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GEOCRITICISM AND SPATIAL LITERARY STUDIES
Taking Place
Environmental Change
in Literature and Art
Bonnie Kime Scott
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Geocriticism and Spatial Literary Studies
Series Editor
Robert T. Tally Jr.
Texas State University
San Marcos, TX, USA
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Geocriticism and Spatial Literary Studies is a new book series focusing on
the dynamic relations among space, place, and literature. The spatial turn
in the humanities and social sciences has occasioned an explosion of innovative, multidisciplinary scholarship in recent years, and geocriticism,
broadly conceived, has been among the more promising developments in
spatially oriented literary studies. Whether focused on literary geography,
cartography, geopoetics, or the spatial humanities more generally,
geocritical approaches enable readers to reflect upon the representation of
space and place, both in imaginary universes and in those zones where
fiction meets reality. Titles in the series include both monographs and
collections of essays devoted to literary criticism, theory, and history, often
in association with other arts and sciences. Drawing on diverse critical and
theoretical traditions, books in the Geocriticism and Spatial Literary
Studies series disclose, analyze, and explore the significance of space, place,
and mapping in literature and in the world.
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Bonnie Kime Scott
Taking Place
Environmental Change in Literature and Art
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This book is dedicated to our three youngest grandchildren:
Malcolm Roy Scott, Thomas Keats Flaherty, and
Rose Bonnie Flaherty. Respecting nature for their future.
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Contents
1 Introduction: Cultural Palimpsests of Place 1
2 Sacred Rivers and Groves of India 11
3 Conflicting
Colonial, Racial, and Tribal Claims to
Southern Africa 47
4 Ireland’s Languages of Landscape 93
5 Australia: A Continent Apart131
6 New York City: Harboring World Cultures and Commerce171
7 Arts of Persuasion223
Bibliography233
Index239
ix
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List of Illustrations
Illustration 1.1
Illustration 2.1
Illustration 2.2
Illustration 2.3
Illustration 2.4
Illustration 3.1
Illustration 3.2
Illustration 3.3
Illustration 4.1
Illustration 4.2
“Prayers for Madiba” (Nelson Mandela) Banner 2013.
Cape Town. Photo by the author
Sacred Bodhi (fig) tree. By Neil Seityam. Wikimedia
Commons. Creative Commons Attribution-­Share Alike
3.0 Unported
Rama and Sita in the Forest. Alamy Stock Photo
HRCGGJ. www.alamy.com
The Red Fort, Old Delhi. By VikramSingh Valera.
Wikimedia Commons. VikramSingh Valera,
CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-­sa/4.0, via
Women’s Studies Students and Faculty with the author,
Fatima Jinnah University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan, 2014.
Photo from the author
Eland in San rock art
Bantu kraal. Photo by the author
Robert Jacob Gordon illustration of hippo hunt.
Illustration of Hippopotamus hunt by Robert Jacob
Gordon, Ruks Museum. https://www.
robertjacobgordon.nl/drawings/rp-­t-­1914-­17-­66
Cuchulain in Battle by Joseph Christian Leyendecker
Tara Brooch. By William Frederick Wakeman.
Wikimedia Commons, National Museum of Ireland,
Kildare St. From Handbook of Irish Antiquities (1903).
p. 360. License: Creative Commons 3.0 unported
6
16
17
30
32
51
57
61
97
107
xi
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xii
List of Illustrations
Illustration 4.3
Illustration 5.1
Illustration 5.2
Illustration 5.3
Illustration 5.4
Illustration 6.1
Illustration 6.2
Illustration 6.3
Illustration 6.4
Illustration 6.5
College Green, Dublin in the 1900s, Showing the Irish
Parliament Building. Unknown Artist. Wikimedia
Commons. Licensed under Creative Commons Share
Alike 4.0 International License. Unknown Artist.
Wikimedia Commons. License: Creative Commons
Share Alike 3.0 International License
Banksia flower. Photograph by Harold Bailey.
Published with his permission
Sydney Cove 1788. Sydney Cove, New South Wales,
Australia, 1788, (1886). Sydney Cove is a bay on the
southern shore of Sydney Harbour. It was the site
chosen in 1788 by Captain Arthur Phillip for the
establishment of the first British colony in Australia,
which later became the city of Sydney. The date of the
colony’s founding, 26 January, is today celebrated as
Australia Day. Wood engraving from ‘Picturesque Atlas
of Australasia, Vol I’, by Andrew Garran, illustrated
under the supervision of Frederic B Schell, (Picturesque
Atlas Publishing Co, 1886). (Photo by The Print
Collector/Print Collector/Getty Images).
gettyimages-­463990553-594x594.jpg
Cover art for My Place by Sally Morgan. Fremantle Press
Bara Monument by Judy Watson, with Sydney Harbor
Bridge and Opera House. In the background. Her work
commemorates the fish hooks fashioned from shells and
used by First Nation Gadigal women. https://news.
cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/photos/in-­pictures-­bara-­
unveiled-­on-­sydney-­harbour?image-­slug=pride-­of-­place-­
photo-­brett-­boardman-­city-­of-­sydney
Alexander Hamilton’s desk. Photo by the author
Harriet Tubman Memorial Sculpture by Allison Saar.
Photo by the author
Greensward plans for Central Park. New York Historical
Society. https://nyhistory.tumblr.com/
post/84138556839/april-­28-­1858-­the-­first-­prize-­
of-­2000-­is. 2 Greensward Plan
Audubon Mural Project at 5740 Broadway.
Photo by the author
The World Trade Center 2019. Photo by the author
108
137
142
161
167
187
190
196
213
219
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction:
Cultural Palimpsests of Place
Works of literature and art have long been vehicles for exploring places
past, present, or future. Charlotte Bronte familiarizes us with the Yorkshire
moors. We join Charles Darwin on his voyage of the Beagle. Rebecca West
shares her exploration of Yugoslavia on the brink of World War II. We
descend into a troubling version of Africa with Joseph Conrad, or learn
about the ins and outs of a whaling ship from Herman Melville. We may
set down in the American Southwest with N. Scott Momaday, or experience Yosemite through the lens of Ansel Adams. My title, Taking Place:
Environmental Change in Literature and Art, directly addresses the
human act of choosing, claiming, and/or settling in a specific environment. Representations of the human hand are repeated in the rock art of
many ancient cultures, as if laying claim to a place, whether it be in Africa,
Australia, Patagonia, or the American Southwest. As we read critically in
this era of urgent environmental concerns and increased global or
1
B. K. Scott, Taking Place, Geocriticism and Spatial Literary Studies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48355-4_1
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2
B. K. SCOTT
“planetary” consciousness,1 how might works of literature and art help us
rethink the ways that we have perceived, imagined, inhabited, explored,
conquered, and shared places? Might this reconsideration of literary and
artistic resources help us adjust our own vision and behavior going
forward?
As a modest contribution to this effort, the following exploration of
peoples’ “taking” of “place” visits five locales, ranging around the globe.
Each locale has its own geographical, material and natural attributes, history of settlement and colonization, and rendering into language and art.
The term “place” involves much more than geographical or geological
attributes, adding to these historical and cultural dimensions, and is greatly
affected by the beings settled there (see Buell 2005: 63). The natural
world has its own dramas, so to set the stage for each global location, we
will briefly review ways that the area took its physical form from cataclysms, the joining and parting of land masses, the motions of earth and
water, the coming and going of ice ages, the presence or absence of substances deemed precious, and alterations of climate. There are arrivals and
departures of plants and animals. Late in the game came a sequence of
human inhabitants, each with distinct cultural sensitivities, affects, and
attitudes toward settlement. The places visited in this book, however distinct, ideal, or isolated they may seem, have long been connected to other
regions by migrations, explorations, trade, quests for resources, colonizing
enterprises, and emigration. For example, groups from the middle eastern
area of Iran repeatedly settled in India, greatly influencing its cultural evolution. What happens in one place has far-reaching ecological consequences—a phenomenon greatly magnified by increased and varied
patterns of twentieth- and twenty-first-century globalization. The recent
global pandemic of Covid-19 further dramatizes that almost every part of
our planet is connected. Through diaries, journals, memoirs, drawings,
1
“Planetary” is a term introduced by Susan Stanford Friedman in Planetary Modernisms:
Provocations on Modernity across Time (Friedman 2015). Friedman joins a wider transnational movement in modernist studies that expands ways of conceptualizing modernism as a
product of a modern age. She calls for, not just a wider geographical range, but also a greatly
expanded time line that locates “modernity” in cultures across the globe, some before 1500.
Friedman offers novel cross-cultural juxtapositions and reconsiders the role and inherent
biases of colonialism—a pervasive concern in this study. Related work includes the collection
Geomodernisms: Race, Modernism, Modernity (Doyle and Winkiel 2005). The choice of
“planetary” frees the concept from the unit of the nation, implied in “transnational.” Its
economic implications also make “global” less desirable as a term.
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1 INTRODUCTION: CULTURAL PALIMPSESTS OF PLACE
3
and numerous works of fiction, we will be reading chronologically through
the palimpsestic layers of settlement in each of the places visited, experiencing vastly different ideas about living in place as well as the transformation occurring with successive episodes of the taking of place.
In my own explorations for this book, I investigated diverse materials,
including early rock art, oral traditions, ritual practices, and myths, followed by a sequence of artistic and written works. In some cases, writers
seek to justify their group’s taking of a place. Some authors probe the
depths of place over time, or they settle into a distinct time to represent.
Literary treatments of place tend to be transgressive rather than simply
reproductive, giving rise to questions for readers. The texts have a point of
view that embodies cultural assumptions made by the author and/or
attributed to characters who are constructed as observers and inhabitants
of place. Interpreters develop aspects of a place by selecting details and
events, concentrating on them, noting changes and interactions, and
employing figurative language, which by its very nature encourages comparisons. An enduring motivation for this study is to attain a better understanding of the capacities and limitations of human perceptions across
human diversity and in relation to the more-than-human world (See
Haggan and Tiffin 2010; Soper 1995). The process of interpretation
undertaken here requires patience, sensitivity, respect, and heeding of
voices of difference. There is significant scientific evidence in the melting
of glaciers, the mounting of temperatures, the increased severity of storms,
the frequency and severity of wildfires, and the rapid extinction of creatures that we have entered a new epoch on earth—the Anthropocene
(human-new). Ominous as this may seem, humans may also cultivate the
capacity to relate anew to the earth.
This work is intended for a group of general readers—those Virginia
Woolf called “common readers,” a term she uses in a well-known essay,
rather than a purely academic audience and it makes an effort to address
both audiences. There are fewer footnotes than academics might prefer,
and more than others might want. Conversely, there are brief plot summaries that will be excessive for some readers and necessary for others. I
favor exploration over argument, though I hope to encourage the latter.
There will be the opportunity for readers to enter close reading of works
they may or may not know and most will be more familiar with some
locales than others. The book can be enjoyed as a renewal of old literary
acquaintances and the experience of new ones. For some, including members of book discussion groups, it will generate reading lists. Taking Place
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4
B. K. SCOTT
benefits from ongoing interdisciplinary discussions of ecocritical, feminist,
postcolonial, post-humanist, and place studies.
Thanks to ecocritical studies, the concept of the natural world as a wild,
pristine, or sublime realm, or as a retreat from urban culture for the privileged few, has receded. Still persistent, as postcolonial and geo-critical
fields reveal, are colonizing assumptions that the globe offers spaces to be
mapped, claimed, controlled, developed, and commercialized by powerful
outsiders with technical means and scientific authority, marginalizing or
eliminating indigenous people and their knowledges. Movements such as
Black Lives Matter bring increased attention and urgency for us to respect
and heed diverse voices, to move toward more equitable distribution of
resources, and to cultivate safe and healthy places for all to live. Thanks to
feminist, postcolonial, Africana, queer and post-humanist studies, among
others, we are better able to identify hierarchies that place masculine-­
associated culture over feminine-associated nature, colonizers and settlers
over indigenous people, white over black and brown people, and human
over other-than-human animals. Urban, borderland, and blended spaces
now figure increasingly in studies of place and environment. In a globalized world, place is less likely to be associated with nation. We are challenged to defy material, cultural, and temporal boundaries, to be open to
natural intelligences that go beyond human specialization, to learn from
others who fit the ecosystem in their own way and provide evidence of the
consequences of past mistakes affecting their health and well-being.
The places deeply probed in this study are necessarily limited in number. In choosing what to represent, I draw from my own experience. In
previous modernist, feminist, and ecocritical studies, I have engaged in
studies of place, particularly in the early twentieth century, as situated in
Britain, Ireland, Australia, and the U.S.2 My interest in and experiences of
the complex cultures of India, Africa, and New York figured strongly in
their selection for this work. A summer spent in India when I was an
undergraduate opened me to an unforgettable array of people’s ways of
living in place—new sounds, tastes, clothes, conveyances, and structures
ranging from makeshift shelters alongside the railroad to magnificent
2
Much of my previous work has related to modernist writers and their treatment of place,
including numerous articles and a book concerning Virginia Woolf, and essays related to
place in James Joyce, Eleanor Dark, Katherine Mansfield, Djuna Barnes, and Jessie Fauset.
See, Scott (2012), In the Hollow of the Wave: Virginia Woolf and Modernist Uses of Nature,
and Scott (2014), “Joyce, Ecofeminism and the River as Woman” (Scott 2014) as well as
additional essays cited in the Bibliography (Scott 2015, 2017).
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1 INTRODUCTION: CULTURAL PALIMPSESTS OF PLACE
5
Mughal architecture. My Indian “father” for much of that summer, Jaidev
Singh, and his family took me into their everyday life and he brought me
to local sites on the family’s motor scooter. I respect his ability to make his
life anew after the partition of India and Pakistan forced him, as a Sikh, to
immigrate from his native city of Lahore to Chandigarh, the new capital of
the Indian Punjab. My most recent experience of the region came as a
Fulbright Specialist, consulting for the Women’s Studies Department at
Fatima Jinnah Woman University in Rawalpindi (now in Pakistan). I grew
up in the New Jersey suburbs of New York City. I was assigned to keep my
father awake on Fridays when we drove into the city to pick up my grandfather for the weekend. And there were many field trips. I remember
exploring displays of the Egyptian pyramids with my brother and pondering dioramas representing received interpretations of Native Americans in
its Museum of Natural History. I conducted my first international research
in Ireland, led there by James Joyce’s depiction of place. On my first visit,
with my dissertation advisor Weldon Thornton as my guide, I followed
the routes pursued by Stephen Dedalus through what already seemed
familiar streets of Dublin—my eldest child (exhausted from our flight
over) strapped to my back. Australia is now home to my son and his family
and I have made both professional and personal visits there, including a
sabbatical leave to the Women’s Studies Department at Queensland
University, where colleagues greatly enriched my acquaintance with
Australian literature. A favorite pastime was visiting second hand book
stores, where I stocked up on works by Australian women writers—many
of them new to me or recently introduced to me by my Australian colleagues. I was encouraged to visit Southern Africa by my younger daughter’s semester abroad to Botswana, where she studied the habits of wattled
cranes and had her own homestay with a local family. On our visit in 2014,
my late husband Tom and I were moved by the banners carrying the
injunction, “Prayers for Madiba,” visible in Cape Town, South Africa during Nelson Mandela’s final days (Illustration 1.1).
I have chosen places affected by colonialism over ones noted for their
colonial conquests, though the two endeavors cannot always be separated.
In each case, finding female and indigenous writing and art relating to
place proves essential and rewarding to the chapter. The geographical
scope of the chapters varies. In one case, New York, a single city, offers
more than enough in the way of cultural texts; others such as Australia
demand a wider scope, particularly where required for the recovery of
native and settler cultures. This work is in no way exhaustive. I would like
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6
B. K. SCOTT
Illustration 1.1 “Prayers for Madiba” (Nelson Mandela) Banner 2013. Cape
Town. Photo by the author
nothing better than to stimulate discussion of additional texts related to
these locales and to encourage deep dives into additional places and juxtapositions, whose art and writing represent neglected practices, insights,
and cultural expressions related to the taking of place.3
India heads off my global exploration. Rivers—most notably the Ganges
and the Indus—have sustained both environmental and spiritual aspects of
this subcontinent, enabling forests and crops to grow and providing the
setting for significant religions to emerge. It is one of the earliest places on
earth where people have left cultural traces, and has seen a long, varied
succession of imperial rulers, offering diverse forms of administration that
bear comparison. The range of experience I offer here includes the viewpoints of Rudyard Kipling’s orphan Kim, Salman Rushdie’s Saleem Sinai
(born on the eve of Indian independence), and Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain’s
3
For example, in their edited collection, Doyle and Winkiel (2005), take us to Brazil, the
eastern Mediterranean, China, Spanish America, and Haiti, as well as places occupied by
gypsies, and the “townships” of native communities under colonial rule. Locations for
Friedman (2015) include China, Iraq, the Mongol invasion of northern India, and its southwestern state of Kerala, as well as diasporic writers.
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1 INTRODUCTION: CULTURAL PALIMPSESTS OF PLACE
7
feminist utopian story, “Sultana’s Dream,” as well as women’s writing
only recently made accessible in English and women’s environmental
writing.
Africa was home to the earliest humans on earth. South Africa in particular offers a good example of various, overlapping approaches to land
use, from hunter-gatherers to pastoralists to conflicting European settler
approaches to acquired land, as well as their appropriation of natural
resources, ranging from trees to gold and diamonds. The area has a long,
complex, ongoing history of dispossessing its black and “colored” people
of land and privilege, manifested egregiously in the apartheid system.
Issues of access to place and changing attitudes toward privilege in South
Africa lend a unifying theme to the chapter. Readers can anticipate the
lament of one of the last of the native rock artists on the slaying of a local
shaman, representations of changing attitudes of settler cultures represented by Olive Schreiner, J.M. Coetzee, and Nadine Gordimer, and
memoirs recording continuing traditions and black resilience amid repressive regimes by Nelson Mandela and Trevor Noah.
Ireland has rich oral and written traditions, starting with mythological
tales of superhumans who reputedly shaped it as a place. A favorite Irish
genre is the dindsenchas or story of place, which has remained central to
Irish writing and sets a theme for the chapter. Dublin’s Liffey River has
seen multiple arrivals, including the quintessential raiders, later urban
developers, the Vikings, and inclusive of monastic settlements, Norman
and British conquests, cultural and political domination by an Anglo-Irish
Protestant ascendancy class. Like India, it has been divided geographically,
largely on the basis of religion, between north and south and even in its
focal city of Dublin. Emigration and exile figure in its literature. Catholic
and women writers have gradually reshaped Anglo-Irish literary representation of place. We will experience its mythical figures in Thomas Kinsella’s
translation of a famous cattle raid in the Tain, John Millington Synge’s
Deirdre and Seamus Heaney’s Mad Sweeney, as well as Evan Boland’s
redefining of Mother Ireland. Via James Joyce and George Moore, we
burrow down into Dublin’s past and follow extended itineraries through
its streets.
With Australia, we visit the locale most removed from the flora, fauna,
and peoples of the other continents. This geographical situation would
affect the attitudes and identity of its people and it provides a focus for this
chapter. Traditionally Australia’s First People function as local geographers, memorizing features of the land in “songlines” and taking their
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8
B. K. SCOTT
identities from indigenous animals represented in their art. Australia was
the last continent to be explored, inhabited, and colonized by Europeans,
who remarked upon its unfamiliarity as a place, as in memorable accounts
by Captain Cook and its first Governor, Arthur Phillip. Settlement began
in Sydney. Its initial European population was comprised mainly of convicts, an under-class who permanently affected the Australian sense of
identity. Its literature records both the pioneering spirit of early settlers
and its reassessment of colonial values. This includes treatment of its displaced First People—representations enhanced by entry into the literary
canon of Aboriginal writers such as Sally Morgan and Alexis Wright.
Various stages of European settlement are manifested by Eleanor Dark,
who attempts to represent the multiple points of view of governors, convicts, and natives. Miles Franklin records the aspirations of successive generations of the “squattocracy” who developed holdings farther inland and
then looked to distinctly Australian horizons for the future.
New York City stands out as a meeting place of immigrants from around
the globe, a hub of national and international commerce, and a setting for
the unique cultural meccas of black Harlem and avant-garde Greenwich
Village. New York’s native population largely disappeared as a result of
disease and displacement. The city participated in the slave trade and
depended on African American labor to build its remarkable infrastructure. It offers a case study in urban planning and development—a theme
central to the chapter. New York developed broad streets and distinct
neighborhoods. It set aside the “greenswale” of Central Park, pursued
“slum clearance” and the construction of questionable public housing,
gave rise to skyscrapers and saw them tragically fall. Evidence of native
practices on the land comes largely from archaeology and explorers’
accounts, including the journal of Henry Hudson’s first mate. Later officials detailed the attractions of the place for settlement and agriculture. We
will consider Alexander Hamilton’s arguments for developing New York
as a hub for commerce. An effort to introduce the solace of rural landscapes into the increasingly populous, paved, and constructed city is
argued by William Cullen Bryant and manifested in Fredrick Law
Olmstead’s designs for Central Park. New York’s diverse immigrant and
black populations figure in the writings of John Dos Passos, Paule Marshall,
and Toni Morrison.
Comparisons between these places are irresistible and potent—a cumulative enterprise that will be unique to each reader. Questions worth posing in a critical reading of the texts include: Does the interpretation of
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1 INTRODUCTION: CULTURAL PALIMPSESTS OF PLACE
9
place manifest an identifiable historical or philosophical basis? What does
the writer concentrate on, beyond the self, the human, and a performance
in language? What sorts of connections are forged, or boundaries, traversed? How open is the writing to cultural alternatives? Does the text give
a sense of empathy or guilt? How do various identities affect experience of
a particular place, including access to its resources? What other locations
might be explored with a similar approach? By bringing into conversation
diverse perspectives of place through time, we may find sufficient language
and understanding to carry us creatively and materially forward.
Bibliography
Buell, Lawrence. 2005. The Future of Environmental Criticism: Environmental
Crisis and the Literary Imagination. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Doyle, Laura, and Laura Winkiel, eds. 2005. Geomodernisms: Race, Modernism,
Modernity. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Friedman, Susan Stanford. 2015. Planetary Modernisms: Provocations on Modernity
Across Time. New York: Columbia University Press.
Heise, Ursula K. 2008. Sense of Place and Sense of Planet: The Environmental
Imagination of the Global. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Huggan, Graham, and Helen Tiffin. 2010. Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature
Animals and Environment. New York: Routledge.
Scott, Bonnie Kime. 2012. In the Hollow of the Wave: Virginia Woolf and Modernist
Uses of Nature. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
———. 2014. James Joyce, Ecocriticism and the River as Woman. In Eco-Joyce:
The Environmental Imagination of James Joyce, ed. Robert Brazeau and Derek
Gladwin, 59–69. Cork: Cork University Press.
———. 2015. Ecocritical Woolf. In A Companion to Virginia Woolf, ed. Jessica
Berman, 319–332. London: Blackwell and Wiley.
———. 2017. Chapter 7: Reproductive and Environmental Justice. In Women in
Culture: An Intersectional Anthology for Gender and Women’s Studies, ed.
Bonnie Kime Scott, Susan E. Cayleff, Anne Donadey, and Irene Lara, 2nd ed.,
280–285, 302–334. Chichester: Wiley.
Soper, Kate. 1995. What Is Nature? Culture, Politics and the Non-human. Oxford:
Wiley-Blackwell.
Woolf, Virginia. 1994. The Common Reader. In The Essays of Virginia Woolf.
Volume 4: 1925-1928, ed. Andrew McNeillie, 19. Orlando: Harcourt.
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