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Manfred B. Steger
GLOBALIZATION
A Very Short Introduction
sixth edition
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Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
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First edition published 2003
Second edition published 2009
Third edition published 2013
Fourth edition published 2017
Fifth edition published 2020
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a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
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and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
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In memory of Roland Robertson (1938–2022),
Model scholar, colleague, friend
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Contents
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Preface to the sixth edition xix
List of illustrations xxiii
List of maps xxv
List of figures xxvii
List of tables xxix
List of abbreviations xxxi
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
What is globalization? 1
Globalization in history 12
The economic and technological dimensions of globalization 34
The political dimension of globalization 66
The cultural dimension of globalization 83
The ecological dimension of globalization 95
Ideological confrontations over globalization 111
Present and future trends 127
References and further reading 137
Index 145
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Preface to the sixth edition
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It is a gratifying experience to present readers with the sixth
edition of a short book that has been so well received—­not only in
the English-­speaking world, but around the world in more than
20 languages. The necessary task of updating and expanding this
edition has been difficult in light of major global problems such as
pandemics, soaring inflation, social inequality, climate change,
cyber attacks, mass migrations, trade wars, job precarity, and the
resurgence of nationalisms. Hence, it seems appropriate to refer to
the present era as the ‘Great Unsettling’—shorthand for the
intensifying global dynamics of volatility, insecurity, and
dislocation. Two recent events, in particular, have added to this
disconcerting moment in human history.
First, starting in 2020, the COVID-­19 pandemic swept across the
world, uprooting the lives of its 7.8 billion inhabitants. By early
2023, official numbers showed that over 600 million people had
contracted multiple variants of the disease, resulting in more than
7 million confirmed deaths. But the actual toll is likely much higher.
Fortunately, effective vaccines were developed very quickly and by
August 2022, more than 12 billion shots had been administered. For
globalization scholars, this once-­in-­a-­century health crisis proved to
be an especially challenging research topic, since it required a
multi-­disciplinary approach to understanding the complexities
involved in the spread and possible containment of the virus.
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Second,
Great Power
competitions
have at
been
heating up in recent
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Globalization
years. China, Russia, and India increasingly challenge US world
leadership on multiple fronts. The Russian annexation of the
Crimean Peninsula in 2014 and China’s forward posture in the
South China Sea, plus its political crackdown on Hong Kong,
marked a new era of geopolitical conflict. Mounting tensions came
to a head in 2022 with Russia’s full-­blown invasion of Ukraine.
This major act of aggression was met with the imposition of
unprecedented economic sanctions levied by a US-­led broad
coalition of countries against the Russian Federation. In response,
President Putin vowed retaliation and escalated the war. For the
first time since the end of the Cold War, a global nuclear
confrontation appeared to be a distinct possibility.
Keeping such a complex topic as globalization brief and accessible
in our era of the Great Unsettling becomes even more challenging
in the case of a very short introduction. For this reason, the
authors of the few existing introductions to the subject tend to
concentrate on only one or two aspects of globalization—­usually
the emergence of the global economy, its history, structure,
development, and supposed benefits and shortcomings. To be
sure, a single-­focus approach is helpful in explaining the impact
and consequences of new techno-­economic networks connecting
people across borders and the transnational flows of goods,
services, and labour. At the same time, however, such narrow
accounts often leave the reader with a limited understanding of
the full dimensions and complexity of globalization.
After all, the transformative powers of global interconnectedness
reach deeply into all aspects of contemporary social life. Hence,
the present volume makes the case that globalization also contains
important political, cultural, ecological, and ideological aspects.
Indeed, globalization occurs in people’s heads as much as in the
world ‘out there’. Subjective globalization becomes visible in
emotionally charged stories that describe and define that very
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xx
process.
The political
forcesBy
behind
these
discourses
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resort to digitized media platforms to endow the buzzword with
certain norms, values, and understandings. These not only
legitimize and advance their specific power interests, but also
shape the personal and collective identities of billions of people.
Thus, it is mostly the normative question of whether globalization
ought to be considered a ‘good’ or a ‘bad’ thing that has spawned
heated debates in classrooms, boardrooms, and on the streets.
Preface to the sixth edition
Some commentators applaud globalization for its proven ability to
lift millions of people out of poverty, facilitate instant
communication, and grant almost limitless access to information
and Big Data. Nowhere has the success of globalization been more
visible than in the impressive rise of the East Asian powerhouses
China, Korea, and Japan. Other experts condemn globalization as
a destructive force that annihilates traditional communal values,
wrecks our planet, and stretches social disparities beyond
sustainable levels. Regardless of which position is favoured,
readers would be well advised to maintain a critical stance
towards both interpretations.
To be sure, we should take comfort in the fact that the world is
becoming a more interdependent place with the potential of
enhancing ordinary people’s lives. Boosting our mobility and
connectivity across political borders and cultural divides
represents an exciting development. We should also welcome
sensible and compassionate policies that allow for the global flow
of migrants and refugees. The same goes for technological
progress—­as long as it remains accountable to democratic citizens
rather than reducing them to the status of digitally exploitable
‘users’. Globalization should go hand in hand with the betterment
of all people, especially those living in the disadvantaged regions
of the global South. Most of all, securing sustainable forms of
globalization demands that we take better care of our beautiful
planet and all its sentient beings.
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xxi
Let me
end this Preface
by recording
myat
debts
of gratitude. First,
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Globalization
I want to thank my colleagues and students at the University of
Hawai’i-­Mānoa. Additional thanks are due to Paul James,
professor of globalization and cultural diversity at the Institute for
Culture and Society at Western Sydney University. I owe much to
his steady intellectual encouragement and deep friendship.
I appreciate the helpful feedback and support from numerous
colleagues around the world who share my enthusiasm for the
study of globalization. I want to express my sincere appreciation
to numerous readers, reviewers, and audiences who, for nearly
three decades, have made insightful comments in response to my
public lectures and publications on globalization.
I appreciate Dr Tommaso Durante’s competent research
assistance on this edition as well as his formidable visual artist’s
eye for choosing some illustrations. Tommaso’s pioneering ‘Visual
Archive Project of the Global Imaginary’ can be found at:
<https://www.the-­visual-­archive-­project-­of-­the-­global-­imaginary.
com/visual-­global-­imaginary>.
Luciana O’Flaherty and Jenny Nugee, my editors at Oxford
University Press, have been shining examples of professionalism.
Finally, a big thank you goes to my soul mate Perle Besserman—­as
well as the Steger, Besserman-­Trigère, and Blanchette families—­
for their love and support. Many people have contributed to
improving the quality of this book; its remaining flaws are my own
responsibility.
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List of maps
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1
Early human migration 16
(2013), ‘Mapping Global Value
Chains’, OECD Trade Policy Papers,
No. 159, OECD Publishing, Paris,
<https://doi.org/10.1787/
5k3v1trgnbr4-­en>
2 Major world trade networks,
1000–1450 22
3 Countries falling into recession
as a result of the Global
Financial Crisis, 2007–9 52
5
4 The Nutella® global value
chain 61
6 The European Union,
2020 79
Reproduced with permission
from De Backer, K. and S. Miroudot
The Syrian refugee crisis 73
Source: based on information from
<UNOCHA.org>
Ssolbergj/Wikimedia
(CC BY-­SA 3.0)
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List of figures
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A Four forms of globalization 4
© Manfred B. Steger
B A minute on the Internet
in 2021 36
Lori Lewis Via Statista (CC)
C Number of international
migrants, 2020 72
© IOM GMDAC 2021
D The nation-state in a
globalizing world 77
J. Scholte, “The Globalization of World
Politics” in J. Baylis and S. Smith, ed., The
Globalization of World Politics, 2E, Oxford
University Press, Copyright © 2001
E Incipient global
governance: a network
of interrelated power
centres 81
P. Willets, “Transnational actors and
international organizations in global
politics” in J. Baylis and S. Smith, ed.,
The Globalization of World Politics, 2E,
Oxford University Press, Copyright © 2001
F Major manifestations
and consequences of
global environmental
degradation 99
G Global spread of COVID-19,
January–March 2020 128
Ruobing Su/Business Insider
H Daily time spent online
globally, 2022 134
Anadolu Agency © 2021
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List of tables
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1
Transnational corporations
versus countries:
a comparison (2022) 58
2 The American way of life,
2017–22 86
3 The declining number of
languages around the world,
1500s–2000s 94
Source: Globalization Research
Center at the University of
Hawai’i-­Mānoa, 2008.
4 Annual consumption patterns
(per capita) in selected
countries, 2017–22 98
5
Major global environmental
treaties/conferences,
1972–2021 108
6 The top-­10 carbon dioxide
emitters, 2020 109
7
Long-­term global CO2
emissions, 1750–2020 110
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List of abbreviations
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AI
APEC
ASEAN
BWR
bce
ce
CEO
CFCs
CITES
COVID-­19
ECB
ESDC
EU
FDI
G20
GATT
GDP
GFC
GHGs
GJM
GPS
ICT
IMF
Artificial Intelligence
Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Bretton Woods regime
Before the Common Era
Common Era
chief executive officer
chlorofluorocarbons
Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
Coronavirus Disease 2019
European Central Bank
European Sovereign Debt Crisis
European Union
Foreign Direct Investment
Group of Twenty
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
gross domestic product
Global Financial Crisis
Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Global Justice Movement
Global Positioning System
information and communications technology
International Monetary Fund
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INGO
international
governmental
organization
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ISIL
ISIS
MERCOSUR
MSF/DWB
Globalization
NAFTA
NASA
NATO
NGO
NYC
OAU
OECD
OLED TV
OPEC
OWS
SAPs
TNCs
TPP
UAE
UK
UN
UNCTAD
UNEP
UNESCO
UNIPCC
US
WC
WEF
WHO
WSF
Islamic State of Iraq and Levant
Islamic State of Iraq and Syria
Mercado Común del Sur (Southern
Common Market)
Médecins Sans Frontières/Doctors
Without Borders
North American Free Trade Agreement
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
non-­governmental organization
New York City
Organization of African Unity
Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development
Organic Light Emitting Diode Television
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Occupy Wall Street
Structural Adjustment Programmes
transnational corporations
Trans-­Pacific Partnership
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom
United Nations
United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development
United Nations Environment Programme
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization
United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change
United States (of America)
Washington Consensus
World Economic Forum
World Health Organization
World Social Forum
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Chapter 1
What is globalization?
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The earliest appearance of the term ‘globalization’ in the English
language can be traced back to the 1930s. But it was not until the
1990s that the concept took the world by storm. The new
buzzword captured the increasingly interconnected nature of
social life on our planet and foregrounded the global integration
of markets turbocharged by the ICT revolution. Three decades on,
globalization has remained a hot topic. Today, one can track
millions of references to the term in both virtual and printed
spaces that range from enthusiastic embrace to blanket
condemnation. In recent years, critical voices have become louder
in the light of the nationalist resurgence around the world and the
devastating COVID-­19 pandemic that has disrupted seemingly
indestructible global networks.
To make sense of these conflicting perspectives on globalization,
let us start with matters of definition. Both the popular press and
academic literature have been using ‘globalization’ in confusing
ways to describe a process, a condition, a system, a force, or an
age. Given that these concepts have very different meanings, a
sloppy conflation of ‘process’ and ‘condition’ produces circular
definitions that explain little. The often-­repeated truism that
globalization (the process?) leads to more globalization
(the condition?) does not allow us to draw meaningful distinctions
between causes and effects.
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Key concepts: globality, global imaginary, globalism,
globalization
Globalization
To equip our definitional toolbox, let us distinguish between four
different, but related, concepts. First, globality signifies a social
condition characterized by tight global economic, political,
cultural, and environmental interconnections and flows that
challenge most of the currently existing borders and boundaries.
Yet, we should not assume that globality is already upon us
because it is an evolving condition. Nor does it suggest a fixed
endpoint that precludes any further development. In fact, we
could easily imagine different social manifestations of globality:
one might be based primarily on values of individualism,
competition, and deregulated capitalism, while another might
draw on more communal arrangements, cooperative values, and
the democratic regulation of economic arrangements.
Second, global imaginary refers to people’s growing consciousness
of the world as a single whole. This does not mean that nation and
locality have lost their power to provide people with a sense of
home and identity. But it would be a mistake to close one’s eyes to
the weakening of the national imaginary, as it was historically
constructed in the 19th and 20th centuries. The intensification of
global consciousness destabilizes and unsettles the nation-­state
framework within which people imagine their communal
existence.
The rising global imaginary is linked to the rise of globalisms, our
third concept. These new political ideologies articulate the
overarching global imaginary into concrete policy agendas and
political programmes. Globalisms spin stories about our
increasingly interconnected world that serve particular power
interests and contain value judgements about whether
globalization should be considered a good or bad thing. We shall
explore the various types of globalism in Chapter 7.
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Our Complete
final, and most
significant
is a spatial
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concept referring to a set of social processes that is transforming
our present social condition of conventional nationality into one
of globality. Like ‘modernization’ and other verbal nouns that end
in the suffix ‘-ization’, the concept suggests a dynamic that evolves
along discernible patterns but can also go into reverse at certain
historical junctures. The root term ‘global’ indicates processes that
operate at the transnational level such as the operation of global
markets, worldwide investment flows, or the global dissemination
of new styles of music such as Techno or K-­Pop.
What is globalization?
Yet another set of globalizing processes operates below the scale of
the ‘global’. In other words, globalization also takes place deep
inside ‘regional’, ‘national’, and ‘local’ arenas. Rather than
becoming irrelevant, these subglobal spaces get entangled with
the global to produce multi-­spatial forms of human contact.
Globalization experts often refer to this complex interplay
between the global and the local (and national) as glocalization.
Think, for example, of major cities like Shanghai or Sydney that
combine their specific urban environments with global standards
for residential high-­rise buildings, shopping malls, cultural events,
and so on. Many people still have trouble recognizing that
globalization affects all geographical scales ranging from the local
to the global. Hence, it is crucial to bear in mind that globalization
also manifests as glocalization.
Forms of globalization
These spatial complexities confirm that globalization should not
be seen as a monolithic process. Rather, it is a set of dynamics that
assumes four distinct, but interrelated, social forms (see Figure A).
The first social form, embodied globalization, manifests as the
interconnectedness and mobility of people across our planet. As
we shall discuss in Chapters 2 and 3, this is the oldest form of
globalization and remains enduringly relevant in the
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3
FOUR FORMS
OF GLOBALIZATION
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PEOPLE, IDEAS, THINGS, ORGANIZATIONS
(2) DISEMBODIED
IDEAS
(data, information,
images)
(1) EMBODIED
PEOPLE
(tourists, refugees,
business travellers)
GLOBALIZATION
Economic, political, cultural
dynamics occur within and
across all four forms
(3) OBJECTIFIED
THINGS
(tradable
commodities,
greenhouse gases,
viruses)
(4) INSTITUTIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS (empires, states,
military, corporations, churches,
clubs)
Globalization
A. Four forms of globalization.
contemporary movement of refugees, migrants, travellers,
entrepreneurs, temporary workers, tourists, and so on. Concrete
21st-­century examples include African political refugees crossing
the Mediterranean into Europe and Central American migrants
trying to trek across the Rio Grande valley into the United States
in search of more sustainable lives. Privileged tourists can now
complete intercontinental trips in mere hours in the comfort and
security of a first-­class aeroplane cabin. Only a century ago, the
same journey would have taken several gruelling and dangerous
weeks spent on a combination of ships, trains, motorcars, and
horse- or oxen-­drawn carriages.
The second form, disembodied globalization, is characterized by
the worldwide interconnectedness and mobility of ideas, data,
and information. As we shall observe in Chapters 2, 3, 5, 7, and 8,
these include words, images, and electronic texts, and encoded
capital such as blockchain enabled crypto-­currencies like Bitcoin
and Ethereum. This form has taken an enormous qualitative leap
with the digital revolution, prompting commentators to speak of a
‘new era of digital globalization’. There is little doubt that
disembodied dynamics are emerging as the dominant form of
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globalization
in the
21st century.
Worldwide
digitization has been
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greatly accelerated by the coronavirus-­induced explosion of work
and communication online.
What is globalization?
The third form, objectified globalization, refers to the worldwide
interconnectedness and mobility of things and objects. As
discussed in Chapters 2, 3, 6, and 8, it includes tiny particles like
GHGs and COVID-­19 viruses, as well as large goods travelling on
the ancient Silk Road from China to the Roman Empire or
modern standardized shipping containers criss-­crossing the
world’s oceans. Consider, for example, traded commodities such
as a ‘pre-­loved’ pair of Levi’s jeans produced in the sweatshops
of Bangladesh and destined for the coolest fashion temples of
Milan; treasures of antiquity sold at skyrocketing prices at an
international Internet auction in London; or your latest iPhone
assembled and distributed via powerful global value chains.
These contemporary manifestations of objectified globalization
depend on digitally controlled delivery systems (such as amazon.
com) that might offer AI-­driven, drone-­operated services in
the near future.
The fourth form, institutional globalization, corresponds to the
worldwide interconnectedness and mobility of social and political
institutions. As discussed in Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8, it includes
empires, states, TNCs, NGOs, churches, clubs, and so on. Its
history can be traced back at least as far as the expansionist
empires of Egypt, Persia, China, and Rome, and the proselytizing
of the agents of Christendom and Islam more than a millennium
ago. More recent examples include the half-­million US military
personnel stationed around the world; the global franchises of fast
food enterprises like Subway or KFC; the hundreds of worldwide
fan clubs of football favourites like Manchester United or Bayern
Munich; and China’s mind-­boggling ‘One Belt One Road’
initiative—­a monumental infrastructure project designed to
extend Chinese economic and political influence across Asia,
Africa, and Europe.
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Qualities and dimensions of globalization
Globalization
These four forms of globalization contain four distinct qualities or
characteristics. First, they involve both the creation of new social
networks and the multiplication of existing connections that cut
across traditional political, economic, cultural, and geographical
boundaries. For example, today’s giant media corporations
combine conventional TV coverage with multiple apps that feed
into digital devices and social media sites that have long
transcended nationally based services.
A second quality inherent in these four principal forms of
globalization is the expansion or stretching of social relations,
mobilities, and connections. Today’s financial markets reach around
the globe, and electronic trading occurs around the clock. Gigantic
physical and virtual shopping malls cater to consumers who can
afford commodities from all regions of the world—­including
products whose various components were manufactured in
different countries and involve global supply chains.
Third, all forms of globalization also involve the intensification
and acceleration of worldwide social interactions. As the Spanish
sociologist Manuel Castells has pointed out, we have witnessed
the creation of a global network society fuelled by what he calls
communication power. This new form of power draws its strength
from digital technological innovations that are reshaping the
social landscape of human life.
Fourth, globalization does not merely unfold on an objective,
material level but also involves the subjective plane of human
consciousness and imagination. Without erasing local and
national attachments, the compression of space and time has
increasingly made the whole planet the frame of reference for
human thought and action. In other words, globalization involves
both the macro-­structures of a global community and the
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micro-­
structures of
global personhood.
Mediated
by digital
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technology largely controlled by large TNCs, the global extends
deep into the core of the personal self, facilitating the creation of
multiple and more fluid individual and collective identities.
All of these forms and qualities of globalization operate across the
familiar social dimensions of everyday life: economics, politics,
culture, ideology, and so on. However, given the increasing
differentiation and specialization of knowledge creation,
globalization dynamics tend to be analysed and explained in a
rather one-­dimensional manner. Dominated by economic
perspectives on globalization, the debate over the relative
importance of various domains has been raging for decades.
What is globalization?
The ancient Buddhist parable of the blind scholars and their
encounter with the elephant helps to illustrate the academic
controversy over the significance of various dimensions of
globalization. Since the blind scholars did not know what the
elephant looked like, they resolved to obtain a mental picture, and
thus the knowledge they desired, by touching the animal. Feeling
its trunk, one blind man argued that the elephant was like a
gigantic snake. Another man, rubbing along its enormous leg,
likened the animal to a rough column of massive proportions. The
third person took hold of its tail and insisted that the elephant
resembled a large, flexible brush. The fourth man felt its sharp
tusks and declared it to be like a great spear. Each of the blind
scholars held firmly to his own idea of what constituted an
elephant. Since their scholarly reputation was riding on the
veracity of their respective findings, the blind men never ceased
arguing over the true nature of the elephant (see Figure 1).
The academic quarrel over which dimension contains the essence
of globalization represents a postmodern version of the parable of
the blind men and the elephant. Scholars who equate
globalization with a singular process clash with others over which
aspect of social life constitutes its primary domain. Many experts
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Globalization
1. The globalization scholars and the elephant.
argue that economic processes lie at the core of globalization.
Others privilege political, cultural, or ideological aspects. Still
others point to environmental processes as being the essence
of globalization. Like the blind men in the parable, each
globalization researcher is partly right by correctly identifying one
important dimension of the phenomenon in question. However,
their collective mistake lies in their dogmatic attempts to reduce
such a complex phenomenon as globalization to one or two
domains that correspond to their own expertise.
The rise of Global Studies
To make matters even more complex, globalization is a
geographically uneven set of processes that not only connect but
sometimes also disrupt existing relations. Moreover, people living
in various parts of the world are affected quite differently by today’s
gigantic compression of space and time. Unsurprisingly, then,
scholars who approach the study of globalization from different
academic fields not only hold different views with regard to
primary dimensions of globalization, they also disagree on its scale,
causation, chronology, impact, trajectories, and policy outcomes.
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For this
reason, they
have raised
myriadat
research
questions that
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run in all directions. How does globalization proceed? What is
driving it? Does it have one major dimension or is there a
combination of equally significant domains? Is globalization a
continuation of modernity or is it a radical break? Does it create
new forms of inequality and hierarchy or offer new opportunities
for poor and marginalized people? Notice that whenever
researchers try to bring their object of enquiry into sharper focus,
they also heighten the danger of provoking scholarly
disagreements. Our subject is no exception.
What is globalization?
One successful way of trying to improve the quality of
communication among globalization researchers and develop a
common framework has been the establishment of Global Studies
starting in the 1990s. Although it has been extensively studied
in traditional fields, globalization falls outside the established
disciplinary framework. It is only of secondary concern in these
conventional disciplines organized around different master concepts:
‘society’ in sociology; ‘resources’ and ‘scarcity’ in economics; ‘culture’
in anthropology; ‘space’ in geography; ‘the past’ in history; ‘power’
and ‘governance’ in political science, and so on. By contrast, global
studies places ‘globalization’—a contested keyword without a firm
disciplinary home—­at the core of its intellectual enterprise.
Today, Global Studies has emerged as a popular field of academic
enquiry organized around four major conceptual pillars:
globalization, transdisciplinarity, space and time, and critical
thinking. Hundreds of Global Studies programmes have been
established in universities on all continents. They invite millions of
students to study globalization across traditional disciplinary
boundaries in the social sciences, humanities, and even the natural
sciences. The surging field covers vast literatures on related
subjects that are usually studied in isolation from each other. The
greatest challenge facing Global Studies lies, therefore, in bringing
together the various strands of knowledge in ways that do justice to
the fluidity and interdependencies of our fast-­changing world.
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Globalization
International Relations versus Global Studies?
In the academic world, the term ‘international relations’ (IR)
refers to a subfield of Political Science dedicated to the
systematic study of changing connections among territorial
states and nationally bounded societies. Thus, IR scholars treated
the nation-­state as the main actor—­and thus the central unit of
analysis and the principal mover—­of world politics. This
framework is called methodological nationalism because it focuses
on the self-­interested actions of nation-­states—­especially with
regard to security issues—­and often at the expense of other
crucial dimensions such as culture, ecology, and ideology. By
contrast, Global Studies relies on methodological globalism. This
framework treats transnational interconnections, mobilities, and
imaginations as the basic units of analysis. Although Global
Studies scholars acknowledge the enduring importance of
states, they also emphasize the growing significance of non-­state
actors on the world stage such as NGOs, TNCs, churches,
educational institutions, and other civil society organizations.
Finally, Global Studies scholars also engage themes often
neglected in IR, such as ecology, social space, media and
communication, ideology, history, gender, race, ethnicity,
technology, and poverty.
Our examination of the key concepts, forms, qualities, and
dimensions of globalization—­embedded in a new Global Studies
academic framework—­have prepared us to respond to the
question that frames this chapter: ‘What is globalization?’ So let
us attempt to formulate a general definition that satisfies experts
and neophytes alike:
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refers to By
the email
multidimensional
and uneven
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expansion of social relations and consciousness across
world-­space and world-­time.
Given the subtitle of our book, however, we ought to do better. So
here is a very short definition of globalization in a mere
eight words:
Globalization is about planetary interconnectivities, mobilities,
and imaginations.
What is globalization?
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