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<b>Biological</b> pillar of psychology is comprised ofBiopsychology/neuroscience, sensation and consciousness
<b>Cognitive</b> pillar of psychology is comprised ofPerception, thinking, intelligence, and memory
What are the three goals of <b>scientific research</b>?<ol><li>Description</li><li>Explanation</li><li>Predicting</li></ol>
Between-subjectResults are compared&nbsp;<b>between</b>&nbsp;two&nbsp;<b>random</b>&nbsp;groups assigned to different conditions
Within-subjectComparisons within a single group before and after a treatment is applied to the experiment
Mixed-methodAn experimental design that combines&nbsp;<b>within-subjects&nbsp;</b>and&nbsp;<b>between-subjects</b>&nbsp;methods of data collection
Operational definitionA standardized meaning of an abstract concept
Evolutionary psychologyStudies the roots of behavior and mental processes based on Darwin's principle of natural selection
MaterialismBehavior can be fully explained by the working of the brain and the rest of the nervous system, without any need to refer to the mind
BehaviorismConnecting our mind and behaviour
Freudianism (psychodynamic)Unconscious processes and the impact of childhood experiences
Humanistic psychology<div>The<b> development</b> of an individual's <b>self-esteem and personality</b></div>
Positive psychologyThe study of optimal human functioning
Social psychologySocial context and its affect on human behavior
Cultural psychologyFocused on how our emotions and behaviors are influenced or rooted in our individual cultures
Classical conditioningExplains how stimulus acquires space in the brain to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus
TheoryExplains how a specific phenomenon works
Testable HypothesisA hypothesis based on a theory that predicts a specific observation in a study
ResearchTesting your&nbsp;<b>hypothesis</b>&nbsp;which produces data
Levels of processingExplains both how and why some information is better remembered than the other
Components of a <b>good theory</b><ul><li>Has a number of <b>testable hypothesis&nbsp;</b></li><li>Is&nbsp;<b>falsifiable</b></li><li>Supported by <b>data&nbsp;</b></li><li>Is <b>parsimonious</b></li></ul>
Parsimonious TheoryHaving few assumptions and variables in the equation for high predictability
What is the first step of&nbsp;<b>Scientific Investigation</b>?Pose a specific research question
What is the second step of&nbsp;<b>Scientific Investigation</b>?Educate yourself about what is already known
Literature reviewExisting scholarly research on a specific topic
Narrative Reviewa descriptive and subjective <b>summary</b> of the <b>literature</b> on a specific topic
<b>Systematic</b> reviewA structured examination of the literature on a specific topic
Meta-analysisCombines data from multiple independent studies and uses statistical methods to analyze the data and derive overall conclusions
What is the third step of&nbsp;<b>Scientific Investigation</b>?Formulate a testable hypothesis
What is the fourth step of&nbsp;<b>Scientific Investigation</b>?Design a study-select a research method
What is the fifth step of&nbsp;<b>Scientific Investigation</b>?Conduct the study-collect the data
Reliability<b>Consistent</b>/dependability of behavioural data
ValidityAre you measuring what you intend to measure?
What are the two types of measurement <b>errors</b>?Random and systematic
Random errors"<ul><li>The instrument is unreliable</li><li>The errors will balance themselves and sum to zero</li></ul><div><img alt=""eye 2nd recording 1st recording Average time ess 3rd recording 2:36 Actual time (rarely known) "" src=""paste-dcee1cc131247484c77512ea0d7e90258d20454b.png""><br></div><div><ul><li>Random error does not affect the average, only the variablility around the average</li></ul><div><img alt=""without with ranchm Random Error (Adds va to distribtÄion) "" src=""paste-f09ee4bd2b5b03f17b84ded4d0451df52a726018.png""><br></div></div>"
<b>Systematic</b> errors"<ul><li>The instrument is reliable but inaccurate</li><li><b>Systematic errors</b>&nbsp;are in either the positive or negative direction consistently. They bias the overall measurement<br></li></ul><div><img alt=""3:38 I st recording 3:38 Average time 3:38 2nd recording 3:38 3rd recording 2:38 Actual time (rarely known) "" src=""paste-541b1725cead8b78b1fc273f1b06950cda30455e.png""><br></div><div><ul><li>Systematic error does affect the average, shifting it to the right in this case. We call this a bias</li></ul><div><img alt=""OfX systematic with systematic errcx Systematic Error (Sh iftscentral tendency of digrib1Äion) "" src=""paste-0853cfd30a7506ba59e854a614f72f3bdcf07ac0.png""><br></div></div>"
Internal validityThe change in the dependent variable is caused by the independent variable and not by the confounding variables
External validityThe researcher can generalize the experimental findings to broader circumstances, often from the library → the real world
What is the sixth step of&nbsp;<b>Scientific Investigation</b>?Analyze the data
Case studyThe intensive observation, recording, and description of an atypical person, organization, or event
Correlational studiesAre used when the researcher wants to determine to what extent two variables, traits, or attributes are related
Correlation Coefficient (AKA Pearson's&nbsp;<i>r</i>)"<ul><li>The strength of the correlation is indicated by a coefficient called&nbsp;<b>Pearson's</b>&nbsp;<i>r.</i>&nbsp;</li><li>the values of&nbsp;<i>r</i>&nbsp;range from -1 to +1</li><li>-1 means perfect&nbsp;<b>negative </b>correlation between X and Y</li><li>+1 means perfect&nbsp;<b>positive</b>&nbsp;correlation between X and Y<br></li></ul><div><img alt=""Perfect negative correlation y-axis -1.0 FIGURE 2.35 Medium negative correlation No correlation x-axis Medium positive correlation 4.5 Perfect positive correlation +1.0 Correlation coefficient Copyright 0 2018, W. W. Norton &amp; Co., Inc. "" src=""paste-7f5544494fb09b8ea6636167fbdeac5aaa6e6e2b.png""><br></div>"
The control groupIs treated exactly like the experimental group that is not exposed to the experimental treatment
Placebo groupA group that receieves what appears to be treatment, but is inactive, influencing them to act a certain way based on what they think the treatment outcome is
When the treatment has no effects"<ul><li>Placebo and experimental group display the same pattern of change</li></ul><div><img src=""Screenshot 2024-09-20 at 8.28.36 PM.png""><br></div>"
When the treatment has an effect"<ul><li>Placebo and experimental groups display different patterns of change</li></ul><img alt=""Changes due to environmental factors 12 10 8 6 4 2 Placebo Change due to smoking Beginning of January (Before) End of February (After) Experimental Group "" src=""paste-8be4a33b120930a533b31e200310b111fc685220.png""><br>"
Correlation does ___ imply causationnot
Experimental studiesIn an experimental study, the researcher manipulates an independent variable to look for its effect on a dependent variable
Sampling<ol><li>Draw a sample from a population</li><li>Measure some attributes from the sample</li><li>Generalize the results to describe the target population</li></ol>
Descriptive statistics<ul><li>Allow us to draw conclusions through the use of graphs</li><ul><li>Measures of central tendency → mean, meridian, mode</li><li>Measures of dispersion → range, standard deviation</li></ul></ul><br>
Inferential Statistics<ul><li>Allows us to say whether the difference is significant</li><li>Infer whether samples are from different populations</li></ul>
When standard deviation occurs, bars overlap quite a bit on the graph<ul><li>Clue that the difference is NOT statistically significant</li><li>Must perform statistical tests to draw a conclusion</li></ul>
When standard deviation occurs bars overlap even less<ul><li>Clue that the difference is probably not statistically significant</li></ul>
Independent variable&nbsp;The variable that the experimenter controls (the cause)
Confounding variableVariable that <b>affects a dependent variable</b> and unintentionally varies between experimental conditions of a study