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This image shows the cover of Progressive Sight Singing
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Contents
Preface for the Instructor
Preface for the Student
An Introduction to the Musical Literacy Process
Strategies for Successful Sight Singing
Building Musicianship and Independence
Part I Rhythmic Reading
1. Simple Meter: Quarter Note = Beat Unit; Undivided Beat
1.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
1.2 Symbolic Association
1.3 Rhythm Patterns
1.4 Exercises
1.5 Dictation Skills
1.6 Improvisation Skills
2. Simple Meter: Quarter Note = Beat Unit; Divided Beat
2.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
2.2 Symbolic Association
2.3 Rhythm Patterns
2.4 Exercises
2.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
3. Simple Meter: Quarter Note = Beat Unit; Slur, Tie, and Extension Dot
3.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
3.2 Symbolic Association
3.3 Rhythm Patterns
3.4 Exercises
3.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
4. Terms and Symbols
4.1 Symbolic Association: Performance Markings
4.2 Exercises
4.3 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
5. Compound Meter: Dotted Quarter Note = Beat Unit; Divided Beats
5.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
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5.2 Symbolic Association
5.3 Rhythm Patterns
5.4 Exercises
5.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
6. Simple Meter: Half Note = Beat Unit; Divided Beat
6.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
6.2 Symbolic Association
6.3 Rhythm Patterns
6.4 Exercises
6.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
7. Simple Meter: Eighth Note = Beat Unit; Divided Beat
7.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
7.2 Symbolic Association
7.3 Rhythm Patterns
7.4 Exercises
7.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
8. Compound Meter: Dotted Half Note = Beat Unit; Divided Beat
8.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
8.2 Symbolic Association
8.3 Rhythm Patterns
8.4 Exercises
8.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
9. Compound Meter: Dotted Eighth Note = Beat Unit; Divided Beat
9.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
9.2 Symbolic Association
9.3 Rhythm Patterns
9.4 Exercises
9.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
10. Simple Meter: Quarter Note = Beat Unit; Borrowed Division
10.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
10.2 Symbolic Association
10.3 Rhythm Patterns
10.4 Exercises
10.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
11. Simple Meter: Quarter Note = Beat Unit; Syncopation
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11.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
11.2 Symbolic Association
11.3 Rhythm Patterns
11.4 Exercises
11.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
12. Simple Meter: Quarter Note = Beat Unit; Subdivided Beats
12.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
12.2 Symbolic Association
12.3 Rhythm Patterns
12.4 Exercises
12.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
13. More Terms and Symbols
13.1 Symbolic Association: Performance Markings
13.2 Exercises
13.3 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
14. Simple Meter: Quarter Note = Beat Unit; More Rhythms with Borrowed Beat Division
14.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
14.2 Symbolic Association
14.3 Rhythm Patterns
14.4 Exercises
14.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
15. Simple Meter: Quarter Note = Beat Unit; More Rhythms with Syncopations
15.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
15.2 Symbolic Association
15.3 Rhythm Patterns
15.4 Exercises
15.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
16. Simple Meter: Quarter Note = Beat Unit; More Rhythms with Subdivided Beats
16.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
16.2 Symbolic Association
16.3 Rhythm Patterns
16.4 Exercises
16.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
17. Simple Meter: Half Note = Beat Unit; More Rhythms
17.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
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17.2 Symbolic Association
17.3 Rhythm Patterns
17.4 Exercises
17.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
18. Simple Meter: Eighth Note = Beat Unit; More Rhythms
18.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
18.2 Symbolic Association
18.3 Rhythm Patterns
18.4 Exercises
18.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
19. Compound Meter: Dotted Quarter Note = Beat Unit; More Rhythms
19.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
19.2 Symbolic Association
19.3 Rhythm Patterns
19.4 Exercises
19.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
20. Compound Meter: Dotted Half Note 5 Beat Unit; More Rhythms
20.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
20.2 Symbolic Association
20.3 Rhythm Patterns
20.4 Exercises
20.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
21. Compound Meter: Dotted Eighth Note 5 Beat Unit; More Rhythms
21.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
21.2 Symbolic Association
21.3 Rhythm Patterns
21.4 Exercises
21.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
22. Simple Meter: Irregular Division of Beat
22.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
22.2 Symbolic Association
22.3 Rhythm Patterns and Exercises: Quarter Note = Beat Unit
22.4 Exercises: Other Simple Meters
22.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
23. Compound Meter: Irregular Division of Beat
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23.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
23.2 Symbolic Association
23.3 Rhythm Patterns and Exercises: Dotted Quarter Note = Beat Unit
23.4 Exercises: Other Compound Meters
23.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
24. Hemiola and Cross-Rhythms
24.1 Symbolic Association: Hemiola, 2:3, 3:2
24.2 Exercises: Hemiola, 2:3, 3:2
24.3 Symbolic Association: 3:4, 4:3, 2:5
24.4 Exercises: 4:3, 3:4, 2:5
24.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
25. Asymmetrical Meters
25.1 Symbolic Association
25.2 Rhythm Patterns and Exercises: Beat Constant Rhythm Patterns
25.3 Rhythm Patterns and Exercises: Beat Division Constant Rhythm Patterns
25.4 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
26. Mixed Meters
26.1 Symbolic Association
26.2 Exercises
26.3 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
Part II Melodic Reading
1. Tonic Pentachord in Major Mode; Simple Meters, Undivided Beat
1.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Diatonic Steps
1.2 Symbolic Association: Diatonic Steps
1.3 Tonal and Melodic Patterns: Diatonic Steps
1.4 Exercises: Diatonic Steps
1.5 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Tonic Triad
1.6 Symbolic Association: Tonic Triad
1.7 Tonal and Melodic Patterns: Diatonic Steps, Tonic Triad
1.8 Exercises: Diatonic Steps, Tonic Triad
1.9 Dictation Skills
1.10 Improvisation Skills
2. Diatonic Steps and Tonic Triad in the Major Scale; Simple Meters, Undivided Beat
2.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Diatonic Steps
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2.2 Symbolic Association: Diatonic Steps
2.3 Tonal and Melodic Patterns: Diatonic Steps
2.4 Exercises: Diatonic Steps
2.5 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Diatonic Steps, Tonic Triad
2.6 Symbolic Association: Diatonic Steps, Tonic Triad
2.7 Tonal and Melodic Patterns: Diatonic Steps, Tonic Triad
2.8 Exercises: Diatonic Steps, Tonic Triad
2.9 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
3. Diatonic Steps and Tonic Triad in the Natural Minor Scale; Simple Meters, Undivided Beat
3.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Diatonic Steps, Tonic Triad
3.2 Symbolic Association: Diatonic Steps, Tonic Triad
3.3 Tonal and Melodic Patterns: Diatonic Steps, Tonic Triad
3.4 Exercises: Diatonic Steps, Tonic Triad
3.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
4. Diatonic Steps and Tonic Triad in the Major Scale; Simple Meters, Divided Beat
4.1 Integrating Rhythm and Tonal Skills: Major Mode
4.2 Symbolic Association: Major Mode
4.3 Melodic Patterns: Major Mode
4.4 Exercises: Major Mode
4.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
5. Diatonic Steps and Tonic Triad in the Major Scale; Simple Meters, Dotted Quarter Notes
5.1 Integrating Rhythm and Tonal Skills: Major Mode
5.2 Symbolic Association: Major Mode
5.3 Melodic Patterns: Major Mode
5.4 Exercises: Major Mode
5.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
6. Natural Minor Scale; Simple Meters, Eighth and Dotted Quarter Notes
6.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Natural Minor Scale
6.2 Symbolic Association: Natural Minor Scale
6.3 Tonal and Melodic Patterns: Natural Minor Scale
6.4 Exercises: Natural Minor Scale
6.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
7. Harmonic and Melodic Minor Scales; Simple Meters, Eighth and Dotted Quarter Notes
7.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Harmonic Minor Scale
7.2 Symbolic Association: Harmonic Minor Scale
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7.3 Tonal and Melodic Patterns: Harmonic Minor Scale
7.4 Exercises: Harmonic Minor Scale
7.5 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Melodic Minor Scale
7.6 Symbolic Association: Melodic Minor Scale
7.7 Tonal and Melodic Patterns: Melodic Minor Scale
7.8 Exercises: Melodic Minor Scale
7.9 Exercises: Intervals in Tonic Triad (i) and Mediant Major Triad (III)/Relative Major
7.10 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
8. Major and Minor Modes; Compound Meters: Dotted Quarter Note = Beat Unit
8.1 Integrating Rhythm and Tonal Skills: Major Mode
8.2 Symbolic Association: Major Mode
8.3 Melodic Patterns: Major Mode
8.4 Exercises: Major Mode
8.5 Integrating Rhythm and Tonal Skills: Minor Mode
8.6 Symbolic Association: Minor Mode
8.7 Melodic Patterns: Minor Mode
8.8 Exercises: Minor Mode
8.9 Exercises: Intervals in Tonic Triad (i) and the Mediant Triad (III)/Relative Major
8.10 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
9. I and V7 in Major Mode; Simple and Compound Meters
9.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Dominant Triad, Major Mode
9.2 Symbolic Association: Dominant Triad, Major Mode
9.3 Tonal Patterns: Dominant Triad, Major Mode
9.4 Exercises: Dominant Triad, Major Mode, Simple Meters
9.5 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Dominant Seventh Chord, Major Mode
9.6 Symbolic Association: Dominant Seventh Chord, Major Mode
9.7 Tonal Patterns: Dominant Seventh Chord, Major Mode
9.8 Exercises: Dominant Seventh Chord, Major Mode, Simple Meters
9.9 Exercises: Dominant and Dominant Seventh, Major Mode, Compound Meters
9.10 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
10. i and V7 in Minor Mode; Simple and Compound Meters
10.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Dominant Triad, Minor Mode
10.2 Symbolic Association: Dominant Triad, Minor Mode
10.3 Tonal Patterns: Dominant Triad, Minor Mode
10.4 Exercises: Dominant Triad, Minor Mode, Simple Meters
10.5 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Dominant Seventh Chord, Minor Mode
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10.6 Symbolic Association: Dominant Seventh Chord, Minor Mode
10.7 Tonal Patterns: Dominant Seventh Chord, Minor Mode
10.8 Exercises: Dominant Seventh Chord, Minor Mode, Simple Meters
10.9 Exercises: Dominant and Dominant Seventh, Minor Mode, Compound Meters
10.10 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
11. I and V7 in Major Mode; Other Rhythms in Simple Meters
11.1 Integrating Rhythm and Tonal Skills: Major Mode
11.2 Symbolic Association
11.3 Melodic Patterns and Exercises: Triplets, Tonic Only
11.4 Melodic Patterns and Exercises: Syncopation, Tonic Only
11.5 Melodic Patterns and Exercises: Subdivided Beat, Tonic Only
11.6 Exercises: Combined Rhythms, Tonic Only
11.7 Exercises: Combined Rhythms, Tonic and Dominant
11.8 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
12. i and V7 in Minor Mode; Other Rhythms in Simple Meters
12.1 Integrating Rhythm and Tonal Skills: Minor Modes
12.2 Symbolic Association
12.3 Melodic Patterns and Exercises: Triplets, Tonic Only
12.4 Melodic Patterns and Exercises: Syncopation, Tonic Only
12.5 Melodic Patterns and Exercises: Subdivided Beat, Tonic Only
12.6 Exercises: Combined Rhythms, Tonic Only
12.7 Exercises: Combined Rhythms, Tonic and Dominant
12.8 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
13. I and V7 in Major and Minor Modes; Half Note = Beat Unit
13.1 Integrating Rhythm and Tonal Skills: Major and Minor Modes
13.2 Symbolic Association
13.3 Melodic Patterns and Exercises: Major Mode, Tonic Only
13.4 Exercises: Major Mode, Tonic and Dominant
13.5 Melodic Patterns and Exercises: Minor Mode, Tonic Only
13.6 Exercises: Minor Mode, Tonic and Dominant
13.7 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
14. I and V7 in Major and Minor Modes; Eighth Note = Beat Unit
14.1 Integrating Rhythm and Tonal Skills: Major and Minor Modes
14.2 Symbolic Association
14.3 Melodic Patterns and Exercises: Major Mode, Tonic Only
14.4 Exercises: Major Mode, Tonic and Dominant
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14.5 Melodic Patterns and Exercises: Minor Mode, Tonic Only
14.6 Exercises: Minor Mode, Tonic and Dominant
14.7 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
15. I and V7 in Major and Minor; Compound Meters, More Rhythms
15.1 Integrating Rhythm and Tonal Skills: Major and Minor Modes
15.2 Symbolic Association
15.3 Melodic Patterns and Exercises: Major Mode, Tonic Only
15.4 Exercises: Major Mode, Tonic and Dominant
15.5 Melodic Patterns and Exercises: Minor Mode, Tonic Only
15.6 Exercises: Minor Mode, Tonic and Dominant
15.7 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
16. The Movable C Clefs
16.1 Symbolic Association
16.2 Exercises: Major and Minor Modes, Tonic and Dominant
16.3 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
7
17. I, IV, and V in Major Mode; Simple and Compound Meters
17.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Subdominant Triad, Major Mode
17.2 Symbolic Association
17.3 Tonal Patterns: Subdominant Triad, Major Mode
7
17.4 Exercises: I, IV, V , Major Mode, Simple Meters
7
17.5 Exercises: I, IV, V , Major Mode, Compound Meters
17.6 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
18. i, iv, and V7 in Minor Mode; Simple and Compound Meters
18.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Subdominant Triad, Minor Mode
18.2 Symbolic Association
18.3 Tonal Patterns: Subdominant Triad, Minor Mode
7
18.4 Exercises: i, iv, IV, and V , Minor Mode, Simple Meters
7
18.5 Exercises: i, iv, IV, and V Minor Mode, Compound Meters
18.6 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
19. Other Diatonic Triads and Seventh Chords in Major and Minor Modes
19.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Diatonic Triads and Seventh Chords in Major Mode
19.2 Symbolic Association: Diatonic Seventh Chords, Major Mode
19.3 Tonal Patterns: ii, iii, vi, vii°, Major Mode
19.4 Exercises: ii, iii, vi, vii°, Major Mode
19.5 Building Aural–Oral Skills: Diatonic Triads and Seventh Chords in Minor Mode
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19.6 Symbolic Association: Diatonic Seventh Chords, Minor Mode
19.7 Tonal Patterns: ii°, III, VI, VII, Minor Mode
19.8 Exercises: ii°, III, VI, VII, Minor Mode
19.9 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
20. Chromaticism: Nonharmonic Tones
20.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
20.2 Symbolic Association
20.3 Tonal Patterns
20.4 Exercises
20.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
21. Chromaticism: Secondary Dominants
21.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
21.2 Symbolic Association
21.3 Tonal Patterns and Exercises: Raised Fourth Scale Degree, Major Mode
21.4 Tonal Patterns and Exercises: Raised Fourth Scale Degree, Minor Mode
21.5 Tonal Patterns and Exercises: Lowered Seventh Scale Degree, Major Mode
21.6 Tonal Patterns and Exercises: Raised Tonic, Major Mode
21.7 Tonal Patterns and Exercises: Raised Second Scale Degree, Major Mode
21.8 Tonal Patterns and Exercises: Raised Third Scale Degree, Minor Mode
21.9 Exercises: Secondary Dominants and Nonharmonic Tones
21.10 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
22. Chromaticism: Modulation
22.1 Symbolic Association
22.2 Exercises: Modulation to the Dominant
22.3 Exercises: Modulation to Closely Related Keys
22.4 Exercises: Modulation to Remote Keys
22.5 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
23. Chromatic Alterations: Modal Mixture and Neapolitan Sixth
23.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
23.2 Symbolic Association
23.3 Tonal Patterns: Modal Mixture
23.4 Exercises: Modal Mixture
23.5 Exercises: The Neapolitan Sixth
23.6 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
24. Modes
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24.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
24.2 Symbolic Association: Diatonic Seven-Tone Scales
24.3 Exercises
24.4 Dictation and Improvisation Skills
Appendices
A Rhythm Reading Systems
B Tonal Reading Systems
C Dictation
D Improvisation
E Vertical Harmony/Chord Progressions
F Conducting Patterns
G Glossary of Foreign Terms
Index
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PART I
RH Y TH MI C RE AD I N G
Carol Krueger
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CH AP TE R 1
Simple Meter: Quarter Note = Beat Unit; Undivided Beat
Carol Krueger
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1.1 Building Aural–Oral Skills
Beat
The steady, underlying pulse of the music is the beat.
To develop an internal feeling of the pulse, one must feel the space (distance) between the beats. Beat should always
be inaudible—silent.
Singing a familiar song, (a) quietly walk in place to the beat (heel march), shifting weight back and forth or
side to side in a continuous, flowing manner or (b) tap the beat (quietly tap the thighs with one or both
hands, using large arm movements that start from the shoulder). Feel the (a) circle motion of the arms or (b)
down–up motion of the hand on each beat.1
Note: Clapping will not internalize beat because it doesn’t involve changing/shifting body weight. Clapping,
however, is a good way to check the accuracy of ensemble performance.
Tempo
The speed of the beat (fast, moderate, and slow) is the tempo.
Sing “Hot Cross Buns” or another familiar melody at a moderate tempo, then at a fast tempo, and finally at a
slow tempo.
Meter
An organization or grouping of rhythmic pulses by means of regular accents (strong and weak beats) is called meter.2
meter.
Duple
Duple meter has an accented–unaccented (strong–weak) beat pattern:
The use of icons assists with visualizing concepts that cannot be seen in symbols or code. For example, the quarter
note symbols used to represent the four quarter notes in a measure does not indicate the strong and weak patterns of
the beats.3
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Practice performing the beat using tap–touch (silently touch the fingertips of both hands together) or two
taps (one strong, one weak) while listening to or singing a variety of songs in duple meter. Suggested songs:
“Old Joe Clark” and “Tidy-O.”
Practice singing each of the suggested songs while conducting the two-beat pattern.
Triple
Triple meter has a strong–weak–weak beat pattern:
Practice performing the beat using tap–touch–touch while listening to or singing a variety of songs in triple
meter. Suggested songs: “Down in the Valley” and “O, How Lovely.”
Practice singing each of the suggested songs while conducting the three-beat pattern.
Quadruple
Quadruple meter, a strong–weak–semistrong–weak beat pattern, is a combination of two duple meters with a lesser
accent on the third beat:
Practice performing the beat using tap–touch–out (tap in air just above the thighs); touch while listening to
or singing a variety of songs in quadruple meter. Suggested songs: “Hymn to Joy,” “Frére Jacques,” and
“Yankee Doodle.”
Practice singing each of the suggested songs while conducting the four-beat pattern.
Rhythm
Rhythm4 is defined as longer and shorter sounds and silences (duration) that overlay the steady beat.
Chant the rhythm of familiar songs on a neutral syllable (bum) while your instructor overlays the steady beat.
Suggested songs: “Happy Birthday” and “London Bridge.”
After chanting the rhythm, half of the class should chant the rhythm while the other half walks the beat in
place; repeat with the two groups exchanging their tasks.
Listen as your instructor chants the rhythm to a simple song or a two- to four-measure simple rhythm
pattern. Write the rhythm(s) using iconic representation of long, short, longer, longest, etc.
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Iconic Representation of Rhythm, Meter, Beat and Beat Division.
For each of the following examples, chant the rhythm on (a) text, (b) a neutral syllable, and then on (c)
rhythm syllables while using a heel march and/or a down–up motion of the hand on each beat. Repeat using
the appropriate metric motions.
While the entire class chants the rhythm using rhythm syllables or a neutral syllable, half of the class should
walk the beat using a stationary heel march while the other half of the class walks the rhythm using a
stationary heel march. Exchange tasks.
Reading Readiness Rhythm Patterns
Listen as your instructor chants a variety of rhythm patterns on a neutral syllable (bum); echo each pattern
while (a) using the heel march and incorporating a large circular motion with arms/hands, (b) quietly
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tapping the beat, (c) conducting, or (d) using the appropriate metric motion (tap–touch).5 Focus on the
rhythm pattern in relation to the beat and meter of the pattern.
Listen as your instructor chants rhythm patterns on rhythm syllables; echo each pattern while tapping the
beat, conducting, or using a metric motion. See Appendix A for a description of beat-function syllables
(Gordon or Takadimi), metric counting (McHose-Tibbs System), and time value syllables (Kodály).
Listen as your instructor chants rhythm patterns on a neutral syllable (bum); translate and echo each pattern
on rhythm syllables while tapping the beat, conducting, or using a metric motion.
Streaming audio examples of the Chapter 1 rhythm patterns are located on Oxford Learning Link. Echo the
patterns (a) on a neutral syllable (bum) or (b) translate and echo on rhythm syllables while using the heel
march and large circular hand/arm motions or the appropriate metric motion. Your instructor will designate
which patterns should be videoed on a neutral syllable (bum) and which ones should be echo translated on
rhythm syllables. Send the video to your instructor and/or complete the self- or peer evaluation provided by
your instructor.
Reading Readiness Aural Skills
Listen as your instructor demonstrates two short rhythm patterns on a neutral syllable. Determine whether
the patterns were the same, different, or similar.
Listen as your instructor sings a song and then determine the meter of the song. Use the tap–touch
movements to help you determine the meter.
Listen as your instructor demonstrates two short examples and determine which example has a faster or
slower tempo.
1
2
Links to videos demonstrating parts of the beat, heel march, etc. are posted on Oxford Learning Link.
Links to videos demonstrating duple, triple, and quadruple simple meter are posted on Oxford Learning Link.
3
Distinguished cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner (1915–2016) advocated for first using hands-on learning (Enactive Stage), and then, in the second
stage (Iconic Stage), employing pictures or other visuals to represent that which was enacted in the first stage. He further stressed that adequate
attention be given to the first two stages before attempting to address the abstract symbols that comprise musical notation (the Symbolic Stage).
4
Links to videos demonstrating various aspects of rhythm are posted on Oxford Learning Link.
5
Note to instructors: The rhythm patterns are found in Section 1.3. These patterns should be taught by rote using the three-step process outlined in “An
Introduction to the Music Literacy Process” found in the front matter of this book on page XXX.
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1.2 Symbolic Association
Score Notation
The visual representation of music is called score notation. Its main purpose is to indicate the pitch and duration of
each tone.
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Meter Signature
A meter signature is used to designate the pattern (duple, triple, quadruple) in which a steady succession of
rhythmic pulses is organized. In simple meter, the top number indicates the number of beats per pattern and the
bottom number indicates the kind of note that receives one beat.
2 → two beats in each pattern
3 → three beats in each pattern
4 → the quarter note is the beat unit
4 → the quarter note is the beat unit
Vertical lines called bar lines are used to organize the basic beat patterns. One complete pattern is termed a measure
and is enclosed between two bar lines. A double bar line is used to indicate the end of a section or the composition.
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1.3 Rhythm Patterns
Determine the meter, set an appropriate tempo, and then establish meter by silently tapping or conducting
the beat for one measure.
Using the rhythm syllables designated by your instructor (see Appendix A for a description of beat function
syllables and time value syllables), chant the written notation of each of the rhythm patterns in Example 1.9.
Focus on the rhythm pattern in relation to the beat and meter. Always silently tap the beat with the dominant
hand or conduct, and if necessary, track the notes on the score with the other hand.
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1.4 Exercises
Determine the meter and then scan each exercise for rhythm patterns.
Determine the phrasing and mark it.
Set an appropriate tempo, establish meter by tapping the beat or conducting for one measure, then chant the
exercise on rhythm syllables from beginning to end without breaking the tempo. Always silently tap the beat
with the dominant hand, and if necessary, track the notes on the score with the other hand.
Remember to hold every note for the correct number of beats. A note ends exactly when the next note or rest
begins.
After the initial reading, isolate problematic patterns or measure(s) and practice them more slowly. Then
perform the problematic pattern/measure(s) and the previous measure/pattern. After the patterns/measures
have been chanted accurately, read and chant the exercise again.
After the exercise has been chanted accurately, repeat the exercise first at a faster tempo and then chant on a
neutral syllable. Always silently tap the beat or conduct.
Occasionally use a metronome to check for steadiness of tempo.
The rest symbol in Examples 1 and 2 has two meanings. In Example 1, the symbol is a whole-note rest, and in
Example 2, the symbol signifies a whole-measure rest in any meter.
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The exercises can be performed as a two-, three-, or four-part ensemble by simultaneously performing exercises with
the same meter signature and same number of measures. They can also be performed as a canon or retrograde
canon (also known as a crab canon). In a canon, two or more voices perform identical rhythms; each voice enters at a
constant time interval (one measure, two beats, etc.) after the previous voice has begun. In a retrograde canon, one
voice enters with the last note and reads backward; the second voice enters simultaneously at the beginning.
Meter Changes
Changes in meter can produce a unique effect, because stressed beats occur at irregular intervals. When the meter
changes within an exercise, stress the appropriate beats for each meter.
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Anacrusis
Compositions sometimes begin with an incomplete measure called an anacrusis. The notes that complete the initial
measure appear at the end of the composition. Measure numbering begins with the first complete measure. An
anacrusis is also known as an upbeat or pickup. Sing familiar songs that begin with an anacrusis. Suggested songs:
“The Star-Spangled Banner,” “O Come, All Ye Faithful,” and “We Wish You a Merry Christmas.”
Two-Part Exercises
Divide the class into two groups or team up with another student to perform these exercises. The exercises can also
be performed individually, with two students, or with the entire class in the following manner:
Tap one part and chant the other part on rhythm syllables.
Tap each part with a different hand.
Using two different keys on the piano, play each part with a different hand.
Chant one part on rhythm syllables and play the other part on the piano.
Notice that when two parts share the same staff, the stems of the upper voice point upward while the stems
of the lower voice point downward.
Notice that when two staves are used, the staves are connected to the left side by a bracket.
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1.5 Dictation Skills
Just as learning to read and write go hand-in-hand, so do reading music and music dictation. Dictation involves
translating rhythm patterns, tonal patterns, melodies, and chord progressions, heard aurally, into staff notation
(symbols). Echo singing rhythm patterns using the three-step aural–oral process outlined in “An Introduction to the
Music Literacy Process” builds the aural–oral vocabulary and translation skills necessary for proficient dictation
skills.
Practice chanting and naming patterns in Section 1.3 with your instructor or a student partner, as well as
individually, with the recordings on Oxford Learning Link. Listen while your instructor or partner chants a
pattern, then echo it.
Rhythm Shorthand
A shorthand method can allow you to devote more energy to developing musical memory. See Appendix C for
detailed information.
In rhythmic shorthand, lines representing the beats are drawn in each measure. Notes with a duration longer than
one beat are tied together for the appropriate duration; rests are represented by an uppercase “R.”
Listen as your instructor or student partner plays or chants on a neutral syllable. Notate the rhythm using the
shorthand above and the procedure below.
First playing: Write with one hand and quietly use a down–up motion with the other hand. Following the
down–up (↓↑) motion of each beat can be visual and kinesthetic aids in determining the rhythm. Isolate each
beat and mark the appropriate shorthand. If the rhythm on a particular beat or two cannot be determined,
continue to move forward focusing on the ensuing beats.
Second playing: On the second playing, readdress the missing beats.
Third playing: Review your shorthand and make any necessary adjustments.
Transcribe the rhythm shorthand into notation on the staff.
All or part of each reading exercise in Section 1.4, as well as the additional reading exercises and rhythm templates
available on Oxford Learning Link, can be used for dictation.
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1.6 Improvisation Skills
We are all born improvisers. In childhood, we move from linguistic babble to words to statements to questions; we
think and improvise in the language before we ever learn to read and write with understanding. Language
conversation becomes the readiness for learning to read linguistic language. Conversely, musical improvisation
becomes the readiness for learning to read music notation. Musical improvisation is conversation that follows the
parameters, is comprehended, can be recalled, and is spontaneous. It is not just a series of random notes. Additional
information on improvisation activities can be found in Appendix D.
Go to Oxford Learning Link for the following rhythmic improvisation activities and variants:
Call and response
Add a rhythm
Same or different
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