historical Overview
Do we address those issues in our theologizing? The history of
Christianity among the indigenous peoples is between 150-250
yearsold. TheChristian missionarieswerethefirst peopleto come
and work for the liberation of the people. They transformed the
society by abolishing some of the evil practices such as slavery,
headhunting, lavish feasting, etc. Many modern institutionswere
first introduced by the church - the first school, thefirst hospital,
thefirst translation work and the first printing pressamong many
others. Theseall changed traditional societies. However, Christian
missions, no matter which denomination or society, all considered
themselves ‘superior’ and consistently maintained an exclusive
attitudetowardsindigenousreligion and cultures. They camewith
a strong view to conquer `other worlds’with the Christian faith.
Conversion was understood in terms of replacement of the old
ways of life which include rejection of traditional cultures and
valuesystem. Today many people haveforgotten and areuprooted
from their traditional value system.
Roughly, we may divide the history of the development of
Christian theology among indigenouspeople into three stages:
ReceivingStage(1800-1950s): During thisperiod, thechurches
wereunder Western missionaries. All thedecision making, material
and human resourcesfor mission-work werecontrolled and came
from the‘mother churches’. Churcheswererequired to implement
the policiesor decisionsthat were made thousandsof milesaway.
In their effort to contextualize theology, the missionariespursued
the ‘Translation Method’of doing theology. Perceiving that the
Western culture is superior and the only valid expression of
Christian faith, they attempted to translate the theological
formulationsof the‘mother’churchesabroad in appropriatenative
languagesby meansof adopting and adapting local terminologies,
idioms and categories.5 It was thought that Christian faith
5
O.V Jathana, ‘Indian Christian Theology: Methodological Reflection’,
BangaloreTheological Forum, XVIII (2-3), (1986), p. 71.
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developed in thewest istheunchangingtruth for all agesand for all
contexts, and should be accepted without any question. Therefore,
native culture and traditions were never considered valuable
resources for doing theology. Christians who participated in
traditional festivalswereexcommunicated from thechurch. Drums,
traditional songs, dances and value systems were condemned as
evils and prohibited among the believers. There was very little or
no awareness of the religio-cultural experience of the people.
Theology was alien to the people; it spoke an alien language and
ideas. Theology wasoutsideof thepeople’sreality. God’srevelation
was accepted in a very narrow way reducing indigenous people’s
religion and cultureasmere preparatioevangelii. It wasa period of
receiving without any question. Theology was formulated
elsewhere, imported from outside and taught by outsiders. The
church and its theology wasa stranger in the society.
Learning Stage (1950s-1980): During the 1950s and 1960s,
thenational movement, post-independencereconstruction, nationstate secular democracy, fights to end poverty, and development
of infrastructures was some of the major concerns in the Global
South. The struggle for self-identity of the church, unity of the
church and mission and indigenization or enculturation of theology
became a priority for the churches. During this period many
Western missionariesleft or could not continuetheir mission work
because of political reasons. This caused painful experiences of
leadership transition within the church. The churches who were
still struggling to stand on their own feet wereleft without trained
leaders. However, theabsenceof Western missionariescreated more
space for local people to exercise their rights, responsibilities and
leadership in the church. The legacies such as education, health
care servicesweredisrupted to some extent, but continued under
the leadership of local leaders. The propagation of the Gospel
among different communities or groups by their own initiative,
the importance of promoting well being and social justice and
safeguarding human rights are noteworthy as are three other
theological developments or models of theology.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
79
The philosophical model was borne out of the wake of
nationalism, particularly during 1940s, in which many theologians
in the Global South became critical of missionary theology. They
began to use freely the concepts, doctrines and symbols of other
religions, especially Hinduism, Buddhism, etc in doing theology.
They tried to work out theological hermeneutics in terms of
Hindu/Buddhist philosophical thought patterns and thus,
theological language became highly abstract and rationale.
Unfortunately, like the other dominant theological reflections in
the West, such a theological approach too became abstract and
mereintellectual exercisesunrelated to the real lifesituation of the
people. It gave a notion among Christian thinkers that the
indigenouspeople’sspirituality isnot philosophically deep enough
to articulate theology. The indigenous peoples’ view of life and
spirituality were undermined and discarded in doing theology.
People studied indigenous culture and beliefs simply from the
traditional missiological perspective as a dark world to be
conquered. Peopledid not think or could not imaginethat cultural
values and spirituality of indigenous people can also enrich and
help in understanding and contextualizing Christian faith in the
cultural setting of thepeople. Such aone-sided theological paradigm
again alienated indigenous people from their own religion and
cultures.
In 1970sand 1980stheadvocatesof inter-faith theology made
significant contribution with the employment of the dialogical
model to do theology. A central theological claim of this model is
that without taking into account the unacknowledged riches of
God’s work with the whole of humanity and other segments of
God’screation, Christian theology cannot become authentic and
liberative. Theology is seen as a product of creative and active
engagement in dialogue with people of other living faiths and
ideologies. Dialogical theology is to be celebrated for liberating
God’srevelation from the monopoly of Christians. Although the
advocates of dialogical method were not always sympathetic and
sensitive to indigenous people’s spirituality, culture and religion,
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the affirmation of God’s revelation and lordship over the world,
in all cultures and religions widened the understanding of the
mystery of God. In spiteof the ambiguousnature of culture, God
worksin and through all religionsand cultures. Thisunderstanding
hascreated awarenessto appreciate and respect the differencesof
othersand also one’sown spirituality, religion and culture. Though
some of theevangelicalsarevery critical of the dialogical method,
arguing that it sacrificestheuniquenessof Christian faith, thereis
a growing awareness among younger scholars that we should go
back to the roots to make the Gospel well-founded and
meaningful.
Initially, liberation theology in Asiawasgreatly influenced and
shaped by the Latin American liberation methodology. But later
the indigenouscommunities, women and theother marginalized
movements widened the horizon of liberation theology from its
Latin American impetus. Along with economic and political issues,
the cultural and religiousdimensions of discrimination are taken
seriously in liberation theologies. It hasinfluenced peopleto reread
the Scripture from the perspective of the poor and oppressed in
their strugglefor justiceand freedom. Commitment to thevictims,
the oppressed and struggling poor as the basis and the starting
point of theology hasinspired the alienated indigenous people to
discover their identity, right and dignity. It has motivated people
to engage themselves in new ways of doing theology by relating
the Gospel to the socio-politico-cultural realities.
After the departure (even during the missionary era in some
churches) of missionaries, the three self-movement (selfgovernment, self- supporting, and self- propagation) in thechurch
was launched by many churches. The contribution of Chinese
churches is significant in this movement. Today we can proudly
say that many churchesareableto stand on their own feet in terms
of support and mission. However, one important aspect was left
out e.g. ‘self-theologizing’. Self-theologizing wasnever considered
as an important component for the self- identity of the church
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
81
until recently. Thisperiod of self-theologizing isnow a dominant
model of theological undertaking. In it scholars from the other
regions/contextscan help to widen the theological perspectiveof a
people. However, there is a difference between the sympathetic
and empathetic theology. Theindigenouspeople themselvesmust
do their own theology relevant to their context. In other words,
indigenouspeoplethemselvesmust takethehealing of indigenous
communities into their own hand. We must work for our own
liberation and transformation. It was only in 1980s that many
churchesrecognized the importanceof ‘self-theologizing’to make
the church and its mission rooted in the actual life of the people.
The abovementioned theological paradigm isvery limited. It
is not capable of addressing the issues of indigenous people. We
need to explore new ways of doing theology.
What kind of Theology do we Need?
Weneed apeople-centred theology, atheology centred on thevision
of our Lord Jesus Christ. The past and present dominant
theological discourses have supported and continue to support
imperialism and an anthropocentric orientation of biblical
interpretation. Theological concepts developed in dominant
theological discourseslegitimized areligion for theonewho isthe
master and the ruler and also sanctioned exploitation and
manipulation of all segments of God’s creation for extraction of
maximum profit. There is no place for the people and land who
have been ruled and oppressed for centuries. We may cite three
examples:
(1) TheConcept of God. Theology isGod-talk, a discourse on
God. The discourse isbased on a language which issymbolic and
metaphorical. Metaphorsareconstructed out of acultural or social
environment and context. Thedominant imagesof God developed
in Christian traditionsareimagessuch asRuler, Lord, Master and
Warrior. They areall patriarchal, political and military images. These
images have made Christianity a religion of and for the ruler, the
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elite and the upper-class. The theological concepts or images of
God which weuphold today arein deep crisisbecausethey arenot
capable of liberating the poor and marginalized people like
indigenous people from unjust systems and practices and
unmindful destruction of God’s creation. Such a ruler’s theology
supported colonial governments, war, invasion and unprecedented
exploitation of earth’s resources. The world is now confronted
with the fact that the dominant construct of the concept of God
will not be able to liberate the people and nature who are the
victims of power.
(2) The Understanding of Mission. The discourse on God as
ruler and master hasreinforced asuccessoriented or triumphalistic
mission. The languages like “M ission Crusade”, “Mission
Campaign”, “Home Penetration”, “MassEvangelization” etc., are
all military languageand concepts. Christians, by and large, engaged
in denominational expansion rather than God’smission. Success
in mission ismeasured by how many churcheshave been planted,
converted and baptized. Mission hasbeen very exclusiveand never
recognized God’s revelation in other religious traditions and
cultures. Mission is God’s mission. God is the owner of the
mission, but not the churches. But Christians have manipulated
and acted as if we are the owner of mission.
(3) The Understanding of Creation. Dominant Christian
interpretation of creation is anthropocentric – the human being
the reference point of all realities. Natureexistsfor human. Apart
from rational beings, the other segmentsof God’screation cannot
come under the scheme of salvation. There is no sacredness and
mystery in nature, but it can be manipulated and controlled for
the benefit of human beings. To exploit nature is the divine will.
Thisone-sided theological interpretation again justifiesexpansion
of colonial power and exploitation of nature. The ideology of
globalization and theexpansion of global capital market aredeeply
rooted in this interpretation. The unprecedented exploitation of
nature and present ecological crisis testify to the failure of the
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
83
Christian understanding of creation.6
Discourse on indigenous theology can make a difference in
our timesby turning and rerouting theJesusof Galileemovement.
In the Jesus’ movement, we see a decisive reversal from empire
and money to people in pain, from ruler to ruled, from oppressor
to the oppressed, from individualism to a cosmic vision of life.
The Jesus’movement was a people-centred and cosmic- centred
movement against the power of destruction and death. He stood
for adifferent value system - peace, love, service and liberation of
poor werethe message of Jesus, but not thepower, sword, military
nor loyalty to Mammon. Jesusbecame the voiceof the oppressed
and voiceless. Jesus’paradigm was people-centred theology. The
option of, and for the “people in pain” as the locus of indigenous
theology requiressacrificeand a radical departurefrom the power
and institutions of Mammon. We must reroute indigenous
theologies in the context of people in pain and the groaning of
God’s creation.
IndigenousTheology – Can we take the Liberation Paradigm?
In therecent development of liberation theologies, weseeadecisive
paradigm shift in doing theology. For example:
1. TheContext: Not theRich but thePoor and Marginalized The dominant theologiesare considered assciencesof faith drawn
from scriptureand tradition. It takesthe realitiesof thecontext of
dominant groupsand communities. Theperspectivesof the rulers
and the elitebecome theparadigm for doing theology. Whereasin
contextual theologies, the experience, hardship and spirituality of
the poor and marginalized people like the indigenous people,
women, the poor have become a vital source for doing theology.
It is a theology from ‘below’and the ‘underside of history’. The
6
I havealready dealt extensively on thisissuein my earlier writings. For more
details refer to Tribal Worldview and Ecology (Jorhat: ETC, 1998) and
Traditional Tribal Worldview and Modernity(Jorhat: ETC, 1994).
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INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
85
marginalized and theabandoned peoplearethelocusof thedivine.
The peopleare no longer treated asobjectsbut assubjectsof history.
We can apprehend God by what he hasdone and isdoing for the
peoplein theconcrete historical context. The focuson the ochlosis
the critical principlein contextual theologies.
dancesand other formsof expression which now becomethesource
of doing theology. Contextual theologiesdraw more insightsfrom
other disciplinessuch associology, psychology, economic and other
forms of reflective expression for the analysis and articulation of
the experienceof people.
2. TheSources: Not Philosophy, but People’sStories- In dominant
theologies, the language, content and framework of theologizing
aredrawn from philosophical insightsand categories. A notion in
dominant theologies is that theology must be rational, critical,
logical and scientific in form and content. To do so, onemust take
thephilosophical system and fit in thereceived theological concepts
into that philosophical system. For example, we have a brilliant
exposition of the existential philosophy by Bultmann, Tillich and
theprocessphilosophy by John Cobb. In thistheologizing process,
both God and the world are somewhat abstract concepts and,
therefore, there was a serious failure to relate the Gospel to the
concrete reality of brokenness, oppression and dehumanization.
In short, theology becamemerely abstract and intellectual exercises
unrelated to the real life situation of the people. However, in
contextual theologies, the sourcesare drawn from the experience
of the peoplethemselves. For Minjung theologiansit isthe sociobiography of collectivepeople’ssuffering in an oppressive regime.
Stories can also mean people’s symbols, stories7, myths, songs,
3. The Aim: Not Defending Faith, but Liberation: A major
focus of the dominant theologies is to engage in systematic
constructions of timeless theological concepts (they claim to be)
beginning from the doctrine of God, the Christ, the Holy Spirit,
the Holy Trinity, the problem of Evil, the Creation, Humans,
Sin, the Atonement, the Church and Ministry, the Sacraments,
Salvation and Christian Hope. The primary objective of
theologizing is to help people understand and interpret God’sact
i.e. to give a rational basis for their faith. Whereas the primary
objective of theological reflection of contemporary contextual
theologiesisto help people in their strugglefor transforming their
situation of injustice and oppression. Theologizing is a process
that empowers people to transform their situation in accordance
with the utopia or the vision of the gospel. In this sense, the aim
of contextual theology isliberation. It aimsto provideavision for
thefuture, and empower people to change theexisting valuesand
relationship. Liberation theology is integral to people’s on-going
search for their identity and strugglesfor justice.
7
Musa W. Dube writes that “storiesand story-telling are central to African
societies(it issamewith indigenouspeople in Asiaalso). Storiesaretold and
retold repeatedly to depict life, to transmit values and to give wisdom for
survival in life. Theart of telling and retelling storiesremainscentral to African
societies. For examples, a grandmother can tell the same story differently
dependingon her audienceand theissuesshewantsto address. Thuscharacters
in astory may changeto suit thelistenersand their circumstances, astheteller
seesfit. A story may also betold to agroup of listenerswho add their comments
and questions. Thismakesstory-telling itself (and thestory itself ) amoment
of community writing or interpretation of life, rather than an activity of the
teller or author. Theteller or writer thusdoesnot own thestory or havethelast
word, but rather the story isnever finished; it isapage of the community’s
4. Method: Not Theory but Liberative Praxis - In dominant
theologies, thepattern of theologizing asin many other disciplines
has been, first to enunciate a theory (as in Biblical Systematic
Theology) and then apply it (Practical Theology, Ethics, etc). The
assumption in thisprocedure isthat pure and true thought about
reality can occur only when it is removed from act and practice;
fresh and continuous reflection.” SeeOther Waysof Reading: African Women
and theBible(Atlanta/Geneva: Society of Biblical Literature/WCC, 2001), p.
3 ff.
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doing is an extension of knowing. However, in contextual
theologies, liberativepraxisisthemethod of doing theology. They
make a distinction between theory and practice on the one hand,
and praxison theother. Thisispraxis-theology. It involvesrigorous
theoretical reflection, but it insiststhat it should emerge from the
practice that isoriented to transformation.
Indigenoustheology isanewcomer and thisemerging theology
among thealienated minoritiesmay becalled ‘Indigenouspeoples
theology’. It is a people’s theology born out of the experiences of
variousforms of injustice and exploitation in the context of their
assertion for right and identity. It is a theology that attempts to
expressChristian faith in socio-cultural, religious, traditional and
liturgical thought patterns of the people. Indigenous people’s
theology isaliberation and resistancetheology - resistanceto affirm
justice, identity, dignity and wholenessof land and all itsinhabitants.
Theexperiencesof oppressionsand hardships, and their traditional
stories, myths, symbols, dances, songs, and their connectednessto
land and environment become the vital resources for doing
theology. It reflects on the issue of ethnic, cultural and political
identitiesof peoplefrom thesubject of people, land, and thesacred
power to give them hope.
What is the Distinctive Identity of IndigenousTheology?
When all the trees have been cut down,
When all the animals have been hunted,
When all the waters are polluted,
When all the air is unsafe to breathe,
Only then will you discover you cannot eat money.8
We have discussed at length on the uniqueness of indigenous
spirituality and we have noted that one distinct feature of many
indigenous forms of spirituality is that their belief systems,
8
See Max Eidger, “Indigenous People – Spirituality and Peace”, a concept
paper presented at AsiaPacific Allianceof YMCAsand Interfaith Cooperation
Forum, October 19-24, 2007.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
87
ceremonies, rituals, festivalsand dancesarecommunity expressions
that are centred around and deeply rooted in the land itself so
much so that theGod cannot beunderstood outsideof therelation
to land/space. Peopledanceand sing along with thecycleof seasons
of theland – celebrating theexpressionsand exuberanceof life. To
makeour focusclear, wemay makearandom comparison between
the traditional western ‘Christian’ and traditional indigenous
worldview as follows:
Traditional Indigenous View
Traditional Western ‘Christian’View
T he land i s the basi s of all
realities – human selfhood and
identity. Perceives all realities
from creation perspectives
H umanity is the ontological
basis of all realities. Perceives
everythi ng from anthropocentric perspectives
No sharp dualism. There is no
clear cut distinction between
sacred and secular, religion and
non-religion, etc. H olistic in
thinking.
Reali ti es are percei ved
dualistically. A sharp distinction
is maintained in understanding
life. Dichotomic in thinking.
The self of the Supreme Being
i s seen i n creati on and an
i nseparable relati onshi p i s
maintained
God’s self is seen in history,
especially in human history.
No historical person in which
their religion is centred. The
earth i s the focal poi nt of
reference and all reli gi ous
activities are centred on the soil.
Jesus Christ is the focal point of
reference of all reli gi ous
activities.
Though oldest religion, there is
no scri pture or creed. T hey
have only oral tradition. The
earth is sacred and central for
life.
T here are wri tten creeds,
scripture, etc. Scripture is sacred
and central for faith.
We cannot percei ve the
Supreme Bei ng apart from
creation. God is in creation. The
Nature is something detached
or outside of God. The created
world is evil and created by
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An Exploration of IndigenousTheological Framework - Part I
earth is sacred because God
indwells in creation.
lesser God.
Person orientation. Relationship between indi viduals in
society is more important than
the simple performance of tasks.
Cooperation is valued more.
Giving over saving. Rich means
giving.
Task orientation. A person is
measured by what he or she
performs. The task is the focal
point. Very much achievement
focus and competi ti on
oriented. Saving over giving.
Rich means accumulation.
Adaptation to environment.
The world is sacred. It is our
mother. How can we sell and
exploit our mother!
Manipulation of environment.
There is no sacred in God’s
world. Exploi t as much as
possible to extract profit.
H ighly community-oriented.
H ighly individualistic.
A crucial element missing in Christian theologies today is the
spiritual connection with the mystery of theearth’sfamily. When
the studentsof the School of Peace in Bangalore9 wanted to plan
a program for the International Earth’s Day, they came up with
many suggestions, some of which were:
-
9
Appeal to all people to use bi-cycles for a day, including
people in high positions
Encourage people to use public transport rather than private
cars and motorbikes
Organize programs for each person to plant a tree
Organize street dramas on environmental issue
Painting of arts in T Shirts on environmental protect
Essay competitions on environmental protection
Art competitions for children
Encourage people to write and publish articles, poems,
stories related to environmental protection
TheSchool of Peaceis an Inter-faith PeaceSchool conducted by AsiaPacific
Alliance of YMCAs and Interfaith Cooperation Forum. The school is
conducted in different partsof Asia.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
-
89
Organize concerts, along with public lectures on this theme
Organize social work
Create awareness campaign about the danger of plastic bags
and waste disposal.
Organize youth and environmental awareness bi-cycle tours
for a week
Eat vegetables only.
These are excellent programs and ideas but appear to be very
commercial oriented. What is missing is the spiritual connection
with the earth. I thus started thinking about how the indigenous
people observed the Earth Day in the past. Their entire activities
were deeply religious. Someof the indigenouscommunitiesused
to observeit for aslong as3 - 6 days. Theearth wasgiven complete
rest and treated with much respect by observing the following:
-
No one was allowed to cut firewood lest the earth be shaken
Use of axes and knives was prohibited
No one was allowed to poke the earth by spear or by any
pointed materials
No one was allowed to make any noise
No one was allowed to spit on the ground
No one was allowed to stamp on the ground harshly
No one is allowed to make fire on the ground
No sex to be indulged in
No killing of animals
No cutting of trees
No one is allowed to work in the field
No merry making such as dancing, singing.
The earth is honored and treated as sacred. It was on these days
that peace and the reconciliation initiative took place between
individuals, clans, villagesand communities. TheEarth’sDay were
also a day of prayer and contemplation. Thiswas/isthe culture of
indigenous people. Rejection of this spiritual connection with
earth’s family in development activities will be a serious mistake
for the future survival of the world. Thomas Berry writes in his
book, The Spirituality of the Earth, that
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An Exploration of IndigenousTheological Framework - Part I
In our totality we are born of the earth. We are
earthlings. The earth is our origin, our nourishment,
our support, our guide. Our spirituality itself is earthderived. If there is no spirituality in the earth, then
there is no spirituality in ourselves. The humans and
the earth are totally implicated each in the other.10
Unless we rediscover our spiritual connection of people with
the earth’s family, it is not possible to talk about liberation and a
community whereall people aretreated justly. It islike attempting
to liberate oneself after killing one’smother. That meansfrom the
indigenouspeople’sperspective an authentic Christian theology is
possible only in relation to protection of the land.
Liberation theology or Third World theologies have missed
this vital aspect in doing theology. Indigenous theology affirms
progress, development and liberation as important components
for human life, but without neglecting their spiritual connection
to earth’s family. One of the major roots of today’s world crises is
thenegligenceof thespiritual connection with space/earth/creation
for human liberation.
As the indigenous people’s theology is a contextual theology,
it is a theology from ‘below’and from the ‘underside of history’.
It aims to liberate them from their inferiority complex, from
oppression and discrimination by attempting to rediscover the
liberativemotifsin their culturesand religion, and by reinterpreting
the Bible and Christian traditionsfrom theperspective of people.
Hence, the focusand goal of theindigenoustheology isliberation
and transformation. It aimsto restoretheir self-identity and dignity
by creatively engaging in the Gospel and culture in their struggle
for social, economic, religious, cultural, political and ecological
justice. In the process of working for their own liberation and
transformation, and creative participation in wider society, the
10
ThomasBerry, “TheSpirituality of theEarth”in LiberatingLife: Contemporary
Approachesto Ecological Theology, eds. By Charles Birch, et.al. (Maryknoll,
New York: OrbisBooks, 1994), p. 151.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
91
indigenous people work for the liberation of both the oppressors
and theoppressed. It is, therefore, atheology that includesliberation
of the whole humanity and of the entire God’s creation.
Though indigenous theology is part of larger liberation
theology, we can say that methodologically speaking, the point of
departure of the indigenous theology from the other contextual
theologies is that, the indigenous theology seeks liberation from
the perspective of ‘land’ because it is the land that sustains and
nourishes people and gives them an identity. The land and its
inhabitants are two aspects of one reality. Human liberation will
bevoid and empty without affirming the integrity of the goodness
of land and itsresources. Thesearch for liberation without land is
not liberation. It will lead to slavery and destruction. Therefore,
the land and its resources that sustain and nourish all beings and
give them an identity and selfhood is not merely a justice issue to
be set alongside other justice concerns. It is the foundation of
history, existence and identity.11 This implies that poverty, war,
oppression, ethnic conflict and identity problems cannot be
understood or solved without relating them to the integrity of
creation/land. Justice to creation/land becomes very central to
liberation and human dignity and fullness of life.
That is why doing justice to the ‘land’isthe starting point of
the indigenous people’s theology and their search for liberation.
Commitment and dedication to the harmony of creation/land
springs forth in love, nurture, care and acceptance. This
methodological priority of justice to land is essential not only
because of their ‘earth-centred’ worldview and tradition, but
because of our contemporary ecological crisis, misuseof resources,
market culture, war for oil and survival crisis of many people.
11
For this insight, I owe a deep gratitude to Prof. GeorgeTinker’s article on
‘American Indian & the Art of the Land’which appeared in VoicesFrom the
Third World, Vol. XIV/2 (1981) and ‘Spirituality and Native American
Personhood: Sovereignty & Solidarity’in K. C. Abraham and B Mbuy (eds.),
Spirituality of theThird World (OrbisBooks, 1994), pp. 127-128.
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This methodological priority of doing justice to the totality of
creation is the primary departure from the other contextual
theologies.
Our Theological Perspectives
No person or community can have monopoly over theology. To
express our knowledge of God in one’s own way is the inherent
right of all human beings. Wecan apprehend God by what he has
doneto our foreparentseven before thearrival of Christianity and
isdoing for thepeoplein theconcretehistorical context. Therefore,
we are called to articulate our faith journey with God and
community in our own way.
a) Biblical Testimony of Creation: The indigenous peoples
communitiesrecognizeseveral ‘scriptures’, including oral traditions
to apprehend God. TheBibleisthebook of theindigenouspeople.
It speaks of people’s relationship in society, cultivation, animals,
nature and encounter with the Divine power in their search for
liberation. The Hebrew Bible starts with creation of heaven and
earth, and then moves on to the creation account of humanity as
created from the ground/land, that humanity is created in God’s
imageand that each race and nation wasassigned aspace in God’s
world (Deut 32: 8). The land, from whose womb humanity was
formed (Gen. 2:7), is also viewed by the Bible as really alive. It is
not amassof dead matter, but a living, pulsating organism. From
our land-centred lenses, themountainsand hillsand treesdo sing
and clap their hands. Thesearenot meremetaphorsor poetry. The
land or the whole creation is alive, and it is so intimately woven
into the lives and struggles of the indigenous communities that
theformer groansin travail (Romans8: 19, 22) whenever we, the
people of the land, suffer displacement, alienation, exploitation,
exileand persecution. TheNew Testament Gospel, too, proclaims
how central the redemption of the marginalised is in the divine
economy. Jesusalways located hisministry within the farming or
fishing context and worldview. Jesus’language, metaphors, symbols
are drawn from day to day experience of the farmers, fisherfolks
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
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and their struggle for justice against the empire. In other words,
the Judaeo-Christian gospel of the reign of God is affirmative of
our indigenous worldview and spirituality that constructs our
understanding of who we are and what we struggle for.
b) God in Creation: Creation isthefirst act of God’srevelation.
God cannot be perceived without water, wind, trees, vegetations,
sky, light, darkness, animals, human creatures. In this first God’s
act of revelation, God revealed himself/herself as co-creator with
earth. Themost striking aspect in thisfirst act of God’srevelation
is“God isactively present in creation”. Thepresenceof God makes
this earth sacred. That is why God entered into covenant
relationship with all creatures. There are many stories, myths,
parables, and even fairy tales of how the Sacred Power and the
land sustain life together. This makes “the whole earth is full of
God’s glory” (Isa. 6:1-3). People always conceive of God-world
very much attached to them in their every day life. Totem, taboos
and other customary laws tied them together as one whole. To
perceiveGod detached from creation/earth or meretranscendental
being who controls life from above is not the biblical faith. We
believein God becauseGod asthecreator ispresent and continues
to work with the land, river, sea to give life and hope. This
affirmation is the foundation for life. The major problem in
theology is faith articulation of human history without the other
earth’s family.
c) Liberation and Integrity of Creation: The Bibleisthe book
that affirmsliferather than destruction. Themost striking example
of thisin theBibleistheinstitution of Sabbath and Jubilee. Jubilee,
in theBiblical tradition, isan invitation to participatein thedreams
and designsof theDivineto recreaterelationsamong living beings
through restoration and renewal of history. Jubileeepitomizesthe
hope for an eschatological possibility in historical terms, creating
systems that are free from the possibilities of exploitation and
oppression. Ancient seersintroduced theconcept of Jubileethrough
principlesof economic, political and social justicewithin acosmic
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framework which inherently negatesmarginalization of any living
beings. To actualize this vision, God revealed himself/herself as
the liberator in the Exodusevent. More precisely, God isrevealed
as the God of liberation of the oppressed. “I am Yahweh your
God, who has brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the
house of slavery.” (Ex. 20:2; Deut. 5:6). Israel asapeople came to
know God asliberator through theexodus. By delivering thepeople
of Israel from Egyptian bondage and inaugurating the covenant
on thebasisof that historical event, God is“revealed astheGod of
the oppressed, involved in their history, liberating them from
human bondage.” In the Exodusevent, God took the side of the
oppressed community; the people who have been denied human
dignity and earth’sresources.
The Nazareth manifesto of Jesus reaffirmed liberation by
proclaiming the Year of the Lord’s favor. Jesus reiterated the
importance of the Jubilee tradition for liberation (Luke 4:18 ff.).
Theproclamation of theYear of theLord isa messageof liberty to
those who have lost their land, personhood or status so that they
could return to their former position and ancestral land; both the
rich and poor, master and servant, the empowered and the weak
and even natureitself were all returned to their original state. The
conflict with Satan and thepowersof thisworld, thecondemnation
of therich, theinsistencethat thekingdom of God isfor thepoor,
and the location of his ministry among the poor for liberation
threatened the oppressors which resulted in Jesus’crucifixion. In
the absence of a reorganization of life prescribed by the values of
Jubilee, a just community isonly an empty word. The spirituality
of Jesus is martyrdom and that is why it is “costly discipleship”.
The resurrection conveyshopein God. That iswhy Jesusbecomes
the symbol of struggle for justice for indigenous people. To fight
and resist thenew empireof global market, anti-peopledevelopment
activitiesof thepresent timeisjustified and it istheDivinemandate
to participate in God’sliberative act in history.
d) Our Ecclesial Vision: Thechurch isahouseof prayer for all
nations, racesand language. Thereareno barriersand discrimination
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
95
in the houseof God. The indigenouspeople, women and persons
with disabilitiesare all invited to celebrate and share their giftsfor
the common good.
We need to understand the household of God on the basisof
the richnessof God’screation. Thisisexpressed in theplurality of
his creation. Attemptsto exclude others’form of expression are a
denial of God’s richness. No culture, no community is excluded
from the structure of God’s creation. All are unique in their own
waysand, therefore, no onehastheright to dominateand suppress
the other. Life is protected and it can grow to its fullness only by
affirming of the beauty of diversity.
Christian missionaries have done immense work for the
liberation of indigenouspeople. Recognizing their genuineinterest
in the well-being of the oppressed people and commitment to
bring thepeopleto thegospel messageof salvation, many oppressed
peopleconverted to Christian faith searching for a more dignified
life. While acknowledging much dedicated and selfless works
rendered by the missionaries, we also recognize that the church
whether aware of it or not, hasbeen an ally or agent of empiresin
themarginalization, oppression, exploitation and even obliteration
of indigenous peoples communities. It became the Trojan horse
of empires, and to this day continues to be an instrument of
subjugation of indigenouspeople’scommunities. Thechurch has
consistently played her role as the cultural partisan in our
colonization, consistently breaking our will to resist subjugation
and domination, and tragically standing in silence in the face of
the destruction of our habitat, our livelihood and culture.
Indigenouspeoplesaffirm apeople-centred church, ecumenical
unity but not a church of power, hierarchy, expansion, extension
and conquest. What weenvision isachurch that respects, recognizes,
affirms, supports, promotes, advocates for us in our struggle for
self-identification and self-determination. We envision a church
that goesdeeper into the indigenouspeople’sexperience, not only
as object of study but especially as subject of ecclesiological and
theological elaboration.
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5
CREATION CENTRED SPIRITUALITY
AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY:
Some Pointers
Theology is an ongoing reflective activity of the faith experience
of people in a given context. It is written, articulated and
constructed by humans to create a community of justice. But it
should not be reduced to a mere “talking activity” or “liberative
activity” of the poor, the oppressed and women. The scope of
theological reflections should also include human’s relationship
with other segments of God’s creation. Equal importance or
prominence should begiven to “creation” (in thesense of totality)
because we cannot articulate a theology without creation as it is
the foundation of all life. The affirmation that “In the beginning
God created heaven and earth” (Gen.1:1) isthefoundation of doing
theology. Thus theological reflections should aim to provide a
holistic dimension affirming the interrelatedness of all creation
and people’sstrugglefor life. To beprecise, atheology that addresses
humanity alone and leaves the rest of the cosmos unaddressed is
an incomplete theology.1 Theology becomes impotent when it
addressesonly humanity. Doing theology isto engage in dialogue,
listen, feel and live with the whole of creation, and it is not just a
function of the intellect.
Aselaborated earlier, “Creation” isthespiritual foundation of
1
Cf. CharlesBirch, “Christian Obligation for theLiberation of Nature”, LiberatingLife: ContemporaryApproachestoEcological Theology, eds. CharlesBirch,
et.al (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, Books, 1994), p. 61. Hereafter “LiberatingLife.”
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
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indigenouspeople. By theaffirmation of thecentrality of creation
or space in Christian theology, our approach to God, humans,
land, plants, water, air and all its creatures will be substantially
different. The domination and exploitation of creation by
humanity aswell asmarginalized communitieslike theindigenous
people, dalits, minjung and women by the dominant societies
will come under ethical and theological questions. M ore
particularly, the indigenous communities who define their
personhood and identity in relation to the land will discover a
more just and peaceful life by giving prominence to creation. It is
imperativethereforeto discern what elementsfrom theindigenous
spirituality can beintegrated into and used to enrich thepluralistic
unity of the oikosof God.
A crucial issue in Christian understanding of creation is to
reformulate creation as an organic, interdependent and coherent
whole. We have noted that the organic relationship of all realities
istheheart of theindigenousspirituality. Organism2 affirms that
everything constitutes a complex set of relationships; it includes
everything, neglectsnothing, valueseverything, everythingislinked
together. It is a worldview that addresses the inseparable
interrelationship and interaction of the living (biotic), non-living
(abiotic) environment and the supernatural. Disruption in this
organic relationship bringsdisintegration to all living beingsbecause
everythingisorganically related to each other. All creatures, including
the Supreme Being and the Spirit(s), mutually affect each other.
Humans see themselves as part of the total eco-system. Though
the Supreme Being and Spirit(s) are understood as the creators
and sustainersof all living things, they are also perceived, though
distinct, as part of the total body of creation. In the same way, all
creatures including the smallest creatures and the rock are also
organically related to each other. Each onehasitsautonomy always,
2
Theterm ‘organism’or ‘organic’isa scientific term. From scientific point of
view, it isthe study of therelationship of organism or group of organism to
their environment. We usethisterm in theological sense.
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however inseparably related. It is not to say that all life is the
SupremeBeing, but the Supreme Being ispresent in all. Thusthe
core of indigenousspirituality isaffirmation of interrelatednessor
connectednessof all living realities. Hereeach organism is equally
valuable, worthy and important. Therefore, organism is a
theological term that affirmsinterrelationship, interconnectedness
and interdependence of God-world-human relationship in God’s
oikos. If we interpret theologically this organic view of life and
spirituality, it may help in discerning new ethical and spiritual
resources to overcome the forces that threaten God’s world. One
way of approaching Christian theology is to give prominence to
creation. By making the totality of creation as the basis, we are
challenged to reinterpret our understanding of God, human, the
world and the mission of the church from a wider perspective.
i) A Perspective on God
Influenced by Hebrew and Greek thought, many Christian
traditionshaveconstructed imagesof God in ahierarchical-dualistic
way. Consequently, we have come to imagine God as an
incomprehensible and all-powerful being. This all powerful, allknowing God ispresent everywhere, who isup there, beyond the
realmsof life here on earth. Like Gnostics, we tend to believethat
such a God of life cannot be related to the material world. God is
apuretranscendental and spiritual beingwhereastheworld iscreated
out of matter, and thereforeevil, sinful and destined to destruction.
This Holy God is separate and does not come into contact with
the fallen earthly world. The traditional Christian view of God is
life isshaped by thisunderstanding.3
The eco-feminists and the process theologians have made us
aware of thedeep connection between ahierarchical understanding
of authority and the destruction of creation. Such a system of
3
Pressreleased of WCC Conferenceon “IndigenousPeoples’Theologiesin the
Search for Ecumenism in the21st Century” at Yu-Shan Theological Seminary,
Hualien, Taiwan 16-20 September, 2012, p. 1.
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authority and value arranges the world around God as above and
apart from the earth asking, men asvice-regents, women astheir
subordinate, indigenouspeopleasprimitiveand uncivilized, animals
as valuable only to be hunted and killed and subdued. Such an
understanding of God bringsdestruction to thewholeof creation.
We need to rethink of God-world-human relationship to correct
the dominant perception of God. In this search, the indigenous
spirituality providesavision that theSupremeBeing isorganically
related to all creation. Creation is not external to the Supreme
Being, but an integral part of creation. Without the Mother Earth
theSupremeBeing ceasesto bethe Creator. For example, we have
seen the Aos and Sangtam Nagas understanding of the Supreme
Being, Lijaba, meaning “thereal of thereal earth: or “theonewho
enters the earth”. The Mother Earth receives Lijaba as seed and
helps the seed to grow, nourish and sustain and it also feeds all
living creatures. TheSupreme Being comesout from the soil, but
not from above. Therefore, many indigenouscommunitiesconceive
of the earth as mother of all creatures. The Mother Earth and the
Supreme Being together co-parent their children, the creatures.
This idea of God enables the indigenous communities to see the
self of the Supreme Being in creation, in space or places. People
see the self of the Supreme Being in trees, flowers, rice, etc. thus,
creation istheexegesisand thereal presence of theSupremeBeing
in the world. Though indigenous communities do not have a
historical person(s) in their religious systems, people experience
the presence of the Supreme Being because the Supreme Being
appears in every being, beckons in every relationship and bursts
forth in every ecosystem. We have also seen how the ceremonies
and festivals of the indigenous communities are centred on the
earth. Through theobservanceof ceremoniesand festivals, Earth’s
Day, people adore and honour both the Mother Earth and the
SupremeBeing. When theindigenouspeople say, “thereisa spirit
in thetreeor rock”, they supposethat there isareal presence there
because the Supreme Being is organically related to all creation.
The Supreme Being is the one who comes out from the soil.
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Further, for indigenouscommunities, the SupremeBeing isa
personal being. S/he comes home and stays with them as one of
thefamily members. S/hecooksand eatswith them. S/heisanxious
to know every need of the family. S/he also demands justice by
disapproving the excessive accumulation of rice or wealth.4 This
provides a new ethical principle. It implies that there should be a
limit in everything. Endlessexploitation of earth’sresourcesbrings
imbalance to creation as well as to the human community.
Sustainable use is a way of doing justice.
If the Christian understanding of God is reconceived in the
light of this organic worldview of indigenous communities, we
may avoid imagining God asdivine-clockmaker and the world as
the clock- an autonomousand self-sufficient machine. Also, God
cannot be conceived astheexternal monarch who rulestheworld
from above imposing his/her divine laws on it. It rules out the
perception of God asomnipotence, transcendent, theBeing in the
highest hierarchy, the Holy of holies who is detached from the
material world. Theindigenousspirituality helpsusto reconceive
the Supreme Being as immanent who not only comes out from
thesoil, but also comesand dines, drinks, speaksand revealshimself/
herself to usasperson. This spirituality further affirmsthat God’s
creativity, his/her active involvement in this world cannot be
narrowly limited to the human realm alone. God works and lives
in every being, and not limited to rational beingsalone. By hurting
the Mother Earth, we hurt the Supreme Being as well as human
community. The Supreme Being suffers pain when his creations
are hurt, because the Supreme Being isan integral part of his/her
creation.
This spirituality provides a vision that one can have faith in
God even without ahistorical person, creed and scripture. Asnoted
earlier, theindigenouspeople do not have ahistorical person(s) in
which their religion iscentred. Creation istheHoly Scripture and
4
Refer to the myth of Lijaba discussed in “The Uniqueness of Indigenous
Spirituality” in thisbook.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
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creed. TheMother Earth is aliving reality, likea historical person.
Though theindigenouscommunitiesdo not have a historical
personage in their religioussystem, they accept JesusChrist asthe
child of the Supreme Being and the Mother Earth. JesusChrist is
God because people see in Jesus the true essence of the organic
relationship to theFather and theearth. Theindigenousspirituality
informs us that Christ should not be narrowly conceived as the
one who works only in the hearts of the believers. The Christ of
personalism isanarrow Christology. Christ should not beperceived
as a separate being from the world, culture and religion; we
sometimes narrowly conceive the incarnate Christ as being
somewhat distinct from the created order. Thishasled to awrong
interpretation of the salvific dimension of Christ’s ministry. It is
not the biblical testimony to reduce Christology to a “merely
abstract” or “purely spiritual” entity.
The understanding of the Supreme Being and universe of the
indigenous people enlightens us to conceive of Jesus Christ in a
new way. Christ is“Incarnate”, meaning, he isorganically related
to all ecosystems and is inseparably related to God and his/her
creation. Through incarnation, JesusChrist took a material body
and became part of the created order. The Bible clearly testifies
that Christ, the “Incarnate One”, assumed flesh – sarx, human
flesh; hewasnurtured by air and water, vegetablesand nurtured by
the Mother Earth. He took matter into himself, and so matter is
not alien to him. Hisbody wasa material body. ThusJesusshares
hisbeing with the whole created order: animalsand birds, snakes
and worms, flowers and seeds.5 Since Jesus Christ is organically
related to all beings, all parts of creation are now reconciled to
Christ. Humans, the sun and themoon, air and water, plantsand
animalsparticipatein thefinal consummation of the redemption.
Thus, St. Paul said that Jesus Christ came for the redemption of
5
PaulosMar Gregorios, TheHuman Presence: An Orthodox View of Nature,
pp. 41 ff.
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thewholecreation (cf. Romans8). Thewordsof Jesusalso indicate
his organic relationship with the Father. Organically, Jesus said,
“I and my Father areone” (Jn. 10:30). Sincehumansarean integral
part of creation, wearepart of Christ’sbody. Thisinterrelationship
with Jesus Christ can be understood as, “I am in my Father and
You in me” (Jn. 14:20).
Being organically related with the material world, Jesus
identified himself during his earthly ministry with all natural
phenomena. In hislifeand ministry weseeJesusbeing manifested
in hisorganic relationship with thematerial world. ThetimesJesus
spent in thedesert wasthemost formativeperiod for themessianic
ministry he was about to embrace. In order to be fully open and
receptive to the divine call, Jesus forsook the company of people.
He regularly returned to the hillsto pray and commune with the
Father (Mtt. 17:1; Mk. 6:46; Mtt.14:23). He went up to the hills
to pray before making important decisions like choosing the
disciples(Luke 6:12). Jesusdid not carry out hisministry only in
the synagoguesor in the temple. The wholeworld of creation, for
Jesus, was God’s temple. In Matthew’s gospel the beatitudes and
thesubsequent teachingsweredelivered on themountains(cf. Mtt.
5:1-7:29). Interestingly, it was in a high mountain that Jesus was
transfigured, implying that it was on a mountain that Jesus was
taken into the full presence of God (Mt. 7:1-8) A voice from the
cloud said, “Thisismy beloved son, with whom I am well pleased;
listen to him” (Mt. 17:5). Moreover, much of Jesus’teaching and
miracles took places on the shores of the Sea of Galilee (Mtt.
13:1-52; Mk. 4:35-41: John 21:1-14). The Miraclesof the loaves
occurred in alonely place (Mtt. 14:15-21: Lk.9:10-17: John 6:113).6 Many of Jesus’parablescentred on sowing seed (Mtt. 13:49, 18-23; Mk.4:3-9, 13-20), and were related to vines (John
15:4-7) or shepherds (John 10:1-18). His teaching is regularly
interspersed with references to the lilies of the field (Lk.12:27),
6
McDonagh Sean, TheGreeningof theChurch (New York: OrbisBooks, 1990),
p. 159.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
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thebirdsof theair (Mtt. 6:26), and thelair of foxes(Luke9:58).7
All these explain Jesus’ integral relationship with the whole of
creation. Indeed, Jesus praised and worshipped God through
creation. Furthermore, in his preaching, Jesus identified himself
with the natural elements of water (John 4:13-14), bread (John
6+:48) and light (John 8:12). He presented himself as the good
shepherd (John 10:11; Mk.6:30-44) that people may have life
and have it abundantly (John 10:10). He rode into Jerusalem on
a donkey (Mtt. 21:1-5). In Mark’s gospel (16:15), the disciples
were called to take the Good News to all creation.8 All these
examplesillustrate Christ’sorganic participation and relationship
to Mother Earth.
Similarly, thecosmo-centric vision of theSupreme Being and
universe of indigenous people leads us to reinterpret the work of
the Holy Spirit in each iota of creation. There is nothing on the
earth that hasnot been touched by theSpirit. In theOld Testament,
the Spirit of God is compared with ruah. The Spirit inhabits in
every creation and gives life. The presence of the Spirit in stones
and treesis real. The Spirit makes all living possible. It isthrough
the work of the Spirit that plants are made to germinate, grow
and bear fruit. Theplantsbloom and animalsroam around through
the power of the Spirit. In short, the presence of Spirit makes
creation aliveand dynamic.
The Bible also testifiesthat the Holy Spirit works not only at
thecaveof human’sheart, but also worksand sustainsall creation.
The Spirit energises even the collective resistance movement of
the oppressed communities. No religion and no one can have
monopoly over the work of Holy Spirit. It worksin every life and
inspireseverything including animalsand plantsin different ways.
Nothing exists without the work of the Holy Spirit even the
primeval watersover which the Spirit washovering at thetime of
7
8
Ibid., p. 159.
Ibid., p. 160.
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creation (Gen 1:2). In other words, neither mountain nor river,
neither flower nor field came into existence without the Holy
Spirit. The Holy Spirit is the breath that gives life to all. Such a
vision helps us to live in an ecologic mystery. By accepting this
habitation of the Spirit in all realities, Leonardo Boff says,
We are submerged in an ocean of life, of spirit, of
vibration and communion. We are part of the whole of
the Spirit who, like a string of pearls, joins all and
attracts all towards the heights, in the direction of
perfect communion with the kingdom of the Trinity.9
Further, theindigenouspeople’sunderstanding of theSpirit enables
us to affirm that nature and history are integrated as an organic
whole through the power of the Spirit. Since the Spirit enlivens
the whole world of creation and history, they are dynamic and
real.10 This meansthe strugglefor human justiceand eco-justice is
one whole. They cannot be separated.
ii) A Perspective on Salvation
Stanley Harakas, an Orthodox theologian, arguesthat a theology
which spiritualized salvation asunconnected with thecreated world
and struggleof oppressed people, contributed to theformation of
the two major cultural realities of the West, i.e., a science which
perceived itself asdetached from creation and treated it an object,
and an economic system that approached creation with an
understanding of “dominion” understood essentially as a license
for the exploitation of creation which contributed to oppression
of certain sectionsof thesociety.11 Thus there is a need to redefine
the whole concept of salvation in a new way. In this search, the
indigenous vision of life helps us to view salvation in a new way.
Leonardo Boff, “Ecology and Christology: Christian Pan-in-theism”, Voices
From theThirdWorld, Vol. XVI, No. 1 (June1993), p. 177.
10
Cf. Teilhard deChardin, ThePhenomenon of Man, (New York: Harper and
Row Publication, 1966), p. 39.
11
“TheIntegrity of Creation: Ethical Issues” in Orthodox Perspective, p. 20.
9
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Since the self of the Supreme Being is evident in creation and
human beings are part of it, we are able to affirm that humans
attain redemption only in relation to the rest of creation. Justice
to creation (in its total sense) and oppressed communities is the
basis of salvation. Many indigenous communities do not have
myths and symbols where humanity alone is saved while other
creationsare destroyed. Together with theSupremeBeing and the
Spirit, Mother Earth and her children, i.e, thecreatures, thehuman
attainsredemption. On theother hand, theindigenousspirituality
leadsthem to view salvation asa reality which can be experienced
authentically here, now and beyond. Thisdemands the solidarity
struggle for justice. A redeemed person is the one who lives in
harmony with Mother Earth and her children, creation, and the
Supreme Being and the Spirit and fellow human beings. Further,
in theindigenousworldview, redemption ismore concerned with
the protection, restoration, preservation, survival, justice and
continuanceof thehuman and human social processesand creation.
It has also to do with physical and immediate dangers – dangers,
especially institutionalized unjust systemsthat threaten individual
aswell ascommunity survival, good health and general prosperity.
Therefore, theviolation of mother earth, thetrees, flowers, animals
and spirits becomes a violation of the very spiritual values that
hold the community together. This idea of salvation enables
Christiansto understand salvation asareality which weauthentically
experience here, now and beyond. It isnot just amatter of saving
one’s own soul in life after death, but living a life of fullness in
one’s own journey through life.
The organic vision of reality helps us to reformulate the idea
of sin in a broader understanding. Sin has to do with real life
situationsand it can never be understood in abstract metaphysical
terms; it is always relational. It affects the whole community
including theearth, theSupremeBeing and creatures. For example,
if a person commits incest, it is believed that this would invite
the wrath of the Supreme Being on thewholevillage community,
on the domestic animals and in the fields, resulting in still-born
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off spring, drought, poor harvestsand other calamitiesin thevillage.
Therefore, the concept of sin is not other-worldly and
individualistic. It isstructural, immediateand corporatein nature.
In other words, sin is a destructive force that affects the whole
human society, individual and creation asa whole.
Therefore, the indigenous worldview leaves little room to
conceive of salvation in terms of personal salvation. It puts forth
the view that human redemption can be understood only as an
integral part of the redemption of the whole creation. A person
existsonly in relation – in relation to other human personsaswell
as to non-human realities. It is not possible for a person to come
to be or to grow without relating to other persons and other
segmentsof God’screation. The earth and the sun aswell asother
peopleareessential partsof our existence. Without them wecannot
exist.12 In theOld Testament, we seeGod entering into a covenant
relationship with the whole of creation.13 In the story of Noah,
we see God re-establishing the covenant with the whole creation
(cf. Gen 8-9). Similarly, theAbrahamic covenant involvestheland,
given asGod’sgift to hisdescendants(Gen 15 & 17). Thecovenant
implies
a rightly ordered relationship, whether between people,
with God and with the creation. In the biblical view
these relationships become inseparable. Shalom is the
vision of the harmony, fulfillment, and fellowship
among God, humanity and the creation; its result is
justice, peace and the integrity of creation. In the
understanding of covenant we discover God’s pledge
of faithfulness, intention and grace to bring about
shalom in all that is created.14
12
13
14
Ibid., p.39.
For moredetail seeW. J. Dumbrell, Covenant and Creation: An Old Testament
Covenantal Theology (CapeTown: ThePaternoster Press, 1984), pp. 15-25,
39-40.
Wesley Graberg Michealson, “Covenant and Creation” in LiberatingLife,
p. 31.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
107
The New Testament builds on this foundation which integrates
creation into the work of God’s redemption. Both Pauline and
Johannine writings strongly affirm the whole creation-cosmic
redemption. According to St. Paul, the work of the Spirit extends
to the total renewal of creation. The work of redemption brought
by JesusChrist envelopsthewholeuniverse. Heinitiatesa process
of transformation that moves towards cosmic release (Eph 1: 110; Col1:1:15-20). The work of the Spirit is for the renewal of
thewhole earth. Similarly, St. John speaksof theredemptive work
of Christ as “All things were made though him, and without him
wasnot anything madethat wasmade” (1:3). Thuswhen the New
Testament writersdiscussed thework of God’sredemption in Jesus
Christ, the reconciliation achieved through the life, death and
resurrection of Christ extendsto all creations. Thisiscelebrated in
the eucharist, thefeast which acknowledgesour belonging to this
new covenant relationship asthebody of Christ and opensall life
to the promise of a new relationship.15
Theindigenousvision of lifehelpsusto critique the Christian
narrow interpretation of the biblical perspective of salvation by
reducing redemption mainly in terms of souls and persons. In
other words, Christianshave narrowly interpreted redemption by
reducing it to a spiritual reality divorced from the physical reality;
our souls can be saved even though our bodies are destroyed.
Rationality alone is immortal and this rationality is the basis for
obtaining God’s grace and salvation. It is, however, biblically
unjustifiable to argue that God’s grace is bestowed only on the
rational human persons, and not in creation. Thereisno theological
basisto assumethat creation issimply aspring broad and a theatre
for grace as Karl Barth thought.16 We cannot say that creation is
worthless. It is evident that while reacting to the Evangelical
Matthew Fox, TheComingof CosmicChrist (New Mexico: Bear & Co., 1983),
pp. 87 ff.
16
Karl Barth, Church Dogmatic (Edinburgh: T& T Clark, 1936-1961), 3.1.
pp. 97 ff.
15
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emphasislaid exclusively on personal salvation, liberalism and neoorthodoxy havealso fallen into thetrap of falsecategories, claiming
that God acts in history but not in creation. It elevates history,
rather than creation, in the realm of God’s revelation. Paulos
Gregorios argues that such an approach is not congruous to the
New Testament teaching. According to him, redemption in Jesus
Christ can be understood only when we take into account the
following aspects:
(a) Personal and corporate salvation; (b) spiritual and
material reality in the creation and in the incarnation;
(c) the created order as the object and field of the
redeemi ng order; and (d) the human person as
integrally related to the whole cosmos.17
Moltmann also arguesthat an authentic liberation can beexperienced
only when we take into consideration the following levels:
(a) the strugglesfor economic justice against theexploitation
of human,
(b) thestrugglesfor human dignity and human rightsagainst
political oppression of human,
(c) the struggle for peace with nature against the industrial
destruction of the environment,
(d) the struggles for hope against apathy in asserting the
significance of the whole in personal life.18
The indigenous people throughout their histories have been
affirming this interrelationship of poverty, political oppression,
economic exploitation and justice to land. In different forums,
theindigenouspeoplehavemadetheir stand clear that thequestion
of identity, hunger, diseases, illiteracy, culture and religion are
inseparably related to spaceand thesurvival issueof theindigenous
PaulosMar Gregorios, “TheNew Testament Foundationsfor Understanding
Creation”, op. cit., p. 40.
18
Jürgen Moltmann, TheFutureof Creation (London: SCM Press, 1979), pp.
110-112.
17
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
109
people is an integral part of total cosmic justice.
The continuity between the order of creation and theorder of
redemption, rather than their distinction and difference, should
bethefocusof our interest.19 Being organically related, humanity
is redeemed with the created order, not apart from it. Thus, the
spirituality of indigenous peopleenablesusto reconceivethesalvific
work of Christ in the three principal relationships:
(a) to members incorporated in his body;
(b) to the human race, and
(c) to the other-than human orders of created existence in a
many-planed universe.20
Each of theseordersisrelated to theothers. In short, theindigenous
view of life makes it necessary for us to move beyond personal
salvation and other worldly conceptsof salvation. Christ through
whom theworld issaved isalso the one through whom the world
ismade.
iii) A Perspective on History and Time
By perceiving God in history, that is, in time, dominant Christian
traditionssomehow undermine God’sredemptive act in creation.
Thesalvation history isactualized in human history and not in the
world of creation. The world of creation is perceived simply as a
space for therealization of election. It hasno history and timeless.
It need not be redeemed. Apart from the meaning and value of
redeemed human community, creation has no divinely bestowed
meaning. Theorthodox and theprocesstheologianshaveattacked
this interpretation of history. The indigenousspirituality enables
us to see history and time not separated from the cosmos. One
cannot conceive of the God of history without affirming the
God of creation. Thereisno history without theland, trees, animals,
flowers and spirit. We cannot make a clear cut separation/
19
20
Ibid., p. 41.
Cf. Ibid., p. 41.
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distinction between the world of creation and the world of
humanity. Creation is the basic component of the interpretation
of history in the indigenous worldview. In other words, history
cannot be conceived without the world of creation. They are
inseparably related.
In thesame way, time isalso experienced in an organic realm.
It isexperienced in a cyclical and rhythmic mode rather than in a
linear and progressivepattern. Thiscyclical modeof timeisderived
from theflow of creation. It movesalong theearth. Following the
natural cycle of vegetation and agricultural life, the religious and
other social aspects of life are in consonance with it, it is centred
on the earth. It isthe land that createstime and along with which
humansmove. When thesurrounding environment isdestroyed,
the indigenous people cannot comprehend time. Therefore,
indigenous people’s concept of history and time is inseparably
interlinked with Mother Earth. In short, history, time and the
earth areone.
Thisworldview challengesusto reviseour linear understanding
of history and time. It demands that human histories be studied
within the context of the totality of creation. It meansGod must
be conceived of not only as God of history but also as God of
creation.21 By reconceiving history and time from the perspective
of theindigenousworldview, werealizethat history doesnot begin
with the fall of humanity and end with the restoration of human
redemption in Christ. History belongs not only to intelligent
beings, but also to the whole of creation. History begins with the
affirmation that ‘God created heaven and earth’. Creation and
history are not unrelated to each other. But they are part of one
whole. Paulos Mar Gregories has rightly pointed out that
Human beings have existed and do exist only as integral
21
A. P. Nirmal, “Ecology, Ecumenicsand Economicsin Relation: A New Theological Paradigm”, in Ecologyand Development: Theological Perspective, ed. Daniel
Chetti (Madras: UELCI & Gurukul Lutheran Theological College & Research Institute and BTESSC, 1991), p. 25.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
111
parts of a system that includes sources of sustenance –
meat, grains and vegetables – as well as sun and earth,
light and water, air and fire. To make a false distinction
between nature and history, to limit the presence and
action of God to history, to deny God’s action in nature
– these cannot be regarded as Christian.22
He further writes,
We have seriously distorted the biblical perspective on
redemption by introducing alien categories like nature
and history into it, and by understanding redemption
only in terms of souls and persons.23
Therefore, the continuity between the order of creation and the
order of redemption, rather than their distinction and difference,
should be the focus in our theological discourse. Humanity is
redeemed with the created order, not apart from it.24
The creation-centred worldview of the indigenous people
further helps us to reconceive our understanding of revelation.
God’s saving presence is not exhausted by Christ’s saving action
through hisspirit. God’spresence and action asthecosmic Christ,
Lord of the universe, the Saviour of humankind, the Master of
human history and the norm and judge of human existence are
universally operative and effect both in time and space. Thus all
religions, cultures and traditions of the world and realities of the
temporal order must beviewed asbeing included in God’suniversal
saving plan and itshistoric fulfillment.25
Moreover, theindigenousworldview enlightensusto reconceive
the Christian theology of history. We now realize that Christian
“New Testament Foundation for Understanding the Creation”, Liberating
Life, p. 40.
23
Ibid.
24
Ibid., p. 41
25
D. S. Amalorpavadass, “TheIndian Universe of aNew Theology”, in Emergent Gospel: Theologyfrom theUndersideof History, ed. Sergio Torresand Virginia Favella, M. M. (New York: Orbisbooks, 1978), p. 138.
22
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history need not be normatively conditioned by the history of
Israel and by thehistory of Christianity. Traditionally, thehistorical
experiences of Israel and the Christians have largely determined
our views of history. Christians think of history in terms of it
being a forward movement with the realization of the Kingdom
of God as their ultimate goal. We tend to believe that history is
meaningful insofar as it conforms to the vision of the Kingdom
of God. This vision, however, is not entirely beyond the reach of
our historical experience. For in Israel, we have the firm promise
of that kingdom and in the Church we see that promise realized
through Jesus Christ.26 That is how we ignore history outside of
humanity. C. S. Song refutesthisnarrow interpretation of history
saying, “No Israel, then no Church and vice verse – no Church,
then no Israel. Thewholehistory of humanity hasbeen telescoped
into Israel and the Church.”27 By telescoping the cosmic history
through Israel and the church, weignore thehistoriesoutside the
Judeo-Christian traditionsaswell asthehistoriesof thenon-human
world, thereby losing the distinctivenessof the Christian theology
of history.28 Song further remarks,
… there are the nations and peoples whose histories
are not directly related to the Judaeo-Christian history.
No understanding of history, not even Christian
theology of history, can do justice to the world history
by not taking into account these non-Judaeo-Christian
histories and tradition. To ignore them is a convenient
way of dealing with an extremely complicated problem
and one is tempted to cut the Gordian knot with a
sharp theological sword. But I am afraid this is not the
way God deals with nations and peoples.29
C. S. Song, “New Frontiersof Theology in Asia– Ten Theological Proposals”,
Varietiesof Witness, eds. By D. Preman Nilesand T. K. Thomas(Singapore:
Christian Conference of Asia, no year), p. 48.
27
Ibid., p. 48.
28
Ibid., p. 48.
29
Ibid., p. 49.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
113
Similarly, the liberation theologian Gustavo Gutierrez has also
narrowly conceived of history by expounding on God’srevelation
and proclamation in history. He argues that God reveals God’s
self in history.30 This undermines God’s active involvement in
creation. All these indicate that we have a narrow perception of
God’s action in time and history.
Interpreting history and time from the perspective of the
indigenous worldview, we realize that history is not confined to
the human world alone. It goes beyond the human realm. The
Bible also doesnot posit a clear-cut and rigid distinction between
creation and history. The Bible views both natural events and
historical events as signs of God saving presence and action (Cf.
Psalms 104-107). Creation and humans together rejoice before
God and praise God together.
Therefore, it isnot theologically sound to encapsulatethewhole
of God’s history into the human perspective alone. True, God
took human form in a particular Jew who lived and died within
Jewish culture. But God’s involvement in the world did not stop
there. God’screativity in the world goesbeyond what is recorded
in the Bible. Moreover, God did not reveal himself only in the
line of Abraham, I saac, Jacob, M oses, Samuel and other
personalitiesof the Bible. God was active “before Abraham was I
am” (John 8: 58). The same God of the Creator and the God of
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob hasindeed been at work with all human
race and creation. The God of history speaks to all people and to
all creatures in particular ways.31 Therefore, nothing is Godless.
There is no people and no creation without God.
However, thispresentation should not lead us to assume that
history is subsumed under nature. As already indicated, the
26
Gustavo Gutierrez, ThePower of thePoor in History, transby Robert R. Barr
(Maryknoll: New York: Orbisbooks, 1983), pp. 3 ff.
31
Cf. C. S. Song, Tell usour Names: StoryTheologyfrom an Asian Perspective(New
York: Orbisbooks, 1984), p. 11.
30
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indigenous spirituality affirms the centrality, responsibility and
creativity of humanity. Theethical principle, religiousobservances,
festivals, taboo, totem, customary laws and practices are the
expressionsof human creativity to preservetheMother Earth. The
point wewant to affirm isthat human historieshaveto bestudied
within the context of the totality of creation.
iv) A Perspective on Humanity
Theeco-feminists, theprocesstheologians, theorthodox and many
ecumenical thinkershavemadeusawarethat theanthropocentric,
hierarchical and patriarchal understanding of creation alienates
human beingsfrom each other, from creation and also from God.
They have moved towards an eco-centred theology of creation
which emphasizes God’s spirit in creation and human beings as
integral part of creation. Men and women have the responsibility
to preserve, cultivate the earth and to work with God for the
sustainability of thecosmos. In thisventure, theorganic vision of
the SupremeBeing and creation of indigenousspirituality enables
usto seeourselvesasan integral part of amacro-organism. Weare
sustained through mother earth. Wearean integral part of creation.
We relate to creation not in a hierarchical sense, but as family
members. Thus, our relationship israther circular. In acircle, there
isno beginning or end, all are interrelated and all in the circle are
of equal value. A chief or an elderly person ishighly respected but
not valued above ordinary people. In the same way, in this circle,
humans lose the status of primacy and dominion over creatures.
All mutually share and affect each other. The possession of the
faculty of intellect does not give humans the right to dominate
others.
However, thisargument should not lead us to assume that in
theindigenousworldview humans, animalsand plantsarethesame.
It iscalled romanticization. Theindigenousmyths, folklores, songs
and artsrecognizeauniqueplaceand theroleof humansin creation.
Human beingspossessauniquequality, that is, responsibility and
care. The essence of humanity isresponsibility and care. It makes
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
115
human being different and distinct from other creatures. In other
words, in the human nature, the dominant aspect isawarenessof
collective responsibility and care, but it isnot the casein regard to
other creatures. However, the possession of this quality does not
justify human superiority and domination. Thisquality isbestowed
on them to protect our fellow creaturesand other earth’sresources
from destruction. Through thepracticeof collective responsibility
and care, the humans enter into communion with their Creator
and creation.
Thisindigenousspirituality helpsusto grasp that humansand
all other segments of creation are children of one family and of
one clan or tribe/nation which includestheSupremeGod and the
Mother Earth, all being part of a symbiotic whole. The totemic
relationship of theindigenouspeople with theplants, animalsand
stones reinforces this idea. This mysterious totemic relationship
with creation provides a sense of oneness, respect, love, sanctity
and sacredness towards plants, animals, spirits and the Supreme
Being. It helpsChristiansto recognize‘personhood’, not in ahuman
sense, but in all thingswhich in return leadsusto adeep respect of
creation. Every creature is a participant in the divine, and has a
measureof sensitivity and enjoysadegreeof autonomy, spontaneity
and freedom.
Thisfurther challengesusto re-examinetheplaceof humanity
in theuniverse. It rulesout thenotion that elevatestheintellectual
and rational nature asbeing superior to other creatures. Humans
should not think that they are superior beings because of their
intellectual nature and that the material world is subordinate to
them. We have also no right to claim that rationality is the basis
for obtaining graceand salvation. Humansarenot above, but within
and in creation. The world isthefruit neither of human desire nor
of their creativity. The world came into being long before them
and thusit doesnot belong to them; it belongsto God who created
and continues to sustain it. There isa mystery in every being and
there is a distinction between human beingsand other creatures;
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but the difference is not superiority because this comes with an
awarenessof collectiveresponsibility and care.32
Asthedistinction between human and other creaturesismade
through common responsibility and care, we understand the
Christian teaching of the “image of God” in a new way. We see
that there is no “image of God”, imago dei, without reference to
creation. The“Imageof God” can beseen only in atotal framework
of life. It isthrough their relationship with creation and God that
humans discover their true “image of God”. J. Moltmann argues
that asimagesof theCreator, humansloveall their fellow creatures
with the Creator’s love. If they do not, they are not in the image
of theCreator. Thusthespecial rightsto lifeand existenceenjoyed
by humansare valid only when they respect the rightsof the earth
and other living beings.33
Furthermore, it encouragesusto view ourselvesasan integral
part of the earth community, but not above or beyond the earth.
We are dependent on the land for our sustenance through the air
we breathe, the water we drink and the food we eat. By hurting
theearth and itscreatures, wehurt ourselvesand aboveall hurt the
Supreme Being and the Spirit. Humans do not have the right to
makeextravagant claimsof being at theapex of creation. By virtue
of possessing reason, humans are responsible for maintaining
harmony among all creatures. Here our relationship to God’s
creation isnot asruler or master, but asco-workerswith him/her.
Humansattain perfection by fulfilling their obligationsin theworld
and becoming part of it through being responsible and caring.
The biblical concept of ‘dominion’has been misunderstood
as conquest, subjugation, tampering or taming whereasit should
have been understood ascollective responsibility and care. It was
to servetheearth that humanswerecommissioned and to maintain
K. C. Abraham, “A Theological Response to theEcological Crisis”, in Voices
From theThirdWorld, Vol. XVI, No.1, (June, 1993), p. 80.
33
Jürgen Moltmann, TheFutureof Creation, pp. 110-112.
32
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
117
equilibrium, impartiality and justice to all God’s creation.
The Bible says that through the responsible participation of
humans, that is, by assuming responsibility and care in love and
justice, the land iskept fertile and productive (Gen2:5; 3:17-19).
In other words, to affirm that humans are organically related to
Mother Earth, to creation and to the Supreme Being implies
pledging arelationship of caring, commitment, and responsibility.
v) A Perspective on Non-human Creatures
Indigenousspirituality opensanew dimension on theperception
of the non-human creatures. Animals play an equal role in
unfolding themystery of theSupremeBeing. In themyth of origin,
we have noted how animals brought forth the order of creation
into a reality. For example, the process of day and night came
about becauseof adecision taken by animals, though themeeting
wasinitiated by ahuman. Thecook persuaded the sun to rise, the
bird pointed out the location of water, and the rat gaverice to the
human. All thesesymbolically explain that without depending on
and help of the animals and other living beings, human beings
would havebeen in thedark, without having lifeand vitality. These
myths symbolically explain that humanity is not above animals.
Animalswhether big or small arean integral part of creation. Each
creaturepossessesan intrinsic value.
In addition, thisworldview stirsusto re-examine our attitude
towardsanimalsand other living things. Animalsare personified.
They arenot personsin thehuman sense, but they arenot ‘things’
or productseither. They are living beingswith right of their own.
The animalspossessa strong sense of discernment to uncover the
mystery of creation and also asenseof gratitudeand love. Therefore,
animalsare our companionsin our struggle for justice and peace.
Furthermore, this cosmology also helps us not only to view
creation as living and dynamic, but also helps us to understand
that all knowledge, revelation and understanding come to us
through observing thesignsand listening to thevoicesof animals,
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Creation Centred Spirituality and Christian Theology - Part I
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
119
trees, flowers, wind, thunder and rain, sun and moon, theflow of
riversand so on. All these natural phenomenon aregiftsendowed
and symbols used by people. They are media through which the
Supreme Being communicateshis/her secret messageto humans.
Without creation, humans have no teachers and messengers.
Without creation the Supreme Being ceases to reveal and speak.
The indigenouspeoplelisten to the voicesof theanimals, discern
other natural phenomenon and are sensitive to the message from
the mystery beyond. Thus omens and divination make a
tremendous impact on the lives of the indigenous people. They
alwayslook for strength, guidanceand encouragement from omens
and divination. Each important direction and decision taken in
life will haveto be in tunewith the signsof omensand divination.
Hence, peoplemeticulously observetheomensbeforeundertaking
anything whether it iswork, ajourney, farming, war or hunting.34
Thenatural objectsand animalsthat appear in omensand divination
arelooked upon asfriends, relatives, lovers, parentsand messengers.
In that way every creatureand object isaparticipant in theDivine.
They possess a measure of sensitivity and enjoy a degree of
autonomy, spontaneity and freedom. Therefore, there are no
hierarchies and no exclusive representatives. All come from the
same love of God. They must be cared for and protected.
Thisspirituality demandsa sustainable attitudetowardsother
non-human creatures and objects. The constituents of creation
cannot beperceived asmere material objectsof manipulation and
opportunity. We have no moral right to treat them as if they are
things to be used as we please rather than as beings with lives of
their own. They are not subordinate to humans either.35 Rather,
they arean integral part of thetotal ecosystem. TheBibleadvocates
a similar spirituality. The Psalmist tells us that creation gives
knowledge and experience of God (Ps. 19). According to biblical
testimonies, creation is something which is dynamic and living
and is not dead masses. Creation is God’s action in the world.
Every creature, big or small, is a witness that God is here. God is
present, God lovesyou and me. Referring to the dynamic quality
of creation, Samuel Rayan, with poetic expression, writes,
K. Khanrang, “Towardsan Eco-theology: Resourcesin thePrimal Religion of
theTangkhul Nagas” an unpublished M.Th thesissubmitted to the Senateof
SeramporeCollege, 1990, p. 68
35
Samuel Rayan, ContemporaryReflectionson theEarth of our Mother and Fathers:
Personal Witness, p. 6.
36
34
Every flower, every leaf, every grain of sand, every star
and bird, every sunrise and seascape and every color in
the rainbow speaks of the presence of God. All the trees
on the hill and all the winds that dance with them and
their leaves and fruits are paracletes pleading with our
heart to hear and to heed what is He/She saying in the
language of every distinct reality, of every colour and
shape and scent and movement.36
He further writes,
It (the earth) images of God in being, at its level, the
origin and womb or life, the nurturer and mother of
all being beings, unfaili ng dependability, endless
resourceful, and as rich in fantasy as in love, next to
God and together with God the earth is our bread or
rice. God holds in his hand and blesses and gives for
the life of all for us. Over it God bends in tenderness
saying, take, eat, this is me, my body giving for you,
that you may have life and have it in full.37
Samuel Rayan considers creation to be more original a holy
scripturethan our Biblesand Vedas.38 The earth is witnessto God’s
continued action in the world. The language of creation is more
universal and concrete, more picturesque and colourful. Creation
illustrationsareilluminating, far moretellingand moretouching.39
Ibid.,p.6.
Samuel Rayan, “Theological Perspectiveon Environmental Crisis” in Religion
and Society, (June 1990), p. 25.
38
Ibid.,p.6.
39
Ibid.,p.6.
37
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In this way, for indigenous people, every being is a messenger of
God, his/her representative and sacrament. Everyone has worth
and must be welcomed and heard.40
On thebasisof theindigenousspirituality, we arenow able to
affirm that Christian virtueslike love, respect and care cannot be
limited to thehuman community alone. It goesfar beyond human
boundaries. The principle of relationship between humans and
animals becomes “you must not muzzle an ox when it treads out
the grain.” (Deut. 25:4) In the Bible, this reverential attitude is
extended further to include all wildlife:
If you come on a bird’snest, in any tree or on the ground,
with young ones or eggs and the mother sitting upon the
young or upon the eggs, you shall not take the mother
with the young; you shall let the mother go, but the young
you may take to yourself: that it may go well with you
and that may live long. (Deut. 22:6-7)
The same vision isextended to cutting fruit trees:
When you besiegea city for a long time, making war against
it in order to takeit, you shall not destroy itstreesby wielding
an axe against them; for you may eat of them, but you shall
not cut them down. (Deut. 20:19)
Such virtues are the guiding principles of the biblical worldview.
The same value isupheld by the indigenouspeople.
This spirituality further calls us to contemplate on creation
for our renewal. Matthew Fox41 helps us to see this aspect more
clearly. He takesus to the worshipful presence of God. We praise
God in thepresence of and in harmony with all creation. They are
together with us as we praise God. (Cf. Ps 146). All things made
by God reveal theCreator’snatureand power. “Theheaven declares
the glory of God, the skies proclaim the work of his hands,” (Ps
19:1) Creation glorifies God because of its immense variety. The
40
41
Leonardo Boff, op. cit., p. 113.
Cf. Matthew Fox, TheOriginal Blessing., pp. 10 ff.
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
121
Psalmist sings how creation joins with humans in the praise of
God. Creation is our praise partner in the biblical worldview.42
All created thingsare given to humans to glorify God, but not to
be abused, exploited and destroyed. Indeed, the indigenous
spirituality takesthe whole creation as partner to worship God.
vi) A Perspective on the use of Natural Resources
The eco-feminists, the Justice, Peace and Integrity of Creation
(JPIC) programmeof theWCC, and many othershaveenlightened
us that the whole notion of progress, economic growth and
industrialization, with escalating affluence is the root cause of
ecological destruction and the continuing economic deprivation
of millions. We have noted that most of the suffering of the
indigenouspeoplein theworld today istheresult of thedestruction
of the traditional soil-centred spirituality and of the rape of their
resourcesin the name of development and progress. If wewant to
savetheworld and people who arestruggling for survival, weneed
to change our life-style. The indigenous spirituality demands a
radical changein our attitudeto and theuseof thenatural resources.
It demands that a reciprocal relationship be established between
the user and the natural resources. As stated earlier, to mistreat
land, water, air, trees, animalsand other natural phenomena isself
destructive. Speaking about the reciprocal useof natural resources
by the indigenouspeople in India, Nirmal Minz says,
Man (sic) cannot cut a tree without a reciprocity of
supplementing its loss. Animals cannot be hunted and
killed indiscriminately. Only at the due season in the
year man (sic) may kill an animal. Such reciprocities
keep the balance between man (sic) and nature.
Reciprocity avoids opposition and confrontation and
the notion of conquering one by the other. It holds life
in balance, and in harmony.43
42
43
Samuel Rayan, op. cit., p. 7.
Nirmal Minz, “The Adivasi Perspectiveon Ecology”, p. 69.
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Creation Centred Spirituality and Christian Theology - Part I
The shifting cultivation used in the forestlands is a concrete
example of the reciprocal use of land. The cultivators use the
shifting method of cultivation with a cycle of about ten years or
more. It allowsthe cultivated area to regain, recapture or conserve
the energy for the fruitful cultivation of the land.44 Again, this
principle of reciprocity ismaintained through the prudent utility
of natural resources. When acertain clan eatscertain animals, the
other clansdo not. Thisprudent utility isapplied to thecutting of
trees, eating of fruits, leavesand roots. Thisprinciple ispracticed
sex wise also. While women eat certain animals, leaves, fruitsand
roots, men are prohibited from eating them. In the same way,
some animals, fishes, birds and fruits are eaten only by the older
people. Thisprincipleof reciprocity isfurther reinforced by strict
customary lawsand norms. Indiscriminatehunting and killing are
sternly dealt with by the laws of the tribe and clan. For example,
killing pregnant animals, setting traps at certain seasons are
prohibited; and during thespawning and breeding seasonsno one
is allowed to use poisonous roots and leaves in the rivers to kill
fish. All these examples explain the reciprocal use of the natural
resourcesby the indigenouspeople.
The principle of reciprocity is further upheld through the
enforcement of taboosand other religiousrestrictions. For example,
it istaboo to kill animalswhileone’swifeispregnant. It isforbidden
to kill animals, to work, dig, poke or spit on the holy ground, to
go out, among other things, while observing restricted days and
religious ceremonies. The whole creation was given time to
recuperate and rejuvenate itself. Therefore, there was almost no
placefor over-exploitation of natural resourcesamong indigenous
people.
The observance of restricted days may be compared with the
Old Testament understanding of theSabbath and theJubileeyear.
During the Old Testament period, keeping the Sabbath was the
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
key for theprotection and careof the environment. God rested on
the seventh day of creation which wastheclimax and completion
of hiswork. God blessed it and made it holy (Gen. 2:1-20). The
principle of Sabbath was extended to the whole of creation. The
year of jubilee was also to be a rest year for the land also. (Lev.
25:2-5). Besides, the Jubilee year was observed to reinforce the
principle of justice and equality. Not only does the land rest it is
redistributed to prevent thehoarding and grasping of land, and to
promote a just relationship between the land and the people.45
Therefore, the Sabbath and the Jubilee brought everything back
to its original state. The underlying principle of the Sabbath and
theJubilee year isrest. Rest istheway of preventing theland from
being over-exploited.
At thispoint, it isalso to be noted that theindigenous people
do not approve the excessive accumulation of wealth. Earlier we
referred to amyth in which Lijaba46 who instructed thetwo orphan
sisters to cut the string of their basket when they had harvested
enough. This is symbolically supportive of the contention that
oneshould not accumulatewealth without alimit. The unlimited
accumulation of wealth makes a person proud and insensitive to
the needsof others. Among many indigenouscommunities, one’s
wealth is not measured by one’s possessions, but in the degree of
one’s sharing. If one accumulates wealth without sharing it with
others, it isnot considered as riches, but asgreed, stinginess, and
selfishness, becauseof thismany indigenoussocietiespractice the
‘feast of merit’, a feast given to the whole village. By giving, one
merits the esteem and honour of richness. Even though a person
may not have had enough food grainsat a certain time in life, yet
he/she is still considered a rich person among indigenoussociety,
if he/she or his/her parentsor grandparentsor great grandparents
had given ‘a feast of merit’to the village. Hence, such personsare
Gerhard Von Rad, OldTestament Theology, Vol. I. Trans. By D. M. G. Stalker
(Edinburgh: Oliver and Boys, 1969 reprint), pp. 83 ff.
46
For details, refer to thesection on “TheSpirituality of IndigenousPeople”.
45
44
Ibid., p. 70.
123
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Creation Centred Spirituality and Christian Theology - Part I
entitled to wear certain ornamentsand shawlswhich signify their
richness.
Thischallenges usto re-examine our life-style. We cannot go
on exploiting the natural resources endlessly. We have no moral
right to do that. The animals, birdsand all other creaturesare not
preserved for the sake of humankind but in order to maintain the
integrity of creation. All life is sacred and all possess an intrinsic
right to live. Wealth is for sharing. It is for all. It rules out an
individualistic and consumeristic life-style. A life-style based on
thehuman-creation reciprocity will help to preserve theuniverse.
Thereisno support in theBiblefor athrow-away consumeristic
society which destroys the world of creation and produces
mountainsof non-biodegradable garbage, or, worsestill, produces
toxic waste when, for example, plastic or styrofoam cups which
are used once are eventually destroyed. The carrying capacity of
the earth is limited for people just as the carrying capacity of a
pasturefor sheep. Therearelimitsof the resourcesof theearth and
the capacity of the earth to cope with the pollution of its water
and atmosphere.47
Jesusurged hisdisciplesto livealifeof reciprocity with creation.
Jesus called upon them to live lightly – “Take nothing for your
journey, no staff, no bag, nor bread, nor money; and do not have
tunics.” (Lk. 9:1-6) Jesusconstantly warned about the dangersof
attachment to wealth, possession and power. It is this which in
many ways is consuming the poor and the planet itself.48 “How
hard it isfor those who haverichesto enter thekingdom of God”
(Mk. 10:23; Lk. 16:19-31; cf. also Mtt. 19: 23-24). Thusthere is
no need to constantly fret about acquiring more wealth.
The indigenous spirituality demands not only a life of
simplicity and a reciprocal utility of natural resources, but also
demandsasacramental attitudetowardstheuseof natural resources
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
because the earth is God’s body and our mother. A. P. Nirmal
recapturesthe theological meaning of thisaspect when he writes,
If the whole world is God’s body; and if God offers us
His/Her body and blood, then the use of the world’s
resources becomes an ecological sacrament for us. As
we eat and drink the body and the blood of our Lord
reverently and not greedily, so also the world’s resources
must be shared reverently and without selfish greed.
The sacrament of the Lord’s supper is a fellowship meal
and has a community setting. What a tremendous
ecological implication this has, if we are to conceive of
different ecosystems having a fellowship meal in God’s
OIKOS.49
Similarly, Samuel Rayan writes,
And she (the earth) is a sacrament of God: the basic
sacrament symbolizing, embodying, expressing and
conveying God’s love as well as God’s loyalty and
dependability… the earth gives us the experience that
God is Mother and Nourisher, Bread and Rice and the
basis of life. Is it not the earth itself a great life-giving
loaf of bread which God bakes and breaks daily for his
cherished family of women and men and bird and fish
and beasts, trees, worms, insects and grass of many
kinds. We may encounter the Loving M ystery by
breaking the bread of the earth with one another in
solidarity and thanksgiving, never depriving others of
earth-bread, never desecrating or polluting it, never
wasting it, never privatizing it, never degrading it to
the status of market commodity. Treat the earth as
sacrament, symbol of i nterpersonal love and
togetherness, its deepest meaning being life for all and
a community of equality and freedom”.50
A. P. Nirmal, “Ecology, Ecumenicsand Economicsin Relation: A New Theological Paradigm”, in Development and Ecology, pp. 24-25.
50
Samuel Rayen, “Theological Perspective on the Environmental Crisis”, op.
cit., pp. 32-33.
49
CharlesBirch, William Ealin, Jay B McDaniel “Introduction” in Liberating
Life., p. 3.
48
McDonagh Sean, op.cit.,p. 159.
47
125
126
Creation Centred Spirituality and Christian Theology - Part I
We need to extend such a sacramental attitude towardsthe use of
the natural resources. A sacramental attitude demandsan ethicsof
careand love. In thiscaringcommunity, wemust think of ourselves,
Sallie McFaguesays, asgardeners, caretakers, mothersand fathers,
stewards, trustees, lovers, priests, co-creatorsand friends.51
vii) A Perspective on Church and Mission52
The eco-feministsand theecumenicalscall usto redefinethe role
of thechurch in God’smission in the world. The call isto create a
new heaven and new earth, new men and women and bring about
new peoplein anew covenant with creation, venerated and restored.
Today indigenous people are in great confusion. They suffer
not only from ecological crisisbut also suffer alienation from their
earth-centred lifeand culture consequently leading to inter-tribal
and intra-tribal rivalriesand continuing oppression of women. In
this context, there is a need to search for a new community. The
roleof thechurch in God’smission hasto beunderstood asrenewed
relationship with creation and human communities. In the past,
theindigenous peoplelived in acloseworld without much contact
and interaction with the outside world. Today no community can
remain in isolation. Peoplehaveto co-exist with peopleof different
cultures, religion, languageand race. It isimperativeto reinterpret
the indigenousspirituality relevant in today’scontext. We should
striveto make the relatednessof human community in theland as
the basis of modernity.
Indigenouspeople’scommunitarian life enablesusto think of
the church in a new way. T he church becomes God’s
microcosmos.53 The church becomes, A. P. Nirmal says,
INDIGENOUS SPIRITUALITY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
the cosmi c nexus of ecosystem. I n i ts organi c
relationship with ecosystem, it should reflect caring,
commitment, pledge and responsibility that God has
towards H i s/ H er creati on. T hat is the church’s
ecological mission.54
In this understanding of the church as an integral part of the
micro-cosmos, we cannot narrowly confine the mission of the
church to the human world alone. It opens up for the whole of
God’s cosmos. The kingdom or reign of God spoken by Jesus
includesarenewed relationship with creation. Earlier, it wasthought
that mission isaddressed to non-Christians, to proclaim thegospel
of Jesus to them, convert them, baptize them and admit them
into thechurch. The indigenouspeople’srelationship with fellow
beings and other segments of God’s creation enables us to realize
that such amission istriumphalistic that createshatred, confusion,
mistrust and communal tension among the people. It was
propagated by a mechanistic model of reality and theology.55 We
realize that mission is not geographies, territorial and numerical
expansion, but transformation of unjust systems in society and
liberation of the groaning of the whole cosmos. Therefore, the
mission is not the church’s mission, but God’s mission (missio
dei). The whole cosmic process is involved in God’s mission
process.56 The goal of God’s cosmic mission is the Kingdom or
Queendom of God. In such a cosmic mission, A. P. Nirmal again
says,
Humans and all else mutually indwell each other, interpenetrate each other, share each other, correct each
other, strengthen each other, uphold each other and
sustain each other. Together they live, move and have
their being’in God. This is the model of mission based
on the Trinitarian perichoresis as expounded by the
a local manifestation of the whole cosmos. It represents
SallieMcFague, Modelsof God: Theologyfor an Ecological Nuclear Age(Philadelphia: FortressPress, 1989), p. 13.
52
I haveelaborated extensively on Christian witnessand mission in Part II of this
book.
53
A. P. Nirmal, op. cit., p. 28.
127
51
54
55
56
Ibid., p. 28.
K. C. Abrahm, Eco-justice, p. 29.
A. P. Nirmal, op. cit., p. 27.
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Creation Centred Spirituality and Christian Theology - Part I
Eastern Fathers – the Cappadocians. In such a mission
there is not only sending, but also welcoming; not only
giving but also receiving; not only proclaiming, but
also listening.57
K. C. Abraham further concretizes the focus of the mission by
pointing out three dimensions. He says that,
Proclamation of the Gospel – evangelism that is aimed
at calling people to a personal loyalty to God. Social
Mission - struggling for the renewal of society through
justice struggles. The Renewal of Creation, to be worked
out by promoting ecologically related concerns. All
three are but variations of the same mission of God
and we should not neglect any one of them. If we only
emphasise evangelism and social mission then we
neglect ecological degradation. Our commitment to
ecological renewal – eco-justice - is a commitment to
participate in the total salvific process of God.58
So this broadens the perspective of our participation in God’s
mission. We are called to commit to God’s cosmic mission. It is
holistic and it involves the transformation of the whole cosmos.
57
58
Ibid., p. 27.
K. C. Abraham, op. cit., p. 29.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
Part -II
Christian Witness and Mission
129
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Mission Work among Indigenous Peoples - Part II
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
131
6
MISSION WORK AMONG INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES:
What can we learn from the Orissa attack?
Indigenouspeople who converted to the Christian faith in search
of dignity, new identity and justice are constantly under threat.
The ongoing brutal attackson the Christian minority in Orissa is
an example. Bajrang Dal activists had burnt alive Australian
missionary Dr. Graham Staines and his young sons Philip and
Timothy on January 22, 1999. The gory murder of the family
who had been working among thelepersstunned theworld. Again
on 25th December, 2007 during the Christmas celebrations,
Christian’sshopsand houseswere burnt to ashesand six innocent
people were killed.
Following thebrutal killing of VishwaHindu Parishad leader
Swami LakshananandaSaraswati along with four other associates
on 23rd August, 2008 insidehisashram at Jalespatta, Christiansin
Orissahad been persecuted in thecruelest manner for several weeks.
Killings, violent attacksand ransacking of housesand worship places
still continue though it was the M aoists who claimed the
responsibility of killingSwami Lakshanananda. Considering earlier
warnings, planning, execution and theuseof sophisticated weapons,
thepolicealso confirmed that it wasthe Maoistswho had gunned
down the Swami. But Hindu fundamentalist groupsdid not listen
to it. They blamed and alleged Christians for killing and went
ahead killing and unleashed violent attacks against Christians.
Several churches and prayer halls were torched, more than 400
churchesand prayer houseshavebeen ransacked, and thebibleand
religiousarticlesburnt. It issaid that more than 4009 homeswere
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Mission Work among Indigenous Peoples - Part II
burnt to ashes. Many people havelost their propertiescompletely.
Several educational institutions, shopsowned by Christianswere
damaged, emptied and ransacked. Many orphanage homes and
institutions managed by Christians have been targeted on the
suspicion of conversion. Morethan 2000 treeswerefelled to block
roadsacrosstheregion to prevent Christiansfrom escaping. Many
were stranded and could not escape. M any people especially
children, women and persons with disabilities were burnt alive;
some wereburnt alive in full public view after being sprayed with
petrol. Many people died of indiscriminate gun shooting; some
were killed and cut into pieces in front of family members. An
unofficial statement estimated about 150 deaths. M others,
daughters and nuns were molested and raped. Some people were
buried alive.
Let us hear some testimonies:
Fr. Edward who worked for morethan 25 yearsamong lepersand
poor tribalsexplained what had happened to him:
On Monday August 25th, around 1:30 pm, as I was
having lunch, there was a knock on the door. When I
opened it, a huge crowd of more than 500 peoplewere
outside and asked “Who isthe priest?’. Thisisnothing
strange, as often people come requesting my help, for
my vehicle to drive them to a hospital or other
emergencies. As soon as I identified myself, they raised
their armsholdingall theweapons– axes, shovels, spades
and iron rods. They took me outside in the courtyard
and began hittingme, screamingabusesat Christianity
and shouting ‘Bajrang Bali Ki Jai’; Yesu Christi
Mordabad; Hail Long Live Hanuman!.... beating me
on my head, back, all over my body.
The extremists thrashed me for nearly an hour. Then
they entered my room, collected all theclothesand books
and whatever they laid their hands on and piled it in
the centreof the room, threw kerosene on thepile, and
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
some crude oil, and threw some gelatine sticks which
they had brought with them and lit a fire and threw
me into the flames and locked the door from outside.
Somehow, I was not frightened, there was definitely
the divine presence in the burning room, and I went
into the bathroom and locked myself in and shut all
the windows. The whole room was engulfed in thick
smoke and flames.
The attackerswere shouting Bajrang Bali Ki Jai; Yesu
Christi Murdabad, and hurling abuses. They went to
thegarageand burned thevehicle, I could hear someof
them on theroof setting fire from thetop. Thick smoke
wasin the bathroom, whereI washiding, it wasdark
and full of thick smoke, and asI inhaled thesmokemy
only concern wasfor thechildren.
I n the meanwhile, the children and Rajni, who
witnessed the mob assaulting me, took the children
insidetheir own orphanageroom which isnext to mine
and bolted the door from inside. The man who had
climbed onto the roof entered the room and dragged
Rajni outside with the children – some of the children
escaped. Theybrought her outsidemybathroom window.
These criminalstied her handstogether – they made a
hugebonfirein theorphanageroom and threw her onto
thefire. They used sickles, shovelsand other weaponsto
prevent her from running away, these extremists did
not allow her to even move from the burning flames.
Rajni wasa simpleadopted Hindu girl, lookingforward
to a future. Now my concern isfor helpingtheorphans.
These children saw the fire. I can’t even imagine their
trauma; they will be afraid for their whole lives.
- Mumbai, Asian News– Sept. 4. 2008
133
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Mission Work among Indigenous Peoples - Part II
Pratap Digal1 who teachesat SeramporeCollegenarrated thekilling
of his own brother like this,
Fifteen of our family members have been killed. On
25th August, my brother Ramesh Chandra Digal was
killed mercilessly and cut into 15 pieces. Hisbody was
kept lying on the road till the evening of 27th August.
His body wasnot given to us for burial, but was later
burnt on the road by the mob to destroy evidence. His
wife, children and the rest of the family members are
hiding in the forest.
A Pastor2 from Orissa sent an email describing the incident like
this:
Whereever thefanaticshaveattacked they forced people
to bere-converted into Hinduism and instructed them
to destroy their own churches. They are further
instructed to murder their own family membersif they
do not becomeHindu.
Hefurther continues,
Mrs. Kamalini Naik’s husband wasasked to become a
Hindu for which the fanatics threatened to kill his
mother. Seeing his mother under their grip Mr. Niak
denounced hisfaith. Then they called hiswifeKamalini
Naik who was 7 months pregnant. She strongly stood
for her faith in Christ and immediately thefanaticscut
her into piecesand her oneand half year son in front of
her husband and other Christians.
These are just a few stories. It isvery painful to listen to thestories
of persecution of indigenous/adivasi brothersand sistersin Orissa.
Wordscannot describe adequately the extent and brutality of the
attack. It isjust terrible. Peoplewho saw and experienced thebrutal
act are still in trauma.
1
2
Story narrated to the author on 5th January, 2008.
Email dated 7th January, 2008.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
135
It issaid that all theatrocitieshappened in thepresence of the
policeand duringthecurfew. Thepoliceforceexpressed inadequacy
to handle the size and fanaticism of organized mobs.3 It is said
that thecasualty would havebeen much higher had they not alerted
each other through mobile phones. Thousandsdid run to nearby
forests. It isreported that for several daysmedical aid and assistance
was denied and relief workers were not permitted into the area
citing security reasons.4 Still many people had to live in refugee
campsfor months. It isalso reported that therewaseven an attempt
to poison drinking water sourcesin therelief camps. In somerelief
camps supply materials were forcefully taken away. Though
Government hasassured protection, sporadic violent attacks still
continueand peoplearescared of returninghome. Many Christians
continue to hide in the forest without adequate food and water.
Hindusarepressuring adivasi Christiansto ‘reconvert’to Hinduism
if they want to return to their homes. For the sakeof security and
life, some people have reconverted to Hinduism.
Reasonsfor Persecution
1) Control of Land and Forest Resources: To be economically
poor and illiterate is bad enough but to be a land owner is to be
morevulnerable. Moreseriously, to beaChristian in aplacewhere
there are enormous mineral resources available is to become an
easy target. TheConstitutional Provision that indigenous/adivasi
land cannot betransferred to non-indigenouspersonshave led to
the manipulation of the judicial system. The only way to acquire
land and its resources is to marry an indigenous/adivasi girl or
create fear, attack and drive away the land owners to forest and
hills by means of force and false accusation. This is done in the
name of religiousconversion in India! The issueof “conversion” is
Someaccused that Policeforceremain amutespectator and allowed to happen
in that way.
4
Theruling Government in Orissadid not allow some politicians to visit the
riot placeson theground of security reason.
3
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Mission Work among Indigenous Peoples - Part II
raised by Hindu fundamentaliststo justify their persecution.
2) Control of Labour Power: The powerful groups do not want
to see that indigenous/adivasi communities live a life of
independent in their own with right and dignity. The powerful
elite, especially high caste Hindus, wish to see that indigenous/
adivasi people remain dependent, uneducated and poor for easy
exploitation and manipulation of their labour power and land and
it’s resources The social advantages and privileges, which are
accorded to theBrahminical community and other high caste jatis
in India, areenormous, even in modern India. Any effort to liberate
them by giving education and creating awareness of the unjust
system can be a threat to the exploiters. There are many instances
of attack on Christian organizations who make the people aware
of their dignity, unjust social systemsand give them self-reliance,
improving the economic statusof thepoor and marginalized. The
indigenous/adivasi communitiesarebecoming self-reliant through
education, with some power of decision-making. This prevents
the powerful people from exploiting them as cheap farm labour,
bonded labour and other forms of oppression.
3) Creation of Labour Community: Therearedeliberateattempts
being made to see that indigenous/adivasi communities live by
selling their labour power. People are pushed out from their
ancestral land and becomethevictimsof mega projectssuch asbig
reservoirs, , wildlife sanctuaries, mines, industries, etc. There are
casesof forced evictionsfrom their ancestral land and theabodeof
thevariousspiritsthey worship, using repressivemeasuresand often
without proper compensation. Being thus impoverished and
disposed, peoplefleein largenumbersto thecitiesto eke out their
existence around slumsand shantiesin abject poverty and misery.
Their only means of survival is selling their labour power. While
the powerful are constructing more than 10 millions worth of
residential buildings, the poor are unable to have a house that at
least protects them from the heavy rains.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
137
4) Denial of Education for Exploitation: Hindu society isfirmly
built around the caste system, the indigenous/adivasi people
occupying the lowest rungs of Hinduism’s rigid caste system or
are outcastes. The castesystem givesprivilege to the upper casteto
indulge in exploitation. Christian missionaries are not wanted
becausethey giveeducation to theindigenous/adivasi people. They
were/are the first people to give education to indigenous/adivasi
people which became a liberating force. Therefore, involvement
in education invites resentment among some Hindus because it
deprived them of the freedom to exploit.
5) Denial of Religious Rights: In spite of repeated assertion by
indigenous/adivasi peopleof their distinctivereligionsand culture,
the Hindu does not recognize them having a religion.5 Some
scholars clubbed indigenous religion together with Hinduism
which gave justification for conversion. Many people think that
to be recognized as religion it must have visible worship places,
scripture, priest and images of god. Indigenous/adivasi peoples
religion is still considered as “animism” and that is why it cannot
be registered under the government as“religion”. Thisisrejection
of indigenous/adivasi culture and spirituality.
Implicationsfor Christian Mission
Thecontinuing attack on Christiansin Orissaand elsewhereposes
many issues and challenges for Christian mission. In spite of
Christian presence since the first century A.D. in Asia, Christian
identity is still associated with colonization, westernization and
anti-Asian in terms of culture and religion. The identity of
“Foreignism”6 is still closely attached to churches in India/Asia;
5
6
Christiansalso do not recognizethem having adistinctivereligion and faith.
Foreignnessisnot simply becauseof the fact that Christianity came to it from
outside. Buddhism, for example, entered, China, Japan, Korea, Thailand,
Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, Myanmar also from outside. But Buddhism isnot
alien asChristianity isto these countries. Buddhism spread in thosecountries
not through aggressiveconversion, but through inculturation in thecultural
and social setting of thepeople.
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Mission Work among Indigenous Peoples - Part II
Christianity isseen asan alien religion. Christiansarealso branded
not only aspeople who do not want to beassociated with political
and economic struggle, but also maintain allegiance with foreign
power and dividethepeoplethrough conversion and money power.
Hence, Christian mission isviewed with much suspicion.
1) Many peoplein India/Asiastill seeChristiansascolonial agents
because the spread of Protestant and Catholic missions
coincided with colonial expansion. Whilethegoal and project
of colonial powerswerepolitical and economic, themissionary
goal and project were primarily religious– converting people
into Christian faith. But therewasastrong connection between
the two to some extent in some contexts. Though in some
contexts, missionaries opposed some of the colonial
government’s policies, we have evidence of missionaries who
functioned as colonial agents. Many English people believed
that the British Empire wasamighty instrument designed by
God for carrying out His purposes.7 This historical mistake
and misconception needsto becorrected.
2) Theother reason why Christianity isviewed asalien isthat the
local churchesin Asia, by and large, havekept themselvesaloof
from themainstream lifeof thepeople. They failed to identify
themselveswith thepeople, even though in termsof education
and worksof charity they haverendered enormouspraiseworthy
services.8 Christians need to be liberated from imposed and
alien theology and worship, and re-root in the context and
cultural setting of our people.
3) Christians often exhibit a superior mindset like the colonial
masters. Thecolonial power and Christian missions(no matter
from which denominationsor missionary societiesthey came
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
from) considered themselves “superior” in terms of religion,
race, economy and culture and they consistently maintained
an exclusiveand negative attitude towardsother religionsand
cultures. They considered the`others’asprimitive, uncultured,
uncivilized and savages. “Their description of thepeopleranges
from people with no culture to inferior culture, life stylesand
ways of life. Their religion was derided as demonic,
superstitious and evil.”9 The people’s characters and virtues
also came under serious negative attitude and they were held
at thelowest esteem.10 This superiority value system justified
slavery, colonialism, war, domination and replacement of native
culture by the white culture and saw cultural conversion as a
prerequisite to conversion to Christianity. While Christians
think of themselvesassuperior, the othersthink of Christians
asdestroyersof culture through the processof conversion. In
that way, Christians are always looked upon as promoters of
western liberal cultureand value systems.
4) Many conservative, fundamentalist and revivalist Christians
still think that the task of the Christian mission was/is to
convert, baptize and build a church, often using absolute and
exclusivist language. They often use military and warfare
language such as “army”, “advance”, “attack”. “battle”,
“campaign, “crusade”, “penetration”, etc asmotivational means
for missions. Even other wordslike“pagan”, “darkness”, “nonbeliever” and “heathen” areused to refer to our friends, relatives,
neighboursand other faiths. In some placesthere are casesof
proselytization. This is against the teaching of Jesus Christ.
Jesus never used money and power for conversion. People
followed Jesus because of his teaching and practice of love,
Yangkahao Vashum, “Revisiting Tribal/Indigenous Theology and Its
Theological Methodology”, a paper presented at consultation on “Revisiting
Tribal and Dalit Theologiesand Their Theological Methodologies” Centrefor
Dalit/Subaltern Studies, New Delhi, from 14-16 March, 2008, p. 8.
10
Ibid.
9
M.T. Cherian, Hindutva Agenda and Minority Rights: A Christian Response
(Bangalore: Centre for Contemporary Christianity, 2007), p. 78.
8
John D’Mello, “Social Functionsof Religion”, Mission and Solidarity, ed. by
M.P. Joseph (Bombay: BUILD, 1995), p.58.
7
139
140
Mission Work among Indigenous Peoples - Part II
peaceand justice. The obsession to expand Christianity with a
militant evangelistic approach should be stopped. This is the
root causeof tension among different religiouscommunities.
The aggressive attitude of Christians had kept and continues
to keep the churches away from the mainstream of Indian/
Asian culture and political life as a community. The church
will be seen as a stranger to many people if Christians do not
changetheir attitudeand thusthepresent approach to mission
must be changed in line with Jesus’teaching.
5) To liberatepoor peoplefrom oppression isthegoal of Christian
mission. There is no mission without liberative activities.
Education, care centre, development activitiesare all integral
part of Christian mission. But Christians should not engage
in mission work with charitable or development paradigm
with a colonial mindset to conquer, destroy, convert, and
expand Christianity. Charitable mission should not be done
to create subject-object relationship between the givers and
the recipients. It will rather help to maintain the status quo
based on unjust power relations. Theunderstanding of mission
as“developing” can also reducethechurchesaslocal agentsfor
development agenciesfrom thewestern economies, banksand
governments. That iswhy in spiteof many benevolent services
rendered by Christians, thepeopleof other faithsstill seethem
as a ploy to attract the poor and needy into the church and
eventually to baptize them. Liberativework of Christianswill
make less impact if people are not allowed full participation
in the transformation process. People should become active
participantsin the affairsthat affect their own lives.
Christian mission and witness are for bringing peace, wholeness
and healing to all people. Breaking down barriers, seeking justice
and dignity for all, building community, enabling reconciliation
and peaceamong all peoplesarethe heart of mission. Any mission
that buildsbarriers, dividestheworld into the‘saved’and ‘unsaved’,
that makes people narrower, that alienates neighbours, that
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
141
promotesenmity and rivalry, that isnot built on self-giving isnot
mission. It isa counter witnessto God. It betraysGod, and in the
Christian context, isalien to the spirit and message of Christ.11
Our Approach to Mission
1) Thiscallsfor areexamination of theChristian theology of
mission; a shift from exclusive to inclusive understanding of
mission. S. Wesley Ariarajah providesseven theological parameters
for mission and they are very relevant in our context.12
a) God isthecreator and sustainer of all life. Therefore, God
is concerned with the whole human family. While God
may call any one person or community into service to
further God’spurposein theworld, no community iscloser
or more important to God than another. We affirm the
biblical vision of a God who isin solidarity with the poor
and the oppressed. Yet, we need to also affirm that all
persons, both as human and religious beings, are equally
the children of God. God does not show partiality.
b) Throughout human history individualsand communities
have attempted to understand, to draw near to, and to
speak about the mystery of God. Here too, no one
experience and explication of the mystery of God ismore
important than another. They areoften different from one
another. Such differences are to be expected because
religious traditions have emerged in different contexts,
cultures, and from different experiences, and are trying to
deal with a Mystery that isbeyond all human grasp. It is,
therefore, only natural that not all personsareattracted to
any one way of approaching the Ultimate Reality. And a
S.Wesley Arirajah, “Asian Christian Theological Task in theMidst of Other
ReligiousTraditions”, in VisioningNew LifeTogether AmongAsian Religions,
eds. Daniel S. Thiagarajah and Wati Longchar (Hong Kong: CCA, 2002),
p. 21.
12
Ibid, pp. 12-14.
11
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person or community may see their own approach to
Reality as the most challengingly relevant one to them,
and possibly to all others as well.
c) All human attempts to understand and respond to God
areambiguous. Such ambiguity in seeking and responding
to God ispart of our human predicament. Therefore, there
is much in all religious traditions that is claimed to be
from God, or is claimed to have been revealed by God,
that are part of human pride, sin, and foolishness. And
yet, religioustraditionsalso witnessto specific eventsand
specific salvific figures that are in the experience of the
community, cumulative revelatory momentsand become
constitutive of thecommunitiesfaith. These constitutive
events or salvific figures or revelations are special to the
respective communities. It is difficult for others who do
not share the ‘story’, to judge the truth or otherwise of
theseexperiencesand affirmations.
d) The constitutive revelation, insights, or salvific event
becomesso profound to thecommunitiesthat they claim
universality to their experienceand may want to commend
it to others. Thereforethereisan ‘exclusive’and ‘missionary’
dimension to all religions which is expressed in a variety
of ways.
e) Christianity arose when those who encountered Jesus –
hislife, death and resurrection – were convinced that the
event had a salvific significance for themselvesand to the
world. The ‘Christ Event’ thus is the constitutive event
for those who find, in this event, their specific window
into who God is, how God deals with us, and what God
requiresof us. Likemany other religions, Christianity may
also see its constitutive event to be decisive and universal
in itsrelevance. Yet, Christiansare only one among many
witnesses to God, and one people among many others
who witness to a life in relationship to God. While
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
143
Christianity isdistinct and different from others, there is
no reason to believe that it isin anyway superior to others
or that it has been the culmination or end of other
revelatory experiences.
f ) This means that anyone who wants to talk about God
(do theology) needs to, as Kenneth Cragg has said, be
“attentive” to what other experiences of God has been
among other human beings. They are part of the data of
theology. Therefore, peoples of other faith traditions are
our fellow pilgrims. They have a life with God, and God
has a life with them. We have stories to share.
g) From theperspectiveof theTheology of Religionstherefore
Christianity is only one of the strands of the religious
history of humankind. The truth of what it says about
God, and how God related to humankind, should stand
or fall on its own merit. The claims to “one”, “only”,
“unique”, “decisive”, “final”, etc. arehuman constructsthat
arose in the context of Jewish-Christian polemical
relationship and werelater re-enforced when Christianity
became the religion of the empire, and still later of the
colonizers. What Christians know about God in Christ
may be believed to be “unique” and “decisive”. Yet, it
remainsa part of Christian faith and proclamation.
Therefore,
Christian witness and mission are about bringing
healing, wholeness, and new life into the lives of
individuals, communities and nations, and not about
increasing the number of Christians in the world at
the expense of other communities. There may be
occasi ons where a person of another reli gi ous
community may freely want to name the name of Christ
and become part of our community. We welcome them.
But we are only witnesses to God’s love shown for us
in Christ. Responding to our witness is the burden of
the hearers. In the Old Testament, despite the belief
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CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
that God had entered into a covenant relationship with
them, the Jewish people did not set out to convert the
whole world to Judaism. They considered themselves
to be a people called out to live out God’s righteousness
among the nations. But God remained the God of the
nations. Jesus, coming from this tradition, spoke to
witness as light, salt and a city that is set upon the
hill.13
2) Protection of diversity: India/Asia have been plural for
centuriesand blessed with many languages, cultures, religionsand
traditions. Tolerancewasthehallmark. Weareproud to bepart of
thisgreat tradition. Diversity isbeautiful and it showsthe richness
of God’sworld. Differencesareto beseen asstrength, not weakness.
To worship God and engagein transformation of theworld through
diversewaysisto becelebrated. K.C. Abraham said that “Plurality
and differencesareGod’sgift and integral to thestructureof God’s
mission. Differenceshould not divideus. They enhancethebeauty
and harmony of our life.”14 Suppression and extinction of
languages, tradition and cultureisdangerousfor futuregenerations.
Diversity isGod’sstructureof creation and God worksin diversity.
Asia is not a continent with one religion; it is a continent with
many religions. We need to protect its diversity at all costs and
celebrate its beauty. Again Wesley Ariarajah has an important
message for usin thisregard. He writes:
Our respect of other religions and engagement with
them is NOT based on the belief that all religions are
the same, they are all good, or they all lead to the same
goal. NO, religions, despite their many similarities and
some common teachings and goals, are not the same;
they do not all inspire us to same kind of relationships;
they do not share the same vision of society. They are
all different, and they may be much in one religion
13
14
Ibid. pp. 20-21.
K.C. Abraham, LiberativeSolidarity: Contemporary Perspectiveson Mission
(Thiruvalla: ChristaveSahitya Samithi, 2001 reprint), p. 17.
145
that is different from and even contrary to what another
religion teaches. We respect the differences, affirm what
we are able to affirm together, and disagree with those
aspects of religion that does not make sense to us, even
as others do the same with ours. There is room for
mutual witness, mutual enrichment and mutual
criticism, because all religious life is tainted by human
greed, self-centredness and the sin of alienation from
God and one’s neighbour. The mutual enrichment and
criticism is part of the “mission” that religions extend
to one another in the spirit of dialogue.15
Therefore, weneed to createand allow spacefor different identities
to flourish. We are called upon to respect, protect and celebrate
God’s gift of plurality and diversity.
3. Promote cooperation. Religionshaveworked in isolation,
sometimescondemning each other, sometimesclaiming superiority
over the other. Today’s context demands cooperation, but not
competition and condemnation. M any Asian countries are
confronted with poverty, illiteracy, natural disasters and
environmental degradation. The new diseases like HIV, global
warming and religious fundamentalism affect all people. Today,
the self seeking pleasure tourism industry is also blooming and
becoming the biggest threat for continuity indigenous people’s
spirituality, cultural and traditional way of life. One religious
tradition or one religious group alone cannot solve all these
problems. It istime that all religiousresourcesarepulled together
and stand united to meet our present challengesand crises. United
we stand, divided we fall.
4. Protect lifesustaining earth. Theindigenous/adivasi people
lived and worked with the soil. It is the land that gave them not
only identity and culturebut also sustenance. Their history, culture,
religion, spirituality and even theSacred Power cannot beconceived
without ‘land’. Human liberation will be void and empty without
15
S. Wesley Ariarajah, op. cit., p. 21.
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affirming the integrity of the goodness of land and its resources.
Shalom without land is not shalom as it will lead to slavery and
destruction. We must respect and protect the indigenous/adivasi
people’s view of land and their spiritual relationship with nature
and protect it from destruction and exploitation. The future
prosperity of the world lies in how carefully we protect the land
and itsresourcefrom mindlessdestruction.
5. Solidarity in mission. Standing for justice is the central
messageof JesusChrist. Wearecalled to participatein thisliberative
praxisThough Jesusstood for theuniversal salvation of all people,
he deliberately took the side of the oppressed and liberated and
redeemed them from all oppressive forces. The option of, and for
the “peoplein pain” isaprerequisitefor doing mission. It requires
sacrifice and radical departure from the power of institutionsand
mammon. Thedisciplesof JesuschoseJesus’way of doing mission.
The two disciples of Jesus were walking to Emmaus. It was the
place to flee to a safer place for refuge. It was a time when the
disciples of Jesus were under the threat of life. But when they
recognized that the one who walked, talked, listened and shared
their sorrow with them was none other than their Master Jesus,
they decided to return to Jerusalem where Jesus was crucified by
mercilessrulers, the place of crosses, the suffering, the major and
minor injuries; it wastheplacewherepeopleweretortured, caused
to be afraid, made sad and losehope. It washerethat people were
oppressed, madepowerless, discriminated and roped by merciless
rulersthrough unjust systems. It washerethat thedisciplesasked:
Why God are these thingshappening to us?Whereareyou at this
time of hostility? Many minority Christians may be asking the
same question, especially the Christian community in Orissa and
elsewhere. The two disciples returned to Jerusalem with renewed
spirit to struggle with people in pain. They chose struggle and
hardship rather than comfort and safety. If we want thechurch to
be prophetic, it has to take the position of the two disciples of
Jesus. They took the position of “people in pain” liketheir teacher
Jesus. We can make a difference in our mission by choosing the
way of Jesus.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
147
7
RETHINKING MISSION BEYOND
EDINBURGH 2010:
Implications for Indigenous People
Edinburgh 2010 isyet another opportunity to discover anew
the graceand power of God for us, the Church, and for the
whole created order.
– Metropolitan Geevarghese Mor Coorilos
Under the theme “Witnessing to Christ Today” the Edinburgh
2010 (June2-6) conferencebrought together nearly 300 delegates
from some 60 nations and a broad range of Orthodox, Catholic,
Anglican, Protestant, Evangelical, Pentecostal, Independent and
Uniting churches at Assembly Hall of the Church of Scotland to
mark the centennial event. Many of the participants at the 2010
event were from the Global South. It washosted by the School of
Divinity at the University of Edinburgh. The World Council of
Churches (WCC) supported its organization, together with the
partnersin ecumenical movement, within and beyond the WCC
fellowship.
The jubilee wascelebrated longing for new hopeand peace as
the world cont inues to experi ence growing religious
fundamentalism, terrorism, one-sided development and continuing
marginalization of vulnerablecommunitieslike dalits, indigenous
communities, women and children and misuseof resources– both
human and nature. The jubileecallsfor the churchesto look back
critically to discern the prophetic task of the future for greater
unity, witnessand service in a renewed commitment.
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Edinburgh – 1910: Oikoumene, Missio Dei within Colonial
Structure
The first missionary conference was held when the western
colonial powerswere still at theheight of their glory. Assuch, the
Edinburgh-1910 conference was held under the patronage of
colonial powers. Somegeneralsof thecolonial administration were
present in the conference signifying the mutual importance of
mission agendaand colonial project.1 In the Edinburgh conference,
someof thenative participantswere mistreated and did not enjoy
hospitality astheWhitemissionaries. Thepeoplewho sent greetings
to Edinburgh conference included the King of England, the
President of US and other colonial heads.2 Oikoumene in
Edinburgh pretended that Christian unity ispossibleeven without
removing and transforming the structures of oppression and
exploitation of colonial regime. In fact, the Edinburgh conference
and the subsequent missionary activities co-opted the poor and
marginalized like dalits and indigenous/tribal people into the
scheme of Western empire through western education and other
modernizing processes. As we celebrate 100 years of Mission
Conference, weneed to challengeand repent of such past prejudices
and partiality, and dream for wider unity, witnessand service.
It was also a time when the world was perceived in terms of
civilized and uncivilized, redeemed and unredeemed, enlightened
and unenlightened. In theprocessof expressing good newsof Jesus
Christ, Christiansoften used military and warfare language such
as “army,” “advance,” “attack,” and our fore-parents were called
“pagan,” “darkness,” “non-believer,”and “heathen.”Theexpansionist
missiological motif was strongly reiterated using expressions like
1
2
M.P. Joseph, “Revisiting the Edinburgh Conference in the Context of
Globalization” in Witnessin Context: Essaysin Honor of EardleyMendis, ed.
MonicaJ. Melanchthon and GeorgeZachariah (Tiruvalla: ChristaveShitya
Samith, 2007), p. 154.
Wati Longchar, et.al, They Left by Another Road: Rerouting Mission and
Ecumenism (Chiangmai: CCA, 2007), p. 32.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
149
“the unoccupied field” that ‘one should enter’, etc. Apart from
Western Europe and America, it was thought that all the landsof
the earth were largely “unoccupied”. But unoccupied by whom?
Sometimes they used the term “discovery.” But discovered by
whom?The answer is obvious. All the “heathen lands” had been
considered empty though there were peoples with their age-old
cultures and religions. John R. Mott, the chairman of the first of
eight commissionsof theconference, presented hisreport in those
terms. By 1910, the whole of the terra incognita had been
discovered and occupied by thePortuguese, theSpanish, theBritish
and the French. Yet the missionary conference spoke in terms of
the“occupied” and “unoccupied” or “undiscovered” fields, because
there were still patches of the earth untouched by the feet of the
missionary.3
Theimbalanceof power relationship between themissionaries
and native workers was mentioned by some participants of
Edinburgh. V.S. Azariah, one of the Indian participants of
Edinburgh 1910, challenged, “You have given your goodsto feed
the poor. You have given your bodies to be burned. We also ask
for love, Give us friends!” Azariah was addressing the problem of
missing friendships between the foreign missionaries and Indian
evangelists; he was challenging the missionaries’narrow attitude
towardsindigenousculturesand spiritualitieswhich hindered them
from building genuine friendships across ethnic, caste and social
borders. Hierarchies between the employers and employees, and
thecolonial attitudesstood in theway. AsAzariah emplored, “Give
us friends” was not merely a call for closer relationships between
the foreign missionariesand national evangelists, but it wasalso a
call for overcoming dependencies and ethnocentrism. M ore
importantly, it was a call for justice. As such it was touching on
3
Fr. K.M. George, “Mission and ItsDiscontents: Towardsa New Humanity”,
a paper presented during BTESSC seminar on 3rd Feb., 2010 at United
Theological College, Bangaluru, p, 4.
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Rethinking Mission Beyond Edinburgh 2010 - Part II
thefundamental character of brotherly/sisterly relationshipswithin
thechurch.4
The participants of the Edinburgh did not see the negative
implications of Western civilization based on science and
technology. Asthewhole missionary enterpriseswere understood
in termsof planting and organizing Christian Church among nonChristians, theEdinburgh conferencelauded theachievementsof
science and technology as evidence of God’s providence for
furtherance of mission. Improved means of communication and
transport waslauded for reaching the‘unevangelized world.’5 M.P.
Joseph lamented that majority of the missionary enterpriseswere
undertaken with thezeal to promoteWestern scientific rationality
informed by the European Enlightenment.6 Such a campaign of
the new rationality against the traditional wisdom of the natives
wasconceived asacivilizational imperative and thusit wascarried
out with utmost earnestness.7 M.P. Joseph continues to argue that
“the new scientific rationality was presented as the only panacea
for growth and prosperity.”8 The worst, the conference reiterated
that thecolonial expansion wastheprovidence of God to take the
good news to heathen lands. Therefore, Oikoumene and Missio
Dei were largely understood within the colonial structure.
Though many things went wrong, as they were conditioned
by their ageand culture, wemust admit too that their commitment
and devotion were beyond question. They were the first to open
hospitals, educational institutions, and orphanage homes, initiate
literatureworksand initiated many social reform movements. They
gave their goods to feed the poor and their bodies were burned.
Today the church is a global church. Many vibrant and growing
4
5
6
7
8
Kenneth R. Ross, Edinburgh 2010: New Directorsfor Church in Mission
(Pasadena: William Carey University Press, 2010), p. 55 ff.
J.P. Joseph, op. cit., p. 155.
Ibid., p. 156.
Ibid., p. 157.
Ibid., p. 157.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
151
churchesin Asia, Pacific, Africaand Latin Americaarethefruit of
their laboursand lives.
The Edinburgh 2010
Like the Edinburgh 1910, the Edinburgh 2010 was also a study
conference. Thetheme“Witnessing to Christ Today” theconference
received ninestudy reports.9 To mark the centenary of the World
Missionary Conference, Edinburgh 1910, an affirmation known
as COM M ON CALL was issued by the Edinburgh 2010,
emerging from theEdinburgh 2010 study processand conference.
The Common Call was affirmed at the Church of Scotland
Assembly Hall in Edinburgh on 6th June 2010 by the representatives of world Christianity, including Catholic, Evangelical,
Orthodox, Pent ecostal, and Protest ant churches. (See
www.edinburgh2010.org). The Common Call stressed that the
issuesthat relateto mission and unity should not bemereintellectual
maneuverings, but they must be the prayer of all people of God,
wherever they are, to hear what theSpirit hasto say to thechurches
so that we can turn to God and our common call can be, “Come,
Lord Jesus’.
Dramatic changeshavetaken placein global Christianity over
thepast 100 years: crisisin Western civilization, disintegration and
collapse of colonial imperialism, emergence of new forms of
colonialism (economic and cultural globalization) and war (war
on terror), growing secularization, and the challenges of postmodernity to mention a few aspects. On the ecclesial front, the
phenomenal growth of Charismatic and Pentecostal churcheshas
brought tremendous challenges to Christian faith and unity. All
9
Thenine study commissionswere: (1) Foundation for Mission (2) Christian
Mission Among Other Faiths(3) Mission and Postmodernities(4) Mission
and Power (5) Formsof Missionary Engagement (6) Theological Education
and Formation (7) Christian Communities in Contemporary Contexts
(7) Mission and Unity – Ecclesiology and Mission (9) Mission Spirituality
and Authentic Discipleship.
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Rethinking Mission Beyond Edinburgh 2010 - Part II
these pose new challenges to the traditional/conventional
understanding of Christian unity and Mission and Evangelism.
This leads us to strive for a new paradigm of mission and unity.
A broad and open ended theme such as“Witnessing to Christ
Today” provided appropriate environment for all who were there
with diverse theological persuasions, expressionsand experiences
of mission to feel safeand lessthreatened. Someparticipantsnoted
that therewereno controversial issuesand conflicting debates. No
one was forced to agree and no one also disagreed with what the
other has said. They went back as they came. Perhaps, the next
generation will haveto judge whether thecentenary hasgenerated
new energy, new enthusiasm and new understanding of mission.10
Landscape and Perspectival Change in Mission and Unity
The context of Christianity has dramatically changed during the
past century, since Edinburgh 1910. In a sense, the dreamsof the
participants of the conference have come true: Christianity is a
world religion today with followersalthough with differing density
– all over the planet. The Christian faith has permeated to most
communitiesof theearth. While theEdinburgh 1910 Conference
wasdominated by white, male, Western Protestants, thechurches
today show an endlessly colourful picture: women and men from
almost all nations and regions are represented in a rich variety of
ecclesial structures, worshipping in many languagesand in multiple
forms of liturgies shaped by a wide spectrum of local cultures.11
One hundred yearsafter the first large-scale attempt to bring
Christianstogether in order to expresstheir unity, theglobal church
hasa functioning and global structure to safeguard, promote and
reflect on the unity of churches. The Commission on World
Mission and Evangelism of the WCC stands as an institutional
Deeenabandhu Manchala, “Did it Createnew Energy, new Enthusiasm, new
Understanding of Mission” in People’sReporter, July 10-25, 2010, p. 7.
11
Kenneth R. Ross, Edinburgh 2010, p. 70.
10
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
153
continuity. It continuesto facilitatethe quest for unity in mission
as an integral part of the WCC – the most comprehensive
representative global body of 349 which includes Orthodox,
Anglican, Protestant, Evangelical, Pentecostal and non-Western
churches. In theframework of theCWME, churchesand mission
agencieshaveastructureto seek waysof expressingand strengthening
unity in mission.12
WhileEdinburgh 1910 waspredominantly aProtestant affairs,
Orthodox churches have also become an integral part of the
modern Ecumenical movement today. The Orthodox role in the
common quest for the visible unity of the churches intensified
through the creation of the Orthodox M ission Studies and
RelationsDesk in WCC in 1970, and itsclosecollaboration with
CWME work. The Orthodox churches are not only present in
the ecumenical gatherings, but they continueto shape themission
theology and practicein the ecumenical dialogue.13
Reflecting on Edinburgh 1910, Cardinal O’Brien, in his
welcome message, said, “There was no Roman Catholics at all
present at the Conference; and the thought of a Roman Catholic
Cardinal being invited to speak at the Opening Service would
have been unthinkable.”14 At the Edinburgh 1910 Conference,
therewasnot only no official representativesof theRoman Catholic
Church present, but also there was no cooperation. However, in
theEdinburgh 2010, the Catholic Church wasofficially involved
in preparations of the centenary celebration. Since the Second
Vatican Council (1962-1965), the attitudeof theRoman Catholic
Church towardsmission and unity haschanged significantly. There
is an active and integral participation of the Roman Catholic in
CWME. Much has been achieved toward the realization of the
vision of the participants of Edinburgh 1910; however, there are
Ibid.
http://www.edinburgh2010.org/en/resources.html
14
http://www.edinburgh2010.org/en/resources/papersdocuments.html
12
13
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still many stepsahead on thecommon pilgrimagetowardsa visible
unity of the church.
The secularization process and scientific rationalism have
contributed to weakening Christian faith especially in the West.
Thenumbersof followersof theChristian faith arenow shrinking
in the Western/Northern world. The so-called mainline,
established, and historical churches are struggling not only with
decreased membership, financial difficulties, but also with identity
crisis. On the other hand, the churches in the global South/East
are experiencing numerical growth. There isadramatic reversal of
theposition in 1910, themajority of Christiansnow livein Africa,
Asia, Latin Americaor thePacific, and that theproportion isrising.
While Edinburgh 1910 perception of mission as‘one-way traffic’
from the Christian West to the non-Christian South/East, today
we experience the reality of mission ‘from everywhere to
everywhere’. New mission conceptsariseand thediverseexpressions
of Christian faith that aredeeply rooted in theculturesand religions
of the global south have contributed significantly to the
development of a truly global Christianity.15
Another dramatic phenomenon that continues to shape the
global mission landscape is the emergence of Pentecostal/
charismatic movements with a strong missionary fervor during
the last century. Today this community has become the second
largest one (after the Roman Catholic Church). Their zealous
missionaries are working among the marginalized communities
often leading to mass people’s movement. The Pentecostal/
charismatic experienceof theChristian faith isembodied both asa
diversity of denominations and as movements within the
traditional, established churches. Thecharismatic experiencecreates,
therefore, a new sense of belonging together for Christians from
diverse ecclesial affiliations. Another important emerging
phenomenon is the direct missionary activity of Pentecostal/
15
http://www.edinburgh2010.org/en/resources.html
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
155
charismatic communitiesfrom the global South within the global
South itself, as well as in the West. At the same time the rapid
expansion of these movements raises the questionsof the criteria
for authentic expressionsof theChristian faith.16 In summary, we
underline afew perspectival changesin mission:
i. Foundationsfor Mission – In contrast to 1910, when the
emphasiswason themissionsof thechurches, theemphasis
in Edinburgh 2010 is on God’s mission (Missio Dei) in
which Christiansaremereparticipants. It isno longer seen
as expansion of the Christian denominations, but God is
at work in all diverse community and we are mere
participants in God’s ongoing mission. This represents a
movefrom ‘achurch-centred mission’to ‘amission-centred
church’.
ii. In 1910 therewasfrequent mention of oneway approach
to mission, particularly from the West to other nonChristian world for conversion and plantingof thechurch.
However, mission isperceived in 2010 conferenceashaving
plural foundations and approachesto understanding and
participating in mission. Mission iscomplex and multiple:
witness, proclamation, catechesis, worship, inculturation,
contextualization, inter-faith and intra-faith dialogue. These
activitiesarecarried out in concretesituationsand contexts.
iii. TheCommission I & IV of Edinburgh 1910 dealt on the
issue of non-Christian religions. The dominant theology
of religions in Edinburgh and the subsequent years was
overshadowed by the‘fulfillment theology/ideology’. This
was an approach which affirms other religions but sees
them reaching their fulfillment in JesusChrist. Hinduism
or African Traditional religion, e.g., were viewed as
equivalents to the Old Testament, preparing the way for
the coming of Christ in which they find their fulfillment.
16
http://www.edinburgh2010.org/en/resources.html
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In contrast, Edinburgh 2010 affirmed the uniqueness of
all religions and Christian witness and mission is seen as
bringing healing, wholeness, and new life into the livesof
individuals, communitiesand nations, but not just about
increasing the number of Christians in the world at the
expense of other communities. There may be occasions
whereaperson of another religiouscommunity may freely
want to name the name of Christ and become part of
Christian community. Those are welcomed to Christian
community. But we are only witnesses to God’s love
shown for us in Christ. God remained the God of the
nations. Jesus, coming from thistradition, spoketo witness
as light, salt and a city that is set upon the hill.17
iv. In Edinburgh 1910, Christian mission wasunderstood in
term of assimilating the indigenous people to European
lifestyle.18 European culture was projected as superior;
native people were made to feel ashamed of their culture
and way of life. People were seen as ignorant and devoid
of thecapacity to engageand makedecision for themselves.
TheEdinburgh 2010 acknowledged diversity asgift from
God. In spite of ambiguities in culture, there isliberative
potential that needs to be affirmed for enhancement of
faith journey.
v. Themain playersin Edinburgh 1910 wereforeign mission
societies. They talked about ‘foreign’and ‘home’missions;
theconcept of ‘older’and ‘younger’churches. Theemphasis
wason increasing itsnumbersand churches. The‘shift of
the centre of gravity’of Christianity from global North
to global South challenges the participants in Edinburgh
2010 to seethe mission engagement amidst globalization,
Kenneth R. Ross, Edinburgh 2010, pp. 49 ff
18
Theidea of taking indigenouschildren from their homecommunitiesto be
educated in boarding schools in many parts of US, Canada, Australia, etc
testify to thisfact.
17
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
157
neo-liberalism, multiculturalism, unprecedented
urbanization, religious fundamentalism, widespread
poverty and injustice. The shift from church-centred to
people-centred mission was affirmed. Vulnerability as an
enabling condition for mission wasstressed.
The contributions of western missionaries towards the
liberation of the indigenous people have been tremendous and
gratefully acknowledged by many scholars. They werealso able to
create a new sense of identity and dignity among the indigenous
people by introducing a new ecclesial structure, new faith and
providing them with literature. However, that they also created an
identity crisisamong theindigenouspeoples. The missionaries, in
their ignorance of indigenous people’s spirituality, alienated the
believers of the new faith from their primal religious heritages.
Not only that, in their zeal to promote certain denominations in
the midst of denominational competitions in the western world
scattered and divided the indigenous people from one another.
Thuswhat they rendered to them wasan unconsciousmission of
disintegration. The new religion instead of becoming a uniting
force became a divisive force and thus people in a sense became
thrice alienated, first from their spiritual heritage, second from
their own community and eventually form fellow Christians,
within the same community on the basis of denomination.19
Some Evangelicals thought that they were the only people
who knew God and that all others were people without God.
They looked down upon theindigenouspeople’sspiritual heritage
as filthy, rubbish and despicable, containing everything that is
satanic. Some missionarieseven went on to theextent of banning
indigenouspeoplemusical instruments, songs, dances, rituals, thus,
rendering them rootlessand nameless.20 The traditional dresscodes
Timothy Hembrom, “Ministry and Mission from a Primal Perspective” in
Gurukul Journal of Theological Studies, Vol. V, No. 1 & 2, January-July, 1994,
p. 41.
20
Ibid, p. 20.
19
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and ornamentswerediscouraged. Thetraditional institutionswhere
young people were trained to become matured citizens were
abandoned with the coming of Christianity.
Western Christian theology and practicesalso brought crisisin
cultural identity of the indigenouspeople. The Evangelicalswere
convinced that a new Christian life-style and spiritual sustenance
could be attained only when one read the Bible. They could not
conceive a healthy, or a self-sufficient Christianity without the
availability of theBible in thelanguageof thepeople. Thisnotion
of the absoluteness of the Bible as the only truth and revelation
gave a strong sense of superiority to Christians over and against
others. Indigenous people’s ethical and moral values, which were
centred on community, totality of being and the soil were thus
ignored. The oral tradition was completely ignored and
undermined as if it had no value.
Christi anit y also i ntroduced a high dualist ic and
anthropocentric spirituality. Their theology promoted a sharp
distinction between the spirituality and the material, giving the
things of this earth little importance, or even regarding them as
evil. What issacred in lifeisseparated from thisworld. Thematerial
and the earthly are perishable. Only the spiritual survives. They
elevated western culture as the only valid expression of Christian
culture, and refused to accept non-western culture as truth.
Therefore, western Christianity wasperceived astheonly trueform
of Christianity and that Christiansall over theworld should follow.
Everything non-Christian wasconsidered astheproduct of Satan.
Likewise, this ideology undermined the indigenous people’s
spirituality, culture and ethical values. Along with the coming of
Christianity, theidentity and dignity of indigenouspeoplevirtually
disappeared.
Continuing Challenge of Mission among Indigenous People
Thus, to make Christian mission relevant in today’s context, we
need to consider the following aspects:
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
159
Identityand dignity – Thereisacontinuing challengeto accompany
indigenous people for their quest for identity and dignity. The
primary goal of mission isto enable people to live a dignified life.
Jesus came to this world to give life to those who have lost their
dignity and self-worth. Today’s indigenous people’s struggle is to
be seen as a quest for preservation of identity and dignity. If the
indigenous people claim to be a separate race/nation with their
uniquehistory, cultureand spirituality, it isfor thesakeof claiming
equal status and treatment like any other races. A fundamental
aspect of theindigenouspeoples’ethosisthissense of self-respect
and dignity. But after many years of development processes they
are treated as inferior and weaker sections of the society. God’s
mission involves transforming “nobody” into “somebody”. The
mission of God starts with those “worthless” people to bring life.
Jesus’ heart went out to the broken-hearted, the captives, the
mourners, thefaint hearted, the needy, the hungry, thethirsty, the
naked, the strangers, the sick, the laboring and the burdened, the
least, the simple and the sinners (Lk. 4:14 and ff; Mt. 25:31 and
ff; Mark 10:21; Lk. 12:33; Mt. 5:6). To work for the restoration
of identity and dignity to thosewho have been deprived of them,
is to participate in God’s mission. God created human beings in
God’s own image with divine gifts; the enormous potential for
creative power is present in all God’s people. It is the divine will
that everybody share these gifts to all. The biblical assertion that
people aremade in God’simageimpliesthat dignity of all human
beings and their personhood. The destiny of people made in the
image of God isto be fully human – “subjects”, and not “objects”
of history. To be dominated and subjugated iscontrary to the will
of the Creator. In other words, to treat people as object and to
deny them their right to be“subjectsof their history” isaviolation
of their personhood and destiny asstewardsof God’screation. To
enable people to be subjects of history requires concrete action.
Mission is action of Christ, and the action of Christ is action of
love(I Cor 13:2; Mtt 7:16). Jesusbegan by proclaiming amessage
about God’s Kingdom. The heart of the message does not
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ultimately liein what he said, but in who he wasand what hedid.
The proclamation is his cross and resurrection. It demands that
our action must be directed towards justice and that we should
take the side of the people who have been disfigured and those
without name and dignity. God takes sides with those who have
lost their right, identity and dignity (Lk 4:18). Identity and dignity
comewhen peopleaffirm who they areand wherethey comefrom.
Thusparticipation in God’songoing mission isnot condemnation
of other’sculture, religiousheritage and value system, but it means
giving due respect.
Justice – Indigenous people continue to suffer many form of
injustice. Mission is struggle amidst all forces of oppression. The
God of life wills the just ordering of people’s lives in society so
that lifeispreserved and sustained. It isgrounded in thefullnessof
life (Jn 10:10). This promise reveals itself in word and action in
the context of people in pain and despair. Indigenousmovements
around the world are cries for justice; they speak aloud of the
demand for the right to land and resources. In the name of
development, progress and tourism, the inalienable rights of
indigenouspeopleover land and resourceshavebeen forcibly taken
away. Repressivelawshaveresulted in massivedisplacement. People
have been uprooted, dislocated and evicted from their ancestral
homes. Land, mountainsand riversare being polluted and forests
laid waste. People’s sacred areas have been destroyed and have
resulted in some disconnection with their culture and spirituality.
With the accelerating deterioration of the global economic and
political situation, indigenous people have come increasingly
vulnerable to all kindsof exploitations. All theseare justice issues.
Human beingsarestewardsof God’screation and co-participators
in God’s ongoing work and hence they have a duty to prevent,
challenge, oppose and correct such oppressive system. If we want
those without dignity and identity to be liberated, we must strive
to enablethem to participatefully in their own processof liberation.
Mission as quest for justice embraces all aspects of life; it means
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
161
lifein itsfullness. It impliesabundancein lifein termsof abundant
harvest, physical and mental healing, and harmoniousrelationship
between humans, beasts and new stewardship of all earth’s
resources. Thereisno social justicewithout ecological justice. They
are inseparably interrelated. Indigenous people quest for a
community wherejusticeisexpressed in equality and sharing and
a community where economic system is governed by reciprocal
sharing and hospitality. It involvespersonal, communal and social
commitment.
Right toSpirituality – Mission of God inspiresa spirituality that is
rooted in struggle. Spirituality is not an otherworldly and passive
life. Spirituality is born and growsamidst struggle. Doing justice
is spirituality. We have seen that indigenous people spirituality is
distinctly different from any other dominant population. They
seetheland asan extension of their physical, spiritual and emotional
form, and as the sense of their life-force, to the point that all life
and creation arerevered and valued. Theland givesvalueand their
spirituality is rooted in the land. That is why indigenous people
sing about land, dance about land, and tell stories about land.
Land istheir identity. To uproot the indigenouspeople isa serious
violation of human rights; it is denial of their spirituality. It cuts
into thevery blood lineof lifeand thespirit of aperson. What the
indigenous people want and demand is recognition of land
ownership, economic justiceand basic human rightsto beexercised.
Spirituality can be expressed only when we maintain reciprocity
and recognize human beings as co-stewards with the God of
creation. Participation in God’s mission involves respect of
indigenouspeople’sspirituality.
Building communities – The Mission of God can be understood
only in the context of transforming love in the strugglefor justice
and community-building. The God of life is a Trinitarian God,
i.e. aGod in community; thefundamental aspectsof justiceisthe
founding, building and organizing communities, communitieswith
people, communities with God and communities with nature.21
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Almost all indigenous societies are community-oriented. They
know very clearly that the growth and freedom of human beings
isalwaysin relation to other membersof the human community.
Spiritual responsibility can only be fulfilled in community. Social
and economic survival can only beachieved in community. Some
of the common sayings of the indigenous people illustrate this
spirituality:
“I am becauseyou are; you arebecause I am”
“The Individual doesnot exist alone except in being in relation
to the other”
“A person because of other people”
“Community welfare first, then comes individuals”
“No individual existence apart from the community”
Community signifies the sense of belonging, interconnectedness
and interrelationship. It isadynamic relationship that bindspeople
together. Community life is the basis of human dignity. Fullness
of lifecan bebest expressed in acommunity. Human togetherness,
belonging to each other, living for each other are the values that
lead to the well-being of the whole. It is on this basis that the
indigenouspeoplesearch for asociety that respondswith sensitivity
to the needs of the community and builds bridges between
communitiesbased on faith and hope. Thisispossible only when
we recognize that God ispresent in all communitiesand culture,
both to enlighten and judge and by becoming a servant of the
community. The Holy Spirit is sent to renew all communities so
that people may be empowered to build just and caring
communities. Jesus Christ lived for others and died for others.
The self-denial of life and the sharing of life is the basis of
community building. Commitment to and solidarity with
marginalized indigenous people, for the sake of building a
community isan essential criterion for incarnational mission and
evangelism. Thus, to enabletheweakest and themost excluded to
take this rightful place and to make their contribution to the
community as a whole is an integral part of mission.
CHRISTIAN MISSION AND WITNESS
163
8
GLOBALIZATION: A MINISTERIAL
CH ALLENGE
Globalization: An Ethical Concern
Taking theadvantageof famine, Joseph made theking Pharaoh, a
‘capitalist’, a ‘dictator’and also a ‘landlord’. Genesis 48:13-22.
Now there wasno food in all the land; for the famine was
very severe, so that the land of Egypt and the land of
Canaan languished by reason of the famine. And Joseph
gathered up all the money that was found in the land of
Egypt and in the land of Canaan, for the grain which
they bought; and Joseph brought the money into Pharaoh’s
house. And when the money was all spent in the land of
Egypt and in the land of Canaan, all the Egyptians came
to Joseph, and said, “Giveusfood; why should wediebefore
your eyes? For our money is gone”. And Joseph answered,
“Give your cattle, and I will give you food in exchange for
your cattle, if your money is gone.” So they brought their
cattle to Joseph; and Joseph gave them food in exchange for
thehorses, theflocks, theherds, and theasses: and hesupplied
them with food in exchange for all their cattle that year.
And when that year was ended, they came to him the
following year, and said to him, “We will not hide from
my lord that our money isall spent; and the herdsof cattle
are my lord’s; there is nothing left in the sight of my lord
but our bodies and our lands. Why should we die before
your eyes, both we and our land? Buy us and our land for
food, and we with our land will be slavesof Pharaoh; and
give us seed, that we may live, and not die, and that the
land may not be desolate.” So Joseph brought all the land
of Egypt for Pharaoh; for all the Egyptianssold their fields,
becausethefaminewassevereupon them. Theland became
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Pharaoh’s and as for the people, he made salves of them
from one end of Egypt to the other.”
Joseph is considered as a man of God with great wisdom, a man
who can seethe future, agood planner, aperson who hasability to
mobilizepeople, aperson with high morality, aGod fearing person,
and an ableadministrator. But heprotected and contributed to an
unjust system and relationship. Thesamecan happen to thechurch
today.
For Pharaoh’s sake, Joseph did four things. In all these acts,
people were losers.
First, he gathered all the money from the people in exchange
of grains. He made people moneyless.
Second, he gathered all the properties and life-stock from the
people in exchange of grains. He made people propertyless.
Third, he gathered all the lands from people in exchange of
grains. Hemade people landless.
Fourth, hebought all thebodiesof peoplein exchangeof grains.
He made people slaves.
How do weseethe processof globalization?Do Christiansprotect
and contribute to unjust system and relationship? The Biblical
perspective is very clear. The Bible plays into the hands of those
vested interests to satisfy their unbridled thirst for power and
pleasureat theexpenseof theright of fellow humansand theearth.
A very powerful biblical teaching isthat any economic system that
relegates or marginalizes human life falls short of the divine
standards. Each person iscreated in God’simageand thus, isworthy
and valuable for the Creator. Therefore, in economic life, “any
individual, class, caste, nature, gender and community, should not
1
I. John Mohan Razu, “Reading of the Bible in the Context of Globalism:
From the Perspective of the Exploited”, a paper presented at National
Consultation on the Prioritiesof Theological Education in India, Chennai,
May 22-25, 2001.
CHRISTIAN MISSION AND WITNESS
165
be regarded as an object whose value is determined by the
fundamental of the market and who may be bought and sold or
dispensed with a whim or will of those who possess economic
power, he or she is not to be treated as a means but as an end.”2
The central preaching of Jesus is the Kingdom of God, a symbol
with universal or global repercussions. It embraces the message
that all are brothers and sisters in the one family of God and
demands special concern for the marginalized people and justice
for all. It demands a more equitable distribution of the world’s
resources, not theaccumulation in thehandsof afew. Globalization
is definitely not the way of the Kingdom because it uses human
beingsascheap labourersand doesnot respect humansaspersons.
Thisvalueiscontrary to the biblical teaching of Kingdom’svalue.
The Bible upholds a community where justice is expressed in
equality and sharing and affirms a community economic system
with reciprocal sharing and hospitality.
Globalization hascometo be aprincipal characteristic feature
of thenew millennium and it hasbecomean inescapablereality in
today’s society. No community and society can remain isolated
from the forcesof globalization. The cyber society hascome with
abang. Thecomputer cultureisspreading rapidly even in therural
places. Even in a poor country, coca-cola, cars, cosmetics and
clothesseen in the citiesand townshide the reality of poverty and
suffering of the people. We havealmost reached a point to believe
that “THERE ISNO ALTERNATIVE; wecan only go forward!”
Globalization isa contemporary stage of the development of
capitalism. The general characteristic of this process are the
liberalization of themovementsof goods, services, investment and
finance across national borders, and the expansion of global
information flowsand theacceleration of thespeech of information
2
Yang Guen Seok, “Globalization and the Implications for Decolonization
Theology”, a paper presented at the 5th Consultation of Dalit-Minjung
Theologians on 14-19th August 2002, Sr. Benedict Retreat House, Seoul,
Korea, p. 89.
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exchanges.2 It is a processof social change in which geographical
and cultural barriers are reduced. This break down of barriers is
the result of transportation, communication and electronic
communication. It also involvesa processby which economiesof
different countriesareoriented to aglobal market and arecontrolled
by multinational and global financial institutions. It isnot merely
an economic process; it isalso a cultural process. With the help of
media, it creates a mono-culture – a culture of the rich and
powerful. It isno longer atheoretical concept; it isaglaring reality,
impinging upon almost every aspect of human existence –
economic, political, environmental, and cultural and the like.
However, if we look at it from the perspective of the poor and
indigenous people, it is nothing else than a new variety of
colonialism and imperialism.
There is a Long History
Globalization has a long history as a political and cultural reality
and as a religious and cultural movement. The first stage of the
globalization processstarted with the early Egyptian, Babylonian,
Greek and Roman Empireswhich united the world of their time.
In Asia, weread about thehistory of Chinesemerchantsspreading
all over Asia even earlier than 3000 years ago. We also read about
the history of Aryan invaders who came to South Asia almost
3500 years ago and conquered indigenous people. Later these
merchantsbecamekingsand princes, mastersand aristocrats. The
Muslim rulersalso expanded their empirein different partsof Asia.
For example, India wasruled by different Muslim rulersbetween
A.D. 700 to A.D. 1700 which reduced many indigenous people
to personal servantsand domestic slaves.
Thesecond stage of globalization can be traced to later part of
1400s when European explorers voyaged out of Europe to
“discover” new lands. Trade expanded between Europe and the
new worlds. This followed by the process of colonization. The
globalization intensified with theadvent of theindustrial revolution
in Europe as different countries in Europe sought raw materials
CHRISTIAN MISSION AND WITNESS
167
and marketsfor its products. This can be called the third stage of
globalization. This period ended with the World War II, but its
ideological, theological and cultural consequences continue to
influence till today. With the rejection and failure of socialism as
an alternative,3 the whole world is thrown open to market
economy, liberal democracy and the powerful march of Western
cultural values all over the globe with the help of power tools of
information technologies. Today we live in a new stage of
globalization.4
Great Promises, but only a few can Enjoy!
The end of poverty and human sufferings and miseries through
free tradeare the great promisesof globalization, but it hasfailed
to deliver its promises. No doubt, developments linked with
globalization have opened up boundless possibilities for human
development, enormous new opportunities and enhanced the
quality of life for some section of people in the third world
countries. For example, the production of goodsfor consumption
on a massive scale has brought not only a better and more varied
goods available to those people who have purchasing power, but
also hasbrought enormouschange in people’svalue system. They
have certainly attained greater comfort, speedier communication
and faster travel. In the recent years, information technology has
converted the world into a “global village”. The events of far-off
lands are easily accessible in our living rooms. This process has
promoted exchange of ideas and customs between peoples of
different countries.
3
4
Theimmediate historical background to globalization debatehasto do with
the collapse of the Soviet bloc in 1989, which was followed by triumphal
claimsof the virtuesof capitalism and liberal democracy. For more detailssee
Bo-Myung Seo, “Overcoming of Globalization and theTask of Theology in
Asia” a paper presented at PTCA Regional Theological Consultation at Bali,
Indonesia on 5-7 July, 2002, pp. 137-8
Kevin J. Barr, “Globalization and the Economy” in The Pacific Journal of
Theology, SeriesII, Issue 24, 2000, p. 6.
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Today people’s ways of thinking and behaving are now
challenged beyond accepted traditional patterns. The horizon of
people’sperspectiveshassuddenly embraced the‘the global village’
beyond the confines of one’s own homes. And this has been
reciprocally beneficial. In addition, live communication of facts
makes people partake instantaneously in the events of history. It
also creates and promotes global concern. We now have the
possibility of immediate worldwide attention to global issues,
particularly to people in emergency situations. However, these
benefits are enjoyed only by those people who have purchasing
power. 1.2 billion people who live on less than a dollar a day and
2.8 billion who still live on lessthan 2 dollarsaday5 cannot think
of enjoying the promises of globalization. The fact remains that
the wealth and comfort of a few people have further led to
deterioration in thequality of life. We seemore poverty and more
misery of vast majority of people all over the world of which
indigenous people are the most affected community.
Maximization – An ideology of exploitation
TheGlobalization processcannot liberatethepoor and indigenous
peoplefrom theyokeof misery and hunger. Globalization operates
with abasic ideology. Theunderlying principal ismaximum profit,
maximum capital accumulation, and maximum exploitation of
labour supported by global military hegemony. This ideology of
ever-increasing growth and the thirst for maximization of profit
and absolute domination of the earth’s resources goes back to the
Enlightenment movement with their stresson human reason and
independence. Therevolution that emphasized thescientific temper
was both aggressive and dualistic and has found the answer to all
human problemsin the domination of nature.6 Development is
5
6
EconomicGlobalization: A Critical view and an AlternativeVision (Geneva:
WCC Publication, 2001), p. 8.
V.J. John, TheEcological Vision of Jesus(Thiruvalla: CSS-BTTBPSA, 2002),
pp. 34-35.
CHRISTIAN MISSION AND WITNESS
169
measured in termsof theamount of goodsand servicesproduced
rather than by what is produced and how it is distributed. All
human resources are directed to the market for the purpose of
commodity production and profit making.
In this development process, while some nations have
tremendouseconomic advantages, othershave becomemore and
more dependent. The main players in the present process of
globalization arethegovernmentsof powerful nations(in particular
theG7), transnational cooperation, theIMF, theWorld Bank and
the WTO. Rogate R. Mshana of WCC argues that free trade is
only a myth because 40% of the global trade performed by 350
big companies takes place in the Northern part of the world. He
further explains that this has occurred because there is a strong
tendency of developed, powerful countries to control and
manipulatenatural resourcesof other poorer countries, global trade,
and world market for their own benefits and interests.7 The
development of the third world countrieshas to be related to the
world market. Thisis so because the overall control of the global
economy is in the hands of the G7 countries. They control the
monetary system and international trade. Themultinationalsand
other institutionswith thehelp of thestatecontrol all development
processes. The foreign debt worksasan instrument to control the
development processin these countries. Termsand conditionson
the loans are imposed on them, which make them almost
impossible to develop on their own terms. Therole of developing
countries is simply to provide cheap labour to attract investors
and to provide raw materials, which are again at the mercy of
fluctuating prices. They are to meet the needsof othersascheaply
as possible. This unfettered growth of the multinationalsand the
emphasis on foreign trade are not conducive to a development
pattern that is oriented to the basic needs of the people. The
production needsand patternsareoften determined by themarket
7
Economic Globalization, pp. 7 ff.
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Globalization : A Ministerial Challenge - Part II
forces. It is unfortunate that they seldom take into consideration
the basic needs of the people. It is very clear that the present
economic pattern no longer serves the interest of the majority of
thepoor people. It rather destroysthe livesof many people due to
its unjust distribution of wealth, exploitation and deprivation of
basic needs. In the globalized free market, the only people who
count are those who have goods to sell and those who have the
money to buy. Thisin turn drivesmany to themarginsof economic
life. The small entrepreneurs and indigenous community who
depend on land and forest resources have very little chance of
survival in thissystem. Only thestronger and successful competitors
survive and thereby widen the gap between the rich and poor,
both between countriesand within country. Onecannot deny that
this economic system has contributed to a worldwide growth in
poverty, inequality and thehuman misery. Thetop 20% hasaccess
to 82.7%, while the bottom 20% struggle to survive on 1.4%.8
Theweak, thepoor indigenouspeopleand theinexperienced ones
arepushed to theouter rimsof the society. In short, globalization
works for the benefits of the rich while the poor and indigenous
become commodities since they are used as cheap labour. It has
created a situation of marginalization, exclusion and social
disintegration.
Furthermore, in a globalized economic context, the sole
criterion of judging human society is economic. Who issuperior
and who is inferior is determined by how much the purchasing
power onehas. It utterly underminesthecultural and moral aspect
of human society. When thisideology isapplied to human society,
particularly to indigenouscommunity, thelogic isvery clear. The
more we are developed industrially, the higher up we are on the
ladder. The indigenous people are industrially backward and
therefore they are inferior human beings, including their culture,
religion and spiritual heritage. That iswhy anything that doesnot
CHRISTIAN MISSION AND WITNESS
conform to the western value system is “devilish”, “irrational”,
“backward” and “primitive”. Since indigenous people’s religion
and spirituality is centred on the soil, their religion and culture
have been always considered as the earliest stage of religious
consciousness. What a wrong and naïve understanding!
The present market ideology has already brought a great
damage in the mind of indigenous people. They feel themselves
isolated from theprivileged groups. It createsan inferiority complex
among the people. That is why we see many indigenous people
struggleto migrateto thecitiesand townsin search of employment
and better living. It encouragesmigration not only within acountry,
but also encourages people to migrate to other countries where
they suffer exploitation, insecurity and social exclusion. Thissocial
exclusion isdeeper than the economic marginalization.
With the accelerating deterioration of the global economic
and political situation, the indigenous people face further
marginalization and graver threatsof continuity and sustainability.
An indigenous theologian from Pacific writes his experience as
follows:
The advertisement on our local TV demonstrates this
concept very clearly. The ad begins with people living
happily in a joyous environment where there is fun,
plenty of food in the garden and an abundance of fish
in the sea. Then the big ships came with big money,
which they gave to the chiefs for the forests. The result
is total displacement, impoverishment and ecological
destablisation.9
In the name of development, people are forcefully evicted from
their ancestral land and theabodeof thevariousspiritsthey worship
using repressivemeasuresand often without proper compensation.
They are simply ignored, silenced and despised. For example, in
India, 100,000 people are going to be displaced by the Sardar
9
8
Ibid., p. 239.
171
Jovili Meo, “Globalization, Faith and Culture: TheImpact on Morality”, in
ThePacificJournal of Theology, SeriesII, Issue24, 2000, p. 56.
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Globalization : A Ministerial Challenge - Part II
Savovar Project in Gujarat, 60-70% of whom are indigenous
people. Around 130,000 are expected to be displaced by the
Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya Pradesh of whom 65-70% is
indigenous people. Likewise, in the name of development, the
indigenouspeople who are already poor and exploited are further
reduced to powerlessness and bondage. It is disheartening to see
that indigenouspeople aremadeenvironmental prisonersin their
own land.
While some economists and politicians approve these
developmentswith positivenote, many peoplelook at thisprocess
with much apprehension. They look at the global village as an
order or mechanism for greater economic exploitation and political
oppression. The experience of many poor people is miserable;
poverty is on an increase all over the world. The globalization
process, which promised a better living and more employment
opportunities, has, on the contrary, widened thegap between the
rich and the poor, between nations and nations, and between
communitiesand hascontributed to moreemployment problem.
Foreign debt, a likely outcome of the development ideology has
goaded former colonies into new vistas of slavery. Josef P.
Widyatmadja in his book, Rerooting Mission: Towards a People’s
Concept of Mission and Diakonia,10 points out the following
consequencesof globalization on the poor:
First, it has yielded dependency of agrarian countries on
industrial countries. Agrarian countriesdepend on theproductsof
industrial countries as well as on the mercy of their loan. They
have to import goods from the industrial countries on high
price,but sell their raw materials for a low price to the same
industrialized nations.
Second, theprocesshaswidened the gap between the rich and
the poor. The GNP of industrial countries is far exceeding than
that of theagrarian countries, and thedifferencesbetween nations
10
Josef P. Widyatmadja, RerootingMission: Towardsa People’sConcept of Mission
and Diakonia (Hong Kong: CCA, 2004), pp. 13-15.
CHRISTIAN MISSION AND WITNESS
173
are getting wider today. The gap is not a phenomenon in the
international relations alone, but also within the nation states in
Asia; the gap between the poor and rich isincreasing unabatedly.
While a few elite possess and enjoy abundant national wealth,
majority of the people are left to live under abject poverty. In
recent years, somenational businesshousesin Asiahave grown as
international players and the names of few people from the poor
nations listed among the richest individualsin the world.
Third, it promotes authoritarian or dictatorial governments
because they are amenable to manipulation and are easy to deal
with. This has led to the promotion of dictatorial regimes,
corruption and abuse of power all over the world. In the name of
progress, thesegovernmentsoffered trade facilitiesor monopolies
to their own families. Nepotism has shown its ugly face in many
countries.
Fourth, the process has resulted in the huge debt of poor
countries. They are heavily indebted to the financial institutions
of the West including their government financial agencies, the
World Bank, the IM F and their private banks. Today it has
amounted to trillions of dollars. Most African, Latin American,
and Asian countriescan no longer pay back their debt but continue
to collect new loans promising to honour repayment schedule.
Thereisno balanceand justicein policy of “giveand take”. Though
the giversinsist on transparency, participation and accountability
from receivers, they fail to maintain their own norms and policy.
Ninan Koshy has rightly observed that “Good governance,
transparency, accountability, and participation arebeing advocated
by the international financial institutions. In theory of course if
theseideaswereapplied to theseinstitutionsthemselves, the result
might well be a more egalitarian and participatory international
order.”11
11
Ninan Koshy, “The Inter-State System and the Statesin a Period of Rapid
Globalization” op.cit., p. 87.
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Fifth, because of the debt, the poor countrieshave to devalue
their currency. In the processtheir debt multipliesmoreand more.
Thedevaluation isamechanism of the industrial countriesto rob
and manipulate thenatural resourcesand labour of the poor. The
purchasing power decreasesand the pricesof imported goodsare
getting higher and higher. Trade liberalization has cemented
inequalitiesamong states.
Sixth, the process has also promoted the growth of arms race
and increased the spending on military and other security
arrangementsby individual nations. Militarism and arm raceare
increasingly becoming a serious concern even in the so-called
developing countries. It has contributed to violation of human
rights and democracy. Freedom of press is curtailed; labour
organizationsfor thepeasantsand studentsarerestricted. Thearrest,
killing, torture of many people’smovement leadersare becoming
a common phenomenon. Democracy propagated by developed
countries maintains double standards, and it has been applied
discriminately.
Seventh, it has destroyed the natural environment. For the
sake of maximizing profit, natural resources are being exploited
where the profit is enjoyed mostly by certain foreign capital.
Indiscriminate felling of trees, exploitation and pollution of water
resources, air and land hascaused and continueto bring misery to
the life of the people.
Eighth, theprocesshascreated aconsumer culture. It encourages
consumers to “want” more than they “need” because the survival
of thegrowth paradigm isbased on theability of peopleto consume
moreand more. Under aconsumer culture, consumption becomes
the main form of self-expression and the chief source of identity.
In short, consumption itself is seen as a virtue. Consumption
determines the status and work of a person. It means that both
material and non-material items including kinship, affection, art
and intellect become commodified.
Ninth, theprocesshasresulted in thedestruction of traditional
CHRISTIAN MISSION AND WITNESS
175
values, moral norms and national culture. The ethnic minorities
often haveto sacrifice their own culturesfor thesakeof economic
growth.
Tenth, the misuse of power often exists due to the top-down
political policy pursued in globalization process. Thishascurtailed
people’sability to takeinitiatives. They becomepassiveparticipants
in their own development and participation is taken for granted
after making contribution to thepower elites. Thescopeof people’s
participation lies around their participation in funding certain
project. Meanwhiletheir participation in social control isneglected.
Eleventh, the misuse of religion, ideology and culture are a
common factor in the strategy of development planning. Religion
and ideology are used to justify development, national stability
and power. They are often misused while interpreting the policy
of development. Promises are offered as propaganda of
development and they are often in line with the propagation of
religion and ideology. To criticizedevelopment isoften interpreted
as an act of opposition to the ideology of the country or
disobedience to one’s own religious faith.
Twelfth, children and women are made to sacrifice their lives.
The trafficking of women and children across countries forces
women to prostitution parlors and children as low paid workers.
The problems of migrant workers and domestic workers are
growing in Asia.
Furthermore, in thecontext of theon-going war on terror led
by Americans, we need to see the relation between globalization
and militarism. It hasbecomeincreasingly clear that globalization,
religious fundamentalism, ethnic conflict, various people’s
movement in theform of arm struggleareall closely interconnected
to economic justice. Financial instability, economic inequality,
competition for resources, and environmental degradation lead to
conflicts among people of different cultures and religions and
nations. War on terror and conflictsamong variouscommunities
give lot of advantageto arm producing countriesto sell their arms
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and ammunitions. Steven Staple has rightly observed that
globalization and militarism are like two sides of the same coin.
Hewritesthat “On oneside, globalization promotesthecondition
that lead to unrest, inequalities, conflict and ultimately war. On
the other side, globalization fuels the means to wage war by
protecting and promoting themilitary industriesneeded to produce
sophisticated weaponry. This weaponry is used – or its use is
threatened – to protect theinvestmentsof translational corporation
and their shareholders.”12 Weapons of all types are a profitable
business. Conflictsguaranteeplenty of buyers. It iscreating more
threatsto human security. Moreconflictsand civil war areemerging
everywhere.
In summary, globalization, despite its potential to enhance
the quality of life, hascontributed in accelerating unrest, conflict
and war; disrespect of national sovereignty, territorial integrity,
inequalities between nations, exclusion of poor people from
mainstream development process, suffering, misery, famine and
death of millionsespecially women and children.
Rape of the Home of Indigenous People
Theland, theriver and forest havebeen thehomeand lifesustaining
sourceof indigenouspeoplefor centuries. But today they arebeing
misused and raped to meet the growing demand of consumerism.
Forest and fishing resourcesaredepleted for quick profits. Mining
companies rape resources with little regard to the environmental
and social costs. The sustaining power of the earth for nurturing
life is being destroyed. The whole planet is at threat.
Today one cannot deny the fact that land and its resources
havebecomethegreatest singlecauseof strifeand warfarebetween
nations and people of different communities within a nation.
Resourcesarehoarded by afew and denied to others. Possession of
resources, instead of being used as an opportunity for mutual
sharing, as of an unmerited gift of God, has become a matter of
12
Steven Staples, “Social JusticeMagazine’, Vol. 27, no. 4, 2000.
CHRISTIAN MISSION AND WITNESS
177
conquest and seizure, a tool of oppression, greed and power.13
This trend is becoming more and more alarming particularly in
India.
The scientific method of reductionism took the mystery out
of theWestern view of nature. Peoplebegan to believethat thereis
nothing amazing about the cosmos. The physical world isviewed
merely asthesum-total of many materialscomponentsand energies.
To understand the world, one has only to know the laws which
govern thesecomponents. Thisworldview further contributed to
the secularization of the world. By detaching God from nature,
natural resources are seen as something to be manipulated and
exploited without any compunction. Nature has only an
instrumental value, determined by theextent to which human can
utilizeit. Within such aperspective, humans’domination of nature
wasabsolutely justified.
Against the capitalist ideology of privatization of capital, free
market and competition, thesocialist model of economy emerged,
but could not provideaproper alternative, conduciveto upholding
the ecological balance and could not liberate the poor and
indigenouspeoplefrom theyokeof exploitation, particularly from
the exploitation of lands and natural heritage. A basic difference
between the capitalism and socialist model of economy lies only
in the means of ownership. Karl M arx expected that the
exploitation of humans would be eliminated once the private
ownership of the means of production is controlled by the
producersthemselves.14 Marx wassilent about the exploitation of
natural resources.15 Today we realized that by simply changing the
Christopher JH Wright, LivingthePeopleof God: TheRelevanceof OldTestament
Ethics( Leicester: Intervarsity Press, 1983), p.71.
14
George Mathew, Dignity for All: Essaysin Socialism and Democracy (Delhi:
AjantaPublication, 1991), pp. 5 ff.
15
Alferd Schmidt, TheConcept of Naturein Marx (New York: HumanitiesPress,
1972), pp. 21-22; and Howard Parsons, Marx and Engleson Ecology(Westwood,
Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1977), pp. 55 ff.
13
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means of ownership, human problems are not solved.
Nature hasbeen bestowed with an abundanceof resourcesfor
the support and maintenance of life-systems on planet earth.
However, humankind, considering themselves to be the lone
beneficiariesof the goodnessof nature, thought it their right and
privilegeto exploit them for their own needsand welfare. Thishas
lead to a wasteful and extravagant use of the resources of nature.
Since the natural resources are something to be made use of and
hence to yield maximum profit, preferably as quick as possible,
thesurvival problem of indigenouspeopleisat threat. Being driven
away from their home base, indigenouspeoplelost their meansof
resource generation and left to fend for themselves in situations
where they are untrained to copewith. To sustain modern selfish
lifestyle, thereisno other way to exploit theearth and indigenous
people.
The root cause of ethnic conflict, tension between different
religious communities, wars are all directly related to control of
land and its resources. Our spiritual heritage, traditions, culture
areslowly disappearingin thenameof peace, development, national
integration, tourism, preservation of environment. Everywhere
indigenouspeoplestruggle for justice.
Globalization touchesall aspectsof life. It toucheson lifeand
God’screation and so it becomesan ethical and theological concern.
Therefore, it is a ministerial concern in today’s context. In the
context of growing inequalities, different forms of injustice and
conflict under the umbrella of globalization, we are called to
promote:
a) Tradeand economic co-operation on thebasisof equality
and sharing of life and resources; mutuality of support
and respect to one another’s life;
b) Respect and protect the rich ethnic, cultural and religious
diversity;
c) Sanctity of human lifeaswell astheentire God’screation;
d) Alternative spirituality grounded in therespect of human
CHRISTIAN MISSION AND WITNESS
179
dignity and in the integration of creation;
e) Spirituality that promotesjustice, peaceand reconciliation;
f ) Cultural co-operation to resist the cultural impact of
globalization and to find new ways to overcome the
problems of division;
g) To promote respect of human rightsin their own cultural
context;
h) To spread a spirituality of a common future that respect
peace and justice, life for all irrespective of religious and
ethnic differences;
i) Policy and values that guarantees the diversity as well as
theuniquenessof each culture.
A Perspective on Ministerial Formation
How do we address unjust systems and relationships in our
teaching-learning process? In termsof theory and practice, it isa
processthat isinescapable and irreversible. Wehaveto go through
it. However, wecan yet transform it. Wehaveto constantly engage
in transforming our relationship between life and technology,
economic and political life to meet a new future with hope. That
iswhy justice oriented ministerial formation becomesimperative
and crucial.
Many works have been done in the area of globalization and
theological education. For furthering our discussion in our context,
I would like to make the following observations:
1. Discerning the sign of the times – If we have to make our
ministerial formation relevant and contextual, we have to move
into new areas such as globalization, health and wholeness, the
ecological crisis, genetic engineering and ethnicity, peace and
reconciliation, – all theseareashavebeen outsideof our traditional
schemes of ministerial formation programme of the churches,
though they all impinge on our lives and relationships. Many of
the theological educators, pastors, missionaries and Christian
ministers are ill equipped to meet such challenges. A theological
education that does not take these issues into consideration will
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have no impact.
2. A perspectival change – For any reading of the Bible, we
need to have aperspective. From which perspectivedo you look at
the Bible in the interpretation process? For too long, an elitist
perspectivehasbeen dominant. Theperspectiveof subaltern groups
like indigenouspeople and women and their struggle for new life
hasbeen overlooked in our interpretation. A very clear scripturally
directed perspective is the subaltern perspective. An addition of
onesubject likefeminist theology or indigenouspeople’stheology
in the existing courses of theological schools is not sufficient nor
will organizing a few seminars and consultations help. The
perspective of those in the margins must be the hermeneutical
key to theology. We should consciously integrate the perspective
of the marginalized people in the whole process of biblical
interpretation.
3. An inter-disciplinary approach – The present character of
biblical interpretation istoo monolithic. Such an approach isnot
sufficient in the Asian context. The reality of our experience is
complex and we need a confluence of tools to unravel its
significance. Weneed an inter-disciplinary character of reading the
Bible. In this process, the cultural and religious traditionsof Asia
must betaken seriously. They arenot just to supply an alternative
vision of human bonding to one another and to earth alone, but
they have to be taken seriously to support an alternative
development paradigm.
4. Global perspectiveof local issues– Ministerial programmes
should have global perspective, without undermining the local
needs and issues. The immediate context of a theologian is the
local community. He/she engages in the local context to discern
God’s purpose in life. However, the lives of the people are very
much determined by what is going on globally. For example, the
processof globalization, religiousfundamentalism, HIV and AIDS
pandemic. It has no boundary. It affects every local community.
Therefore, thelocal issuesand global issuescannot be understood
in isolation. Therefore, theological formation needsto engage the
CHRISTIAN MISSION AND WITNESS
181
global perspectivein thelocal context. Theavailablelocal resources,
history and culture need to be taken care of to meet their need.
Thepurposeisnot to provokeregionalism, but to promoteregional
consciousness among the students. This will enable students to
face the challengesof their own immediate context.
5. A transformative approach – The Word of God should
help usin transforming our lives. It isunfortunate that reading the
Word of God has fallen into the trap set by the philosophy of
modern educational system. That is why Biblical interpretation
has been reduced to mere abstract and intellectual exercise. We
need to challenge this pattern of Biblical interpretation.
Interpretation of God’s Word has to be directed towards
transformation. Praxis-thinking challengesusthat thinking which
occursapart from critical involvement endsup in constructionsof
theories about existence that keep us away from the real world.
We need rigorous theoretical reflection of the Word of God, but
it should emerge from the practice that is directed to
transformation. In order to do biblical praxis we need social and
cultural analysisof our context. They should form an integral part
of thebiblical hermeneutics.
6. Protection of diversity – Plurality is an integral part of the
Creator. No culture, no community is excluded from this God’s
structure of creation. All are unique in their own ways and,
therefore, no onehastheright to dominateand suppresstheother.
Life is protected and it can grow to its fullness only by affirming
of thebeauty of diversity. Therefore, a perspectival changein our
interpretation of the Bibleto understand and appreciatethediverse
religious and cultural resources of human kind as the common
property of humanity becomes crucial. A positive approach
especially to the people of other faiths, culture and languagescan
provide a new paradigm for understanding the Bible.
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Collective Resistance as Prophetic Witness - Part II
9
COLLECTIVE RESISTANCE AS
PROPHETIC WITNESS:
Mission from the Marginalized Perspective
Introduction
Looking at today’scontext of ecological disaster, hunger of millions,
exploitation of labour, violation of human rights, restriction of
freedom to life, abuse of power by politicians, and manipulation
of wealth by a small minority, we are reminded of the prophet
Amos’time. Amos lived at a time when the rich “trample on the
heads of the poor as upon the dust of the ground and they deny
justice to theoppressed” (Amos2:7). Whiletherich people could
afford summer and winter houses, adorned with ivory, the poor
people flee naked and without food (Amos 3:15). The poor were
crushed and exploited by the unjust system in all fronts. Similarly,
the dominant value system, social structures/institutions,
consumerist market ideology and one-sided development activities
are powerful sourcesto exploit the poor and marginalized people
in today’s world. The powersof military, economic and social are
so unevenly shared and used that a vast majority of the world’s
population is left to live in abject poverty and misery without
dignity and freedom. While the top ten of the world’srich people
get US$ 5000 in a few secondsor minutes, millions of people get
lessthan one dollar a day. It issaid that every day 30,0000 people
die of starvation. Evils are so embodied in social structures/
institutionsin asystemic and permanent manner that theright for
a decent life is denied to many which destroys the very harmony
of social life.
When theevil forcessystematically oppressand crush thepoor,
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
183
and hinder not only theself-development of persons, but thesociety
asa whole, the only option left for the marginalized communities
is collective solidarity resistance. Just as Jesus and his followers
located their ministry in the context of systemic corruption of
religious, economic and political systems of their times, we need
to locate Christian witness in the context of present structural
injustices. The strength of future churches and ecumenical
movement liesin itsability to createcollectivesolidarity resistance
movementsagainst unjust social relation, market forcesand other
life threatening institutions.
Victimsof Structural Injustice – Location of Christian Witness
Social structures/institutionsarecollectivecreationsof humansover
centuries. They never exist in, and of themselves independently;
are also never neutral. People consciously or unconsciously
participate in them personally and associal groups. Social analysis
reveals that social structures that value human and protect the
integrity of God’s creation enhance the quality of human person
and society. But social structurescreated with vested interestsviolate
human dignity so brutally, jeopardize the development of the
society and work against the realization of God’splan of human’s
creation. Theorganizing principleof today’ssociety isthat women
areinferior, dalit/adivasi isunclean and inferior, indigenouspeople
are uncivilized, primitive, disability isa curse from God and thus
they aresinners. Sinceour present social structureisorganized based
on such false presuppositions and beliefs, it inflicts injustice and
misery to many people. It iscalled astructural sin. In such structures,
domineering and dominated classes always exist. Those who are
on the top of the rank exert all the privileges and exploit those
who areat thebottom of thesocial strata. To legitimizedominating
power, unjust social structures are often legalized and supported
by the Constitutions of the countries or customary laws and
practices, and moreover sanctioned by religion as in the cases of
caste system, racism, patriarchy, disabilities. Social arrangement
and relationship based on higher-lower, civilized-uncivilized thus
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Collective Resistance as Prophetic Witness - Part II
deny human rights and dignity to a large number of people.
Excluded and dominated peopleareleft to livein unbearablemisery
and humiliation in many ways.
We also have to note that the oppressive structuresare not an
automatic evolution of the present day society alone. Every
generation inherits a world from the past generations and it is
nourished by the present generation. This inherited structure
influences personal behaviors and society. Somebody or one
generation cannot be attributed as guilty for what they have
inherited. However, they can beguilty for not identifying thecause
of the victims, for closing their eyesto structural injusticebecause
of the benefits they get at the expense of the dominated group.1
Moreover, injusticebreedsin society becauseof collectiveignorance
and inattentivenessor in somecases, peopleconsciously participate
in certain structuresknowing that they areunjust and oppressive,
e.g. castesystem and patriarchy. A group of people can becomean
accomplicein theoppression if they participatein them consciously
and willfully, and fail to do anything to change.2 When the church
or dominated groups refuse to do anything to change the unjust
social structure, it is equal to participation in maintaining the
structureof injustice. Prophetic witness, thereforehasto belocated
within these structural inequalities, and collective responsibility
hasto bepursued asChristian witness.
However, it isto benoted that thereality of structural injustices
can be understood only from the experience of the oppressed. In
other words, thesubject matter of prophetic witnesswill missthe
target group, if we analyze social system from the perspective of
the rich. That means one has to judge the social dynamics from
theperspectiveof peoplein theperiphery. CharlesKammer points
out that “All our policies, all our social structures must be first
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
judged by their effectson thepoor, thepowerless, and minorities.”3
Reflecting on the Black struggle for justice, JamesCone also says
that the victim of the power alone can suggest how the world
ought to be.4 Being oppressed, they know what is wrong because
they areboth thevictimsof evil and recipientsof God’sliberating
activity, the Gospel of Christ.5 Similarly, J.B. Metz opines that
inherited structures have to be analyzed from the perspective of
the oppressed. He says that “We have to judge ourselves and our
history with theeyesof the victims.”6 It is the dominated groups
suffering that provideuswith criteriato judgetheinherited social
structuresand eventually strugglefor thehumanization of thesocial
reality. Therefore, any analysisof social reality hasto takethe stand
of theoption for the poor and the integrity of God’screation very
decisively. It demandsconsciousrejection of unjust and oppressive
system in society. It isan option against social structuresin favour
of thevictims. If Christian witnessisto berealistic and command
credibility, wehave to abandon idealistic and individualistic views
of life, but locate the Kingdom’svalue within thesocial structure,
and resist collectively for liberation of victims.
Collective Solidarity Resistance for Justice – A Missiological
Imperative
Christian witnessisincompletewithout resistancefor justice. God
is God of life and to believe in him is to participate in life-giving
activity. For centuries, Christian mission wasunderstood narrowly
in terms of planting and organizing Christian Churches among
theso-called non-Christian world. In other words, Christian witness
wasperceived merely asproclamation of “thegospel to all creatures,
3
4
1
2
HormisMynatty, “Compassion for theVictimsof Structural Injustice” in
Compassion for Communion, ed. Jacob Naluparayil (Kochi: Karunikan Books,
2010), p. 222.
Ibid, pp. 223-224.
185
5
6
C.L. Kammer, Ethicsand Liberation: An Introduction (New York: Maryknoll,
1988), p. 156.
JamesCone, Black Theologyof Liberation (New York: OrbisBooks, 1970), p.
192.
Ibid., p. 192.
J.B. Metz, Faith in History and Society: Toward a Practical Fundamental
Theology, Smith, D. tr. (New York, 1990), p. 105.
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Collective Resistance as Prophetic Witness - Part II
to gather the ignorant and godlessfrom every corner of the earth,
and to lead those in deplorable error to the flock of Christ and to
the recognition of the shepherd and Lord of the flock.”7 Since
missionarieswent acrossthe world with themindset that western
worldview is“superior” in termsof religion, race, political structure,
economic system and culture, they considered ‘others’asprimitive,
uncultured, uncivilized people. “Their description of the people
ranges from people with no culture to inferior culture, life styles
and ways of life. Their religion was derided as demonic,
superstitious and evil.”8 They saw the ‘others’as the world to be
conquered. A social organization based on this superiorityinferiority valuesystem continuesto maketremendousimpact on
the life of the poor and indigenous people. It led them to the
internalization of nativeinferiority and theidealization of thewhite
cultureand religion. Even today many peoplethink that their own
religion, spirituality, economy and culture are inferior and
backward, and aspirefor westernization. AsChristianity isoperated
within this worldview, Christian witness has been understood
largely in terms of charitable works. This has contributed to a
passiveattitudetowardssocial realities. It also created subject-object
relationship between the givers and the recipients and helps to
maintain the status quo based on unjust power relations. In the
process, the poor and marginalized people wereco-opted into the
empire’ssocial structure. In such acontext, traditional preaching,
proclaiming, evangelizing and charitable works are not enough.
They do not challenge the evil system.
The church which doesnot participate in creating ajust social
order is not the true church, they are not doing God’s mission.
They becomemereagentsof oppressors. Unfortunately, thechurch
7
8
Karl Muller, Mission Theology: An Introduction (Netherlands: Stely Press, 1987),
p. 30.
Yangkahao Vashum, “Revisiting Tribal/Indigenous Theology and Its
Theological Methodology”, apaper presented at consultation on “Revisiting
Tribal and Dalit Theologiesand Their Theological Methodologies” at Centre
for Dalit/Subaltern Studies, New Delhi, from 14-16 March, 2008, p. 8.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
187
for centuries, hasprotected and nurtured theoppressorsby teaching
a passive message of love and peace. When mission activities are
directed towards mobilizing people for collective resistance for
justice and create new consciousness of the rights of victims, it is
often accused asanti-Christian activities. No church or individual
is willing to support such endeavours. Even today Christian
ministersare afraid to encourage, or to be involved in mobilizing
people’s movements to fight for justice due to long pietistic
tradition. Sometimeschurch maintainsthesilencewillfully against
corruption for financial benefits. Thosewho raisejusticeissuesare
often branded as anti-Christians. We need to realize that pietistic
theology isrooted in other-worldly spirituality and tradition. Such
theology, on the one hand, allows the oppressors to perpetuate
their oppression, and on the other hand, suppress collective
resistance movements of the powerless. Unfortunately, churches
still speak of peace and justice within the framework of this
tradition. To be isolated from people’s movements or discourage
those people who are involved in organizing people’s movement
for justicecontradictstheteachingsof Jesuswho died on thecross.
The God of the Bible is a liberator God and faith in the liberator
God calls for struggle against all forces of oppressions.9
The Urban Rural Mission has been axed in many churches
and ecumenical organizations because of itsprophetic voicesand
involvement with people who are in pain. The church cannot
toleratewhen peopleraise their voicesagainst thehierarchy of the
church and organize people against anti-people development
policies and activities. The churches are more concerned about
losing financial gainsand interested in maintaining the statusquo.
Most of the churches rather want to act as faithful NGOs who
function as an implementing agency of the projects designed by
those who hold capital. M any churches and ecumenical
organizations have been reduced themselves as local agents for
9
K.C. Abraham, LiberativeSolidarity: Contemporary Perspectiveson Mission
(Thiruvalla: Christian Sahitya Samithi, 1996), p. 32.
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Collective Resistance as Prophetic Witness - Part II
development agencies from western economies, banks and
governments. Instead of serving the poor, the church iscaught in
corruption. The church has a responsibility to create just social
structure to reduce human suffering especially the misery caused
by deprivation and violence.
The Hebrew prophets spoke of structural transformation of
social, political and economic system. They pronounced God’s
judgment upon thosewho exploited thepoor, widow and strangers.
The prophets always understood God’s liberative action in terms
of political freedom. Jesus’announcement of the Kingdom also
embraces total well-being of people. He challenged the religious
formalism, legalism, misuse of power, and unjust economic
structures that oppressed and marginalized people. Prophetic
witness which is merely in the sense of individual is essentially a
contradiction to theGood Newsof thecoming of God’sKingdom.
The Kingdom which Jesus preached was the Kingdom of those
who were deprived of life. Jesus’uncompromising defense of life
led him to a life of conflict with the powerful ruling class of his
time. Thisconflict resulted in Jesus’death on thecross.10 To follow
Jesusis to witness to the abundant life for all in words and deeds.
Then, Christian witness involves individual persons and of the
society asa whole. Since the unjust system iscollectively created,
the solution also isto be found through mobilization of collective
action.
Collective Solidarity Resistance for Justice as Prophetic Witness
‘Prophetic Witness’ refers to bearing testimony to the world,
proclaiming and making known that Jesus Christ is the liberator
of all humankind and God’s creation. In other words, witnessing
to the Gospel of God in Jesus, the Christ, involves dismantling
the existing systems and institutions that perpetuate systemic
injustice to many people. Resistancedoesnot mean violence, but
saying ‘No’to unjust system; strugglefor justiceinvolvesorganizing
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
protest movements, non-cooperation movements, and campaigns
through non-violent peaceful means.
Collective solidarity resistance isentering into the struggle of
thedefenselesspeoplefor radical changein thesystem of oppressive
structures. It involves continuous collective struggle against the
misuse and abuse of power. It is “struggling against systems and
structures that disrupt the purpose of God for wholeness of life
which include the whole of creation. Economic, political, social
and religio-cultural barriersthat are erected by powershave to be
critiqued and rejected in the light of the principles of abundant
life for all, regardless.”11 K.C. Abraham’s comment on solidarity
resistanceisrelevant for thisdiscussion. For him, solidarity resistance
is a process of empowering the powerless and creating a new
consciousnessamong theoppressed about their rights.12 He writes,
Solidarity with the poor means entering into their
struggle for justice … .It is possible only if we enter
into the life of others, especially the suffering with
openness and compassion. The spiritual resources for a
new orientation should emerge from the collective
experience of the poor and the marginalized … . This
is the only option left to us in this difficult situation of
conflict and blind fury of religious passion.13
Unlessthereisachangein theexisting power relationsin favour of
the powerless, no justice will be achieved. No single person can
deal with institutionalized social structure effectively and thus
collective effort is inevitable. Therefore, collective solidarity
resistancefor justiceisamatter of faith, amissiological imperative
as a way of living girded with principle of Love, Equality, Justice
and Peace – for all.14 Bringing about the Kingdom entails fight
11
12
13
10
Ibid., p. 31.
189
14
EvangelineRajkumar, “Theology of Resistance” in Light on Our DustyPath:
Essaysfor a BibleLoversed., by Israel Selvanagayam (Bangalore: BTESSC/
SATHRI, 2008), p. 167
K.C. Abraham, op. cit., p. 55
Ibid., p. 68.
Evangeline, p. 172
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Collective Resistance as Prophetic Witness - Part II
against injustice and thuscollectiveresistance against evil forcesis
integral part of Christian mission.
If Christians are to share in Jesus’prophetic task, the church
ought to witness through resistance announcing the Lord’s
judgment on the oppressors, and proclaiming justice and
righteousnessto theoppressed. Liberativeact thusbecomeprophetic
witness today. James Cone’s comment on Martin Luther King,
Jr’s involvement in civil resistance movement is inspiring and
relevant. He writes,
But King was right about the redemptive character of
the suffering that arises out of the resistance to evil.
When one resists evi l, suffering is an inevi table
consequence of that resistance. To avoid suffering is to
avoid resistance, and that leaves evil unchallenged. King
challenged the power structures of evil. That was why
he was killed. King’s suffering, and that of freedom
fighters around the world, is redemptive when, like
Jesus’ cross, it inspires us to resist evil, knowing that
suffering is the consequence. To resi st evil is to
participate in God’s redemption of the world.15
He further writes,
Though evil seems more prevalent and powerful today
than yesterday, people are still resisting. Resistance
creates hope. Just as Jesus’resurrection was born out of
his apparent defeat on the cross, so too the poor are
born anew out of their resistance to suffering. The
eruption of the poor is happening in African, European,
H ispanic, Indian and Asian communities in the US
and throughout the world. Their resurrection is the
sign that God is at work in the world, raising the dead
to life. We must join the resistance by making solidarity
with those who struggle for life in the face of death.16
JamesH. Cone, God of theOppressed (Maryknoll, New York: OrbisBooks,
1978 revised edition), p. xviii.
16
Ibid.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
191
Commitment to collective solidarity resistancefor justicewith
the victim of the system/structure/institution and the people in
pain arethe witnessto theliberating power of God in Christ. The
crossisthesign of solidarity. To witnessChrist without resistance
for justice has no meaning. We need to mobilize action group
cutting across class, caste, tribe and gender barriers to promote
values and structure that enhance life, and reject the forces and
practicesthat destroy life. Christian witnessin thiscontext requires
not only proclamation of the Gospel within the four walls of the
church, but also secular/civil base of politics for responsible
participation and liberative solidarity.17 All religions should be
motivated to search for a theology that isliberative and grounded
in the respect of human valuesfor responsibleparticipation in the
secular realm.18
Political war, caste war/ethnic war, economic exploitation,
ecological exploitation and terrorism areproduct of unjust power
structure relations. When the power is used to create, support or
promote injustice, or trample upon the freedom and dignity of
persons, it isevil. In such kind of institutionalized unjust system,
when individual person raises justice issue is often crushed and
silenced. Their voices are politicized, suppressed, and the leaders
are imprisoned and sometimes eliminated from the society. We
have many storiesof disappearance of leaders, tortureand judicial
killings. Even thecollective counter movementsarenot spared by
the powerful. The current struggle of Narmada Bachao Andolan
movement in India against the mega dam project is a concrete
example. While the movement strugglesfor people’s right to life,
the policy makers view the movement as anti-development
activities. Instead of listeningto thecriesof thepeople, themovement
is being politicized and suppressed. Suppression of resistance
movements, arrest, harassment and infliction of pain on thosewho
15
17
18
Gutierrez, op.cit., p. 109.
K.C. Abraham, op. cit., p. 109.
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Collective Resistance as Prophetic Witness - Part II
raise their voicesare common strategy of the dominating powers.
Global capitalist system, patriarchy, caste system and
undemocratic political machinery are all part of institutionalized
evil forces, and it requires collective resistance. In such contexts,
witness is not just an ordinary witness. It has to be subversive in
character. Individualshavetheresponsibility accordingto each one’s
ability, but no individual person isin aposition to deal with unjust
social structureadequately. Only through collectivesolidarity can
the resistance movement effectively transform unjust structures
and liberatethe victims.
When wespeak of collectivesolidarity resistancefor justice, it
does not mean collective action of the oppressed communities
alone. An oppressed group alonecannot changethesocial structure
without the participation of the oppressors. Both dominated and
domineering groupshavecollectivemoral responsibility to liberate
the oppressed. On the one hand, it is the duty of the victims to
fight for their legitimate rightsbecause simply waiting with folded
hands for the mercy of the powerful, which are interested in
maintaining the statusquo, is equal to participation in the unjust
social structure. Thedomineering groups, on theother hand, have
the greater responsibility for liberation of the victims of unjust
system. Transformation ispossiblewhen thewholepeople of God
aresocially sensitiveand conscientious.
Prophetic witnessisnot just an ideal and an emotional action;
it is a continual struggle and commitment for transformation of
thesinful social structure and liberation of thevictims. It involves
two levelsof actions. First, it requiresraising consciousnessof both
the victimsand perpetratorsby exposing theunjust structure and
certain belief systems, e.g. women as inferior, disability as curse
from God, etc. Sometimes we internalize ourselves of those false
beliefs’s system and inflict hurt on others unconsciously. We also
need to raise consciousnessof the people on how political leaders
abuse power, involve in corruption, create ethnic/caste violence,
etc. for their vested political gains. Raising awarenesswill provoke
people to take critical stand against these structures and motivate
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
193
them to takeup responsibility not only for personal development
but also for thetransformation of thewholesociety. Helping people
to raise their consciousness thus is the first step for collective
solidarity action for justice. Constant dialogue and interaction
among scholars, church leaders, civil society and faith-based action
groupsbecomecrucial for attitudinal changeand collectiveaction.
The second level has to do with mobilization of collective
justiceaction groups. In thisattempt therespect for human dignity
and protection of life sustaining Mother Earth should be the
motivating ground for collective action. The global economic
system, for instance, requires collective action both globally and
locally. Tragedy in today’sworld isthat successof capitalism liesin
themaximization of commoditization and monetization processes.
Wealth and possession determine the value of a person. Those
who have more wealth, even through corrupt means and
exploitation, are worshipped as heroes. The spirit of capitalism
worksvigorously in activating profit driven enterprises.19 The sole
motive is expansion of market and maximization of profits. This
issustained through division of owning and labour class. In return,
it exploits the natural resources and human labour power in a
massive scale. It is touching, destroying and threatening all life,
especially the poor and marginalized. 82% of thecombined global
physical wealth and majority of wealth in theform portfolio account
is owned by only 1% of the global population. Most Asian and
African countries suffer from immoral foreign debt and unfair
and unjust trade relations that always put them at disadvantage.
The weak, especially the workers, farmers, migrant workers, small
entrepreneurs are turned into commodities for extracting huge
profits from them. Sufferings and cries of human persons and of
all other living beings throughout the world are on the rise. Our
19
Solomon Victus, “Water- A Privatized Commodity: An Overview of recent
Policies, Waters of Life and Death: Ethical and Theological Responses to
ContemporaryWater Crisis, eds., by Sam P. Mathew & Chandran Paul Martin
(Delhi: ISPCK/UELCI, 2005), p. 3.
194
Collective Resistance as Prophetic Witness - Part II
natural resource and our various eco-systems are destroyed by its
insatiable greed for more wealth. Today, all living beings in the
cosmosarethreatened with death and destruction. Therefore, such
oppressive forces demand not only raising socially sensitive
consciousness, but also require collective action, both globally and
locally. For example, the shape of the economic and political
structures of the third world countries is determined by the first
world countries. It is the responsibility of the rich countries to
stop domination and exploitation of thepoor and underdeveloped
countries and allow them to enjoy their fundamental rights and
their equal share in the human community. It is imperative that
all committed persons be involved in mobilizing and organizing
people’s movement for alternative life. The roles of global forum
like World Council of Churches, Regional Ecumenical
Organizations, World Social Forum, International Justiceand Care,
etc. are important forumsfor raising consciousnessof such unjust
system. They should also strategizemobilization of collectiveaction
groupsto globalize the hope to live. Silence to unjust systems isa
denial of justice.
Though the global and local issues are interrelated, there are
concrete situations where people are crushed to die of hunger in
concrete local context. For example, water crisis. Water is most
essential for human life. Without water there is no life. Today
water isseen as‘blue gold’to be traded literally aswell asvirtually.
While the rich and the powerful manipulate and control water
resourcesfor their own profit, thepoor and themarginalized groups
bear the brunt of water crises.20 Today, the cost of water exceeds
or equal to milk and coco cola. Moreover, the dalitsand tribalsare
forcefully evicted in the name of development; sometimes by
creating fear and tension in the name of conversion. Today land
has been forcefully taken away from them and many people do
20
Sam P. Mathew & Chandran Paul Martin, eds. “Introduction” in Watersof Life
and Death: Ethical and Theological ResponsestoContemporaryWater Crisis,
p. xiii.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
195
not have land for cultivation. With losing of land which is the
main source of their livelihood and culture, they constitute the
biggest labour forcein today’sworld. Such destructiveforcesaffect
all people regardless of religions, caste, tribe and sex. All these
destructive forces are well organized, institutionalized and state
sponsored. Since it affectsall people, response isalso required not
only as individuals but as group or society. One religious group
alonecannot bringchange. Welivein apluralistic context. Religious
communities must be open to engage in dialogue for protection
of human dignity and common resourcesof earth for celebration
of life. Prophetic witness thus involves mobilization of all
communitiesin thelocal context, regardlessof race, religion, caste,
ethnic groups, gender, language for resistance. Only through
collective action and resistance, effective change can be brought
about.
By globalizing and localizing the issue through people’s
participation, justice can be restored. Leaderslike Martin Luther
King Jr., BabaAmbedkar, MahatmaGandhi and many othershave
brought changes in the society through mobilization of people’s
participation. We need to mobilize people to become a collective
force for change. We have witnessed the People’s Power in South
Korea, Philippines, Egypt and other Arab nations overthrowing
thedictators. Justice for protection of lifehasto bethe ground for
collectivesolidarity resistance.
Prophetic Witness for Celebration of Life
The ultimate goal of collective solidarity resistance for justice is
celebration of life. To live a life of dignity, respect and freedom is
the intrinsic right of all beings. It isa divine gift to all beings. The
victims can celebrate God’s given life in abundance only when
justice isrestored to them. To protect life, any forcethat threatens
acelebration of lifemust becollectively resisted. A primary function
of the church is to be involved in eliminating all forms of
oppressionsthat destroy human dignity and life sustaining God’s
resources.
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Collective Resistance as Prophetic Witness - Part II
A Christian principlethat affirmscollectivesolidarity resistance
movement for celebration of lifeisfound in theTrinitarian doctrine
of Christianity. Trinity isunity in community. They are related to
each other, belong to one another, never insist on one’s own way,
and despite “their outward appearance of diversity,” their
foundational unity isstill upheld. There is no dominion over the
other in the Trinity. Communion or togetherness is an integral
feature in the very nature of God. Each divine person penetrates
the other and allows himself/herself to be penetrated, each
maintaining identity but sharing community.21 Unity of equal
partners bound by mutual love is a model that expresses divine
reality. Our relationship with civil society, faith-based organizations
and people’smovement should express thismodel. We are united
in diversity to protect life and to resist all destructive forces.
The Bible is a book about the community’s stories of their
struggle against the oppression and domination for liberation. It
speaksabout collectiveliberation.TheExodusevent wasacollective
experience of liberation, a Liberative activity of God.God’s
interventions, immediate, intimate encounter – takesplace in the
community and not to an individual person alone. An individual
person iscalled primarily to serve the community. “Let my people
go” (Ex 7:16) implies that God is interested in the salvation of
community. Liberation from the Babylonian captivity was to a
group of peoplewho had been oppressed and dehumanized. Jesus
called agroup of people to be hisdisciplesand worked with them
for the liberation of the poor, the women, the blind, the sick and
the sinners who have been excluded by society because of their
social location.
The Hebrew prophetsalways related God’s judgement to the
contemporary situation of their times. Social injustice, falsepride,
legalism, hypocritical religiousness, personal immorality, infidelity
21
K.C. Abraham, “Livingin aReligiously Plural World – Problemsand Challenges
for Doing Mission in Asia” in JTCA, vols. 7& 8, (2008), p. 11.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
197
to God’scovenant – all fell under thevigorousreproach to prophetic
witness.22 Following the life and ministry of Jesus Christ, St. Paul
also called theearly believersto resist the‘principalitiesand powers’.
Hewrote, “We wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against the
rulers, against the authorities, against the cosmic powers of this
present darknessagainst the spiritual forcesof evil in theheavenly
places.” (Eph. 6:12). It demands that one must be willing to
sacrifice, suffer, and if and when necessary to die for Christ. The
Hebrew Prophets and followers of Jesus of Nazareth confronted
the ‘principalitiesand powers’of structural/institutional/systemic
empire structure that exploit the poor of their times. They risk
their life for Christ’ssake and became martyrs for justice.
God standsagainst manipulatorsof justice. TheBibletestifies
that the Divine participates in history to defend those who are
victims of power. James Cone writes that
Yahweh is known and worshipped as the One who
brought Israel out of Egypt, and who raised Jesus from
the dead. God is the political God, the Protector of
the poor and the Establisher of the right for those who
are oppressed. To know God is to experience the acts of
God in the concrete affairs and relationships of people,
liberating the weak and the helpless from pain and
humiliation. For theologians to speak of this God, they
too must become interested in politics and economics,
recognizing that there is no truth about Yahweh unless
it is the truth of freedom as that event is revealed in
the oppressed people’s struggle for justice in this
world.23
For the prophets to know God is to do justice (Jer. 22:13-16).
Gustavo Gutierrez is right when he said, “We worship God by
Royce M. Victor, “Prophetic Witness: Challenging the Principalities and
Powers” in Edinburgh 2010: WitnessingtoChrist Todayin India, eds., James
Massey & Wati Longchar (Kolkata: BTESSC/SATHRI/SCEPTRE, 2011),
p. 52.
23
JamesH. Cone, op. cit., p. 57.
22
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Collective Resistance as Prophetic Witness - Part II
doing justice.”24 It is in justice done to the weak and helpless that
Israel’s true national identity is to be found. God of justice is
involved in thestruggleof thedefenselesspeople. MissioDei means
participation in God’smission. We participatein divine liberative
acts by involving ourselves in collective solidarity resistance for
justice. To believe in God is to turn from oneself and to commit
one’s life to God and to all men and women in concrete practice
of justice.25 Let us, therefore, struggle together with God to
actualize the vision of Isaiah, who said,
Then shall blind men’s eyes be opened,
and the ears of the deaf unstopped,
Then shall the lame man heap like a deer,
and the tongue of the dumb shout aloud;
for water springs up in the wilderness,
and torrents flow in dry land.
The mirage becomes a pool,
the thirsty land bubbling springs.
(Isaiah 35:5 ff )
One the day deaf men shall hear
when a book is read,
and the eyes of the blind shall see
out of impenetrable darkness.
The lowly shall once again rejoice in the Lord.
The ruthless shall be no more, the arrogant shall cease to be;
those who are quick to see mischief,
those who charge other with a sin
or lay traps for him who brings the wrongdoer into court
or by falsehood deny justice to the righteous–
all these shall be exterminated. (Isaiah 29:18-21)
24
25
Op. cit., p. 52.
K.C. Abraham, LiberativeSolidarity, op. cit., p. 32.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
199
10
IN GOD’S WORLD - CALLED TO BE ONE:
A Marginalized Person’s Perspective
The church is called to tear down the walls of separation just as
Christ came to tear down the walls (Eph. 2:14). We have erected
many walls that separate us from one another. There are walls of
shame; walls of prejudice; walls of hatred; walls of competition;
walls of fear; walls of ignorance; walls of corruption, walls of
theological prejudice and cultural misunderstanding. These walls
have kept people behind, isolated and treated like second-class
citizens in the body of Christ. These walls are systemic and
institutionalized and thusdemand a collectivesolidarity resistance
for justice.
A Divine Mandate – Called to be ONE
“In God’sWorld - Called to beOne” isa divineimperativenot an
option. Every person iscalled to striveto beonewith one another
not becauseit isexpedient but becauseGod hascalled into existence
onepeople. It isGod’swill that God’speople beone and together
– to be united and diverse at the same time. We are called to be
one not because we are same, but because we are different; not
because all are good or all lead to the same goal. But we are called
to be one because we are all created by God in his own image.
Therefore, the mandate `called to be one” is not just a desire for
closeness, or a model for coexistence. Thisisa unity in diversity.1
This is not a matter of compromising or harmonizing the
differences, but isaprophetic movement compelled by thepower
1
O. Cullmann, Unitythrough Diversity: It’sFoundationsand a Contribution to
theDiscussion ConcerningitsActualization, (Philadelphia: FortressPress, 1988).
200
In God’sWorld - Called to be One - Part II
of the Holy Spirit to live and work together.
a) To be One is very the Nature of God: Communion or
togethernessisan integral featurein the very nature of God, as
expressed in the Holy Trinity. Trinity isunity in community.
They are related to each other, belong to one another, never
insist on one’sown way, and despite“their outward appearance
of diversity,” their foundational unity is upheld. There is no
dominion over the other in the Trinity. Each divine person
penetratestheother and allowshimself/herself to bepenetrated,
each maintaining identity but sharing thesame communion.2
Unity of equal partnersbound by mutual love isa model that
expressesdivine reality.
b) We are in God’s World: The Bible begins with a vision that the
whole inhabited earth is one. The first two chapters of the Book
of Genesis are not a scientific statement but fundamentally, a
faith-affirmation. God is the maker of heaven and earth. She/he
has made the humans in her/his image and likeness (Gen. 1:2627). We carry “the breath of life” gifted by God (Gen. 2:7).
There is an affirmative, an intrinsic oneness between God and
all of humanity as well as between humanity and the earth.
T he bi bli cal vi si on of ` called to be one’ i s not j ust a
denominational issue or for inter-religious cooperation. It has
to do with the whole and all of reality on earth. The Apostle
Paul admonishes us “to be in the world” but “not of the world.”
To be “of the world” isto accept the world’svalues; it is opposition
to God and to live under the conditions of human sinfulness.
“To be in the world” is to exercise the will of God.
c) God BecameFlesh: God becameflesh so that weshare oneness
with God, with one another and with the whole creation. In
incarnation, God does not remain remote and abstract in the
world. He/she becomes tangible and visible in Jesus. He is
made up of flesh and blood, rooted in and related to the heat
and dust, therough and tumbleof theearth. ThustheJohannine
2
K.C. Abraham, “Living in a Religiously Plural World – Problemsand Challengesfor Doing Mission in Asia” in JTCA, vols. 7& 8, (2008), p. 11.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
201
affirmation, “God so loved the world “(Jn. 3:16) and “the
Word became flesh. “(Jn. 1:14). These are the defining
characteristicsof the incarnation that God isintegrally related
to theworld. Thisgiveshim hisidentity and thereby he isable
to identify with full humanity. Jesus is not an appearance, a
docetic figureor a gnostic being. Heisof thesinful flesh, sarx,
belonging to thecosmos, the world. Heisnot adisembodied,
fleshless reality.3 The ‘called to be one’is not other-worldly,
but it is to be experienced in this world.
d) All Human BeingsareOne: Thecreation narrativespeaksabout
one humanity. Human beings carry not only ‘the breath of
life’, but they are all created in ‘the imageof God’(Genesis1)
irrespectiveof caste, gender, color, creed, ethnicity or language
which guaranteehuman beingsaprivileged placeamong living
things and affirm our common humanity. They provide
grounds for respect of life and justice and the right for all
human beings. This means the right of equality of access to
basic life needs as well as political, economic, spiritual and
cultural goods for all people. It confers on all people a worth
or dignity that no person or system— whether political,
economic, or social— can take away. Life isa divinegift to all
and enabling people to celebrate this divine gift is the role of
thechurch.
e) In DoingJusticeweWitnesstoOneness: Without justice, ‘called
to be one’ is like an empty vessel. Justice is the ground for
communion with God and between humans as well as God’s
creation. Injustice breeds division and hatred. The Hebrew
Prophetsspokeof structural transformation of social, political
and economic systems. People’sdignity and freedom were the
crux of their visions. They pronounced God’sjudgment upon
those who exploited the poor, widow and strangers. The
3
Somen Das, TheChurch and theWorld: Towardsa Biblical-Ethical Understanding (New Delhi: ISPCK, 2006), pp. 9-10.
202
In God’sWorld - Called to be One - Part II
prophets always understood God’s liberative action in terms
of political, social and economic freedom. Jesus’announcement
of the Kingdom also embraces the total well being of people.
Hechallenged thereligiousand political systems that oppressed
and marginalized people. Christian witnesswhich ismerely in
the sense of individual salvation or otherworldly salvation is
essentially a contradiction to the Good News of the coming
of God’s Kingdom. The Kingdom which Jesus preached was
the Kingdom of those who were deprived of life. Jesus’
uncompromising defense of life led him to a life of conflict
with the powerful ruling class of his time.4 To follow Jesus is
to witnessto the abundant life. It involvessacrifice, suffering
and opposition for Christ’s sake.
‘Called to be One’– IsVisible Unity Enough?
Jesus’prayer that “they all may be one” was adopted by the early
church to describethevisibleunity of theChurch (Ephesians4.3)
and the“wholeinhabited earth” (Matthew 24.14). Thetraditional
understanding of thehouseof God referred to theinitiativesaimed
at greater Christian unity or church cooperation in responding to
theparticular concernsof the Christian denominational divisions
caused in its history. The founding of the World Council of
Churchesin 1948 marked a significant milestone of the effort for
unity by the churches. Formed through the merger of the “Life
and Work” and “Faith and Order” in 1948, TheWorld Council of
Churches(WCC) istoday a worldwide fellowship of 349 global,
regional and sub-regional, national and local churchesseeking unity,
a common witness and Christian service. Today the member
churches of WCC include the Orthodox Churches, numerous
denominationsof theProtestant churches, which includeAnglican,
Baptist, Lutheran, Methodist, Reformed and someUnited, Uniting
and independent churches representing some 560 million
Christiansin more than 110 countries all over the world.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
Along with thedevelopment and growth of WCC, theconcept
and practice of “called to be one” have been challenged and
expanded. The rapid expansion of membership brought rich
fellowship and exchangesamong themembers, and deepened the
Christian witnessof unity and service. However, the churches in
thethird world countriesbased on their cultural particularity and
mission experienceshavechallenged thetraditional understanding
of unity, which focused primarily on the unity of church. With
the irruption of third world churches, the concept of “One in
Christ” waschallenged to widen itsscopefrom itsoriginal concern
for the unity of the Church to the unity of people and is further
including the “integrity of God’s whole creation”.
The divisions of the churches among ‘younger churches’are
not so much adoctrinal issue, but mostly based on non-theological
factors. In the early years the denomination of a convert was
commonly determined by topography rather than by theology.
But today the dividing walls that prevent people to be united are
forces of economic exploitation, political oppression, social
domination and cultural discrimination. In other words, while
the contemporary ecumenical movement initiative in western
countriesfocuseson theunity of churches, theAsian/Indian search
for unity is directed to a wider scope of oikos i.e., people’s
ecumenism.5 The Church’s unity cannot be attained without the
unity of people in the society. Thus, the traditional concept of
ecclesial unity and cooperation is now shifted to people’s
ecumenism.
Moreover, in the contexts of Asia/India, where most of the
world religionshavetheir homes, Christian churchesarechallenged
to live together with people of various living faiths. In a country
like India where Christiansare a minority, to restrict the scope of
unity within the Christians or churches’ communion, will not
only be missing the causesof church’sdivision and unity, but also
5
4
Ibid., p. 31.
203
Huang Poho, Mission from theUnderside: TransformingTheological Education
in Asia (Kolkata: PTCA/SATHRI/SCEPTRE, 2010), pp. 151-53
204
In God’sWorld - Called to be One - Part II
distort thetruemeaning of Oikoumene, thewholeinhabited world.
Called to be ONE – Are People in the Margin Included?
When the dialogue was started for the formation of Church of
South India (CSI), many thinkers were critical of the initiative.
The Madras Rethinking Group was quite apprehensive that the
church would be a stumbling block for the mission of Christ. In
subsequent years, many peopleexpressed their critical voicesseeing
the continuing exclusion of the people in the margin.
How do we make the experience of the people in the margin
to be‘central’in the body of Christ?Dalits, women, personswith
disabilities, persons living with HIV, people of different sexual
orientation, tribal/adivasi, and migrants continue to experience
exclusion and discrimination on many fronts.
The church will not be able to realize what it means to be
“called to be one”, unless we listen to the voices of the people in
themargin. From their vantagepoint thosepeople in themargin,
have the epistemological privilege of knowing what affirms life
and deniesit; what helpscommunitiesand what hurtsthem; what
contributesto thewell-being and what circumventsit. They bring
firsthand knowledgeof thesuffering that accompaniesexclusionary
practices. They bring gifts that are under-utilized because of the
lack of opportunities and disempowerment. They also bring a
reservoir of hope, resistance, and perseverance that can empower
people to remain faithful to the promised reign of God.6
Thechurch in thepast often failed to challengetheeconomic,
social, religious, cultural, and political systems which have
marginalized some sections of the people in society. During the
Edinburgh Conference1910, the leadersthought that oikoumene
was possible even without removing and transforming the
structuresof oppression and exploitation of colonial regimes. The
same is the case in the church today. It is not possible to achieve
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
unity unlesswe challenge and transform the institutionalized and
systemic injusticesthat aretaking placein thechurch, government
and other public sectors.
Recently, I was involved in an HIV awareness programme
among theological teachers. To assess their level of awareness,
perceptions and attitudes, a few questions were asked. Three
responses were quite shocking. In response to whether an HIVpositive church member should be allowed to participate in the
Holy Communion, one answer was, “It dependshow the person
got infected.” I asked why?He kept quite but the silence was the
answer – if theperson got infected through asexual act, that person
should not be given Holy Communion. Another question was:
Would you recommend to a local congregation that they appoint
someone HIV-positive (who isdoing very well in studies?) astheir
pastor?Theanswer was“no.” I asked why?Hereplied, “Theperson
isgoingto diesoon.” Another replied, “Aslong asHIV isassociated
with immoral activities, I will not recommend.”
I did not expect such answers from theological teachers who
are going to teach a course on “Towards Inclusive Communities:
People Living with HIV and AIDS” in thenew B.D curriculum. I
thought to myself, are they (our theological teachers and church
leaders) behaving likePhariseesat thetime of Jesus. The questions
and answers say a lot about how we perceive those affected by
HIV, with judgmental and negative attitudes.7 This is just an
example, but similar attitudes are still prevalent towards dalits,
personswith disabilities, tribal/adivasi, peoplewith different sexual
orientation, women and so on. They are still treated like second
classcitizens in the body of Christ.
While I wasatheological student in early 1980s, casteism was
not atheological issue. It wasnever discussed in theclassroom but
Dalits still experience injustice, restrictions, feeling of contempt,
7
6
Draft Document of WCC on Mission from theMargin’sPerspective, p. 4
205
For detail, Wati Longchar, “Unclean and CompassionateHand of God”, The
Ecumenical Review, 63.4 December 2011, pp. 408-419.
206
In God’sWorld - Called to be One - Part II
segregation, and endogamy. Even among theologically educated
peopleand respected leaders, weoften hear comments reflecting a
sense of pride in being upper caste and asense of shame in being
of the lower caste. People of the lower caste suffer a lowered selfesteem, confusion of self-identity, self-hate and the perception of
theworld asa hostile place. They develop cowardice and timidity,
leading to hypertension and neuroticism. They also acquireasocial
character of dependence, social distancein termsof ethnocentrism,
seclusion leading to withdrawal, anger, hatred and feeling of
nothingness. It killsthe common identity of anation. Thetribals/
adivasi also undergoes similar experience and humiliation. In
addition, the tribals/adivasi communities struggle against land
alienation through development activities and erosion of their
culture and identity.
We can also categorize people with disabilities, people with
sexual orientation and women as being at the ‘margin of the
margins’. They aremarginalized becauseof unjust systems. We see
people with disabilities as the embodiment of suffering,
evil,uncleanness,anddepravity.Manychurchesarestillnotopen
to recognizethe gift of personswith disabilitiesand wekeep them
away from church and society. Their bodies and labours are
exploited, and they aredeprived of their freedom. Thechurch has
often exhibited a patronizing attitude toward people with
disabilities, seeing them as charity cases, objects of pity and
compassion. The church finds it difficult to welcome them into
the Body of Christ.
After theDelhi High Court Verdict in July 2010 that legalized
consensual adult sex among gays, we have heard many voicesfor
and against theverdict. Asthemarriage between man and woman
isnot only civil contract, but deeply rooted in cultural and religious
sphere, the Verdict was a surprise to many religious leaders and
communities. For some, it was totally a violation of religious
sanction, unnatural and unacceptablein society. But, for thePeople
with Different Sexual Orientation (PDSCO), it continuesto be a
justiceissue. It wasseen asliberation from thedraconian law. Many
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
207
Christians see it as unscriptural and a violation of the sanctity of
the God- instituted marriage act. Though the church advocate
‘Just and Inclusive Community’, it is very obvious that many
churches are not ready and still stigmatize and demonize people
with different sexual orientation. Are we ready to sojourn with
sexual minorities and their families without prejudice and
discrimination, to provide them ministriesof love, compassionate
care, and justice?
We have been talking about thewomen’srightsin society and
the church for many years yet women’s identities are shaped by
men within our society and church. All thecharacteristicsof being
“feminine,” such asobedience, tenderness, sweetness, humbleness,
discretion, maternity, were ascribed to them by men to ensure
that they would have a passive mate to be the mother of their
children. This has denied women both a voice and agency, since
their bodies, sexuality, and entire lives have been controlled by
men. Some churches give second grade ordination to women.
Relocating the “Called to be One” in the Context of those in the
Margins
Relocation of “Called to be One” in the context of those in the
margins is not an option, but a divine mandate. In his life and
work, Jesus was involved in and identified with the grassroots,
ground reality. He did not belong to the elite, rich class. He was
with, for and from the people. People’sproblemsand predicament
were hisconcerns. He did not understand hisspirituality in terms
of separation from the people in pain, but in terms of total
identification. The Pharisees and the Scribes were always
uncomfortable about his association with the “tax collectors and
sinners” and even eating and drinking with them (Mk. 2: 15-17;
Lk. 15:1-2; 5:27-32; Matt. 9:9-13). Such people were considered
‘outcasts’. In another context, Jesus is more categorical in
challenging them, “I tell you, tax collectorsand the prostitutesare
going into the kingdom of God ahead of you” (Matt. 21:31b).
He also said, “When you givea luncheon or dinner, do not invite
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your friends, your brothers or relatives, or your rich neighbours
… . But invite the poor, thecrippled, the lame, theblind, and you
will be blessed.” (Lk 14: 12-14a). Thisclearly indicateshispriority
and perspective. There is a reversal of values or transvaluation of
values. His morality and ethics is not legalistic, ritualistic and
traditional. He was not self-righteous and hypocritical about his
relationships.8 God’s kingdom is incomplete without inclusion
of people in the margin.
Jesus’ focus on justice is made crystal clear in his sharp
distinction between the rich and the poor. Jesus said, “It is easier
for acamel to go through the eyeof aneedle than for arich person
to enter the kingdom of God” (Mk. 10: 23; Matt. 19:24; Lk.
18:25; Lk. 6:20b-21a, 24-25a). The parable of theRich man and
Lazarus(Lk. 16: 19-25) illustratesthe huge gap between the rich
and poor and the consequences of it. He gives an identity and
dignity by naming the poor person but the rich man remains
unnamed. Once he challenged a Rich Young Ruler (Mk. 10: 1725) but the latter did not respond positively.9
For Jesus, justice basically means structural-systemic
transformation. Assuch Jesusvery often challenged the Pharisees
as a group on several issues on their legalistic position. Secondly,
he was concerned about the sabbath system, which was
institutionalized for mere observance of rituals. Thirdly, he
challenged the Jewish legal system, which was oppressive and
alienating human relationships. Fourthly, Jesuswasgender-sensitive
and therefore worked for gender-justice by giving dignity to
women. Fifthly, Jesus openly condemned the temple system in
Jerusalem. It was detrimental to the development of a just and
equitable society. Sixthly, Jesus’ understanding and practice of
power was radically different from the exercise of power by
Pharoahs, Caesars, kings and other non-religious and religious
8
9
Somen Das, op. cit., pp. 66 ff.
Ibid, pp. 70 ff.
CHRISTIAN WITNESS AND MISSION
209
leaders of the time. These are explicit examples of Jesus’ larger
concern and a wider vision. This was his Messianic ministry. He
came to introduce and invite us to such a kingdom of God.10
Therefore, weseethefollowing principlesin Jesus’vision of “called
to be one.”
1. Jesus’vision of “called to be one”, “that they may be one” is a
movement for the Reign of God; therefore the Reign of God
is taken as the ultimate intention for oneness. To proclaim
and actualizetheReign of God in thisworld isthefoundation
for unity; to betrueecumenical, evangelical, liberationist means
to participate in Jesus’movement for the Reign of God.
2. Jesus’vision of “called to be one” is by nature a movement of
incarnation and identification. It was a movement set off by
the recognition and confession of the messianic identity of
Jesusby hisfollowers. Therefore thevery natureand dynamics
of the movement is the transforming power of incarnation, a
power that makes Divine becoming human in order to
transform human’s predicament. This was a movement
decisively directed to the ordinary, thedowntrodden, and the
marginalized with self-humbling identification of sacrificial
love. Thusan authentic unity among God’speople ispossible
only through identification in love to the victims, the poor,
and the suffering.11
3. Jesus’vision of “called to beone” isamovement that transcends
human- made boundaries; Jesuscrossestheboundary of Jewish
tradition to reach peopleof different nationsand ethnic groups,
and even further crosses the human boundary to create a
harmonious relation between human beings and the rest of
creatures. Jesuscameto break human-madebarriersand build
bridgesof understanding and action. He waswilling to learn
from non-Jewish sourcesand people like the Syrophoenician
10
11
Ibid., pp. 78 ff.
Ibid., p. 90.
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In God’sWorld - Called to be One - Part II
or the Canaanite woman who came to Jesus in faith (Mk. 7:
24-30; Matt. 15: 21-28). A true unity can be experienced
when we are bold enough to crossthe boundariesand launch
the coming of the Divine new creation.12
4. Jesus’vision of “called to be one” is a movement of healing of
the whole inhabited earth. The liberation of the whole of
creation isthedirection and goal of theGospel. In thepurpose
of God, the creation isaharmoniouscosmosand not achaos.
Paul persists from this holistic perspective and affirms, “If
anyoneisin Christ, thereisa new creation; everything old has
passed away; see, everything hasbecome new” (II Cor. 5:17).
Conclusion
Unjust practicesare organized, systemic and institutionalized like
the Roman “Legion” at the time of Jesus, and thus a collective
solidarity resistance isimperative. Search for onenessin the body
of Christ involves dismantling the existing unjust systems and
institutions that perpetuate systemic injustice to many people.
Resistancemeanscommitment to struggleof thedefenselesspeople
for radical changein thesystem of oppressivestructures. It demands
a continuous collective struggle against the misuse and abuse of
power. Therefore, we must collectively resist unjust systems that
the church may be one.
12
Ibid., p. 92.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
Part -III
Contextual Issues in Theological
Education
211
212
Development of Theological Education in Asia - Part III
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
213
11
DEVELOPMENT OF TH EOLOGICAL
EDUCATION IN ASIA AND ECUMENICAL
TH EOLOGICAL EDUCATION INITIATIVES
Introduction
When wespeak of ‘Ecumenical Theological Education’, wecome
to the quick conclusion that it is about ‘inter-denominational
programmes or institutions of theological education’. But
ecumenical Theological Education is much broader than
institutional collaboration; it isno longer limited to the history of
attempts to reunite churches or the growth of ecumenical
organization.1 The ecumenical theological education aims to
achievethree visions:
(a) which affirm life and relationships/community,
(b) which inspire rebuilding and reconstruction of community,
inclusive of different and diversities, and
(c) which reach beyond the future of church and society and
embracesGod’sentire creation.
Therefore, thevision of ecumenical theological education cannot
be narrowly confined to ministerial training programmes of the
churches alone; rather it involves equipping the whole people of
God. It isfor the Laos– the wholepeople of God. It isan ongoing
process in which the whole people of God are empowered for
formation and transformation of the wholecommunity. It aspires
to build a just and inclusive community in the context of the
people of other faiths.2
1
2
Simon Oxley, CreativeEcumenical Education (Geneva: WCC Publication,
2002), p. 11.
For more details, refer to Simon Oxley, pp. 43 ff.
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Development of Theological Education in Asia - Part III
Ecumenical Theological Networks in Asia
A. Background
Theological education isvery central to preserveand enhance the
present and future health of the ecumenical movement. WCC
hasbeen involved in theological education in Asia and Pacific for
many years. After the Harare Assembly of the World Council of
Churchesin 1998, the decision wasmade to continue itswork in
collaboration with regional ecumenical bodiesto makeecumenical
theological education programmemore contextually based in the
region.
After the Tomohon Assembly of Christian Conference of
Asia(CCA) in 2000, CCA and WCC had aconsultation with the
representatives from the Pacific Conference of Churches (PCC),
several associations of theological education in the Asia-Pacific
region, viz. theAssociation of Theological Education in Southeast
Asia (ATESEA), the Senate of Serampore College (University),
the South Pacific Association of Theological Schools(SPATS) and
the Australia-New Zealand Association of Theological Schools
(ANZATS), meeting in Hong Kong through the hosting of the
CCA, to discuss the possibility of appointing a joint consultant
on ecumenical theological education and theological concernsfor
Asia and Pacific. CCA recognized that the project is important
not only becauseit embodiescooperation between the WCC and
CCA, but also because it opensup possibilitiesto work with other
regional ecumenical organizations and a network of associations
of theological education with which CCA did not have any
significant relationshipsin thepast. Therefore, a joint programme
on ecumenical theological education was launched in June 2001
with the following objectives:
- To contribute claiming and proclaiming God’s will for
“Fullness of Life for All”,
- Promote ecumenical and ministerial formation through
theological education,
- Strengthen ecumenical movement through theological
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
215
education,
- Promoteand encourageecumenical formation, strengthen
networking, etc.,
- Assist theological associations and colleges in their
accreditation, faculty development, library development,
etc.,
- Create space and promote new theological thinking and
debate,
- Encouragetheological collegesto integrate/incorporatenew
issues like HIV and AIDS, violence and peacemaking,
gender justicein theological curriculum, etc.
- Explore new waysof teaching ecumenical theology, etc.
Though the joint programmeof ETE isdiscontinued, WCC
still continues to work with the regional theological associations
and CCA and theological institutions.
B. Network and Programmes
There are several ecumenical theological education networks in
Asia and Pacific. Most of the theological colleges/seminaries
established by the mainline churches come under the following
regional theological associations:3
(a) The founding of Serampore College is significant in the
history of theological education in India. The Serampore
missionariesWilliam Carey and hiscolleagues, JoshuaMarshman
and William Ward founded Serampore College in 1818 for “the
instruction of Asiatic Christians and other youths in Eastern
Literature and Western Sciences”. The primary aim of thecollege
3
Apart from Christian studiesin secular universities, there other evangelical
theological associationslikeAsian Theological Association (ATA) who also give
accreditation of theological degrees. Though ATA isafast growing theological
association in Asia, I have limited our discussion to ecumenical theological
education only.
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Development of Theological Education in Asia - Part III
wasto provideinstruction in every branch of knowledgeto promote
the welfare of the people. The College wasmade accessible to all,
declaring that “no caste, colour, country shall bar anybody for
admission into the college. The college was given a Danish Royal
Charter by Kind Frederick XI of Denmark in 1827, granting it
University Rightsand the power to award degrees. The founding
of Serampore College paved the way for higher theological
education in the Indian sub-continent.
Under thePrincipalship of GeorgeHowells, theoriginal charter
was revived and led to the 1918 West Bengal Act providing a
Council of up to 16 members and a Senate of up to 18 members
to determine eligible candidates for the award of degrees.4 This
revised structure made it possible for colleges to affiliate to
Serampore College, e.g. The United Theological College in 1919
and Bishop’s College in 1920, etc and today there are 54 colleges
affiliated to the Senate of Sermapore College (University). It has
blossomed into an ecumenical university having affiliated
institutions from various traditions. Orthodox, Mar Thoma,
Church of South India, Church of North India, Presbyterian,
Baptist, Brethren, Methodist, Lutheran, Evangelical Church of
India and Pentecostal from India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. All
of them follow the rules, regulations and curricula of the SSC.
In a period when the Indian subcontinent was under the
onslaught of European coloniesand their commercial enterprises,
being divided into several small kingdoms of Hindu and Muslim
rulers, when thecaste systems, sati practice, patriarchy and akind
of feudalism dominated society, when religion was characterized
by cumbersome rituals and practices, Serampore College was a
4
TheSerampore College(University), not only isthefirst University but also
theonly Theological University in India. TheCharter, granted by HisRoyal
Danish Majesty in 1927, and the SeramporeCollegeAct-1918 of theBengal
LegislativeCouncil arethelegal documentsin itssupport. They areprinted, as
modified from time to time, the latest onebeing in 1997.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
217
beacon of light educating people in the humanities, science and
theology.
Seramporewastheonly meansof validating theological training
in India until 1978. The Union Biblical Seminary (UBS) was
constituted in 1953 as an evangelical theological college at B.Th
and B.D levels. It was accredited by the Board of Theological
Education of NCCI in 1964, which wasformed in 1955 to bring
together the unaffiliated Bible schools and seminaries. UBS was
affiliated to Seramporein 1973 at B.D level. After aseriesof joint
consultationswith Serampore, theBoard of Theological Education
of NCCI decided in favor of the formation of one national
structure for Theological Education in India. When Serampore
accepted the proposal, a joint structure was formed in July 1975
asthe Board of Theological Education of theSenateof Serampore
(BTESSC). It brought together not only theological colleges
affiliated to Serampore but also a large number of organizations
that were experimenting and articulating relevant modes of
theologizing in Indian context. Serampore was open to affiliate
evangelical collegesaswell. But evangelical leadersdecided to form
the Association of Evangelical Theological Education in India in
1979 to provide a forum for fellowship and reflection and soon
linked it with AsiaTheological Association which wasfounded as
an accreditating agency for evangelical theological institutions in
Asia.
To promote women in theological education, the Senate of
Seramporecreated aspace, namely, theAssociation of Theologically
Trained Women in India (ATTWI). It is an All- India body
consisting of morethan 400 members, who aretheologically trained
women. The Association is divided into eight regions, namely:
Andhra Region, Karnataka, Kerala, Chennai, North India (2
regions) and North East India. ATTWI isan interdenominational
organization and it strives to uplift women and girl child, deal
with issues pertaining to women and the girl child’s right, have
dialoguewith theconcerned organizations, and makerepresentation
on their behalf and by doing so help society to develop a healthier
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Development of Theological Education in Asia - Part III
community by creating awareness regarding women’s situation.
ATTWI conductsseminars, writers’workshop based on theabove
mentioned issues in various regions from time to time. Indian
Women in Theology (IWIT) is the publishing wing of ATTWI
established in 2001.
(b) Likemost Asian countries, theological education began to
develop in Chinawith theentry of Christianity. From the church
schools set up by missionaries in the early period to Chinese
Christian theological education today, Christian education in China
has experienced several periods of change and renewal. It is said
that before 1949 in China, there were several independent
seminariesand Bibleschools, and also Christian study institutesin
universities such as the Yanjing Institute of Religious Studies of
Yanjing University in Beijing. In 1950s, with the policy of
separation between school education and religion, thoseuniversityaffiliated Christian institutes became independent seminaries.
However, during theCultural Revolution, all seminariesand bible
schools were closed. Many seminaries lost valuable books and
archivecollections.
Since 1980, theological education in China entered a new
phase. Along with the rapid growth of churches, demand for
trained pastors and the development of a new China, with the
deepening of theThree-Self Patriotic Movement and theological
reconstruction, theological education hasbecomemoreprominent
and important. Infrastructures of theological schools have much
improved. Sincethe1990s, many seminarieshavebegun to relocate
their premises, construct new dormitories, for example, Guandong,
Yanjing and East China. Nanjing Union Theological Seminary
has moved to a new campus in Nanjing’s Jiangning university
district. Presently, there are 23 seminaries and bible schools in
China. Of these, one isoperated by the CCC; the rest either by a
Provincial Christian Council or by the cooperation of several
Christian councils. The first round of new campus construction
has almost finished. All the 23 schools have either moved into
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
219
new campuses or new buildings, or are in the process of
construction. We were told that in the year 2000, 4 schools
dedicated new campuses. Wu Bing categorizes theological/bible
schools and training centers as follows:
1. Correspondence courses (from Nanjing Seminary),
completed by nearly a million students.
2. Local lay training courses and centres; examples are the
Inner Mongolia Lay Training Center; Qianghai Province
Lay Training Center, etc.
3. Bible Schools; among thebetter-equipped are the Jiangzi
Bible School and the Jiangsu Bible School.
4. Regional seminariesoffering theB.D., such asNortheastern
Seminary, Sichuan Seminary and Guangdong Union
Theological Seminary.
5. Regional seminaries and Nanjing Seminary offering M.
Div. degrees: East China, Yanjing and Zhongnan.
6. The post-graduate programme at Nanjing Union
Theological Seminary sponsored by CCC.5
The Commission on Theological Education (CTE) continues to
play a key role in setting up libraries and enlarging their book
collections. The Nanjing Union Theological Seminary, the only
national seminary with degreeprogrammes, hasthelargest library,
with more than fifty thousand volumes, including about twenty
fivethousand in English. In addition to those23 seminaries, there
areinnumerabletraining centersmanaged by municipal Christian
councilsand local congregations.
(c) ATESEA: The Association for Theological Education in
South East Asia(ATESEA)6 wasestablished in Singapore in 1957,
with 16 mainlineProtestant schoolsasfounding members. It was
the first formal regional association of theological schools in the
5
6
Wu Bing, “Grow in Statureand Wisdom: On ChineseTheological Education”,
in ChineseTheological Review 19, p. 2
Now known asATESEA Theological Union (ATU).
220
Development of Theological Education in Asia - Part III
non-western world. Today it hasa membership of 105 schools in
16 countries, with approximately 30,000 studentsand morethan
3100 faculty members and has broadened its membership to
include Evangelical, Pentecostal and Adventist schools not only
from South East Asia, but also other regions. The ATESEA has
five (geographical) areasin itswork. They are: the IndonesiaArea,
the PhilippinesArea, the Malaysia-Thailand Area, the Myanmar
Area and the Hong Kong-Taiwan Area.7 The plan to create a new
region for Sri Lanka under the South East Asia Graduate School
of Theology (SEAGST) is under consideration.8
Apart from its various degree programmes, the ATESEA
respondsto thechanging needsof theological education by running
variousprogrammesthrough itsdifferent organsto meet theneeds
of theological education in the region. Some of its present
programmes include the improvement of the management and
administration of schools, the search for a new spirituality in
Christian formation, new pattern of the theological education,
thepromotion of closer relationship between seminary and church,
the search for a more adequate understanding of excellence in
theological education and the development of Asian perspective
and insightsin Christian theology through seminar-workshops. It
also laysspecial emphasison empowering women, becausewomen
haveassumed considerableleadership rolein theological education
in South East Asia. The former Executive Director of ATESEA
was a woman and the former Executive Director of Indonesian
Theological Association was also a woman. There are number of
women leading thecollegesasprincipals/presidents.
TheFoundation for Theological Education in South East Asia
7
8
Some schools in Korea, Hong Kong and Taiwan are under the ATESEA
program.
TheATESEA family continuesto expand itsministry in South Asiaparticularly
due to political reasons in the region. Altogether there are five theological
collegesin South Asiahaveaccreditation with ATESEA (two in Sri Lanka, two
in Pakistan and onein Bangladesh).
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
221
(FTESEA) plays a significant role in China and South Asia. The
FTESEA isan ecumenical agency that providesfinancial support
to ATESEA and SEAGST aspartnersin theon-going development
of theological thoughts and education in the region. Established
in the 1930sto support Nanjing Theological Seminary in China,
FTESEA expanded itswork to South East Asiain the1950s. Today
FTESEA continues its relationship with Nanjing Theological
Seminary and the Commission on Theological Education of the
ChinaChristian Council, aswell asitspartnersin South East Asia.
Two denominations in Canada and eight in the United Statesare
members of FTESEA. The FTE continues to play major role in
(a) Christian theologies that arise from the specific contexts of
China and South East Asia; (a) theologically equipped Christian
leaders who provide competent leadership to their communities
of faith; and (c) Christian churcheswho share the Good Newsof
the Gospel with enthusiasm and relevance.
(d) N EAATS: T he North East Asia Association of
Theological Schools(NEAATS) coversKorea, Japan, Taiwan and
Hong Kong regions. Unlike the other theological associations in
Asia and Pacific, the NEAATS does not have an administrative
structure; it doesnot provideaccreditation of theological degrees.
TheAssociation organizesafellowship oncein two yearsto promote
ecumenical programmesand institutional cooperation.
Besides the Senate of Serampore College (SCC), ATESEA
and NEAATS, therearenumber of national theological associations
like Association of Theological Education in Myanmar (ATEM),
Perhimpunan Sekolah-sekolah T heologia di I ndonesia
(PERSETIA), Japan Association of Theological Education (JATE),
Korean Association of Accredited Theological Schools (KAATS),
MalaysiaAssociation of Theological Schools(MATS), Association
of Theological Education in Nepal (ATEN), etc. who strive to
enhancetheological education by sharing both human and material
resourcesamongchurchesand theological schoolsand who facilitate
accreditation of theological schools, curricula formulation, etc.
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Development of Theological Education in Asia - Part III
Altogether there are seven major theological networks,
including thenational theological associations, who facilitate and
work towardsstrengthening theological education in Asia. Besides,
as mentioned earlier, there is the Asian Theological Association
(ATA) which wasstarted asaparallel organization by theevangelical
wing of thechurches. Theassociation providesaccreditation service
to its member schools.
At present, there is no umbrella organization to bring these
theological associationsfor abetter co-ordination in training future
church leaders.9 ETE continues to create space for theological
associations in the region to work towards a closer co-ordination
in future to avoid misunderstanding and to help these theological
accrediting bodiesto establish healthier relationship, and to develop
a standard accreditation policy of the institutions to give global
credibility and acceptability.10
The BTESSC, ATESEA and NEAATS jointly publish the Asia Journal of
Theologywith theaim (a) to encourageAsian Biblical scholarship and theological
thinking; (b) to relatethe Gospel to Asian cultural, historical and religious
situation; (c) to study problemsrelated to theteaching theology and aimsof
theological education in Asia; (d) and to sharenewsabout member schoolsof
theAssociationsand to maintain contact with theology and ministry beyond
theregion of Asia.
10
Under theleadership of Dr. Dietrich Werner of ETE-WCC, 15 representatives
of different theological collegesand networksmet at TrinityTheological College,
Singapore from 10-11, June, 2011 and decided to work together under the
umbrella“Asian Forum for Theological Education” (AFTE). Thisisthefirst
of itskind and acommon platform of theological education networksamong
the Ecumenicals, Evangelicalsand Pentecostalsin Asia. In the Singapore
meeting, the participantsagreed to work together, in spite of denominational
and cultural differences, to strengthen their common witnessto Christ through
theological education in Asia. Themembersagreed to work together for more
cooperation among theological educatorsin training future church leaders;
moremutual learning through exchangeof theological resourcesbetween the
different regionswithin Asia; moredialoguebetween different denominational
and theological traditions; more common standards and accreditation
mechanism for insuring quality theological education; and more mutual
solidarity support mechanism and network for emerging churchesin Asia. To
9
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
223
Theological associations, both at regional and national levels,
have been making serious attempts to make a blending of the
theological and pastoral dimensions in ministry. The primary
objectiveof theological education isseen asavocation of discipling
the nationswhich involvesnurturing the candidatesto relatefaith
to life, worship to work, prayer to action, proclamation to protest
asauthentic form of Christian obedience. Social awarenessisbeing
recognized asthe key factor in the renewal of congregations. The
training of women has also attained acceptance for meeting the
challengesin both rural and urban situations.
In addition to these theological networks, we have also the
Forum for Asian Theological Librarians (For ATL) who cater to
theneed of library development of theological schools. ThisForum
was started in 1991 through the initiative of Programme for
Theology and Cultures in Asia (PTCA). The Forum was actively
engaged in producing resource materials for “Doing Theologies
with Asian Resources” and training institutesin thepast. However,
theForum could not initiatemuch activity dueto lack of resources
and initiative during the last few years. Recognizing that library
development and networking is crucial in theological education,
the ETE was able to help in revitalizing this important Forum.
TheForum isnow actively engaged in varioustraining programme,
resourcesharing, networking and publication, and isplaying avital
rolein ecumenical leadership formation. TheForum isnow playing
a key role in the globethics.net/gtl.
Although Asian Women’s Resource Centre (AWRC) and
Cluster of Ecumenical Formation, Gender Justice and Youth
Empowerment of Christian Conference of Asia (CCA) are not
preparea working guidelinefor AFTE with acommon “Vision and Mission
Statement”, and to exploreareasand mechanism of common futureactivities,
the representativeswill bemeeting again at Jarkatain August this year. The
Task Force isworking hard to make thisevent asuccesswith the support of
ETE-WCC, the Foundation of Theological Education in South East Asia
(FTE), and EMW (Germany).
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Development of Theological Education in Asia - Part III
directly related to ecumenical theological education programmes,
they continue to play a significant role in shaping theological
thinking on gender sensitivity. For example, in asurvey conducted
a few years ago by the publications staff of In God’sImage, it was
found that many users/readers of this region-wide feminist
theological journal in Asia are seminary teachers and researchers,
not only in Asia but also in other parts of the world. Using both
scholarly and popular languages,11 In God’sImage has become a
helpful tool in doing contextual feminist theology.
CCA’s commitment to women’s empowerment is clearly
reflected in its decision to create a programme desk for women’s
concern. Recognizing the value of such a desk, many member
churches and councils have also established their own women’s
desks, thereby highlighting thework for and with women in Asia.
It isalso apolicy of CCA to ensuregender balancein the selection
of resource personsand participantsfor itsprogrammes. It isvery
encouraging to seethepresent General Secretary of CCA isawoman
and all the Executive Staff of CCA are also women. Part of the
ongoing challengeisincorporating thegender sensitiveperspective
in CCA’s programme planning and implementation, including
the methodology of doing things.
Ecumenical Theological Education Journey in Asia: A Glimpse
Keeping the mandate, ETE continues to play the coordinating
role of various regional and interregional programmes and was
ableto initiateseveral activitieswith theactivesupport of churches,
theological associations and colleges. Some of these are :
(a) Institute of Theology Teachers: In the midst of modernity and
affluence, many countries in the two-third worlds continue to
face massive poverty, injustice, and serious economic crisis.
11
Scholarly languagemeansacademic-styleresearch and writing whilepopular
language meansthe use of varied stylesof expression such asstories, poetry,
critical social analysis, Biblical studies with creative and participatory
methodology, experiential liturgies, and drawingsand paintings.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
225
Globalization continuesto createinequalitieson all fronts. People’s
security isat seriousrisk; environment continuesto bedeteriorated
all over theworld. And even with thegrowing openness, dialogue
and collaboration among churches and faith communities, Asia
also continues to face problems of fundamentalism, fanaticism,
and terrorism. To respond intellectually, theologically and spiritually
to our contemporary challenges, ETE continues to create space
for “Institute of Theology Teachers” with a view to widen
perspectiveson ecumenical mission and enhanceteaching skillsof
ecumenical theology, and explore new courses and teaching
methodology for ecumenical theology and ministerial formation
within the context of religious fundamentalism, violence,
globalization, economic injustice, masspoverty, gender injustice,
HIV and AIDScrisis, personswith disabilities, genetic engineering,
etc. The Institute looks at many faces of violence and discusses
the ways in which theological education in the region could
meaningfully respond to them. It provides “an opportunity to
theological teachers to share their views on those issues and
theological education as a whole, and to reaffirm that having a
broader and open-ended ecumenical perspective in theological
education of thepeopleitself isapowerful instrument in our efforts
to overcome many kinds of violence.” The Institute continues to
open up not only new perspectives, but provide a new vision to
recommit themselvesto strive together to deconstruct the existing
polluted values, concept of peace, and justicein themindsof people,
and reconstruct thepositiveand just concept and strategiesfor the
liberation of theweak and poor. Theological teachersarechallenged
to play the role of assistant, facilitator, and catalyst for building
theworld of life, peaceand justice. Curriculatransformation from
the margin’s perspective isthe product of the Institute.
(b) Feminist Theology and Hermeneuticswith Asian Resourcesand
Methodology: Violence and injustice against women in society isa
seriousconcern for all of us. Patriarchy continuesto discriminate
and exclude women not only from decision making processes,
but also suppressestheir storiesand their significant rolesin history.
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Development of Theological Education in Asia - Part III
Theological education needs to challenge male-biased theology.
ETE continuesto create space for women to share their ideasand
resourceson feminist experienceand feminist theology; and help
in integrating feminist perspectives in its different programmes,
life and action. Initiative of the pre-CATS Women’s Forum,
regional and sub-regional seminarsand consultationson theologies,
leadership formation and theological curriculum are some of the
initiatives.
(c) HIV and AIDSand Theological Education Curriculum: HIV is
a critical test for our faith and our commitment to building a
sustainable community and a fullness of life since HIV is rooted
not merely in health and physical spherebut also in lifestyle, social
perspectives, attitudes, individual behavior and practices. To fight
HIV and AIDSisatheological and an ethical imperative. Realizing
that theological education can play a vital role in this area, ETE
has made some initiatives to integrate HIV and AIDS crisis in
theological education curriculum. In collaboration with SSC,
ATESEA, PERSETIA and ATEM, ETE has organized series of
consultations on this issue. It is very encouraging to see that the
concern of “Health, Healing and Wholeness – HIV and AIDS”
has been taken seriously by theological schools who have
incorporated and integrated this subject into the theological
curriculum.
(d) Theological Education and Religious Fundamentalism:
Continuing violence at all levelsin our society hasbeen identified
as one that demands an urgent theological response. Several
consultations have been organized to create awareness among
theological teachersand help in reformulating arelevant theological
education in the context of growing religiousfundamentalism.
(e) DoingTheology from Perspectivesof Disability: Thereisno unity
of the churches without acknowledging the gifts of persons with
disabilities. All people with or without disabilities are created in
the image of God and called to an inclusive community in which
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
227
they are empowered to use their gifts. Thisinclusive community
of all, the people of God, is holy in Christ irrespective of the
physical stateof their bodiesand level of psychological functioning.
However, thepersonswith disabilitiesareoften discriminated and
excluded from active involvement in spiritual, social and
developmental life of the Church. To make long term impact in
influencing the church in providing space for the expression of
persons with disabilities in its spiritual, social and development
life, the ETE with the support of EDAN have been engaged in
empowering theological schoolsby transforming curriculum and
cultivating commitment to the same in the ministry.
(f ) Library Training on ArchiveManagement: A series of regional
workshops have been organized to equip and train Librarians/
Archivists with the necessary skills to develop archival centers to:
(i) Support and to encourage the preservation of theological,
missionary, and church archivesand documentation for theneeds
of the region. (ii) Understand theory and practice of theological,
missionary, and church archival work in such areas as: archival
management, collection development policy, acquisition,
arrangement and description, research and users’services, oral history
interviews and processing, and physical facilities, and (iii) Gain
practical experience in themethodsused by theological archivists
for archival management and conservation.
Problems
In spite of significant achievements in ecumenical leadership
formation, theological communitiesin Asiacontinueto facemany
problemsand challenges. A few may be highlighted here:
a) During the1960sand 70s, many theological collegeshavecome
up in major cities and towns in Asia. e.g. Manila, Kathmandu,
Chennai, Bangalore, Seoul, Dimapur etc. Why so many colleges?
It issad to notethat it isflourishing likean industry and for some,
establishing theological schools/college is a lucrative business.
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Development of Theological Education in Asia - Part III
Secondly, among the churches’ and different tribal or ethnic
communities, establishing their own theological colleges has
becomean issueof prestige. There isacompetition of establishing
one’s own church- sponsored colleges. All these motives lead to
division of resources, create ‘isms’, and unhealthy competition
among the people and finally produce substandard theological
education and unhealthy competition among one another for
survival of institutions.12 Theological colleges should not be
equated with general colleges. Theological education isaspecialized
and professional training and it is a fallacy, or one might say a
mere fancy for fanaticism, to start acheap theological college. It is
an abuseof Christian stewardship to maintain so many theological
institutions; in many cases there is a tacit attempt of certain
interested persons merely to solve someone else’s employment
problem or to promote one’s parochial idea.13 There is a great
need to come together. Such a structure is very essential not only
to bring all the institutionstogether but also for the sake of many
upcoming scholars. Thereisaseriousneed for thedevelopment of
more effective and intentional cooperation and communication
among theological collegesin Asia.
b) Higher Theological Research Centre: In spiteof vibrant Christian
communities, Asia has not taken adequate steps to develop
advanced theological research centersthat can produceintellectuals
and scholarswith vision of dedication and spiritual commitment.
Thechurchesand collegeshaveto cometogether, pool our resources,
both human and material, co-ordinating the colleges and the
sponsoring churchesand organizationsor privateparties/individuals
to build an infrastructure for an advanced study centre. The lower
level collegesareall important and they can becontinued in different
Limatula Longkumer, “Naga Women in Theological Education” in Sideby
Side, ed. by LimatulaLongkumer and TalijunglaLongkumer (Jorhat: CCAEGY & NWFT, 2004), 24-25.
13
Renthy Keitzar, “Theological Education in theC.B.C.N.E.I” in Journal of
Tribal Studies, Vol. III, No.1, January-June, 1999, p. 6.
12
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
229
regionsasthey aretoday, for thechurchesneed them. But graduates
of these colleges who are found to have potential and are of first
caliber, showing great promiseand commitment, can betrained at
such acenter in context, instead of studying at aplacewhich isnot
relevant. This should be a joint programme of concerted effort.
Funding and human resourceswill not be a problem, but what is
lacking isleadership and vision. A structureisabsolutely essential
to bring all the institutions and churches together in different
regions which calls for unity and ecumenical venture and
commitment.
c) Relevant Theological Education: Oneaspect of quality theological
education is not only that it effectively delivers the basic biblical
and theological traditions, but also that it isrelevant to thespecific
situation in which it isfound. Contextualization, indigenization,
and inculturation have been popular slogansfor many years. But
thishasnot translated into reality in theregion. Most of our students
know about the history of Christianity in West, but they do not
know their own history. Many studentsseem to know theproblem
of theThird World and Latin America in general, but they do not
know their own problems, challenges and struggle. 14 Our
theological education must takethecontext of thepeopleseriously.
d) Financial Viability: Thepresent system of ministerial formation
involves a high capital investment. Now that assistance from
ecumenical partners is dwindling for various reasons, there is an
acutefinancial crisisin most of our ecumenical schools. The initial
enthusiasm of inter-denominational venturesisslowly disappearing,
leaving many schoolswithout aproper owner. Several schoolshave
now sprouted in lines of denominational affiliation. The other
sad aspect is that Christians in many two-third worlds have not
been educated to support ecumenical formation. Many churches
14
O.L. Snaitang, et. al., “Theological education in theTwenty-First Century :
Current Trends and their Relevance for Northeast India:, Journal of Tribal
Studies, Vol. III, No. I, January-June, 1991, p. 36.
230
Development of Theological Education in Asia - Part III
in Asia and Pacific do have resources to support theological
education, but many churchesdo not want to invest resourceson
theological education; they are more interested in “mission”.
Besides, studentsincluding those who can afford to do so, do not
pay for their education. People seem to have a notion that money
for theological education should come from mission agencies. As
a result of these wrong understandings, the role of principals/
presidentsin many theological schoolsin Asiaand Pacific hasbeen
reduced to that of fund raising. We need to consider thisproblem
seriously. We cannot go on depending on ecumenical partners in
the West and North America for maintenance of our theological
schools. Measureshaveto betaken to sharetheresourceswherever
possible. A creative co-operation of the members’ schools,
associationsand churchesin several matterswill certainly ease the
financial burden.
FutureChallenges
Today theological schoolsfaceboth Internal and External problems.
The Internal problems relate to the structure, administration,
curriculum, pedagogy and finance. The External challengesarelike
terrorism, economic injustice, religious intolerance, ecological
destruction, masspoverty, child laborer, gender injustice, political
corruption, globalization, identity problem, the HIV and AIDS
pandemic, etc. We need to consider the following areas:
1. Financial Viability: Asia and Pacific are the two regions where
Christianity is a minority faith and Christians are economically
very poor. In some countries, Christians are treated like secondclass citizens and given very limited freedom. In some contexts,
wecannot talk about theological education in afull-fledged formal
sense, but wecan talk about it only in termsof an informal way of
theological learning.Yet,in some countriessuch asVietnam, Laos,
Cambodia, Nepal, etc., people have just begun to enjoy greater
religious freedom. Christian communities are growing and
Churches and larger human society need theological education.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
231
But we need to take concrete steps to liberate ourselves from
financial dependency. We need to explore Federated Faculty for
higher theological education. There are hundreds of theological
collegesespecially in Asia and Pacific. Without counting big cities
likeSeoul, Manila, Fiji, Chennai and Bangalore, it isquitesurprising
to see dozens of theological schools even in a small town. But,
therearevery few advanced theological research centers. Resources
areutterly divided. There arefew schoolsin Asia/Pacific that offer
M.Th and Ph.D or D.Th degrees in theology, but these have
limitations. Library, human resourcesand other infrastructure are
not adequate. Several schools admit just one or two doctoral
candidates in an academic session. This cannot cater to the fast
growing demandsof thechurchesand theological communitiesin
the region. Due to lack of advanced theological research centers,
researchers are compelled to go to Europe or US for theological
training. Since the training there is very expensive, it puts more
financial burdenson ecumenical partners. For instancethe cost of
one doctoral candidate in the US equals the support of four to
five doctoral studentsin South Asia and South East Asia. On the
other hand, thestudentsundertake research that isnot relevant to
their own context. Studentswho excel in their studiesdo not return
to their countriesaspromised when thescholarship isgranted. We
do recognizetheadvantageof doing theology outsideof theregion,
but wemust giveequal importanceto develop advanced theological
research centers in the region. Therefore, it is very vital that
theological schools come together and work out “Federated
Faculty” for advanced theological research. Thiswill promote not
only quality leadership in the churches, but also promote
ecumenism and contextual theologies as well as reduce financial
burdens.
2. Educating theCongregation: Though Christiansareaminority
and economically poor, therearepossibilitiesto mobilizeresources
for theological education. When many churches are able to send
thousands of missionaries and spend thousands of dollars for
232
Development of Theological Education in Asia - Part III
different mission projects, then, why not for theological education?
It isimperative that we educateour churchesto invest money for
theological education. The churches must also realize that
“theological teaching and learning contribute significantly to their
own viability.”16 The churchesmust own theological institutions.
The church and theological schools are like the two sides of one
coin. It isnecessary that a mutual interaction between the church
and theological schools takes place in terms of financial support,
policy makingand curriculum formation. Churchesand theological
schoolsshould play not only asupportiverole, but also aprophetic
roleto each other in trainingfutureleadersof thechurch and society.
3. Providing Opportunities: Thepresent patriarchal structuresof
Christian ministry need to be consciously challenged if the
partnership of man and woman isto berealized fully. Today women
are not represented significantly among theological faculty and in
decision-making bodiesof the churchesjust because they are not
given the opportunity. While governments have gender policies
and have adopted quotas for women’s participation in decisionmaking at the highest levels of government, theological schools
do not have clear gender policies. They do not have clear
mechanisms of redressing historical inequalities and cultural
prejudices against women. A creation of special scholarship for
women at all levels of theological studies, reservation of seat for
theological studies and reservation of certain positions in church
and theological colleges will promote women’s leadership in the
church and society.
4. New Area of Studies: Today we find ourselves in a historical
situation where a new articulation of theological education is
urgently required. Thenew situation of therapid globalization of
markets, mediaand technologies, and thecounter-reaction in the
form of growing fundamentalism affirming exclusiveand particular
16
Lother Engel, TowardsViableTheological Education, ed. by John Pobee(Geneva:
WCC, 1997), p. 104.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
233
national, ethnic, cultural or religious identities, new diseases like
HIV and AIDS, etc., demandsa new approach in doing theology.
If theological education isto play a transformative role in human
community, it is imperative that theological studies move into
such new areas. Though such problems impinge on our livesand
relationships, all these areas have been outside of our traditional
schemes of theological education. M any of the theological
educators, pastors, missionaries and Christian ministers are illequipped to meet these new challenges. That iswhy our churches
arelosing thesignificance of ministry in thewider human society.
Doing theology without taking into consideration theseissueswill
haveno impact. Ecumenical theological education needsto wrestle
with all these problems and issues to make Christian ministry
effective and relevant in our times.
234
Edinburgh 2010 Mission Conference - Part III
12
EDINBURGH 2010 MISSION CONFERENCE:
Continuing Challenges for Theological
Education in Asia
One hundred years have passed since the Edinburgh 1910
Missionary Conference. Many Pre-Edinburgh 2010 and postEdinburgh 2010 consultationshavebeen organized in variousparts
of the world. Indeed, the year 2010 was the centenary year of
World Missionary Conference, an occasion to thank God for what
he hasdone to the worldwideChristian community and to all the
peopleof God. TheJubileecelebration of Edinburgh – 2010 comes
at a moment in history when the whole world is bleeding – both
human and nature– under constant threat by global market, misuse
of resources and terrorism. This has led to a situation of unrest
and fear/terror acrosstheworld leading to undermining and denial
of the principles of self-assertion, self-reliance and mutual cooperation. Hence, it is a kairos for the churches to look back
critically to discern the prophetic task of future for greater unity,
witnessand service with a renewed commitment.
Edinburgh 1910
The history of Christian Mission has suffered enough of the
parallelism, competitions, conflicts and divisions in ‘the mission
field,’ gravely undermining the credibility of the witness to the
love of Christ.1 This was painfully felt by the missionaries.
Although attempts were made to settle the conflicts at local and
regional levels, the necessity of addressing the issue globally was
felt by many committed persons. Way back in 1810, William
1
http://www.edinburgh2010.org/en/resources.html
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
235
Carey proposed to have an international missionary conferenceat
CapeTown. In thesubsequent years, anumber of regional/national
conferences of missionary societies in the 19th century led to two
International Ecumenical Missionary Conferences- the first one
in London in 1888 and the second one in New York in 1900.
Both conferencesstressed the importance of world-widenatureof
Christian mission and emphasized thenecessity of co-operation in
missions.
The ethos of the Edinburgh 1910 World M issionary
Conference was largely shaped by the spirituality of the Student
Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions with the watchword,
‘theevangelization of theworld in thisgeneration.’TheEdinburgh
1910 Conference brought together 1215 delegates under the
theme, “The evangelization of the world in thisgeneration” from
churchesand mission societiesthroughout theearth to theAssembly
Hall of the Church of Scotland. All of them were serving
missionaries, or home staff of mission boards, or leaders of
churches. Thevast majority of delegateswereEuropean and North
American maleand elderly belonging to the Protestant tradition.2
Two hundred were women, an estimated nineteen were Asians,
one African, and none represented the Latin Americans. For ten
days, the leadersdiscussed the key issuesfacing world missionsin
the twentieth century. This conference was considered to be one
of thegreatest landmarksin theworldwidemissionary movement.
The core issue in Edinburgh 1910 was mission and unity. It
was energized by a shared desire to develop greater collaboration
and cooperation across denominational confessions and barriers
among those engaged in Christian mission. It thus marked the
birth of the ecumenical movement with the formation of
International Missionary Council, theFaith and Order movement,
and the Life and Work movement, all of which eventually led to
the creation of the World Council of Churches in 1948.
2
http://www.edinburgh2010.org/en/resources.html
236
Edinburgh 2010 Mission Conference - Part III
TheEdinburgh 1910 Mission Conferencewasavery significant
event becauseit wasa study conference. For two yearsprior to the
event, conference organizershad corresponded with missionaries
and informants around the world to produce eight commission
reports.3 The reports of the commissions affirmed the urgency of
evangelizing the world in this generation. The perspective of
mission wasunderstood in termsof the proclamation of thegospel
of Jesus Christ and converting non-believers i.e., ‘winning over
the souls from darkness.’The prevailing optimism was that the
western Christian civilization had both themandateand themeans
to convert the majority of the population of the globe to
Christianity within a foreseeable period of time.
Edinburgh 1910 and Theological Education
Recognizing that mission lacks depth and direction without
theological education Edinburgh 1910 emphasized theimportance
of theological formation of missionaries. Edinburgh 1910’s
Commission VI dealt with theimportanceof theological education
for the promotion of doing missions worldwide. Careful
investigation was made to discover whether or not mission was
promoted by theological education. Thefinding of the study was
that the pastorsand church leaderswerenot adequately equipped
with theological knowledge and skills for mission. It was agreed
that there was a general negligence in theological seminaries and
colleges offering courses that promote missions.4 To strengthen
the missionary enterprise, the Edinburgh 1910 Conference
acknowledged three important concerns in regard to theological
3
4
Theeight commissionswere: (1) Carrying theGospel to all theWorld (2) The
NativeChurch and itsAnnual Centrefor Mission StudiesConsultation at the
Union Biblical Seminary, Pune, from 13-15 January, 2010, pp. 2-3Workers
(3) Education in Relation to the Christianization of National Life (4) The
Missionary Messagein relation to Non-Christian Religions(5) ThePreparation
of Missionaries(6) The Home Base of Missions(7) Relation of Mission to
Governments, and (8) Cooperation and thePromotion of Unity.
F. Hrangkhuma, “Integrating Mission in Theological Education,” apaper
presented during the16th Annual Centrefor Mission StudiesConsultation at
theUnion Biblical Seminary, Pune, from 13-15 January, 2010, pp. 2-3.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
237
education: (a) Establishingapolicy for general education (b) Higher
theological education of missionaries, and (c) Theological training
of indigenouschurch leadersin vernacular languages.
It wasclearly an unchallenged assumption at Edinburgh 1910
that countries in the East and South must grow into systems of
civilization, Christianization, and education which had been
developed in the‘Christian West.’However, therewere also voices
in Edinburgh warning of one-sided, technical way of exporting
western achievements and standards to other countries. It was
against this dominant technological and cultural destructive side
of westernization that participantsat Edinburgh hoped for acounter
movement consisting of what they called moral education of the
peopleof theSouth, by which they meant thereligiousand spiritual
education of themasses, an education which would safeguard them
against the negative side-effects of the encounter with western
modernization and technology.5
Edinburgh 1910 also dealt (in Commission V) with the
methods, places, and principles of the theological preparation of
missionaries. Until 1910 the majority of missionaries were not
trained at an academic level (though therewere some exceptions).
In reviewing the existing facilities for training, Edinburgh 1910
came to theconclusion that theeducation of missionariesneeded
to be drastically improved in terms of (a) language studies (b)
history of religions and sociology of mission territories, and (c)
general principles of missionary work. Inter-denominational cooperation of mission agencies for common training programmes
too was seen as a priority.6
Out of thisa strong vision emerged for the development of a
common training programme, with inter-denominational
institutions in several cities. This vision was ground-breaking in
5
6
Dietrich Werner, “Ecumenical Learning in Global Theological Education –
Legacy and Unfinished Tasks of Edinburgh 1910,” in JTCA 2008/2009
Vols. 7 & 8, pp. 18 ff.
Ibid., pp.23-25
238
Edinburgh 2010 Mission Conference - Part III
several aspects. It proposed:
l
Theological education of missionaries outside the traditional
centres of the North;
l
A globally co-ordinated policy for the development of
theological education in the South;
l
Centralized and inter-denominational institutions of
theological education in the South;
l
Theological education on an advanced academic level.7
Besidesthetheological formation of missionaries, Edinburgh 1910
also placed amajor focuson theeducation of indigenousleadership
for the emerging churches of the ‘mission fields’ in the South.
This included an emphasis on the importance of theological
education being conducted in vernacular languages.
The impetus of Edinburgh 1910 was carried forward by the
I nternational M issionary Council until it established the
Theological Education Fund (TEF) in 1958 (it was reorganized
as Programme for T heological Education-PT E and now
Ecumenical Theological Education-ETE). Thishad ahugeimpact
in resourcing theological education worldwide. The vision of the
TEF wasto foster theological education characterized by:
l
Quality, combining intellectual rigor, spiritual maturity, and
commitment;
l
Authenticity involving critical encounter with each cultural
context in the design, purpose and shape of theological
education;
l
Creativity, understood as promoting new approaches in
mission.8
Though the vision of Edinburgh 1910 was delayed due to two
World Warsand thenew world order, which unfolded itself in the
7
8
Ibid., p.26.
Kenneth R. Ross, Edinburgh 2010: New Directionsfor Church in Mission
(Pasadena, California: William Carey International University Press, 2010),
pp. 70-71
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
239
process of decolonialization, it was remarkable that the passion
and vision of joint action for mission and theological education
were kept alive and were the same renewed again in the famous
process which led to the creation of the Theological Education
Fund (TEF) during the Accra Assembly of the International
Missionary Council in 1958.9 TheTEF initiative had contributed
much to the building up of theological education in the Global
South. It championed the contextual character of theology and
thus provided a rich learning experience to the whole Church.
Dietrich Werner liststhe following contributions:
a) Support for local faculty development programmesin all
major regions;
b) Strategic support f or a crucial number of
interdenominational “centresfor advanced theology study
in the third world”;
c) An advanced theological textbook programmein regional
languages (many of which were translations of western
theological books into Asian and African languages, an
impressive collection of which can still be seen in WCC
archives);
d) The formation of a first limited number of associations
of theological schoolsin different regions(ATESEA10 for
instance was formed in 1957 in Singapore and its first
executivedirector John R. Fleming and from 1968 Kusuke
Koyama had close working relations with TEF);
e) The launching of the whole debate and programme on
contextualization of theology and theological education
which led to theemerging of liberation theologiesin many
churchesand collegesin the Southern hemisphere (Shoki
9
10
Dietrich Werner, op. cit., p. 4.
Formerly, it wasknown asAssociation for Theological Education in South
East Asia (ATESEA), now it iscalled ATESEA Theological Union (ATU).
Theoffice isbased in Iloilo City, Philippine.
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Edinburgh 2010 Mission Conference - Part III
Coe from Tainan Theological Seminary spent 14 yearsas
staff and Director of TEF);
f ) The encouragement of alternative models of theological
education such astheological education by extension;
g) The stimulation of a debate on appropriate partnership
modelsof theological education in theWest/North which
can really serve theological education in the South;
h) T he close interaction with some major funding
organizations and partner organizations interested in
promoting theological education in Asia and Africa.11
TEF served as“an ecumenical symbol of common concern for the
advancement of theological education in theThird World” and as
acommon working instrument spending approximately 13 million
dollars for its programmes in the three Mandate period (19581977).12 Its vision remainsinspiring. The challenge ishow to take
it forward in thevery different context of Christian mission in the
21st century.
Edinburgh 2010 and Theological Education
Like the Edinburgh 1910, Edinburgh 2010, was also a study
conference, and theconferencereceived ninestudy reports.13 The
Commission VI dealt with Theological Education and Formation.
T he Commission identifi ed several affirmati ons and
Dietrich Werner, “Theological Education in the changed context of the
Church and the World Global and Ecumenical Perspectives from the
Edinburgh 2010 Process and Beyond” a lecture delivered at Philadelphia,
USA (no date, 2010), pp. 5-6.
12
Ibid., p. 6.
13
Thenine study commissionswere: (1) Foundation for Mission (2) Christian
Mission among Other Faiths(3) Mission and Postmodernities(4) Mission
and Power (5) Formsof Missionary Engagement (6) Theological Education
and Formation (7) Christian Communitiesin Contemporary Contexts(7)
Mission and Unity – Ecclesiology and Mission (9) Mission spirituality and
Authentic Discipleship.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
241
recommendationswhich haveastrategic importancefor thefuture
of theological education in theworld Christianity. Two significant
affirmations were made in regard to the relationship between
mission and theological education:
We affirm that theological education is vital for the
transmission of Christian tradition from one generation
to the next and for integral Christian mission in today’s
world. Theological education is essential for the renewal
and continuity for an authentic and contextual mission
of the church in all contemporary contexts.
We recommend that churches and partner
organizations increase their efforts to strengthen, to
accompany, and to enhance theological education –
particularly in Africa. Courses on Christian mission,
world Christianity, church unity and ecumenism
should be given a prominent place and be strengthened
in theological education institutions around the world
in the coming decades.14
Thisaffirmsthat thestrength of thefutureecumenical movement,
mission and Church greatly depends on how we strengthen
ecumenical and ministerial formation programmeof thechurches.
However, Dietrich Werner regretted that
The Centenary Conference in June 2010 neither
designed nor was able to enter into a further stage and
to move towards common action and international new
joint practical commitments for mission in the area of
theological education. Edinburgh 2010 thus was weak
i n terms of strategizi ng for new models of real
international and inter-denominational cooperation. It
might be that with only four main days of conference
meetings and only two very short 90 minutes sessions
on each of the nine study-themes, Edinburgh 2010
di d not have the structural and ti me-related
11
14
http://www.edinburgh2010.org/en/study-themes/main-study-themes/
theological-education-and-formation.html
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Edinburgh 2010 Mission Conference - Part III
preconditions to achieve a similar depth and sense of
commitment than the world mission conference
brought about 100 years ago. But the problems even
lie on a deeper level: the sad fact that Edinburgh 2010
fell short of expectations of many who would have liked
to see a clearer follow up strategy and some real
commitment for joint action on theological education
worldwide reflects the enormous fragmentation of
World Christianity and the weakening of ecumenical
spirit and international solidarity for a key area of the
missionary task of Christianity in the beginning 21st
century. Therefore, the question remains whether the
famous statement of the Tambaram World Mission
Conference in 1939 “the weakest element in the
enterprise of Modern Mission is theological education”
which then had led to the TEF to some extent still
hold true under the different historical conditions of
our time.15
Continuing Challengesfor Theological Education in Asia
The problems, issues and challenges in theological education in
Asia are enormous. Of them six major problems and challenges
may be mentioned below:
a) Financial Viability:
Many theological schoolsin Asiacontinueto depend, even today,
on external sources – mission agencies, ecumenical partners and
evangelistic associationsin North Americaand in theWest for the
construction of buildingsand development of other infrastructure,
and theimplementation of Mastersand Doctoral programmes. In
some cases, even teachers’ salaries come from abroad. The
ecumenical schools are facing more problems in terms of
management and support. M any schools suffer from the
“everybody’s-baby-but-nobody’s child” syndrome. Theological
collegesare often left alone or churchesextend very little support
15
Dietrich Werner, Philadelphialecture, p. 13.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
243
for theological education programmes. Though many churches
have resources to support theological education, they have not
been educated to invest resources in theological education. The
churches in Asia need to get rid of the “dependency mentality.”
Because of this dependency mentality, we have failed to educate
our churchesto invest in theological education. Measureshave to
betaken for closer co-operation between churchesand theological
institutions so that theological institutions are servants of the
church i.e. that the Church and institution “own” each other and
that they have mutual support for each other.
b) Lack of Mutual Co-operation between Theological Schools and
Churchesin Training Programme:
A common criticism that many theological schools face today is
that their graduates are alienated from the actual situation of the
church and society. The churches often blame theological
institutionsaselitist, and the churchestend to think that thekind
of training received in thetheological schoolsisnot relevant in the
rural context and not helpful to the spiritual nurturing of
congregation. Someeven complain that theological graduateswith
B.D or M.Div., M.Theol. degrees cannot deliver a good sermon
relevant to thepeople’ssituation. The churchesoften criticize that
graduates are not equipped to deal with crisis situations such as
sickness, mental break-down, family quarrels, HIV and AIDS
problem, conflict situation, and so forth. On theother side, those
leaders responsible for theological schools often express
disappointment about the church leader’slack of commitment to
theological education. Sometimes theological schools blame the
churchesfor their irresponsiblescreening of candidatesand lack of
support. All these problems show that there is insufficient
interaction between the church leadership and theological
institutions. What are the ways to bridge the gap between the
theological educators of the institutions and the pastors of the
congregations?Weneed to addressthisproblem to maketheological
education self-supporting and relevant in today’scontext.
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Edinburgh 2010 Mission Conference - Part III
c) Male-biased Theological Education:
One of the most significant changes in theological education in
the last twenty yearshasbeen thedramatic increase in the number
of women students, yet the structure of theological education
continuesto bethesame– almost 70% theological students; 80%
teachers; 90% members of the governing board are males
(comparatively Indonesia and China are in a better position in
termsof women’sinvolvement in ministry). In several theological
schools in Asia, Women’s Studies have been incorporated as a
branch or department at the graduate and post-graduate levelsof
study. Thereality in Asiaisthat gender justice both in theological
colleges and the other forms of Christian ministrieshas not been
achieved. It hasproved that an addition of onesubject or department
aloneisnot enough to bringgender justicein thechurch and society.
Colleges in Asia are yet to integrate women’s perspectives in
theological education. Theintegration of theperspectivesof women
in theological education will create awareness of discriminatory
gender realitiesand help peopleto do something concreteto change
the oppressive structures. Redoing theology from the women’s
perspective will certainly widen the horizon of Asian theological
discourses.
d) Lack of Contextual Issuesin Theological Education:
Theological education in Asia is still a duplicate of the western
model of education in termsof itscurriculum and teaching based
on a hierarchy of courses. Theological discourseson “Theology of
Reconstruction”, “People’sTheology”, “Critical Asian Principles”
in Asiahavenot made significant impact on the teaching-learning
processin Asia. Though Asian social reality ismulti-dimensional,
theCollegescontinueto follow adisciplinary approach that isthe
legacy of western academia in our theological learning-thinking
process. In thiseducativeprocess, thereisaspecialization in thesocalled “classical” or “core” courses, thereby making it difficult to
add new courseson emerging issuessuch asglobalization, religious
fundamentalism, ecological concerns, peaceand conflict resolution,
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
245
gender issues, media technology, poverty, HIV and AIDS and so
forth that are more crucial in the Asian context. The basic
methodology in seminary training is generally for cognitive or
intellectual development. If theological education in Asiaisto play
a transformative role in the human community, it is imperative
that theological educatorswrestlewith people’simmediatecontexts
that impinge on their everyday lives and relationships. The
theological curriculamust berelevant in agiven context. Traditional
courses should be revised or modified so that new relevant and
contextual coursesmay beput in place. Weneed to makeconcrete
efforts to contextualize theological curriculum and promote and
encourage Asian contextual theologies addressing the issues like
globalization, gender justice, mission in pluralistic contexts and
peaceconcerns.
e) Lack of Qualified Teachers:
Many seminaries in Asia do not have qualified teachers. In some
countries, the ratio of the gap between the students and faculty
doesnot promoteahealthy balance. SomeM.Div or B.D colleges/
seminaries do not have even a single doctoral degree holder.
Considering the rapid growth of the churches and the need of
trained leadership, it isimportant that wegivepriority to leadership
development programme. Moreover, the majority of teachersare
not trained teachersthough thelargest part of their work isteaching.
Because of the lack of teaching skills and tools, many fail to
communicate the message effectively. “Teacher’s Institute” on
pedagogy and other related issuesneed to begiven apriority. There
is a great need to train younger faculty in pedagogy which will
enhancetheir teaching ability.
f) Lack of Ecumenical Co-operation and Exchange:
Asians are very ignorant of one another. For example, people in
other parts of Asia hardly know about the Christian community
in Chinaafter theCultural Revolution. Theneighbouring countries
like Thailand, Vietnam do not know much about the history of
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Christianity and theological challengesin Myanmar and Laos. We
need to explore and encourage short term teaching, sabbatical
opportunity, faculty exchange, and students’exchangeprogrammes
within the region. This will encourage and promote better
relationships, wider ecumenism and mutual theological learning.
Looking to the Future
Christian communitiesin Asiaaregrowing very fast and Churches
need theological educators and trained leaders. Given those
problems and challenges, we need to explore how to facilitate
sustainable transformation of theological education and
programmes.
a) Theological Education within the Asian Context with Asian
Resourcesand Ways
With therapid globalization of markets, media and technologies,
and thecounter-reaction in the form of growing fundamentalism,
affirming exclusive and particular national, ethnic, cultural or
religious identities, poverty, gender justice and new diseases like
HIV and AIDS, etc. continue to impinge on our everyday lives
and relationships. Our theological education will loseitssignificance
in the wider human society if we do not address these problems.
Whilst deciding to offer more courses on HIV and AIDS and
theological reflections at the undergraduate level, the African
theologians debated whether the colleges should give priority to
traditional “core courses” or wrestle with the immediate lifeconfronting issues like HIV and AIDS that create misery within
the family, the community, and the social and economic life of
the people. They opted to struggle with thelife-confronting issues
and came up with the ground-breaking Theological Curriculum
on HIV and AIDS.16 Are we ready to struggle with the life-
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
confronting issues or should we be comfortable with what we
have been doing and teaching?
To approach theology with Asian resourcesand an open mind,
first, weneed to haveaparadigm shift, a metanoia, the‘repentance’
from our western, colonized theological mindset.17 Along with
our contemporary historical experiences and realities, we should
be open to let God speak to us through our religious stories, our
rich cultural traditionsand thevaluesystemsof Asia. Weare aware
that no culture or way of life isperfect. The life of every group of
people is a mixture of both good and bad. Doing theology with
Asian resourcesinvolvesacritiqueof thepast and also therecovery
of thelost history, spirituality and tradition to enlighten usin our
search for anew life in JesusChrist. Indigenoustraditional values
that were never considered worth exploring for doing theology18
can also provide a new paradigm for doing theology from below.
Theological education in Asian waysdemandsamethodology
from below. It means regaining of insightsfrom our commitment
to thestruggleof marginalized – minjung, sexual minorities, persons
with disabilities, tribals, dalits, women and the rural people for
their justice and human dignity. Before we talk about historical
criticism, form criticism, higher criticism, lower criticism, cross
textual readings of the Bible, etc., it is important that we talk
about how the poor people – the workers, tribals, dalits, women,
the poor and powerless– would read a given passage in the Bible.
We read the Bible, our contemporary stories and our religious
stories together to discover spiritual resources for peace, justice,
community life, healing and wholeness of life. Theological
education in Asiarequirestheintegration of sub-altern perspectives
into the academic discourse. It also demands reading the history
David Kwang-sun Suh, “Relevant Theological Education in the Changing
Context: Whose Context?” a paper presented at theConsultation at North
East India Theological Association (NEITA), 10-13 November 2004, at
Shillong, p. 5.
18
I have explored thisdimension in thefirst part of the book.
17
16
SeeHIV/AIDSCurriculum for Theological Institutionsin Africa (Geneva;
WCC, 2001).
247
248
Edinburgh 2010 Mission Conference - Part III
of Christianity from the receivers’perspective, but not from the
senders’perspectivealone. Instead of reading thehistory of theearly
western church history, from the Roman church to the Middle
Ages, the Reformation, the Enlightenment period and on to the
19th century, wecan read thehistory of Christianity from theAsian
perspective: how wehavereceived theBible, how wehaveread the
Bible, how wehave created Christian communities, how we have
challenged and transformed our own cultures and societies, and
how we have transformed ourselvesasa people and asa society as
a whole.19
Reading history from the receiver’s perspectives involves the
deconstruction and reconstruction of history from the experience
of the marginalized people. Their hopesand visionsof thefullness
of life become crucial in the reconstruction of history and also in
doing theology. When weintegrateour interpretation of theBible
and our historiestogether, our direction and goal of how to teach
Christian theology (Systematic theology) becomesclear. Thegoal
is to bring about a transformation in our churches, in our
immediate communities, in our politics, economic relations and
also with God’s entire creation. This is to envision the reign of
God and realizeit hereand now.20 Thisagain demands a new way
forward in our teaching-learning process. Weshould acknowledge
the positive values in disciplinary approaches and grasp the basic
disciplines, if necessary.
However, considering themulti-dimensional context of Asia,
disciplinary approach alone will not be sufficient to unravel the
complexity of our realities. An issue-centered and inter-disciplinary
form of teaching-learning will be more helpful. An example isthe
issue of globalization: how do we study it? One may start by
collecting knowledgeand information from one’sown experience,
and with the help of an economist and a social scientist, make an
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
249
analysis, raise biblical and theological perspectives and conclude
with some reflection on concrete action. In the same way, the
HIV and AIDSsituation can be studied from a multi-disciplinary
approach with the help of a medical doctor and a social worker
and a theological teacher. Provision should be for direct exposure
to the concrete situations and struggles, for example, HIV and
AIDS infected and affected people. Case-studies involving
participants living with HIV and AIDS or participants who are
the victims of globalization in the teaching-learning sessions and
relevant reports and analysis of its problems will deepen our
learning. This shift demands a new structure and the means of
theological education.
b) Nurture and Strengthen the Existing Ecumenical Theological
Consortium
The Senate of Serampore College (University) has 55 member
schools, Association of Theological Education in South East Asia
(ATESEA) has 104 member schools and there are 22 seminaries
and Bible schoolswith a relatively formal setup in China. Besides,
there is Asian Theological Association (ATA) which provides
accreditation serviceto more than 200 evangelical schools. There
are also innumerable training centers, research centers run by
different Christian councils, churches and NGOs. Yet, there are
very few or no advanced theological research centers. Therefore, it
is important to support and strengthen the existing ‘ecumenical
theological consortium’for advancetheological research. Thiswill
promotenot only quality leadership in the churches, but will also
promote ecumenism and contextual theologies as well as reduce
the financial burden. In other words, it will promote ecumenical
formation to foster ecumenical consciousness and the spirit of
working towardsunity among churchesfor common witnessand
service.
c) Sharing Resources
David Kwang-sun Suh, op. cit. p.6.
20
Ibid, p. 6.
19
It isimportant to develop amechanism for networking and ‘sharing
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Edinburgh 2010 Mission Conference - Part III
of resources’. For instance, digitization of library resources and
archive materials and making it available online will certainly
enhance the quality of research and theological education. The
globethics.net initiated by WCC needs to be promoted and
supported. Moreover, it is not only the theological colleges, but
also other institutionslikeStudent’sChristian Movements, National
Council of Churches, Publishersand Social Instituteswho arealso
involved in different progammes of ecumenical and ministerial
formation that need to be open and made available for research.
The potential of these institutions/organizationshasto be tapped
and an effort should be madeto collaboratewith them in different
ministerial programmes. Thefinancial and theological dependency
of the colleges/seminaries on the Western or North American
partnerscould bepartially solved if proper strategiesand mechanism
in thisdirection are taken and implemented.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
251
13
BEYOND FOUR-WALLED CAMPUSES:
Models of Ecumenical Theological Education in
Interfaith Issues in Asia
Theological Education in the Early Mission Era
Theological education was started in a more structured manner
after the arrival of western missionaries in the 18th and 19th
centuries.1 Aspart of itsmissionary activities, Christianity started
introducing elementary school education in the mother tongue;
in some cases school was established even before a church was
established.2 It is not surprising, therefore, that Christianity and
education were synonymous terms used by many people in the
recent past. Originally, the Bible School was integrated with the
Middle English School programme and a considerable Christian
teaching wasgiven along with general education. In fact, theBible
wasoneof thecompulsory subjectsin theschool curriculum. That
was, perhaps, thebeginning of theological teachingin Asia. Church
meetingsor serviceson Sundaysand occasionally during the week
days were in many ways teaching sessions for members of the
church and others alike on a variety of Christian subjects. The
introduction of a more organized Sunday school programme
further strengthened the theological process among the people.
Theseprovided grass-root schoolsof theology and they laid aBible-
1
2
There was some form of theological education among the Orthodox and
Catholic Church, but limited within their church traditions.
O.L. Snaitang, et.al., “Theological Education in theTwenty-First Century:
Current Trends and their Relevance for Northeast India”, Journal of Tribal
Studies, Vol. III, no. 1, January-June, 1999, p.35.
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Beyond Four-Walled Campuses - Part III
based foundation for theChristian community and prepared them
for more advanced theological study later.3
In the 19th century itself, asthe convertsincreased in number,
the pioneer missionariessoon realized theurgent need of training
native convertsin Biblical knowledge in a moresystematic way so
that they could provideeffectiveministry in thechurch in addition
to providing acontinued leadership; afirm foundation of Christian
ministry could bedoneonly when local workersweregiven proper
biblical or theological education. Most of the mission societies
sought waysand meansto fulfill these plansby introducing Bible
training classes in all their mission stations, either half-yearly or
quarterly and different batchesof pastors, teachersand church leaders
were brought together and were trained. This was how the early
Christian workerswere given theological training. Such training
programmes led to the establishment of Bible schools, and later
many of them grew to thepresent theological colleges/seminaries.
A Critique on Theological Education Models
The present theological paradigm however, doesnot relate to our
interfaith context. Theological education in Asiaislargely shaped
by the Enlightenment paradigm. It is very much a professional,
academic and communal affair. The emphasisismore on rational
and cognitivedevelopment. Threeprominent educational models
may becited here:
a) Professional Model/University Model: The theological
education model we have today is professionalism of the clerical
paradigm and rationalization of theological knowledge of the
university model. Here theology is perceived as a ‘science’, a
disciplineof systematic inquiry and exposition. Theology becomes
the work, primarily of a theological faculty, with departments of
specialized branches.4 Theology becomesageneric term for a cluster
3
4
Ibid ., p. 35.
K. C. Abraham, “Theological Education for Empowering the People of
God,” in AffirmingFaith in Indian Context- A New Mandatefor theNew
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
253
of relatively independent studies; it becomes a term like law,
medicine or liberal arts. The professional model characterizes a
full time occupation, a sense of calling to the vocation, being set
apart from the laity by various signs and symbols, possession of
special knowledge and skills based on specialized training and
having aserviceorientation.5 A professional minister may be best
defined as someone who has acquired a body of knowledge and
developed particular skills. It placesheavy emphasison theexpertise
– both knowledge and skills – of the minister and its application
on the life of the church. JamesGlasse described a professional in
termsof five characteristics:
First, a specific area of knowledge; second, expertise in
a cluster of skills; third, service through a specific social
institution; fourth, accepted standards of competence
and ethics; and fifth, specific values of purposes of the
profession and social institution of society.6
Thisidea of the professional hasaprofound impact on theological
education. This understanding reduces the whole of theological
education as training or professional formation of a few selected
peoplefor thechurch’sministry. Thestudy of theology isnormally
undertaken by persons who wish to serve the church. Upon the
completion of their studiesthey are appointed to some leadership
post in the service of the church.7 He/she is expected to perform
his/her duties and responsibilities like a skilled and experienced
person. A. P. Nirmal expressed how theological education functions
in this professionalism model, thus;
5
6
7
Century: A Report of theNational Consultation on Theological Education 1995,
ed. D. S. Satyaranjan (Serampore: BTESSC, 1996), p. 122.
Jackson W. Carroll, “TheProfessional Model of Ministry- Isit Worth Saving?,”
in Theological Education, xxi/2 (Spring 1985), p. 10.
JamesGlassey, Profession: Ministry (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1968), pp.
31-32.
Susan Copenhaver Barrabee, “Education for Liberation: Women in the
Seminary,” in Women’sLiberation and theChurch, ed., Sarah Bentley Doely
(New York: Association Press, 1970), p. 47.
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Beyond Four-Walled Campuses - Part III
Theological education assumes the role of a factory
whose job it is to produce or manufacture that for which
there is a demand and a market. The demand and the
market are represented by the church. This view
amounts to the church telling theological educators,
“Give us what we want and manufacture your products
to our order”. Theological education in this model is
like a “formula” employed in the production of a certain
type or typesof goods. Theological curricula or “pattern”
then become different variations or modifications of
the basic “formula” directed towards the production of
certain “goods” needed for different “ministries”.
Basically this is a capitalist understanding of theological
education and smacks of professionalism.8
Thisunderstanding givesthe notion that theological education is
mainly for equipping selected people for certain ministries(jobs).
Such an understanding of theological education ignores the
dynamic process of theological education equipping the whole
peopleof God. Theology and theological education arean ongoing
task. They are exploratory.9 They are a quest, a search that never
ceases and hence the professional model creates a number of
problems.
First, the professional model of theological education makes
it ordered learning for theclergy. Theology becomesthepossession
of theological schoolsand agroup of scholar-teachersin theological
institutions. Theology becomes a teacher’s trade.10 The teacherscholarspreside over clergy education and so theology becomesa
scholarly discipline,11 highly abstract and philosophical. Thus, the
8
9
10
11
A. P. Nirmal, “Patternsof Theological Education for A Pluralistic Ministry in
India,” in Theological Education and Development, eds., GnanaRobinson, H.
Wilson & C. Duraisingh (Bangalore: ATTI & BTESSC, 1984), pp. 48-49.
Nirmal, “Patternsof Theological Education for A Pluralistic Ministry in
India,” p. 48.
Edward Farley, “Can Church Education beTheological Education?,” in
Theological Perspectiveson Christian Formation, eds., Jeff Astley, et.al., (Grand
Rapids, Michigan: W. B. Eerdmans, 1996), p. 33.
Ibid., p. 39.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
255
professional model hascreated agulf between theologicallyeducated
clergy and non-theologically educated laity,12 in the church. The
church needs professionally trained pastors, specially trained
Christian educators, and skilled workersto teach thelaity. Educated
clergy and uneducated believershavebecomeastructurein thelife
of the church today. This also creates a gap between theological
education and education in thechurches. Whatever education exists
in thechurch isa sort of Christian education for the congregation,
and what clergy study in theological colleges is called theological
education which ishighly sophisticated knowledgeexclusively for
theological students.13
Second, the professional model createshierarchical distinction
between ordained clergy and laity in the church. It has created a
notion that Christian ministry belongs strictly to the ordained
clergy and denies the ministry of the whole people of God. This
understanding limitslay participation in theministry of thechurch
because in most churchesrigid hierarchical forms of ministry are
still maintained.14
Third, the professional model of theological education has
created a sharp distinction between theory and practice. The
training period in the theological colleges/seminaries is a time of
learning theoretical and intellectual knowledge and skills. After
thetraining they go out to thechurches/mission fieldsto implement
or experiment thetheoretical knowledgeacquired.15 Thisleadsto
a dichotomy between the preparation and training of seminarians
and their life and work in the parishes and communities of their
churches. This is a wrong concept about theological education.
12
13
14
15
Ibid., p. 37.
Limatula Longkumer, “Towards a Feminist Pedagogy for Theological
Education with a Particular Referenceto Nagaland”, an unpublished D.Th
Dissertation, submitted to the Senate of Serampore College (University),
2004, pp. 44-47.
Ibid, pp. 24-25.
Ibid., pp. 48-50.
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Beyond Four-Walled Campuses - Part III
Feminist pedagogy iscritical about thisdichotomy in theeducation
process. Theological education should be apraxiseducation based
on the concrete reality of the people. For example, seeing this
problem, some theological colleges try to integrate classroom
lectures and practical life by introducing ‘Field Education’ or
‘Practical Education’for students.16 But how far ‘Practical Work’
or ‘Field Work’ can bring a balanced integration of theory and
practice isdifficult to ascertain.
Fourth, the professionalism of the clerical paradigm and
rationalization of theological education on theuniversity model is
found to beinadequate. Thismodel isheavily indebted to, aswell
as influenced by, western academia.17 This university model of
education hascreated theological studiesasindependent branches
and neglected theinterdisciplinary approach to theological learning.
Thedisciplinary approach isthelegacy of western academia.18 The
professorial interest in safeguarding one’sown department for the
sake of jobs or prestige is quite evident. It fails to respond to the
rich diversity of people’s contexts. This narrow disciplinary
approach will not be sufficient to unravel the complexitiesof our
contexts. I n short, theological education should have an
interdisciplinary approach.19
b) Banking Model of Education: The prevailing nature and
method of education in theological studiesin Indiahasbeen mostly
thebanking model. In thismodel of education, knowledgeisseen
asagift bestowed on studentsby the teacher. Theteacher dictates
16
17
18
19
SeeJohn Mohan Razu ed., On theWayto Critical Praxis: Field Education as
a Relevant Theological Pedagogyat theUnited Theological College, Bangalore
(Bangalore: UTC, 2002), p. 13.
K. C. Abraham, “Theological Education for Empowering the People of
God”, p. 123.
K. C. Abraham, “Theological Education asPublic Discourse,” in Together
With People: Essaysin Honour of Rev. D. S. Satyaranjan (Bangalore: SATHRI/
BTESSC, 2004), p. 65.
LimatulaLongkumer, op. cit., p. 66.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
257
thewholelearning processwhereasthestudentsarepassivereceivers
of the knowledge taught. Education is seen as a form of
legitimization and maintenance of the status quo. This classical
form of banking model of education has come under severe
criticism since the publication of Paulo Freire’s The Pedagogy of
theOppressed, which hasraised alot of challenging questionsabout
theological education.20 Freire listed the characteristics of banking
education as,
(a) theteacher teachesand thestudentsare taught;
(b) the teacher knows everything and the students know
nothing;
(c) the teacher thinksand the studentsare thought about;
(d) the teacher talksand the studentslisten meekly;
(e) theteacher disciplinesand thestudentsare disciplined;
(f ) theteacher choosesand enforceshischoice, and thestudents
comply;
(g) theteacher actsand thestudentshavetheillusion of acting
through the action of the teacher;
(h) the teacher chooses the programme content, and the
students (who were not consulted) adapt to it;
(i) the teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his
own professional authority, which he sets in opposition
to the freedom of the students;
(j) the teacher istheSubject of the learning process, while the
pupilsaremere objects.21
Thebankingmodel isateacher-centered education wherethehigher
20
21
M. ThomasThangaraj, “Theological Education in the United States: A
View from thePeriphery,” in Theological Education, xxviii/2 (Spring 1992):
p. 10.
Paulo Freire, Pedagogyof theOppressed (New York: Herder and Herder, 1972),
p. 59. Seealso Limatula Longkumer, op. cit., p. 57.
258
Beyond Four-Walled Campuses - Part III
authority dominates in the selection of the whole education
programmes without looking at the real needs of the learners.
Douglas mentioned three assumptions that banking education
makes. First, it assumesthat studentsareempty vessels, banksready
to be filled. It does not value the student’s experience or wisdom.
Second, t he banking system promotes one-di rectional
communication. Only theteacher isconsidered capableof making
depositsof knowledge. There isno appreciation for thepossibility
of teachersand studentsentering into dialogueasmutual learners.
Finally, thebanking model doesnot invite thestudentsto interact
with the course material. Critical examination of ideasand issues
isnot encouraged.22
This banking model creates various problems in theological
education. It createshierarchical teacher-student relationship, the
teacher with the knowledge and power and the student with no
knowledgeand power.23 Teachers are authoritative; they exercise
power and authority over thestudents. Such amethod of teaching
isnot at all liberating for either teacher or learner.
Thisteacher-centred approach to theteaching-learning method
should bediscarded becausetruelearning cannot takeplacein such
a situation. It doesnot createclassroom dynamicsbut imposition
of knowledge upon learners. This kind of authoritarian role of
teacher and treating learners as mute is criticized by feminist
pedagogy. There is a need to develop methods that reflect a
relationship of partnership between students and teachers in the
seminaries. Classroom dynamics of interactive and mutual
relationship between theteacher and studentsshould becreated in
thelearning process.24
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
The present theological education in Asia is concerned more
with passing on of information rather than transformation.
Knowledge istransferred from teacher to learner but not created.
Learners are like empty vessels and teacher’s ideas are simply
imposed. The method of teaching is predominantly the lecture
method, classroom notesand examination system. The useof the
concepts‘equipping’or ‘training’in theological education indicates
that thestudentswho join thetheological collegesareseen asempty
bottles, to be filled during their theological training and go back
to the churchesasresourceful and equipped ministers.25 To some
extent such an understanding hasdominated thepedagogical praxis
of theological education. Thistype of education destroysand kills
thecreativeimagination of the learnersbecause the consciousness
of the students is not involved in a real act of knowing, but is
given a ready made view of social reality.26
This method of teaching in theological education places
emphasis more on the cognitive or intellectual development of a
person rather than focusing on human development asrelating to
wholepersons, with minds, with bodies, and with feelings.27 The
emphasisismoreon accumulation of factsand information. These
facts are expected to be reproduced during examination time. In
this kind of learning, the responsibility of the learners is to
memorize the teacher’s ideas and reproduce in the examination.
Passing examinationsand getting a degree aremore preciousthan
real learning in life. Thismakestheological education ameredegreeoriented education. Theological education should help people to
integrate faith and life issues. Educating for life and focusing on
the whole person should be the aim of theological education.
25
22
23
24
Kelly Brown Douglas, “Teaching Womanist Theology,” in Ministerial
Formation 93 (April 2001): p. 13. See also Limatula Longkumer, op. cit., p.
85.
HopeS. Antone, “ReclaimingTheological Education asEducation for Life,”
in CTC Bulletin XIX/3 (December 2003), p. 58.
LimatulaLongkumer, op. cit., p. 88.
259
26
27
A. P. Nirmal “Patternsof Theological Education for aPluralistic Ministry in
India,” p. 49. See also Limatula Longkumer, op. cit., p. 56.
John L. Elias& Sharan Merriam, Philosophical Foundation of Adult Education
(Malabari: Robert E. Kriegy, 1980), p. 155. Seealso LimatulaLongkumer,
op. cit., p. 89.
HopeS. Antone, “ReclaimingTheological Education asEducation for Life,”
p. 55.
260
Beyond Four-Walled Campuses - Part III
c) Campus/Residential Model of Education: The present pattern
of theological education isaseminary model or thecampusmodel
of theological education wherestaff and studentsall livein acampus
for three to four years. It is a residential education and the whole
training takesplacein themilieu of seminary life centered around
a chapel. The curriculum isplanned in such a way asto thrust on
the student as much factual information as possible within this
period. Speaking about the limitation of this model, Roger
Gaikwad said that,
Churches depend upon resi denti al theologi cal
institutions to train persons who would enable them
to develop and maintain effective forms of ministry.
H owever in general these institutions draw students
away from the day to day contextual concerns and
challenges of society and provide them training in “fourwalled” campuses… . A good number of conscientized
students as they graduate and seek employment in
churches are prone to set aside their learning and to fit
themselves into the “status quoits” ways of the church
and society.28
Campus/residential is a schooling model of formal education in
which themaster-disciplerelationship isstrictly maintained in regard
to teaching-learning aswell asteacher-student relationship in and
around thecampuslife. Studentsareexpected to follow and observe
the discipline of the college with humility. At the end of this
training, the candidates are expected to return to the respective
churcheswhere they are ordained immediately or after aperiod of
probation. Thiseducation system createsagap between theological
institutions, the church and society, a dichotomy between the
theory and practice and hierarchical relationship between teacher
and students.
28
Roger Gaikwad, “DiversifiedTheological Education,”in Together With People:
Essaysin Honour of Rev. D. S. Satyaranjan (Bangalore:SATHRI/BTESSC,
2004), p. 82.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
261
Thenatureof theteaching-learning system followsthemasterdisciple model. Theconcept of teacher as‘master’or ‘professor’is
very popular here. TheMaster isalearned person, onewho speaks
with authority and isexpected to giveintellectual leadership in the
scholarly disciplines.29 The authority of the master rests on an
existing authoritativebody of literature and apersonal knowledge
of that literature. Themaster istheonewho isauthorized to teach.30
Thisconcept of teacher aslearned and authoritativehasbeen found
throughout thehistory of teaching-learning.31 Thisidea of teacher
as authoritative with a body of knowledge dominates theological
studies. Students learn from the feet of the learned teachers or
guru. Teachers expect utmost obedience and respect from the
learners. Studentsobey and respect theteachersmostly to get favour
and to secure good gradesin the examinations.32
In our current set-up, theological education iswhat isoffered
in seminaries/theological collegeswherestudentsareprepared for
ministry in thechurches, for theological teaching and other forms
of faith-based service to the wider community. The courses are
designed in such a way that students need to fulfill the required
coursesin agiven period of timein order to get adegree. Theological
study isnot to master what isin theseminary curriculum or simply
to fulfill the requirements. Rather, theological education iswhere
students sharpen their faith commitments, clarify their life
engagements, and broaden their perspectives.33 Theological
29
30
31
32
33
Joseph C. Hough, Jr. “TheEducation of Practical Theologians,” in Theological
Education, Vol. 20, Issue 2 (Spring 1984), p. 66.
JamesE. Reed & RonniePrevost, A Historyof Christian Education (Nashville,
Tennessee: Broadman & Holdman, 1993), p. 60.
For example, thesagesof theOrient, and therabbisof ancient Judaism, the
Sophist in theancient Greek. During reformation era, especially John Calvin
theideal of theauthoritativeteacher wasinstitutionalized. JamesE. Reed &
RonniePrevost, A History of Christian Education, pp. 50-51.
LimatulaLongkumer, op. cit., p. 204.
HopeS. Atone, “ReclaimingTheological Education asEducation for life,”
p. 54.
262
Beyond Four-Walled Campuses - Part III
education enablesthem to critiquewhat isdeath-dealing and affirm
what is life-giving. Theological education helps them to see the
interconnectionsof lifeand their interconnectionswith each other
and the rest of God’s world. Theological education equips them
for their responsibility of claiming and proclaiming God’swill for
fullnessof lifefor all, that they may enable and equip othersto do
the same.34
Thiskind of campusmodel or residential theological education
isvery expensivefor studentsaswell asfor theological institutions.
The majority of the students come from economically poor
backgrounds and cannot afford to pay high fees. Unless the
churches sponsor the candidates the individuals cannot support
thecost of theological studies. Sincethechurchesrecommend very
few women candidatesfor theological studies, many women have
no opportunity to study theology though they are interested to
do so. Theological institutions also cannot run unless they get
financial support from mission agenciesabroad. Hence, there isa
need to search for an alternative model. In the Indian context,
Gurukulum and Ashram modelsareproposed by many theologians
for theological education becauseGuru-shishyarelationship provides
an ideal model for contemporary relationshipsbetween theteacher
and students.35 This traditional schooling model, the guru-shishya
(master-disciple) model comescloser to theNew Testament model,
Jesus (Rabbi)-disciples’ model.36 This structure may be more
contextually suited to Indian culture.37
34
35
36
37
LimatulaLongkumer, op. cit., p. 122.
John Joshva Raja, “Relevant and EffectiveTheological Education in the
Twenty First Century India,” in Ministerial Formation 100 (January 2003),
p. 8.
GnanaRobinson, A JourneyThrough Theological Education, p. 52.
Somefeminist criticized that thismodel isnot acceptablefor women because
women have never been included in thistraditional education system and
moreover, it isapro-brahmanical stance. Also, theauthoritarian teaching of
guru isnot acceptablefrom feminist pedagogical principleasfeminist pedagogy
isconcerned with mutual, participatory and interactive learning in which
both teachersand studentsequally participatetogether in learning process.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
263
Ecumenical Theological Education Together with People
Considering the importance of doing ecumenical theological
education in the multi-religious context, many theological
networkshavelaunched atheological education by extension. The
shift istowardstheological education “together with people”, which
includesall sectionsof thesociety – rich and poor, young and old,
Christians and non-Christians. The programme is meant to
strengthen the ministries of those who are already working with
churches or in the secular world with different vocations and
callings. This means the theological education offered by the
theological seminariesismeant to strengthen the relationship with
the people, so that those who go through the process of such
education will be able to work not ‘for’the people, but ‘together
with thepeople’. Ultimately thismeansstrengthening thesolidarity
and dialogical approaches in theological education. It demands a
shift in thewhole processof theologizing, which should take into
account the actual experience and context of thepeople. Also this
paradigm shift will help the whole theological education in filling
the gap between theological education and people. This means
both teachersand studentshaveto spend their timewith thepeople
by living with them.38 The seminaries hope to foster wider
ecumenical theological education which carriesthree component
elements – inter-church, inter-religious and cosmic. By way of
conclusion, I would liketo stresson threedimensionsof theological
education.
1. InclusiveCurricula: Questionsabout therelevanceof theological
curriculum have continued to be a subject of constant discussion
in Asia. Most of the theological collegesin Asia closely follow the
conventional western model of thesevenfold departments: Biblical
Studies (both Old and New Testaments), Theology and Ethics,
Church History, Religions, Christian Ministry or Practical theology.
38
James Massey, “Paradigm Shift in Theological Education: Advocacy to
Solidarity” Together with People, p. 21.
264
Beyond Four-Walled Campuses - Part III
Along with this, some new coursesare added like Social Analysis,
Communication, Women’s Studies, Missiology, etc., to integrate
contextual concerns.39 K. C. Abraham rightly pointed out that
“Thepedagogy followsthepattern set by theEuropean academia.”40
The students laboriously fulfill the demands of an alien system
for which they feel no ownership and which bears little relation
either to their lifeor to their futurevocation. Theological education
tended to remain abstract, unconnected with the vibrant religious
life which ought to form their natural source and context.41 A
theological curriculum which hasdeveloped to meet the needsin
aspecific cultural environment may not beasuccessful instrument
in another setting.42 Even when a contextual course isadded it is
often framed within the parametersalready laid down rather than
opening up new ways of doing theology. If Christian theology is
basically concerned with God in the situation of a human being
and the quest for God in thehuman situation, it hasto be offered
in a language, context and content that makes sense not only to
thestudent of theology, but also to all the people. Weneed to take
into account the religious, socio-economic, cultural and political
contextsof thepeopleand their needsin thetheological curriculum.
Otherwise theological education will produce decontextualized
thinkers or theologians, who are cut off from their social
environment and theological education would continueto distance
usfrom our religious, cultural, social, and ecclesiastical reality. To
achieve the desired aim it is essential that the curriculum be a
product of an adequate knowledge of the self-understanding of a
given community within its worldview.
39
40
41
42
K. C. Abraham, “Theological Education in India: Some Challenges,” in
National Consultation on thePrioritiesof Theological Education in India,
Chennai, 22-25 May 2001, p. 3.
Ibid., p. 3.
Kenneth R. Ross, “What Theological Education for AfricaToday?,” Ministerial
Formation 98 (July 2002), 112.
John E. Apeh, “DoingIndigenousTheology: A Philosophical and Theological
Basis,” in Asia Journal of Theology 8/1 (April 1994), 57.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
265
2. Protect Plurality: Very often wethink of unity in termsof denial
of plurality. Unity isto beunderstood not asuniformity, but rather
as dialogical existence. Diversity and plurality is a blessing, but
division is sin. Ecumenical theological education needs to affirm
diversity. Asia has been a country of plurality for centuries and
blessed with many languages, cultures, religions and traditions.
Tolerance wasthe hallmark. We are proud to be part of this great
tradition. Diversity is beautiful and shows the richness of God’s
world. To worship God and engagein transformation of the world
through diverse ways isto be celebrated. K.C. Abraham said that
“Plurality and differencesareGod’sgift and integral to thestructure
of God’smission. Difference should not divide us. They enhance
thebeauty and harmony of our life.”43 Suppression and extinction
of languages, tradition and culture in the name of national
integration isdangerousfor future generation. Diversity isGod’s
structure of creation and God works in diversity. Asia is not a
country with one religion; it is a Continent with many religions.
Wemust protect itsdiversity and celebrateitsbeauty. Again Wesley
Ariarajah hasan important messagefor usin thisregard. Hewrites:
Our respect of other religions and engagement with
them is NOT based on the belief that all religions are
the same, they are all good, or they all lead to the same
goal. NO, religions, despite their many similarities and
some common teachings and goals, are not the same;
they do not all i nspi re us to the same ki nd of
relationships; they do not share the same vision of
society. They are all different, and there may be much
in one religion that is different from and even contrary
to what another religion teaches. We respect the
differences, affirm what we are able to affirm together,
and disagree with those aspects of religion that do not
make sense to us, even as others do the same with ours.
43
K.C. Abraham, LiberativeSolidarity: Contemporary Perspectiveson Mission
(Thiruvalla: ChristaveSahitya Samithi, 2001 reprint), p. 17.
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Beyond Four-Walled Campuses - Part III
There is room for mutual witness, mutual enrichment
and mutual criticism, because all religious life is tainted
by human greed, self-centeredness and the sin of
alienation from God and one’s neighbour. The mutual
enrichment and criticism is part of the “mission” that
religions extend to one another in the spirit of
dialogue.44
Therefore, theological education should createand allow space
for different identitiesto flourish. We are called upon to celebrate
God’s gift of plurality and diversity. Religions have worked in
isolation, sometimescondemning each other, sometimesclaiming
superiority over theother. Asiaisconfronted with poverty, illiteracy,
natural disastersand environmental degradation. Thenew diseases
like HIV, global warming and religiousfundamentalism affect all
people. Today alife- destructive tourism industry isalso blooming
and becoming the biggest threat for continuity of marginalized
people’s spirituality, cultural and traditional way of life. One
religious tradition or one religious group alone cannot solve all
these problems. It is time that all religious resources are pulled
together and stand united to meet our present challengesand crises.
United we stand, divided we fall.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
267
which servesas the foundation of our national life. Secular is not
understood asanti-religious.”45 A humanistic/secular vision gives
different religions and even ideologies a common basis for
cooperativeaction. K.C. Abraham feelsthat theology in interaction
with the secular learning process will be able to reinforce the
commitment of moral and ethical values. It will also challenge
spurious spiritualities through critical academic research. 46
Relocation of theological education from “four-walled” campuses
to wider secular learning contexts will promote mutual learning
and life-affirming values.
3. Promote the Common Good: The academic location of
theology isisolated from the larger secular academic world. There
isno serioustheological encounter taking placewith secular learning.
We need to broaden the scope of theologizing and interact with
the secular learning. K.C. Abraham opines that theological
education should be located in the wider secular context on the
principle of “common good”. He adds that “Translating this into
our multi-religious context one may say that discourse on the
common good needs to be centered on the idea of the secular,
44
S. Wesley Ariarajah, “Asian Christian Theological Task in theMidst of other
ReligiousTraditions” in VisioningNew LifeTogether AmongAsian Religions,
(Hong Kong: CCA, 2002), p. 21.
45
46
K.C. Abraham, “Theological Education asPublic Discourse”, in Together
with People, p. 67.
Ibid, p. 67-68.
268
Commercial Tourism - Part III
14
COMMERCIAL TOURISM:
An Agenda for Theological Curriculum Development
Tourism Industry – An Ethico-Theological Issue
Thetourism industry isspiraling and hasgained great voguewith
all its zeal and valor. It is estimated that more than five million
tourists, excludingdomestic tourists, arrivein Indiaalone, annually.
Alongside oil, arms, pharmaceuticals and auto-industry, it is one
of the largest industriesin the world, and it isgrowing rapidly on
amassivescale. The United NationsWorld Tourism Organization
(UNWTO) projects 1.5 billion arrivals of tourists by 2020. A
rough estimate puts 1,005 tourist arrivals in 2010. Its Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) share is 5.89 trillion which is higher
than theGDPof most of therich countries. Excluding unaccounted
laborers, tourism absorbs about 300 million people. To intensify
the tourism industry Governments have relaxed tax on air fuel
and thebudget airlinesaregrowing. With theintroduction of cheap
flights, the tourism industry will continue to grow all over the
world.
The policy makers see tourism development as a means of
poverty alleviation for the income generated from tourism is
perceived as a panacea for the problems of the poor countries.
This perception is based on an assumed understanding that the
profits from the tourism industry will trickle down and benefit
the poor communities.1 Under the slogans, “Incredible India”,
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
“Look East” “God’sown Country”, “Bali of South Asia” (Sri Lanka,
etc), the tourism industry has intensified, promising peace and
prosperity. It is applauded as a “motor for development.”2 Many
peoplearefooled into believing that it isan engineof investment,
employment, growth, and national development and considered
as one of the best industries for the third world countries to earn
foreign currenciesin termsof Dollarsand Euros. Asaresult of this
myth, theeconomicand businessplannersarediverting theresources
to expand airports, local transportation facilities and other infrastructures at the expense of the poor. Tourism ! At whose cost?
Thismyth should be challenged.
Tourism is a human’s self- seeking satisfaction or pleasuredriven enterprise by objectifying others as commodity or means
of one’ssatisfaction.3 A study showsthat themajority of thetourists
aremilitary personel and industrial workers. A research conducted
on Israeli tourist behavior and patterns in Goa has revealed that
theGovernment of Israel providestravel packageto all thesoldiers
after the completion of compulsory military service as incentive.
The intention is to release stress and appease the soldiers after
stressful work and training.4 Similarly, industrial workers are given
a travel package bonus by the companies to release their
accumulated feelingsof oppression in alienating and health hazard
working conditions. Tour packages are consciously organized by
theruling and owning classto avoid unrest, protest and rebellion.
2
3
1
TheShillong declaration issued by the participantsof the joint consultation
on “The North East IndiaChurches’responseto development and tourism”
organized by the Ecumenical Coalition on Tourism, (ECOT), National
269
4
Council of Churchesin India(NCCI), Presbyterian Church of India(PCI),
and the Martin Luther Christian University (MLCU), on 29-31 March,
2011 at thePCI Center, Shillong, Meghalaya, India. p. 1. Hereafter `Shillong
Declaration”.
Caesar D’Mello, “Foreword” in Disaster Prevention in Tourism: Perspectiveson
ClimateJustice– an Abridged Version, ed. by Philip Mathew and Jonathan
KcKeown (Chiang Mai: 2010), p. 6.
‘Travel’for human needsand ‘pilgrimage’for spiritual renewal should not be
confused with tourism which isconnect with soleenjoyment and pleasure.
For detail, refer to ClaimingtheRightstoSay NO, (Goa: CSJP & Equations,
2009).
270
Commercial Tourism - Part III
Tourists who travel under these circumstances arrive at the
destinationsmerely for enjoyment, relaxation and pleasure. They
objectify everything as commodity for enjoyment and pleasure.
Consequently, women are forced into the flesh market, nature is
reduced to mere scenic object, beaches are reduced to mere sunbathing, culture is reduced to performance, etc. Commercial
tourism being driven by profit, pleasure and enjoyments puts
immense pressure on environment, women, children and
indigenouspeople. Exploitation isrampant and beyond measure.
Among the many dimensions of modern mass tourism, the
Shillong Declaration identified thefollowing disadvantageof mass
tourism:
●
The diversion of essential people’s resources such as land,
water, electricity and other infrastructure to entertain
tourists and support hotels, resorts, golf courses,
amusement parks and so on;
●
Thesocial coststhrough theabuseof women and children,
and their trafficking;
●
T he costs entailed in the commerci alization,
commodification, and denigration of indigenousand local
culture, and the resultant threat to cultural identity;
●
The lossof revenue to host countries and communitiesas
a result of the financial advantages gained by foreign and
domestic business interests through tax concessions and
holidays, subsidized land and other costs, import
advantages, reduced wagesand working conditions;
●
Thesocial and economic impact of displacement of people
and communities caused by tourism development;
●
Ecological imbalance and loss incurred in developing
countriesin thecourseof sustaining inappropriatetourism
enterprises;
●
The climate changeimplicationsthrough air travel;
●
The cost to host communities through health hazards,
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
271
arising from tourist activity involving HIV and AIDS,
drugsand narcotics, among others;
●
The human rights violations that occur in the name of
tourism.5
The sanctity of worship places, sacred groves and shrines are
violated, and sacred music and dances turned into cabaret
performances for enjoyment. The development of ecotourism is
causing widescaleeviction of indigenouspeoplefrom their ancestral
lands6 leading to breakdown of traditional values and
environmental degradation. Thecontinuity of indigenouspeople’s
spirituality, cultural and traditional ways of life is at risk. In
summary, commercial tourism’s sole objectives are mere profit,
pleasure and enjoyment. It does not respect life, culture and
environment. It deniesthe right to live in dignity especially to the
poor and marginalized people, and seesenvironment merely from
autilitarian perspectivedenying theintegrity and itswholeness. It
breedsinjustice and thuscontradictsthetestimoniesof the Bible.
It is thus an ethical, theological and missiological concern. The
churchesand theological institutionsought to beagentsof change,
influencing society to meaningfully address the negative impacts
on human community and environment. Therefore, to challenge
and critique the present paradigm of tourism and search for an
alternative tourism becomesa theological and ethical imperative.
Tourism and Development
Tourism cannot be studied in isolation. Tourism as a new-liberal
economic project, touches all realms of human life and mother
earth. It violates human rights and brings destruction to God’s
creation. It isan affront to God’spurpose of life. Since the present
5
6
Shillong Declaration, p. 2.
For the indigenous people, land issacred and life. It is the land that holds
family, clan, village and tribeasonecommunity. Theidentity of thepeopleis
deeply rooted in thesoil. It isthelife sustaining power.
272
Commercial Tourism - Part III
model of tourism development is imposed on the people, it will
undermine the traditional and natural system which will further
widen thegap between the rich and poor. Weneed to uncover the
interconnected problems associated with the development of
tourism on various dimensions such as culture, community,
politics, economic, bio-diversity, gender issues, and challenge how
thisunjust development further intensifiesmarginalization of the
vulnerable and less privileged communities and exploitation of
earth’sresources. Wemay cite three examples:
1. Tourism and Climate justice – Commercial tourism and
climate justice is interconnected. A study on the effect of the
tsunami in December 2004 in Asiahasrevealed that thedevastation
of tsunami became more serious due to destruction of mangrove
and other littoral forests, sand dunes, coastal wetlands and reef
system. Had these natural protectionsstill been in place it islikely
that the damage would have been greatly reduced.7 The natural
protectiveenvironment systemsareremoved through construction
of hotels, resorts, golf courses, or to provide accessto beaches, sea
view or mountain view for the sake of pleasure- seeking tourists.
In addition, thepleasure- seeking activitiestakeaway thelivelihood
of earth-centered or ocean-centered communitiesby forcing them
off their traditional landsand ocean resources. Thescarcity of water
for agriculture and drinking water are all related to tourism.
Moreover, tourism contributessubstantially to global warming.
It isestimated that 4-7% of theglobal carbon emissionsarethrough
the aviation industry. It saysthat “tourism related air and sea travel
hasbeen a source of pollution. An ocean-going ship can generate
emission of morethan 12,000 cars.”8 Though the carbon emission
of theNorth arefar higher per person than from theglobal south,9
the poor people, especially indigenous communities, are blamed
7
8
9
Philip Mathew and Jonathan McKeown, op. cit., pp. 7-10.
Ibid., p. 22.
For example, the USA with only 4% of theworld population emits30% of
all greenhouse gasemissions.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
273
for global warming citing age-old ‘slash and burn’ (or Jhum)
cultivation, population and poverty. This is a serious deception.
Rather, wehaveto recognizethat climatechangeisconnected with
the destructive one-sided developmental activities of the rich
countries that promote consumerist life-style and culture. Study
hasproved that there isno largescale environment effect by ‘burn
and slash’ (or Jhum) cultivation. Tourism is a land-hungry
business.10 Resorts, hotels, golf courses, wild life sanctuaries and
other infrastructures require large areas of prime land. Without
deceiving and misleadingtheland owners, theland cannot betaken
from them. Even tsunami devastation in 2004 was taken as an
advantageto grab theland. Somegovernmentshaveused thecover
of ‘safety’to force indigenouspeopleto move to ‘safer’placesand
the vacated places are sold for tourism development.11 Similarly,
under the cover of the ‘climate justice’, ‘poverty alleviation’, and
‘earning moreforeign currencies’, indigenouscommunitiesaretoday
denied of their traditional self-reliant economic activitiesin many
countrieswithout an alternativesource of income. The debate on
climatejustice, therefore, will beincompletewithout incorporating
the tourism issue.
2. Tourism and IndigenousPeople: Tourism and survival crisis
of Indigenous people and other marginal communities are
interconnected. To promote ecotourism and to manipulate
indigenous people’s culture, land, mountain, ocean and their
resources, a majority of the Asian countries had refused to sign
and implement the International Labour Law (ILL) and the UN
Declaration of the Rightsof IndigenousPeople(July 2006). It isa
deliberate act to promote ecotourism. Signing the ILL agreement
on IndigenousPeoples’Rightsrequiresgovernmentsto formulate
policiesthat respect, promoteand protect indigenouspeoples’land,
mountain, river, ocean, culture, language, sacred places, traditional
10
11
Philip Mathew and Jonathan McKeown, op. cit., p. 11.
Ibid., p. 13.
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knowledge, education and so on. Without the permission and
consent of the indigenous people (as per the ILL provision), the
policy makerscannot exploit and commercializetheir heritageand
land resources. Some Asian governments did sign the ILL
declaration, but do not implement it fully. Refusal to sign theILL
document has given them free hand to convert indigenous lands
into national parks, resorts, and golf courses. The trees can be
mercilessly cut down without theconsent of theindigenouspeople
to support commercial woodcarving activities, to cater to foreign
and domestic tourist’s demands which again lead to drying up of
water and other life sustaining sources. M any indigenous
communities are at the verge of extinction as they can be evicted
any time for the sake of national development and progress.
One will noticethat deliberate attemptsarebeing adopted by
thepolicy makersto make the indigenouspeople remain illiterate
that they depend completely on the sale of their labour power.
Upholding thedeceptivepolicies, thegovernmentsin turn promote
tourism development advocating that it will alleviate poverty,
generate employment and income. Generate employment for
whom and what kind of employment?Local people are employed
mostly for manual labour jobs like watchman, waiter, cleaner in
hotels and massage parlors! Generate income for whom? The
income thus generated goes mostly for hotels and tour agencies.
On the other hand, in the process of tourism development,
indigenouspeopleareforcefully evicted from their ancestral places
without adequate compensation. Along with denial of fishing,
hunting and cultivation rights, their cultural assets are also
increasingly marketed astourism productsby privatizing their land
and natural resources. In the process of being re-packaged for
visitor’sconsumption, indigenouspeople’shistorical and religious
sites, rituals, festivals, arts and crafts are often unrecognized,
distorted and commercialized. Thiscreatespoverty, indecent living
style, identity and spiritual crises.
3. Tourism and Poverty – A profit driven industry cannot
alleviate poverty. Maximization of profit is possible only when
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
275
labour power iscommoditized and exploited, and land and ocean
resources are privatized and exploited. A study on the policy of
tourism, especially ecotourism, has proved that belief in tourism
alleviating poverty of the indigenous people, is faulty. This false
promise has created more misery and unemployment to many
people. Being poor, illiterate, and denied of their life sustaining
resources, it has further aggravated poverty. Many people receive
just seasonal and meager wages. Local communitiesare given only
manual jobs, but their servicesdo not give regularization.12 Most
of them areseasonal contract workers. Decent jobsaredeliberately
denied, promotion curtailed or jobs not regularized to keep the
local communitiesilliterateand economically dependent and poor.
It paves the way for manipulation and exploitation. To earn their
living, women and children can be sold for commercial sex work.
Men can be induced into drug and other illegal businesses. All
these indecent lifestyles contribute to diseases like HIV, TB, and
so on. Tourism hasalso not given indigenouspeople education or
any other skills to live a decent life. It makes people dependent,
lazy and unproductive. People just sit and wait for the tourist to
arrive to generate a meager incomefor their living.
There is no balanced share in the global tourism between the
rich and poor countries. Therich countriesin Europeand Canada,
USA, Australia, Japan and Koreaaccount for nearly 80 per cent of
world tourism leaving a vast majority of the world’s population
abused and exploited. Since the whole industry is monopolized
and controlled by the companies in the wealthy countries, the
profit goesback to therich nations. Thehost countriesreceivejust
a meager benefit out of the tourism industries.
With capacity to earn billions of dollars, tourism is being
promoted by the IMF-WB asa meansfor Third World countries
to repay their debts. But on the contrary, it rather increasesdebts
burden as the profit goes back to the rich countries. Most of the
12
It isthe casein most of the Five-Star Hotelsand other sectors.
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CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
277
five-star hotels, resorts, golf courses and aviation industries are
owned by the rich people in the rich countries. These are just a
few examples. The issue has to be located within the larger
structural injustice. The injustice and destruction perpetuated to
Nature and people is massive. The church cannot remain a
silent spectator. All these challenges demand urgent theological
response and intervention because most of theaffected peopleare
indigenous people, women and children. God’s creation is also
groaning due to over exploitation. We are called to listen to their
cries.
over 6000 students and about 1000 faculty members operate in
South Asia. (b) The ATESEA hasa membership of 105 schoolsin
16 countries, with approximately 20,000 studentsand morethan
3,100 faculty members. Besides, therearenumber of schoolsunder
the Asian Theological Association (ATA) and other evangelical
theological networks. Thedepartment of Christianity or Theology
under the university structure is also making great impact in the
life of the church and society. This explains the strength of the
theological community and they can become a potential force in
transforming tourism.
In spite of its negative effects, we also need to recognize its
immense potentiality to create global community for peace and
justice. It is an important modern activity that can promote
interaction among religions, culturesand civilizations, and serveas
a catalyst for numerous projects and programmes for human
development. It can createand promote new social movements, if
the present paradigm is directed to a just-tourism.
The history of formal theological education in Asiaislessthan
200 yearsold, and yet there havebeen tremendousdevelopments
in many areas. It is encouraging to see that the two ecumenical
theological networkstry to meet thedemandsof modern ministries
effectively by respondingto contemporary socio-political challenges
by evolving new patternsof theological education and research in
Asia. By giving importanceto contemporary lifecutting-edgeissues
employing the hermeneutical principle gained from the
commitment for thestruggleof themarginalized peoplefor justice,
theological students are motivated to engage in transformative
action. However, I am not aware of any college/seminary in Asia
that offersacourseon theissueof tourism. Tourism isan unexposed
global economic activity with tangible impact on climate justice,
anti-social activities, economic deprivation, cultural alienation and
identity crisis. Theissuehasto beaddressed aspart of thetheological
agenda. It is crucial that tourism issue is located within the
framework of theology and ethics, pastoral care, and asan important
missiological concern. It issad to note that without analyzing the
negative impacts, many people seem to assume that tourism is a
positive economic activity - it createsemployment, it will alleviate
poverty through economic development, earn more foreign
currencies(USDollar and Euro), promotecultural exchanges; and
it is good for the poor communities, especially for indigenous
communities. However, weneed to know that believing in money
Therefore, theological education will not becompletewithout
addressing thisissue. Tourism hasto becritiqued from thevantage
points of the subsistence communities, and students have to be
provided methodological tools to deconstruct the myth of
capitalist’s interest using the hermeneutical key of the lived
experiences of the dalits, tribals, adivasis, women and other
marginalized communities. Through a careful structured
curriculum, we need to help studentsto analyzedifferent typesof
tourism such as ‘justice tourism,’ ‘eco-tourism,’‘mass tourism,’
‘cultural tourism,’ ‘sustainable tourism,’ etc. and identify their
implicationson indigenouspeople, their culture, women, children
and environment.
Tourism and Theological Education
There are two major ecumenical networks, namely (a) TheSenate
of SeramporeCollege (University) with 52 affiliated collegeswith
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as the indicator of prosperity isProsperity Theology.13 It is equal
to the worship of Mammon.
We should make an attempt to transform tourism to create
new social consciousness for peace and justice. Theological
institutions can challenge the negative trends through a specially
designed courseoutlinefor theministerial candidates. Upholding
the integrity of God’s creation and value of life, the thrust of the
course should be to help the students to articulate the new forms
of violenceagainst indigenouspeople, women and children carried
on by neo-liberal globalization and tourism industries, sensitize
and equip church leaders with knowledge and skill of engaging
with tourism, and evolve Christian responseand action grounded
on justice. A theological critiqueon thepresent paradigm of tourism
should lead the studentsto articulate alternative tourism.
Issues
While designing the course, we need to critique the present
paradigm of tourism from the vantage points of the subsistence
communities. Some of the areas that require theological critique
are:
Theological and Ethical Concerns: What are the ethical and
theological tools that challenge and transform main-steam
tourism?What istheethical and theological framework to challenge
the commercialization of people and God’s creation? How does
theology justify tourism?What is the Christian ethics of leisure,
pleasure? How do we challenge various forms of prosperity
theologies that promote tourism? How do we evolve a tourism
link with Christian values? How do we promote inter-cultural
communication and exchangesfor justice and peace?How do we
challenge people to take the risk of stepping out of their comfort
zones and expanding their circles of friendsto include all people,
all faiths, or ethnicities and all ideologies?
13
Shillong Declaration, p. 2.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
279
Tourism and Development Concerns: What is tourism
development?For whom?At whose cost?How do we unearth the
unjust nexusbetween globalization, climatejusticeand struggleof
marginalized communities? How do we develop an alternative
tourism that helpseconomic development of the local community
without destroying their land or ocean resourcesand culture?How
do we develop a tourism that respectsnatureby minimizing stress
on the environment? How do we challenge tourism sector and
governments to make tourism more sensitive to climate change?
How do wegenerateemployment for marginalized sectorswithout
discrimination?How do we empower local communitiesto resist
the commercial tourism such as golf courses, amusement parks,
franchiserestaurants, resortsand wild lifesanctuariesat thecost of
people? How do we ensure active role and participation of the
indigenous communities and women in development of
transformative tourism? How do we challenge the media to be
socially sensitive, especially on thenegativeimpactsof masstourism
promoted by thegovernmentsand themarket, whosesoleobjective
is making profit?
Tourism and Marginalized CommunitiesConcerns: How does
tourism effect the life of the marginal communities?How do we
empower themarginalized sectorsto assert their rights, regarding
their culture, ocean and land in thecourseof tourism development?
How do we educate tour guidesand interpretersof thelocalswith
training for understanding of local ethno-cultural history?How
do we develop tourism programmes based on indigenousculture
and local natural environment setting?More specifically, how do
we incorporate history, art, folklore, music, dance and food to
highlight and focus on the preservation of unique traditional
elements? How do we resist sex tourism? How do we promote
tourism that is fair, sustainable and community-based respecting
human rights?
Tourism and theRoleof theChurch: Tourism isan integral part
of education. It must bring transformation to both the visitor and
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host. Then, what istheroleof thechurch?How do weconscientise
our churchesto realize that critiquing and campaigning on issues
likeanti-peopledevelopment and tourism ispart of Christian duty,
and mission and pastoral concerns?How do the churchesdevelop
networking with international organizations to promote just
tourism? How does the church empower the host to shape and
create collective articulated voices from faith-based perspectives/
interfaith perspectivewhich should beheard?How do wetransform
tourism as a tool for advocacy? or a tool for peace?How do the
churchespromotejust tourism?
The course needs to be designed in such a way that students
are stimulated to engage in transformative tourism to promote
mutuality, solidarity, and thereal discovery of human community.
To do so, the course must address unjust power relation between
thosewho own thecapital and thosewho arecompletely dependent
on their labour power. In other words, the root causes of unjust
structure must be located to know how this power imbalance
functionsand how it erectswallsof division and inequality among
the poor. Max Ediger pointsout that transformativetourism must
be directed “to confront (the visitor with) injustice; the injustice
of global economic structures that suck resources from poor
countries into rich countries; the injustice of heavy labour that
doesnot receiveproper compensation; theinjusticeof occupation;
destroyed homes, and lost futures; the injustice of vast military
spending whilechildren go without education, proper diets; health
care and happy childhood; and the injustice of voices calling out
for asystematic ear but remaining unheard and unheeded.”14 The
traveler must be pushed to addresstheissue of power in a creative
and just way. Moreover, just tourism should lead the traveler to
seek forgiveness, find deeper meaning in life, and healing through
repentance. Just tourism will lead to discovery of each other,
14
Max Ediger, “Combating Dispossession”, in Combating Dispossession: T
owardsa Codeof Ethicsfor Tourism in Palestine, ed. by Rajan Solomon (2008),
pp. 50-60.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
281
understanding each other, and sharing with each other what they
can and what they have. Sufficient space should be created in the
course outline for the students to explore new ways promoting
just tourism.
While exploring just-tourism, the students should also be
exposed to different models of alternative tourism advocated by
ECOT, CCA, WCC, Equation, YMCA, etc. Thisexploration will
enable them to reflect on the understanding and connection of
pilgrimage, encounter, and transformation based on an
understanding of the connectedness between the spiritual and
political dimensions of life.
Institutionalizing Tourism in Theological Education: Some
Practical Suggestions
As mentioned above, tourism has emerged as one important
modern economic activity touching all dimensions of life. The
issue has to be addressed within the framework of theology and
ethics, pastoral care, and asa missiological imperative. I suggest a
few practical suggestionsfor institutionalization of the course:
(a) Develop a curriculum for ministerial candidates. Colleges/
seminariescould beencouraged to offer it asacredited course,
or asan interdisciplinary course. Thisshould be donethrough
accreditation or affiliation mechanism.
(b) Integration of tourism issuein other disciplines. Thereisscope
to integratetourism issuein other disciplinessuch asChristian
Ethics, Social Analysis, Women’s Studies, Tribal/Dalit
theologies, Missiology and Christian ministry. Thiswill bring
aperspectival changein theological orientation. However, there
is a need to create space to review the existing theological
curriculaand suggest areaswhereintegration of theissuecould
be done.
(c) Scholarship programme. Setting aside some scholarship
provisionswill encourageresearch scholarsto takeup theissue.
(d) Ministerial exposureunder thesupervision of alternativetourist
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operators. Seminaries/colleges need to explore student’s
internship programme or concurrent field work in a setting
that isfor tourists’destination. Thiswill provide opportunity
for studentsto experiencetheactual liferealitiesof people and
the destruction on environment brought by the tourism
industry.
Weshould also notethat developing acoursealoneisnot sufficient
and it will not bring much perspectival change in theological
orientation, if the teachers are not trained on how to handle the
course. Creating awarenessisthe first step for change. Weneed to
accompany theological institutions by facilitating a Teacher’s
Institute on thisissue. To stimulate and evoke studentsto engage
in transformative action, teachers need not only orientation on
how to handle the course, but also methodological tools for
analyzing negative impacts of commercial tourism from a
theological perspective.
Finally, curriculum and the Teacher’s Institute need to be
accompanied by publication of theological resource books.
Without adequate theological resource materials addressing and
challenging tourism from the perspective of the marginalised, we
will fail to achieve the goal. It iscrucial that ecumenical networks
like ECOT, CCA, WCC and YMCA, collaborate with churches
and theological institutionsin organizing more regional and subregional consultations, writer’sworkshopson thesubject with the
purposeof producing theological resource materials.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
283
15
IS GOD DISABLED?
Teaching Theology from Margin’s Perspective
Introduction
In one of our consultations, a participant posed a question like
this: “Violence, economic injustice, poverty, ecological destruction,
HIV and AIDS, personswith disabilities, religiousfundamentalism
and migrant issueshasbeen in thecenter of ecumenical discussions
for someyears. But, why aresuch ecumenical concernsso slow in
permeating thelifeof the church?Why havethey not yet been the
major points of contemplation in theological colleges or
seminaries?” How do the theological seminaries address the
ecumenical agenda?How do theecumenical organizationspromote
theecumenical agenda in our ministerial formation programmes?
If the churches and colleges are not sensitive to the ecumenical
agenda, should we not blame ourselves?
To enable students to become agents of creating an inclusive
just community, the Senate of Serampore College introduced an
inter-disciplinary coursepaper in theB.D programmeand another
coursein theMaster of Christian Studies(MCS) with thefollowing
objectives:
a) To challenge students to affirm the agency of the people
living with disabilitiesand to problematizeand understand
disabilities from the perspective of persons living with
disabilities;
b) To encourage the students to understand critically the
social, gender, economic, religious, and cultural stigmaand
discrimination attached to disabilities;
c) To enabled the studentsto engagein biblical, theological,
and ethical reflectionson disabilities;
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d) To inspire students to initiate and to engage in ministries
of compassionate justice along with persons with
disabilities;
e) To motivate students to create awareness in church and
society to build inclusive communities of healing,
wholeness, and restoration.
Besidesthiscourse, thedisability concernshavebeen integrated in
other disciplines such as Christian theology, ethics, religions and
society, women’sstudy, pastoral careand counseling. Wehopethat
the courses, with their diverse gifts and approaches will make a
considerable difference in creating a community of healing and
wholeness.
Theological Education and Personswith Disabilities
Ecumenical Disability Advocates Network (EDAN) has drawn
our attention to the fact that without inclusion of the gifts of
persons with disabilities, we cannot talk about the unity of the
church. It is said that 10 per cent of the human population has
somedeformity or other. In our society, thedisabled seldom receive
attention and care. “Abled” people try to avoid their company. In
many societies, persons with disability are treated as second-class
citizensand objects-of-charity or in certain casesthey areabandoned.
They aresubjected to prejudicial attitudesand discriminatory acts
by the abled-bodied majority. Society keeps them ignorant and
dependent by denying education and employment opportunities.
The suffering and misery of such people in India ismore because
of poverty and poor medical facility. It issaid that malnutrition is
the primary cause of disability worldwide.
We hold a negative and one-sided theological position as
Christian theology is done by able-bodied people for the “able”
bodied. Theology from theperspective of personswith disabilities
isalmost silent in theChristian tradition. Wehaverather anegative
theology towardspersonswith disabilitiesconstructed by “abled”
bodied people. Many Christiansthink that disability isrelated to
sin and the work of demons. It is a curse and punishment from
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
285
God. Healing isalwaysunderstood asasign of faith. Peoplethink
that those who are not healed do not have strong faith, that the
lack of faith leads to disability.
The ideasof perfection and of beauty that are ingrained in our
psyche and sanctioned by our culture tend to preclude any form
of disability. There is no “beauty” in the disabled. Perfection is
measured by physical and mental endowmentsthat arerarely found
in the experiences of the disabled. Any form of disability makes
you less than human; and so they are not created in the image of
God; persons who cannot articulate do not reflect God’s image
and they cannot be considered as perfect beings of God. For this
reason, thepersonswith disabilitiesareexcluded from society and
religious life. Some parents are ashamed to show their disabled
children in public; they keep them hidden all through their lives.
Even parents who bring their children to “Care Home Centres”
do not come to see their children again. The issueof personswith
disabilitiesthusraisesthequestion of justice, and so it isan integral
part of theological reflection.
Thischallengesusto rethink our existing ministerial formation
programmes. When people with disabilitiessuffer isolation from
friendsand family members, when they are denied, discriminated
and excluded from active involvement in spiritual, social and
developmental life of the Church or when they are accused of
being cursed by God, why do Christian ministers remain silent?
Thereisno unity of thechurcheswithout acknowledging thegifts
of persons with disability. All people with or without disabilities
are created in the image of God and called to an inclusive
community in which they are empowered to use their gifts. This
inclusive community of all, the people of God, is holy in Christ
irrespective of the physical state of their bodies and level of
psychological functioning. To influencethechurch to providespace
for the expression of personswith disabilitiesin itsspiritual, social
and development life, it isnecessary to focuson thetraining of the
ministers. To introduce disability discourses in theological
institutionsisthusimperativeand urgent.
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Is God Disabled? - Part III
Theworld will be poorer without thecontribution of persons
with disabilities. Jesusprotected, forgave, loved and cared for them.
Jesusstrongly disputed the connection between sin and blindness,
saying “It wasnot that thisman sinned or hisparents, but that the
works of God might be made manifest in him” (John 9:3). Jesus
challenged theJewish understanding that God punishessinnersby
blinding them or their animals (Ex. 4:11). In Jewish society, a
person with adefect in the body wasnot allowed to come near the
Lord’soffering (Lev. 21:18-21). Theblind and the lame were not
allowed to come into the house of the Lord (2 Sam 5:9).
Weneed to affirm that diversity isan integral part of Creation.
Society— from itsmost basic unit (thefamily) to itsbroader forms
(thechurch and thecommunity)— hasto beaplacewhereeveryone,
regardlessof giftsand abilities, isgenuinely welcomed, given every
opportunity to participate meaningfully, and nurtured toward
fulfillment. Churcheswill remain a disabled community without
theinclusion of personswith disabilities. Weneed to work together
more rigorously so that our common vision for the establishment
of an inclusive, affirming and empowering global society may be
realized.
Teaching Abled or Disabled God?
Ecumenical Disability Advocates Network (EDAN) and
Ecumenical Theological Education (ETE) programmes of the
World Council of Churchesfacilitated collegesin Asiain developing
two courseson disability issuesfor ministerial candidatesin 2006
in Bangalore. I took the challenge of teaching one of the courses,
namely ‘InclusiveCommunity: Disability Perspectives’. 29 B.D.III
year studentsenrolled for the course.
Westarted the course with thequestion: “Isour God Abled or
Disabled?” 28 students responded – “He is an able God.” One
woman said, “He is a Disabled God.” Those who said `God is
Able’gave the following answers:
- God is the Creator and he saw everything ‘good’ and
‘perfect’– so he is an able God.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
287
-
God demandsrighteousness– thisrepresentsan ablenature
of God.
- The Bible says that we should offer only unblemished
sacrifice; God loves what is perfect and holy.
- God is Holy and holinessrepresents able nature of God.
- The Bible speaks of God as the King, Lord, Savior,
Almighty, All powerful, Warrior, Master – These images
speak of able nature of God.
- God isAlmighty Father and he is the liberator.
- God punishesthe sinnersby blinding them.
- God becamehuman in Jesuswho wasan able person, etc.
etc.
The woman who responded, ‘God is Disabled” answered, “Jesus
was nailed on the cross and that is the sign of the disability of
God.”
I pushed the question further: Isn’t our God Spirit? Aren’t
these images of God metaphorically constructed? Aren’t these
imagesconstructed by abled people for the abled people?Can we
allow disabled people to construct their perception of God?
Students kept quiet and so we turned to a practical question.
Abled or Disabled Pastor: Whom would you prefer?
Imagine that two young men applied for the position of Pastor of
your local congregation. A disabled person ( in a wheelchair passed
with A+, and the other person, a handsome young man, who
passed with a B-. Whom would you prefer? 3 students said ‘the
wheelchair person’and the other 26 responded, ‘the handsome
young man’. Thosewho preferred thehandsomeyoung man gave
the following reasons:
- Pastor needs to be a good administrator – pastoral work
involves lot of administrative work and the work is
difficult.
- Pastor needsto visit the familiesfor prayer and counseling
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Is God Disabled? - Part III
-
– disabled personscannot do such work.
Pastor hasto attend many meetingsand conferences.
Congregation memberswould prefer ahandsome person,
appearance isimportant and needsto be attractive.
Pastor sometimes has to lead the Choir.
We do not need a person who hasto behelped; otherwise
we have to appoint one more person to look after him.
I found that many disabled people get angry very easily or
sensitive becauseof their disability.
How will he administer the sacraments?
How will he preach if he cannot stand?
TheBibleteachesthat disability isacurseand punishment
from God. They should not be appointed as pastors.
A pastor hasto look after several churches(asin thecaseof
Presbyterian Church), how will he visit thechurches?etc.
Those threestudentswho preferred thewheelchair person said,
- Commitment and intelligence are more important
- Disabled people know the needs of people’s crisis better
becauseof their disability
- They are more sensitive to people’s suffering.
- They are morecaring and sincere.
Identifying SuccessStories
Then, I shared the stories of Samuel Kabue, Nancy L. Eiesland
and Stephen Hawking who havemadeextra-ordinary achievements
in their life. We also shared the story of Moses, the one who led
Israelites from the bondage of Egyptians. Some students joined
mein sharing variousgiftsof disabled peoplein their churchesand
localities. One student said, “I have a friend born without a leg,
but she is very talented in making artificial flowers. She has a big
flower shop and she has employed more than ten people. The
whole family is dependent on the income of her shop.” One
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
289
student said, “One of my classmates is very short, with a hunch
and shecannot walk properly. But sheisa very talented singer and
composer. She has already produced 7 music cassettes”. Students
began to realize that God has endowed each person with unique
gifts and the world will be poorer without the contributions of
the gift of personswith disabilities. Almost all the studentsshared
the successstories of disabled people in their respective localities.
God hascreated each individual with different giftsand all should
beallowed to grow and contributetheir giftsfor society and church.
After hearing the stories, those students who voted for the
“handsome person” were disturbed and became restless. We read
this passage from the Gospel:
When you give a dinner or a banquet, do not invite your
friendsor your brothersor your kinsmen or rich neighbours,
lest they also invite you in return, and you be repaid. But
when you give a feast, invite the poor, the maimed, the
lame, theblind, and you will beblessed, becausethey cannot
repay you. You will be repaid at the resurrection of the just.
(Lk. 14: 12-14)
Jesus brought people with disability, the poor and ones rejected
by society into the centre of God’s Kingdom. All human beings
areprecious, valuableand they must berespected. Jesuschallenged
the discriminatory practices and attitudes of abled rich people.
Those who were discriminated, excluded, ostracized, rejected on
the basisof diseaseand disability weresupported by Jesus. During
Jesus’time those people were Pharisee and religious leaders. Do
we also have Pharisaic attitudesto persons with disabilities?
God – Whose construct?
We tried to reason together how we construct God. Theology is
God-talk, discourseon God. God isSpirit but weconstruct images
of God metaphorically. Our theological discourse is shaped by
our cultureand metaphorsconstructed in agiven context. Hebrew
and Greek thought provided foundations and philosophical
resources for construction of Christian theology. Influenced by
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Is God Disabled? - Part III
patriarchal culture, life isperceived in ahierarchical-dualistic way.
God isalso perceived hierarchically and dualistically asistheGodworld-human relationship. Other dualismsinclude‘abled-disabled’,
‘holy-unholy’, ‘soul-body’, ‘permanent-temporal’, ‘man-woman’,
‘human-nonhuman’, ‘spirit-matter’, ‘living-nonliving’beingsetc.
In thisview of lifethelatter isalwaysseen asinferior and associated
with evil, unclean and damned. Theformer issuperior, holier and
morevaluable, and theformer hastheultimateright over thelatter.
This perception of life has a wide range of implications for those
people living a healthy life but with disability.
Influenced by this view of life, abled people construct a God
who isimpassable – beyond change. God isan incomprehensible
being, omnipotent, omniscient, or omnipresent. Thisall powerful,
all-knowing God ispresent everywhere, the holy of holiesisabove
all. Gnostics believed that such a God cannot be related to the
material world. The visible world cannot be the creation of the
Holy Almighty God. God ispurely atranscendental and spiritual
being. The world is created out of matter; it is a sinful world and
destined to destruction. TheHoly God doesnot comeinto contact
with the sinful material world, but is separated from it.
Within this framework, able-people construct a patriarchal,
success, beauty and perfection-oriented images of God like the
Ruler, Lord, King, Almighty, Father, Master and Warrior. These
are all military and success-oriented imagesof God. Though God
is merciful, loving, a comforter, sufferer, compassionate and
liberator, we tend to over-emphasise the trimphalistic images of
God. K.C. Abraham says that “all these images are constructs of
abled people for the abled people.”1 These images have made
Christianity a religion of, and for rulers, eliteand theupper-class.
Thetheological conceptsor imagesof God which weuphold today
1
K.C. Abraham, “Theological Reflectionson theExperience of theDisabled”
in DoingTheologyfrom DisabilityPerspective, eds. Wati Longchar & Cordon
Cowans(Manila: ATESEA, reprint, 2011), p.169.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
291
are in deep crisis because they are not capable of liberating poor
and marginalized people such as those with disability and those
living with HIV. Thisconsciously or unconsciously promotesthe
following views of Christian life:
a) Prosperity, good health, healing, successareseen asblessings
from God to be celebrated. Physical disabilities, sickness
likeHIV and cancer, poverty and failure in life areseen as
punishment and curses from God. Any theology that
measures life in terms of blessings, money, power,
perfection and successcan becalled a‘prosperity theology’.
Thisisnot the teaching of the Bible, but a domestication
of God. It is equal to worship of Mammon.
b) Wetend to promote atranscendental, holy nature of God
who doesnot comein contact with theworld. God accepts
only theperfect, unblemished ones. Personswith disabilities
are distorted images of God, imperfect, unclean, unholy
and sinners who therefore, should not be allowed in the
temple service; their presence defilesthe holy place. In the
name of maintaining holinessand sacredness, we exclude,
discriminate and deny opportunities to persons with
disabilities, women and persons infected by disease like
leprosy (and today HIV). Such discriminatory attitudes
and practicesaresin.
We suspect that this kind of Christian teaching is the
construct of theabled-bodied rich and powerful peopleto
protect their selfish interest, privilegeand position. God’s
name isused to exploit people who are vulnerable. Many
people with disabilitieshave been denied employment in
Christian ministry and ordination or even denied admission
to theological colleges. Even though collegeswant to give
admission, theinfra-structuresaresometimesnot disabled
friendly. The worst, abled people are full of negative and
prejudicial attitudes toward persons with disabilities.
Narrow interpretationsof the ‘holinessof God’continue
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to exclude people with disabilities from living a healthy
life in thechurch and society.
c) We conceive God as an all-powerful ‘super-magician’.
Everything is possible, if we have faith in God. God has
the power to heal even the terminal diseases like cancer
and to raise people from death. Yes, God is all powerful
and there isnothing impossiblefor him. We need to pray
for each other for God’smercy and healing. But thedanger
is that those who are not healed are considered faithless,
and branded assinners. Weoften think that personswith
disabilities are sick, we want to heal them of their
disabilities. But did Jesus heal all the sick people during
hisministry?Did heraiseall thedead during hisministry?
No, Jesusdid not. It wasnot the intention of Jesus. Jesus
himself suffered pain and died on thecross. Suffering and
death is part of God’s creation. No human person can
escapefrom death and suffering. Even theinnocent suffer,
e.g. Job. This ‘Super-magic’association with healing, or
believing that our prayersare not answered dueto lack of
faith bring more pain, anxiety and psychological crisis to
people who experience pain and suffering in life. (At this
point many students shared their experience of healing
crusadesand prayer groups– someof thecontent of prayers
and sermonswereanalyzed). Peopledie, suffer not because
of sin, or punishment from God; it is the will of God. If
wenarrowly interpret healing-faith in termsof miraculous
‘CURE’ alone, then we are mis-reading the biblical
teaching. Such a one-sided interpretation of God’s work
will reinforce denial and stigmatization to people with
disabilities.
d) This view of God and reality of life looks down on the
body. The soul of human beings is more important than
the body which does not matter. The soul is the highest
aspect of a human person which finds its true destiny by
escaping from this perishable body and world. So, why
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
293
should we care for the body? Why should we care for
people with disabilitiesor people living with HIV?We do
not have to worry for the body if it is temporal and
perishable.
Such constructs of God contradict the true message of the
Scriptures. The Bible affirms that God became flesh; became
Immanuel. Jesus is the incarnation of God and gave his life for
downtrodden people. He touched, cared, loved and worked for
the liberation of people who have been excluded and stigmatized
in the society.
We need to move consciously away from the hierarchicaldualistic and success/beauty-oriented construct of theology. We
need to redefine our theology in the context of persons with
disability and with other marginalized communities. We should
seek theological metaphors that counter and de-legitimize male
abled-rulersand oppressors. A God without acompassionatehand
is not the God of the Bible. Any language of God that fails to
answer the cry of the marginalized people such as persons with
disabilities, wounded women, tribals, dalits, people living with
HIV, for total freedom and right to fullness of life is not holistic.
God-talk should be free from the institutionalized-patriarchalhierarchical-dualistic views of life; instead it should be a living
reality for people. We need a new theological paradigm in which
God isperceived asfellow sufferer, companion, and great comforter
as a divine power that is not dominating or controlling. Rather
than dialectical power in weakness, this is a liberating and
transforming power that is effective in compassionate love, care
and service.2 Thisnature and power of God ispowerfully revealed
in the life and ministry of Jesus Christ.
Engaging in Deconstruction of Theology, Church and Society
Having reasoned together thedominant constructsof God and its
2
Ibid., p. 172.
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implications on persons with disabilities, we decided to debate,
though the issuesare not new, on thethree theological statements
in thenext class:
“Theology istheconstruct of theabled peoplefor theabled people”
“The present church is structured mainly for the abled people”
“Our society isdefined by the abled people for the abled people”
We decided to come prepared for debate and wethought it would
require three classes. But nobody wanted to speak against the
motion. Everybody said that thestatementsaretrue. Then, I gave
the opportunity to each student to reason on thestatementsin the
context of disability. Someof theresponseswerequiteencouraging:
- Our theology of sin, suffering and healing is interpreted
mostly from abled people’s experience.
- Our understanding of the ‘Image of God’is very much
rational and beauty-oriented.
- Our prayersare very unbiblical; it islike a shopping list.
- Our hymns and liturgies are sometime superficial and
militant in nature.
- Our church building, sitting arrangementsarenot disabled
friendly.
- Disabled people suffer from inferiority complex because
of abled people’s attitude. The problem is not with
disabled people, but with the abled people.
- Our church has a rule that the Pastor should be at least 5
feet height. I am thin and short, someeldersof my church
told me that I may not be selected as Pro-Pastor.
- Our cultural traditionsare very negative towardspersons
with disabilities – we treat them as inferior beings and
incapable persons; we see them asobject of charity.
- In my community, we do not give inheritance to the
disabled; we do not appoint them in village councils. So
far, there is no pastor with a physical disability.
- Our religions– Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Traditional
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
295
religion – areall negativetowardsdisabled people. Religions
treat them assinnersand unclean.
- Somefamiliesnever takecareof their disabled; I haveseen
a person who is being kept locked at home for 27 years.
He hasnever seen the outside world.
- The churches should take the initiative to establish care
centres for disabled people – they should be given
education and vocational training.
- Women arealso treated likedisabled people. Our churches
do not appoint women aspastorsand they arenot ordained.
- Some people still look down with prejudice on the dalits,
indigenouspeopleand women asinferior – personswith a
disability.
- Our lawsare also biased towardsthe disabled.
- No company or organization likes to appoint a person
with disability.
- Our foot path, road, car, schools, arenot disabled friendly,
etc.
Studentsdecided to do their assignmentsaswell aspractical work
on thoseissues. They went to churches/temples/mosques, schools,
visited a family or met a disabled person or even an abled person,
to carecentres, shops, officesand found out how they treat persons
with disability. Those who are not interested to go for field work
decided to do research on dominant theologies such as ‘Image of
God’, Sin and Punishment, Faith and Healing, Prayers – or any
inherited doctrines that contribute to negative and judgmental
attitudestowardsperson with disability in our society and church.
The students were asked to analyze the issues from the
perspectives of justice and inclusive community of all. This gave
opportunity to engage in practical research on individual case
studies, local churchesand disability centres, social/governmental
organizations, etc. The presentations of practical reports and
theological reflectionstook asubstantial part of the semester. This
helped studentsto understand not only thesocial, gender, economic,
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Is God Disabled? - Part III
religious and cultural stigma and discrimination attached to
disabilities, but also deconstruct thedominant theologies, biblical
interpretations and plan programmes and tragedies for building
inclusive communities.
Engaging in Reconstruction of Theology, Church and Society
Having analyzed how thechurch, society and religionstreat person
with disability, the class attempted to reconstruct the Pharisaic
attitude of theology to motivatethe studentstowardsbuilding an
inclusive communities of healing, wholeness and restoration. A
few biblical passages were studied together to see how Jesus
challenged the discriminatory practices and attitudes towards
persons with disabilities. A few examplesmay be cited here:
a) The healing of lepers (Mt. 8:1-4; Mk 1:40-45; Lk 5:1216; 17:11-19) is an extraordinary act of Jesus. Leprosy
wasconsidered not only aseriousdisease, but also unclean
– thepersonssuffering from leprosy must bequarantined
and must live outside of human habitation (Lev 13:46,
Num 5:2-3). Sincethey wereconsidered unholy, unclean,
they wererequired to shout “Unclean, Unclean, Unclean”
when they come near human habitat (Lev. 13:45-46).
Anything that comes into contact with the lepers is
considered unclean and therefore, such things must be
burned and discarded (Lev. 13:52-57; 14:40-45). Such
diseaserequirescleansing. Until aleper isdeclared clean by
the priest, he/she cannot go back to lead a normal life.
Jesus broke the cultural and religious norms of his time
when hetouched and healed thelepers(MT. 8:3; Mk 1:41;
Lk 5:13). Jesusset loveand compassion aboveany religious
normsand ritualsthat dehumanized certain people. Jesus
demonstrated that no disease can be branded as a disease
of/for the sinners.3
3
V.J. John, “Biblical Approach to Understanding HIV/AIDS: SomeInsights
from the Lifeof Jesus in theGospels” in Health, Healingand Wholeness, ed.
Wati Longchar (ETE-WCC/CCA, 2005)., pp. 86-87.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
297
Jesusreached out and touched theleper. That wasaradical
step demonstrated by Jesus. Jesus need not have touched
him – but he did – to break ritual taboosthat kept people
apart. Social barriersneed to bebroken down if truehealing
is to take place. Jesus demonstrated to the disciples that
they must come out of attitudes that bind the people in
seclusion. Jesus commissioned his disciples to go and do
thesameact of healing even to theleper (Mt. 10;8).4 Then,
are we willing to break the religious taboos and extend a
compassionate hand to the people with disability?
b) Another powerful compassionate hand of God isthestory
of woman with thehaemorrhage (Mk 5:25-34, Mt. 9:2022; Lk 8:41048). The woman wassick twelve long years.
Defiling the Jewish norm, she went and touched Jesus.
Haemorrhagewasconsidered asunclean and such women
had to beseparated from people. TheJewsconsidered even
normal menstruation asunclean. Even thebed where she
rests and everything on which she sits were considered
unclean (Lev. 15:26). Anyone who touches such things
wasthusconsidered unclean (Lev. 15:27). Theperson could
becleaned only when thepriest makesacleansing offering
(Lev. 15:29-30). When the woman touched him, Jesus
turned and asked “Who touched my clothes?” In front of
all hisfollowers, Jesusthen declared her healed and cleansed.
Jesusbrokethesocial stigma. Thesocial stigma associated
to her dueto her diseasewasnullified by hisdeclaring “Go
in peace” (Mk 5:34).5
Jesus act of healing of the shriveled man on the Sabbath (Mark
3:1-12) is another to challenge to Jewish leaders. They did not
4
5
RazouselieLaseto, “Jesusand Disease: A Search for aPlacefor HIV & AIDSin
Jesus’Approach to Human Disease” in Health and Life: Theological Reflections
on HIV & AIDS, ed. Razouselie Lasetso (Jorhat: ETC Programme
Coordination, 2007), pp. 39-40.
Ibid., 41.
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want the shriveled man to be healed in the Synagogue on the
Sabbath becausefor them theobservanceof theSabbath wasmore
important than saving alife. They wereafraid that thisman would
enter thesynagoguewith the ailment which would defilethe holy
place. Religiousrituals, lawsand finding fault weremoreimportant
than saving life. But for Jesus, life was more important. Against
their ritualism, Jesussaid, “TheSabbath wasmadefor humankind
and not humankind for the Sabbath”.
Jesus liberative work for the sinners, unclean and socially
rejected people led him to the cross. And the cross stands for
suffering in its most cruel form. Having done no wrong, Jesus
suffered, hence he identified with all who suffer ignominy and
injustice, rejection and discrimination in their life. Jesusstood for
the cause of the sick and disabled. He defended them against the
prevailing attitude that suffering and physical impairment is due
to sin. Jesusrather reached out and touched them to bring healing
to thesick and disabled. Henot only healed them of their physical
infirmities but also restored them to their rightful place in the
society. Because of his compassionate love for the disabled and
sick, Jesus did not hesitate to break the Sabbath law (Mk 3:1-6).
Jesus’wholemotivebehind hishealing ministry wasnot to present
himself as a kind of healer or super-magician but his aim was to
start a movement of hope from the hopeless; a movement from
nobody to somebody. On encountering Jesus, thesick and disabled
experienced theworth and dignity of life. In the Kingdom of God
there is nothing such as unclean or sinner that cannot be made
clean again.6
We can imagine what Jesus would do for persons with
disabilitiestoday in our church and society. Jesuswill not take the
road of denial, discrimination, ostracization and isolation.7 He
would betherewith them to bring healing and hope. Jesuswould
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
certainly condemn thePharisaic attitudeof abled people. Therefore,
it is not our duty to pass judgment and undermine them, but
accept thosewith disability theway they are and minister to them
with compassion, open-hearted acceptance, love and care. Allow
them to grow and contribute their giftsfor thechurch and society.
The stigmatization of people with disabilitiescallsthe Church to
ask itself what it means, in our time, to betheinclusivecommunity
that Jesusproclaimed. Asacommunity of disciplesof JesusChrist,
the Church should be a sanctuary, a safe place, a refuge, a shelter
for the stigmatized and the excluded. The disciples of Jesus are
thus called to work for a church of all and for all.
At the end of the course, the woman who said that “God is a
Disabled God” said, “Sir, my attitude was also the same like the
Pharisees and Jewish leaders. I happened to read Henri J.M.
Nouwen’sbook, TheWounded Healer and I just quoted hiswords.
Now my attitudeischanged.” Asateacher, I felt very much rewarded
having taught the course.
Conclusion
Weneed to recognize that infusing theological curriculum should
begin with enabling thetheological community to unlearn certain
prejudicesand misconceptionsthat havebeen infused by Christian
traditions and interpretations that have been uncritically
perpetuated. We have a notion that disability is something
‘abnormal’. They are silently and in some cases consciously
marginalized in Christian theology. However, experience of
disability is in no way a negligible experience that theological
discourse can afford to ignore, becauseif it isignored, it limitsthe
opportunity for both reflection and presence. If theology issilent
about disability, it posesa barrier for people with disabilitiesto be
partnersin the theological task of the believing community.8 We
need to be proactive and intentional, willing to learn from them
8
6
7
Ibid., p. 40.
Ibid., p. 44.
299
Samson Prabhakar, “Infusing Curriculum of Theological Education with
Concernsof Disability” in DisabilityDiscoursefor Theological Institution, ed.
Wati Longchar (Jorhat: ETE-WCC/CCA, 2006), p. 21.
300
Is God Disabled? - Part III
and willing to unlearn the thingsthat marginalize them.
Introducing concernsof disabilitiesin the curriculum would
also mean making the infrastructures of theological colleges and
seminariesmore‘disability friendly’. For example, providing aramp
at theentranceof thebuilding would createacontext wherepeople
who usewheel chairsenter and interact with other.9
Thiswill demand a new way in our teaching-learning process.
Since the concerns of persons with disabilities involve a multidimensional character, adisciplinary approach will not besufficient
to unravel the complexity of it. An issue-centred and
interdisciplinary form of learning will be more helpful. How do
we study it?One may start collecting knowledge and information
about persons with disabilities with the help of a medical doctor
and a social worker, make an analysis, raise the biblical and
theological perspectives and conclude i t wi th some
recommendationsfor concreteaction. Provision should beprovided
for direct exposureto theconcretesituation and strugglesof persons
with disabilities. Case studies involving persons with disabilities
in the teaching sessions and relevant reports and analysis of the
problemswill deepen our understanding.
9
Ibid. p. 21.
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
301
16
HIV AND AIDS:
Can Theological Colleges/Seminaries in
Asia Make a Difference?
Leprosy is a very hard disease, true, but it is not as
painful as the pain of being shunned by people of
being unwanted, uncared for, just left alone.
– Mother Teresa
A Personal Encounter
When one of my friendsproposed to write his doctoral thesis (in
1992) on counseling for HIV and AIDS infected persons, his
supervisory committee discouraged him. I still remember a
comment that “Stigma is very strong and nobody will come
forward to disclosetheir status. Thetimeisnot ripefor undertaking
doctoral research”. Many of usthought that it wasamedical issue
but not a theological issue. In 2002, colleges in M yanmar
experienced the expulsion of studentsand faculty membersfrom
theological seminaries(also from ministry) after being diagnosed
with HIV. A NGO based medical team wanted to conduct a
HIV awarenessseminar in oneof thereputed theological seminaries
in Indonesia in 2001. The officials permitted to organize the
seminar on the condition that they do not talk about condoms
fearing that thechurch will stop support and sending studentsto
the seminary. That was the attitude of theological seminaries on
theHIV pandemic when ETE-WCC/CCA started itsjourney with
theological collegesin Asia.
The situation of the churches was not better. Let me cite a
story which took place in Nagaland in 2003. The Nagas generally
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HIV and AIDS - Part III
love talking, sharing, eating and visiting friends but when they
come to know that a person is sick with AIDS, nobody will visit
the person and avoid talking even to the family members. The
family membersalso tend to conceal the fact. A pastor wasinvited
for prayer by a family of his congregation. The community and
thepastor knew that theyoung man wassick with AIDS. Realizing
that the young man is going to die soon, the family members
wanted the pastor to offer a prayer for him. With much fear and
doubt, the pastor went to pray, but he refused to enter the room
where the patient was battling for life. He prayed from the other
adjacent room and left the home hurriedly without even seeing
the patient. The pastor wasso scared that hewould be infected by
AIDS if he sat near or touched him. In that way the churches
denied pastoral care, loveand concern, and stigmatized the AIDS
patientsand family members. Thevision that thechurch iscalled
to be an inclusive church, called to live as a healing, worshipping
and prophetic community, also, upholding the right to dignity of
every human being, transforming a world challenged by HIV and
AIDSwasa distant dream in many churchesin Asia.
An Age of HIV and AIDS
There are many thingsthat can be said about the last yearsof the
20th Century – one of which is that it was the beginning of the
“Age of AIDS.” Whilemany other eventsare also noteworthy, it is
hard to overstate the impact of the appearance of the Human
Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV) which leads to Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) on thebodies, minds, and
souls of people around the world. Victor Mary SD. Ortega, the
Programme Advisor for UNAIDS in the Philippines stated its
impact globally, “In many countriesaround theworld, theimpact
of AIDS has been felt and univocally demonstrated. This global
pandemic has reduced life expectancy, overloaded health systems
and reversed countlessdevelopment gains.”
In this Age of AIDS, there are too many bodies racked with
pain. It hasbeen said that beforetheend of thisyear alone, between
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
303
40 to 100 million people will be infected, 10 million of whom
will be children. Our mindsareassaulted by statisticsand realities
which we can scarcely comprehend and our responsesrangefrom
a denial that we will ever be touched by AIDS, to a near panic or
hysteria that people with AIDS are a threat to our own health.
Our soulsarechallenged by thedreaded reminder that all of usare
mortal – even when young and seemingly invincible.
For Christians, thereisanother challenge for thesoul: how to
respond – asChristians– to thisAge of AIDS. Christiansbelieve
that thereisan interconnectednessamong humankind. When one
of usexperiencespain, weall do. Paul theApostle, using theimage
of the Church asthe Body of Christ, assertsthat the hand cannot
say to theeye, “I don’t need you.” AsChristians, wecannot say to
those who are infected by the HIV and AIDS virus, “We don’t
need you.”
The disturbing thing about AIDS is that, opening ourselves
to those most affected by this disease means acknowledging and
becoming concerned about somepeoplewho havenot alwaysbeen
the recipientsof our love and concern: gay men, intravenousdrug
users, peopleof color, commercial sex worker, thepoor and persons
with disabilities. Thesepeople often face rejection from their own
familiesand friendsand the communitiesin which they work and
interact. In addition, they are often faced with a terrible lack of
adequatehealth care, especially toward theend of life. If webelieve
that all of us are children of God and that we need one another,
then what doesthe pandemic of AIDScall usto do asChristians?
Many people probably believe that they will never be touched
by AIDS. They dwell in the“safe” Never-Never-Land of believing
that this disease only affects people in someone else’s family, in
some other neighborhood, in some other socio-economic group,
in someother country. The fact remainsthat before very too long
(and sooner than they want to admit) they will all probably either
be infected or affected by AIDS. Some will not learn what they
need to know to protect them from infection, or they will make
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HIV and AIDS - Part III
the choice, conscious or unconscious, not to follow known
guidelines – and they will become infected with the HIV and
AIDSvirus. Otherswill receivean anguished phonecall from their
child (or grandchild, or niece or nephew) reporting the tragic
newsof infection. Otherswill have a beloved next door neighbor,
babysitter, colleague, boss, pastor, organist or best friend who shares
the“bad news”.
HIV isnot just amedical issue, but rather, it pervadesall spheres
of our lives – social, economic, political and cultural. It touches
the precious gift of God – life in its fullness. As such, HIV is a
spiritual and theological issue. The church cannot remain a silent
spectator. Our faith formation needsto bere-formulated to create
a positive and an inclusive community of and for all.
ETE-WCC/CCA Journey towards building HIV and AIDS
competent church and theological education
Christian Conferenceof Asia(CCA) wasinvolved with thechurches
in creating awarenessthrough the Programmeme Area of Justice,
International Affairs, Development and Servicesincethelater part
of ’80s. I would say that CCA involvement with the churches
and theological seminaries took a new turn and intensified after
the creation of joint ETE consultancy work with the World
Council of Churches in 2001. One of the mandates of ETE at
that time was to promote new area of studies such as Decade for
Overcoming Violence(DOV) and Gender justiceto promote life
and inclusive communitiesfor all. TheETE team identified HIV
and AIDS, as important areas that required urgent theological
response and intervention because most of theaffected peopleare
poor, marginalized and oppressed. The stigmaand discrimination
attached to HIV and AIDS was creating a situation where
thousands, many among whom are widows and orphans, were
facing death amidst deepening poverty. The churches and
theological institutionsought to be agentsof change, influencing
society to meaningfully addressthecausesof thedisease, itsimpact,
its prevention and especially issues related to stigma and
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
305
discrimination.
Recognizing that our pastors, teachers, missionaries and
Christian ministerswill fail to play atransformativerole in human
community, the ETE team in collaboration with the Health and
Healing Desk of WCC, Global Ministry of Methodist Church,
USA and other mission partners decided to accompany the
theological communities in addressing the issue. Initially, we
decided to accompany the churchesand theological institutionsin
threedifferent areas:
1. Awarenessprogrammeto prepare the groundsfor developing
a curriculum for ministerial candidates. Creating awarenessisthe
first step for change. ETE collaborated in two sub-regional
consultations – one in Bangalore (2003) and one in Chiang Mai
(2004) for theological teachers, churches leaders and NGO
workers. Two more National seminars – one was organized in
Yangon since many leaders from Myanmar could not join the
seminars due to visa restriction, and the other one was organized
in Phenom Penh for those who were involved in theological
education by extension in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. Apart
from those activities, ETE also facilitated and supported a few
colleges interested in offering course(s) on HIV and AIDS. This
awarenessprogrammeled to publication of two theological resource
books, namely (1) HIV and AIDS: A Challenge to Theological
Education (2004) (it has been reprinted twice) (2) Health, Healing
and Wholeness: Asian Theological Perspectives on HIV and AIDS
(2005). Altogether 197 theological teachers and church leaders
participated in the awareness programme. After the awareness
programme, a random survey wasmade and it wasvery satisfying
to seethevisiblechangein theattitudesamong pastorsand church
workers. For example, the Pastor from Nagaland who refused to
enter theAIDSpatient’sroom and touch the patient, wrote to us
that henow regularly visit theSamaritan Homeand other families
without fear. He wrote that “I am ashamed of my ignorance. The
seminar opened my eyes. Now I touch, eat and drink together and
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HIV and AIDS - Part III
talk with the AI DS patients.” Likewise, pastors in many
congregationsare now more open and sensitive in ministering to
those infected and affected by the pandemic.
As mentioned, when the students or faculty members were
found to beinfected with HIV, they wereexpelled from thecolleges.
During theseminar, AnnaMay, thethen Principal of MIT, Yangon
challenged, “Theseminary should accept them, should allow them
to stay in the dormitory. We are made in God’s image. God has
given each one of us responsibilities to contribute to making this
world abeautiful place. Having HIV and AIDSin no way detracts
from worth and dignity as a human being. If seminaries reject
them, the churches will also not use them. The seminary should
rethink our policies”. Today studentsand teachersareaccepted and
no longer stigmatized in thecampus. Somecollegesstarted offering
the courseon HIV and AIDS, even before it wasmade mandatory
by the university/association. These are some of the positive
contributionsmade through such awarenessprogrammes.
2. Curriculum Transformation and Mainstreaming HIV and
AIDSin Theological Education – Theawarenessprogrammepaved
the way for curriculum transformation. The importance of HIV
and AIDScare and prevention through theological education was
acknowledged by many leaders. To institutionalize the course, a
well structured curriculum approved by theAcademic Committee
or Senate wasneeded. Without that it would be difficult to offer
as credited course, and even if it is offered it will be treated as
elective or optional course. To transform and institutionalize HIV
and AIDSin theological education, ETE collaborated in organizing
two major workshops on curriculum transformation – one in
Manila for ATESEA member schools and the other one for the
Senate of Serampore College (University) affiliated colleges in
Jorhat. The Manila workshop developed four courses and the
proceedings of the workshop was published as part of ATESEA
Occasional Papers, entitled, HIV and AIDS: Challenges for
Theological Colleges including seven liturgies to be used in the
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
307
colleges. TheJorhat workshop developed two coursesfor theSenate
of Serampore (University) affiliated colleges. Then, through the
accreditation and affiliation mechanism, the colleges were
encouraged to offer the course on HIV and AIDS ascore courses
for all ministerial candidates. It is quite satisfying to see that a
course on HIV and& AIDSisnow being taught in all thecolleges
under the ATESEA and the Senate of Serampore College
(University).
Wealso realized that developing acoursealoneisnot sufficient
and it will not bring much perspectival change in theological
orientation. It wasfelt that theissue should be integrated in other
disciplines as well. Therefore, the workshops also reviewed the
existing theological curriculaand suggested areaswhereintegration
of HIV and AIDS could be done. In addition, we found that
gender inequality is a major factor associated with the spread of
HIV. In thisconnection, aworkshop wasorganized in collaboration
with Foundation for Theological Education in South East Asia
(FTESEA) and the Women’s Commission of ATESEA in 2006
which brought 47 women theological educatorsfrom all over Asia
in Yangon. The theme “Women, Peace-building and HIV and
AIDSConcern” uncovered thenexusbetween patriarchy and HIV
and AIDS. Some of the papers were published in CTC Bulletin
(CCA) and Ministerial Formation (WCC).
3. Teacher’s Pedagogy Seminar on HIV and AIDS – Again,
developing a course alone will not mainstream HIV and AIDSin
theological education if the teachers are not trained on how to
handle the course. Therefore, aspart of the awarenessprogramme
and to provideteaching orientation from aHIV perspective, ETE
decided to accompany theological associationsin training teachers.
Four teacher’s pedagogy training was organized in four places Jakarta, Yangon, Bangalore and Fiji. Altogether 164 teachers
benefitted from this programme.
It isvery encouraging to see that apart from institutionalizing
HIV and AIDSin theological colleges, agood number of students
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have undertaken research on the issue of HIV and AIDS at B.D/
M .Div, M .Th and Doctoral levels. The H I V and AIDS
component is integrated into several other required courses like
Biblical studies, theology and ethics, Christian ministry, etc. Most
colleges observed December 1st World AIDS Day with a special
liturgy and programme. Most of theseminaries/collegesprovided
the opportunity of Internship in HIV and AIDSministry setting
especially in an interfaith context. Concurrent field work provides
opportunities to students to associate with NGOs working with
HIV and AIDS every week.
Continuing Challengesfor Ministerial Programme
We cannot undermine the fact that the Church isone institution
which permeatesevery aspect of their members’livesasshown in
religious beliefs and convictions which influence and affect the
kindsof decisionsthey makein responding to their daily problems,
difficultiesand concerns. It playsa critical role in shaping and reshaping people’s perceptions, attitudes, values and behaviors in
thesocial, economic and political spheres, amongothers, of human
existence. Indeed, the Church and religious-based organizations
can be significant agents of social change. Their reach, scope of
influenceand activerelationship over itsmembersarefeaturesthat
enable it to perform this function.
Theology does not spread the HIV virus, but it does spread
negative and judgmental attitudes among people. Our narrow
theological formationslead people to believe that HIV isresult of
immoral and sinful activities, and therefore, is sin, unclean, a
punishment from God. Negativeattitudesstigmatize, exclude and
discriminate against peoplewith HIV, and createfeelingsof guilt
among many people. This is as serious as the HIV virus itself, or
even more so. This causes people to remain silent. People do not
want to disclose their status due to fear of discrimination. It
perpetuates an attitude that the disease exists only among drug
edicts, sex workers, and people of different sexual orientation.
Moreover, we also have the wrong noting that people living
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
309
with HIV will diesoon. They haveno hopeand no future. Nobody
knowswhether the yearsof our life will be long or short. What is
important isthat we make each day count. Some people may live
for morethan 90 years, full of complaintsand grumbling that life
isa burden. What isimportant in life isnot theyearsof a person’s
life but the way we experience life, itsjoysand sorrows, and how
we share our life with others meaningfully.
We also have a negative understanding of human sexuality.
Sex is still seen as a taboo and sinful. Except for moral values,
Christian ministersshould not speak of family planning.
In spiteof many positivedevelopments, not many institutions
concerned with theological education, training and formation of
ministersstressthisroleof theChurch and religious-based groups
in educating and informing their membersabout HIV and AIDS,
as well as inculcating values that will impact on their behaviors
and make them less vulnerable to the disease. We have yet to
mainstream HIV and AIDS issues in theological formation
programme that will bring them to the fore for future leaders of
thechurch in many and varied issuesarisingfrom thephenomenon
of HIV and AIDS, with a firm theological grounding.
Theological education needsto take further concrete stepsin
the area of empowering our students in understanding HIV and
AIDStheologically so that they too would know how to effectively
minister to people who are afflicted by this dreaded disease or at
least educate their respective congregations of a more Christian
way of dealing with the same.
Variousapproachescan beused to incorporateHIV and AIDS
issues into a theological curriculum. One strategy is to revise the
entirecourseoffering to ensurethat global AIDSisrelated to every
subject being offered. ThusBibleor theology or preaching courses
should highlight HIV and AIDSalong with thecentral discipline
being taught. Realistically, however, thisapproach isusually not
adopted, since it requires every course in the curriculum to be
changed and therearemany valid reasonswhy thisisnot viablefor
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most theological institutionsand institutesin the world. A second
avenue isto create a special degree Programmewithin a particular
department that focuses on global AIDS. This might happen in
the area of practical theology, ethics, pastoral care, or some other
Programme. Not all seminaries, however, have the necessary
resources, size, or faculty to achieve such an objective. A third
method is to introduce a single course or series of courses
appropriate to the context and resources of the theological
institution or college. Such an approach draws upon the interest
and experience of persons available in a particular setting. The
faculty member could be from any discipline of academic studies
or be a person with expertise in the field of HIV and AIDS.
To suggest some module curricula for theological colleges/
seminaries in Asia, some theological educators from Asia met in
three places – Bangalore, Yangon and Manila and have prepared
thefollowing modulecourses described below which can be used
as module for theological colleges in Asia. We are thankful to the
World Council of Churches for allowing us to modify HIV and
AIDSCurriculum for Theological Institutionsin Africa.
MODULE CURRICULUM 1 ON HIV AND AIDS
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
●
●
1
Seethedetail unit curricula, HIV and AIDS: Challengesfor Theological College
in Asia, ed. Victor R. Aguilan (Manila: ATESEA, 2006), pp, 18-43.
moreeffectively in thestruggleagainst theHIV and AIDS
epidemic.
Increase the capacity of the students of theological
institutions in designing, implementing and monitoring
of H I V and AI DS prevention, care and support
intervention programmes in their communities of work.
Raise Christian leadership that standsup to the challenge
of HIV and AIDS.
General Objectives
●
Equip learners and church workers with adequate
knowledge and information about HIV and AIDS.
●
An understandingof thecomplex personal, medical, social,
cultural and religiousdimensionsof HIV and AIDS.
●
Assist the Christians and its leadership to fully maximize
itsown potential and internal resourcessuch asthe Bible,
theology, church traditions, Asian religions and cultural
traditions and to develop a wholesome value system in
the fight against HIV and AIDS.
●
FOR THEOLOGICAL COLLEGES/SEMINARIES IN ASIA
Curriculum Goals
Thiscurriculum seeksto:
●
Reduceand finally eradicatethespread and impact of HIV
and AIDSin Asia.
●
Strengthen the churches’role and capacity to respond to
the HIV and AIDSpandemic.
●
Equip Christian workers with the necessary education,
training and formation to servetheir churchesand society
311
●
●
●
●
Enablelearners’to cultivatepositiveattitudestowardsthose
infected by reproductive health behavior.
Assist learners to understand the role the church and
community should play in the meeting the challenges of
HIV and AIDS.
Empower learners with analytical skills to have a deeper
understanding of social factors(poverty, migrant workers,
gender inequality, class, race, national stability and
international relations) behind spread of HIV and AIDS
especially in Asia.
An appreciation of the vital role that persons living with
HIV and AIDShave had and arehaving in thestruggleto
combat the pandemic.
Ways they can personally become involved in addressing
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HIV and AIDS - Part III
●
●
●
global HIV and AIDS.
Institutionalize HIV and AIDS prevention, care and
support of Personswith AIDSand Peopleliving with AIDS
in theological and pastoral institutions.
RaiseChristian leadership and achurch that isseasoned to
serve in itssocial context and to meet thepressing needsof
its people.
An exploration of therolethechurch and other faith-based
organizationscan havein addressing the pandemic.
Programme Design
Thecurriculum isdesigned to assist instructors, teachers, lecturers
and professors in institutions, which prepare clergy for ministry,
to mainstream HIV and AIDS in their training programmes in
order to produce church leaders and a church, which is better
equipped to serve in this age. As an ecumenical instrument, it is
important to note the following factors in its use and design.
●
From multifaceted perspectives, the curriculum examines
some critical issuesin the Christian responsesto HIV and
AIDS.
●
The instructor and theconcerned institution may use any
part of the curriculum units in whole or in part. This is
designed to incorporate easily into existing syllabi.
Alternatively, theunitsand their analytical methodscould
constitute courses on biblical, theological, counseling,
gender, liturgical and administrativeapproach to HIV and
AIDS.
●
The users of this curriculum and the recipients of its
teaching, will need to interpret and adjust itscontentsfor
their own cultural, organizational, church background,
economic and educational level. It can also be run short
in-service coursesfor ordained ministers, church workers
and the laity.
●
The entry requirements for learners will depend on the
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
313
institution’srequirementsand goals.
●
Thetimeallocation for thetopicscovered in different units
and grading system will be left to the discretion of the
institution.
●
Required and recommended texts, although provided, will
also be left to individual lecturersand their institutions.
●
The curriculum is divided into five units. The first seeks
to explore the various biblical perspectives to disease,
healing and compassion that can assist the church and its
leadership to assume an effective approach to HIV and
AIDS prevention and care. The second unit examines
biblical basis for healing and wholeness. The third unit
explores how the available theological frameworks and
analytical toolscan equip thechurch and itsleadership for
effective ministry in HIV and AIDScontexts. The fourth
unit seeksto impart skillsof carethrough counseling. The
fifth unit seeksto equip thechurch and itsleadership with
skillsof effectiveleadership and management.
These units cover the following topics:
UNIT 1: Understanding the Nature of HIV and AIDS
●
Gender and Sexuality
l
Sexually Transmitted Infections
●
Facts about HIV and AIDS
●
Prevention and Control of HIV and AIDS
●
Human Rights, Vulnerabilities, Socio-cultural, economic,
political implications of STIs, HIV and AIDS
UNIT 2: Biblical Teachings
●
Job Challenges the Framework of Disease asPunishment
●
Prophetic Healing and HIV and AIDS
●
Jesus’Healing Ministry and HIV and AIDS
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HIV and AIDS - Part III
UNIT 3: Towards aTheological Understanding of HIV and
AIDS
●
Theology of Creation (Genesis 1-2)
l
Contextual Theologies and HIV and AIDS
l
Asian Liberation Theologiesand HIV and AIDS
l
Feminist theologiesand HIV and AIDS
UNIT 4: Christian Response to HIV and AIDS
●
Counseling pastoral care
●
Counseling in HIV and AIDScontexts
●
Counseling in HIV and AIDScontexts
●
Treatment and care for those affected by HIV and AIDS
●
Institutional care, development and sustainability
UNIT 5: Programme Development and HIV and AIDS
●
Leadership Skills
●
Management Skills
●
Community Mobilization Skills
●
Project Management
●
Mobilizing Resources
●
Training of Trainersin Meanstreaming HIV and AIDS
●
Preparing a Project Proposal
A Way Forward
Confronting AIDS and reaching out to people living with AIDS
calls us to be in relationship with people in our communities,
nation and world who live sadly “on theedges.” Thesearethevery
people to whom Jesus would minister and with whom he would
associate, if hisincarnation had happened in these modern times.
He was always reaching out to those on the fringes of society –
whether to theleper, theprostituteor thetax collector, scorned by
CONTEXTUAL ISSUES IN THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
315
their societiesand religiousinstitutions. In the20th century, “doing
AIDS work” is doing “God’s work.”
Aswe have noted, we haveachieved many thingsand there is
no doubt of visible impacts on the life of the Church and
Theological Institutions. But weareyet to createaHIV freeworld.
We continue to strive towards creating a HIV Free Church and
Society. We need further research on the followings:
1. Theological resources on HIV prevention which will
involve re-reading of the Bible.
2. Research on theinterconnection between HIV and people
with disabilities, peoplewith different sexual orientations
and gender related issues.
3. Develop skill-oriented training courses for grass-root
workers in collaboration with hospitals and faith-based
NGOs (There is a lot of potential if the Universities can
develop aDiplomaCourseon HIV Careand Prevention).
4. Strategize interfaith collaboration in the local context.