BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2

#separator:tab #html:true #deck column:1 #tags column:4 BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2tiny structural unitscells BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2consists of cytoplasms, bounded by a very thing cell membrancecells BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2thick fluid consistency similar to gelatincytoplasm BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2<ul><li>housed in the nucleus, suspended in the cytoplasm </li><li>most organisms contain this genetic material</li></ul>deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2DNA is not contained in the nucleus, instead it is suspended in the cytoplasmbacteria BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the cells of ______ have a cell wallplants, algae, fungi, and bacteria BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2cells are composed of large numbers of ______molecules BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2smallest unit of elementsmolecules BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2(T OR F) even the most complex nonliving object has only a tiny fraction of the types of molecules of the simplest living organisms. T (TRUE) BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2(T OR F) molecules are simply mixedF (FALSE) molecules are NOT simply mixed, organized into compartments, membranes, and other structures within cells BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2how many molecules are present in a single cell1 trillion molecules BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2what are the arrangements of molecules in living organismshighly structured and complex BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2considered to have simplest cells bacteria BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2how many proteins are found in a bacteria600 different kinds of protein BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2simply an increase in massgrowth BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2usually accompanied by an increase in volumegrowth BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2plant growth results in _____production of new cells and variatios in form BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2main reason why there are variation in forms in plant growthgenetics and environment BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2plant growth is controlled by _____genetic makeup and the environment in which it is grown.  BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2an obvious feature of living organisms that it is taken for grantedreproduction BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2(T or F) when organisms reproduce, the offspring does not resemble the parentsF (false), the offspring ALWAYS resemble the parents BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2a major characteristic of  all living thingsresponse to stimuli BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2(T or F) plants responses to stimuli are generally of a different nature than those of animals.T (true) BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2when a conducting tissue is pierced, a plugging substance is produced calledcallose BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2a complex carbohydrate that develops in sieve tubes following an injurycallose BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2how many seconds does it take for a callose to formfive seconds BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2mass of cellscallus BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2forms more slowly, may be produced at the site of the woundcallus BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the collective product of all the biochemical reactions taking place within an organismmetabolism BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2(T or F) all organisms undergo metabolic activitiesT (TRUE) BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2list all metabolic activities<ul><li>production of new cytoplasms</li><li>repair of damage</li><li>normal cell maintenance </li></ul> BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2list the most important metabolic activities<ul><li>respiration</li><li>digestion</li><li>photosynthesis</li><li>assimilation</li></ul> BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2an energy releasing process that takes place in all living thingsrespiration BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2an energy harnessing process in green cells that is, in turn, associated with energy storage;photosynthesis BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the breakdown of food moleculesdigestion BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the conversion of raw materials into cytoplasm and other cell substancesassimilation BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2what do organisms respond to ______respond to the air, light, water, and soil of their environment. BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2Genetic changes that occur across generations in response to the environmentadaptations BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2example of a plant that can thrive in a wide variety of soils and climatesdandelions BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2"basic ""stuff of the universe"" "matter BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2three states of matter<ul><li>solid</li><li>liquid </li><li>gas</li></ul> BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2characteristics of matter<ul><li>occupies space </li><li>has mass, commonly associated with weight </li><li>composed of elements</li></ul> BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2how many elements occur naturally on our planet98 BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2how many elements that have been produced artificiallyat least 20 more elements BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2smallest stable subdivision of an element that can existatom BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2Each atom has a tiny _____ consisting of protons and neutronsnucleus BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2particles with positive electrical chargesprotons BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2particles that have no electrical chargesneutrons BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2atoms are estimated that they survive for about ____"1035 years" BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the atoms in every living thing were once found in ______stars BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the specific number of protons in its nucleus is referred as the ____atomic number BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2often shown as a subscript to the left of the chemical symbol.atomic number BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the combined number of protons and neutrons in a single atom is referred to as its _____atomic mass BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2_____ are little more than negative electric charges, whirl around an atom’s nucleuselectrons BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2Electron masses are about _____ than those of both protons and neutrons and are so minute that they are generally disregarded.1,840 times lighter BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2region occupied by electrons around the nucleusorbital BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2(T or F) Electrons actually occupy all space in an orbital simultaneously, so they do not circle around the nucleus like planetsT (true) BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2(T or F) Electrons may be located in one or more energy levels of an atom, and their distance from the nucleus depends on their energy level.T (true)  BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2Each energy level is usually referred to as an ______electron shell BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2______ shell determines how or if an atom reacts with another atom.outermost electron BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2how many electrons can occupy the first and lowest energy level associated with the innermost orbital only two electrons BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2variations of an elementisotopes BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2what is the reason why an isotope can be radioactiveIf the number of neutrons in an isotope of a particular element varies too greatly from the average number of neutrons for its atoms, the isotope may be unstable and split into smaller parts, with the release of a great deal of energy. BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2when two or more elements are united in a definite ratio by chemical bondscompound BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2consists of two or more atoms bound together and is the smallest independently existing particle of a compound or an elementmolecule BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2(T or F) molecules are in constant motion, with an increase or decrease in temperature speeding up or slowing down the motion.T (true) BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2The more molecular movement there is, ______the greater the chances are that some molecules will collide with each other.  BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2basis for all chemical reactionsrandom collisions between molecules capable of sharing electrons BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2a catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up in the reactionorganic catalysts BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2Water molecules form a _____ as their slightly positive hydrogen atoms are attracted to the slightly negative oxygen atoms of other water moleculescohesive network BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2partly responsible for their movement through fine (capillary) tubes, such as those that carry water from roots to leaves through the wood of treescohesion between water molecules BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2what also causes adhesionThe attraction between the hydrogen atoms of water and other, negatively charged molecules, such as those of fibers.  BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2attraction of charged molecules to each otheradhesion BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2ability of an element to combine with another one is based on electron numbervalence BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2hold atoms together, form in several ways, bonds BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2form when two atoms complete their outermost energy level by sharing a pair of electrons in the outermost orbitalcovalent bonds BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2molecules that lose or gain electrons become positively or negatively charged particles called ______ions BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2form whenever one or more electrons are donated to another atom and result whenever two oppositely charged ions come in contact.ionic bonds BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2form as a result of attraction between positively charged hydrogen atoms in polar molecules and negatively charged atoms in other polar moleculeshydrogen bonds BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2Negatively charged oxygen and/or nitrogen atoms of one molecule may attract positively but _____ hydrogen atoms of other molecules weakly charged BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2help cellular processes by maintaining the shapes of proteins such as enzymes, which make different compounds fit together precisely to complete a chemical reaction.hydrogen bonds BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2include things that taste sour, like cranberry or lemon juice, are chemicals that release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water, resulting in more hydrogen than hydroxyl ions.acids BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2usually feel slippery or soapy. They are defined as compounds that release negatively charged hydroxyl ions (OH–) when dissolved in waterbases BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2referred to as alkaline compoundsbases BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2The _____ affects many aspects of plant growth, and this can have a great impact on root and shoot dynamics in any environment.acidity or alkalinity of soils BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2concentration of H+ ions present is used to define degrees of acidity or alkalinity on the ______pH scale BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2The lower a number is below 7, the higher the _____acidity BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the higher a number is _____, the higher the alkalinityabove 7 BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the capacity to do work or to produce a change, exists in several forms and is required for growth, reproduction, movement, repair, and other activities of living thingsenergy BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the study of energy and its conversions from one form to anotherthermodynamics BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2first law of thermodynamicsenergy is constant—it cannot be gained or lost—but it can be converted from one form to another BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2forms of the first law of thermodynamicschemical, electrical, heat, and light energy to fuel life. BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2second of law of thermodynamicsstates that when energy doesn’t enter or leave a given system and is converted from one form to another, it (energy) flows from a high to a low state BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2forms of energykinetic and potential energy BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2capacity to do work owing to the position or state of a particlepotential energy BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2cell components are composed of large moleculespolymers BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2more small units of moleculesmonomers BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2About _____ of cytoplasm and its included structures is composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen96% BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2_____ consists of phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur.3% BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2The remaining _____ includes calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium, chlorine, copper, manganese, cobalt, zinc, and minute quantities of other elements.1% BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2The large molecules typically have “backbones” of carbon atoms and are said to be _____.organic BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2Most chemical reactions in living organisms are based on _____.organic compounds BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2Molecules that contain no carbon atoms are called ______.inorganic BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2The name _____ was given to most of the chemicals of living things when it was believed that only living organisms could produce molecules containing carbon.organic BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2occurs when a hydrogen from water becomes attached to one monomer and a hydroxyl group to the other to form a water molecule.hydrolysis BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2______synthesis reactions are controlled by enzymes.dehydration synthesis BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2______ extracts water from compounds and uses energy.dehydration synthesis BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2bonding between monomers occurs when ______a hydrogen (H+) is removed from one monomer and a hydroxyl (OH−) is removed from another, creating an electrical attraction between them. BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2four of the most important classes of polymerscarbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2are the most abundant organic compounds in nature. They include sugars and starches and contain C, H, and O in a ratio of approximately 1C:2H:1O (CH2O).carbohydrates BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2simple sugars with backbones consisting of three to seven carbon atoms.monosaccharides BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2an isomer of glucosefructose BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2are molecules with identical numbers and kinds of atoms, but with different structures and shapesisomers BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2which is produced by photosynthesis in green plant cells, is a primary source of energy in the cells of all living organismsglucose BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2are formed when two monosaccharides become bonded together by dehydration synthesisdisaccharides BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2The common table sugar _______ is a disaccharide formed from a molecule of glucose and a molecule of fructose; a molecule of water is removed during synthesis.sucrose (C12H22O11) BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2removal of a molecule of water during the formation of a larger molecule from smaller moleculescondensation reaction BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2______ usually transported throughout plants and is the form of sugar stored in the roots of sugar beets and the stems of sugarcanesucrose BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2are formed when more than two monosaccharides bond together. sometimes consist of thousands of simple sugars attached to one another in long, branched or unbranched chains, or in coils.polysaccharides BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the main carbohydrate reserve of plants, are polysaccharides that usually consist of several hundred to several thousand glucose unitsstarches BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2formula for starchC6H10O5 BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the chief structural polymer in plant cell walls, is a polysaccharide consisting of 3,000 to 10,000 unbranched chains of glucose molecules.cellulose BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2are fatty or oily substances that are mostly insoluble in water because they do not have polar regions.lipids BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2typically store about twice as much energy as similar amounts of carbohydrate and play an important role in the longer-term energy reserves and structural components of cellslipids BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2example of lipid that is solid at room temperaturefats BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2example of lipids that are liquidoils BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2produced when a unit of glycerol—a three-carbon compound that has three hydroxyl (—OH) groups—combines with three fatty acids.oil molecule BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2has a carboxyl (—COOH) group at one end and typically has an even number of carbon atoms to which hydrogen atoms can become attachedfatty acid BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2______ molecules consist of a chain with 16 to 18 carbon atomsfatty acid BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2hydrogen atoms are attached to every available bonding site of these fatty acid carbon atoms are called _____saturated BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2there is at least one double bond between two carbons and, consequently, there are fewer hydrogen atoms attached, the fat is said to be ______unsaturated BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2there are three or more double bonds between the carbons of a fatty acid, as in some vegetable oils such as those of canola, olive, or safflower, the fat is said to be ______polyunsaturated BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2lipids consisting of very long-chain fatty acids bonded to a very long-chain alcohol other than glycerolwaxes BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2Waxes, which are solid at room temperature, are found on the surfaces of plant ______.plant leaves and stems BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2They are usually embedded in a matrix of _____ or _____, which are also lipid polymers that are insoluble in water.cutin, suberin BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2_______ are similar to fats, but one of the three fatty acids is usually replaced by a phosphate group; this can cause the molecule to become a polarized ion.phospholipids BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2_____ consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms, and sometimes also sulfur atoms.proteins BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2regulate chemical reactions in cells and comprise the bulk of protoplasm apart from waterproteins BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2are usually very large and consist of one or more polypeptide chains with, in some instances, simple sugars or other smaller molecules attached.proteins BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2chains of amino acidspolypeptides BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2which are covalent bonds formed between the carboxyl carbon of one amino acid and the nitrogen of the amino group of another in a dehydration reaction.peptide bonds BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2three levels of structure (sometimes four) of polypeptides that usually coils, bends, and folds in specific fashion with a protein<ol><li>linear sequence of amino acids fastened together by peptide bonds form the primary structure of a protein.  </li><li>hydrogen bonds form between oxygen atoms of carboxyl groups and hydrogen atoms of amino groups in different molecules, the polypeptide chain can coil to form a staircase-like spiral, called an alpha helix. The helix is one type of secondary structure that may form.  </li><li>Tertiary structure develops as the polypeptide further coils and folds.  </li><li>If a protein is composed of more than one kind of polypeptide, a fourth, quaternary structure forms </li></ol> BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the polypeptide chain can coil to form a staircase-like spiralalpha helix BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2alters the characteristic coiling and folding and adversely affects the protein’s function and properties.denaturing BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2usually contain proportionately larger amounts of proteins in addition to their complement of carbohydrates and are very important sources of nutrition for humans and animals.seeds BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2example of plant food-storage organs that store small amounts of proteins in addition to large amounts of carbohydratespotato tubers and onion bulbs BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2mostly large, complex proteins that function as organic catalysts under specific conditions of pH and temperatureenzymes BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2how do enzymes workbreaking down bonds and allowing new bonds to form, they facilitate cellular chemical reactions, even at very low concentrations, and are absolutely essential to life. BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2increase the reaction rate by as much as a billion times, and without them, the chemical reactions in cells would take place much too slowly for living organisms to exist.enzymes BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2Enzyme names normally end in ______.-ase (e.g., maltase, sucrase, amylase). BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2material whose breakdown is catalyzed by an enzymesubstrate BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2very common disaccharide composed of two glucose monomers.maltose BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2the minimal amount of energy needed to cause molecules to react with one another.energy of activation BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2produced by the activities of Aspergillis, a mold. breaks down complex sugars found in beans, broccoli, and many other vegetables consumed by humansbeano BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2few drops of the enzyme placed on these foods while they are being consumed effectively _____ when enzymes in human digestive tracts are otherwise unable to accomplish the breakdownreduces the gas produced BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2exceptionally large, complex polymers originally thought to be confined to the nuclei of cells but now known also to be associated with other cell partsnucleic acids BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2two types of nucleic acids<ul><li>deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)</li><li>ribonucleic acid (RNA)</li></ul> BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2consist of double helical (spiral) coils of repeating subunits called nucleotidesdeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2composed of three parts: (1) a base containing nitrogen, (2) a five-carbon sugar, and (3) a phosphate (phosphoric acid) moleculenucleotides BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2coded information that precisely determines the nature and proportions of the myriad substances found in cells and the ultimate form and structure of the organism itself.genes BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2similar to DNA but differs in its sugar and one of its nucleotide components. It usually occurs as a single strandribonucleic acid BIO2201 LECTURE - CHAPTER 2associated primarily with the activities of cell nucleiDNA AND RNA

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