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Style and Sense(s)
Edited by
Linda Pillière
Sandrine Sorlin
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Style and Sense(s)
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Linda Pillière • Sandrine Sorlin
Editors
Style and Sense(s)
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Contents
1 Introduction:
Enacting Style and Sense(s) 1
Linda Pillière and Sandrine Sorlin
Part I The Representation of Sense and Sense-making in
Fiction 19
2 The
Representation of Experience in Modernist Fiction 21
Violeta Sotirova
3 To
Make You Hear, Make You Feel, Make You See:
Representing Sense-­Perceptions in Narrative Fiction 51
Michael Toolan
4 The
Sense of the Sense of Smell in Virginia Woolf ’s Flush 73
Stéphanie Béligon
vii
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viii
Contents
Part II Sensory Details Across Genres 97
5
“The
Mt Everest of Dining Experiences”: Multisensory
Style in Restaurant Reviews 99
Áine Dougherty and Craig Hamilton
6
“You
see, but you do not observe”: Sensory Manipulation
and Sense-­Making in the Sherlock Holmes Detective
Stories125
Catherine Emmott and Marc Alexander
Part III Experiencing Otherness 149
7
Experiencing
Mind Style: From Iconicity to Sensory
Simulation151
Louise Nuttall
8
Painting
a World Before Language Using Language: A
Cognitive Stylistic Analysis of Synaesthetic Metaphors
in the Imagery of Keki Daruwalla’s “Before the Word”177
Sreenidhi Sivakumar and Maitali Khanna
9
Remaking the Sense(s) in Sumana Roy’s How I Became
a Tree: A Stylistic Analysis209
Esterino Adami
Part IV Senses Through Medium and Semiotic Systems 233
10
“The
Sound Must Seem an Echo to the Sense”:
Experiencing Oral and Silent Reading of Poetry235
Willie van Peer and Anna Chesnokova
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Contents
ix
11 Creative
Writing Practice of Ekphrastic Intervention: A
Case Study of Literary Responses to A Blind Girl Reading
by Ejnar Nielsen259
Polina Gavin
12 Putting
Some Flesh on Sensory Language: An
Experiential Approach to Style283
Jean-Rémi Lapaire
Index301
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Notes on Contributors
Esterino Adami is an associate professor of English language and translation at the University of Turin (Department of Humanities). His
research areas include postcolonial discourse, varieties of English (in particular, Indian English and South Asian English), Indian English writing,
linguistic and literary aspects of Gibraltar, ecocriticism, pragmatics, metaphor studies, and the semiotics of comics. His recent publications
include the monographs Language, Style and Variation in Contemporary
Indian English Literary Texts (Routledge, 2022), and Railway Discourse.
Linguistic and Stylistic Representations of the Train in the Anglophone World
(Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2018).
Marc Alexander is a professor of English Linguistics at the University of
Glasgow and is director of the Historical Thesaurus of English. His
research primarily focuses on the study of words, meaning, and effect in
English, including historical lexicology and semantics, corpus linguistics,
parliamentary discourse from 1803 to the present, and the stylistics of
detective fiction.
Stéphanie Béligon is a professor at the Université Savoie Mont Blanc,
where she teaches English linguistics. Her research focuses on lexical
semantics and on the lexicon of emotions and perception. She has coedited Manifestations sensorielles des urbanités contemporaines (Peter Lang,
2020) and Lexicon, Sensations, Perceptions and Emotions (Lexis 13, 2019).
xi
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xii
Notes on Contributors
Anna Chesnokova is a professor at the Linguistics and Translation
Department of Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University, Ukraine. Her main
research interests lie in Stylistics and Empirical Studies of Literature. Her
publications, most with co-authors, include Directions in Empirical
Literary Studies (John Benjamins, 2008), Experiencing Poetry: A Guidebook
to Psychopoetics (Bloomsbury, 2023) as well as chapters for The International
Reception of Emily Dickinson (Continuum Press, 2009), Teaching Stylistics
(Palgrave, 2011), Scientific Approaches to Literature in Learning
Environments (John Benjamins, 2016), International Handbook of Love:
Transcultural and Transdisciplinary Perspectives (Springer International,
2021) and Pedagogical Stylistics in the 21st Century (Palgrave, 2022).
Áine Dougherty Originally from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Áine
Dougherty is a Fulbright grantee (2019–2020) and graduate of
Northwestern University in Chicago, Illinois (BSJ, 2019), and the
University of Upper Alsace in Mulhouse, France (Masters in English,
2022). She has been teaching English for four years in Alsace, France, and
is currently completing a culinary training program. Curious and passionate about gastronomy since her undergraduate degree in journalism,
she has now decided to study food both in theory and in practice.
Catherine Emmott is an honorary senior research fellow in English
Language and Linguistics at the University of Glasgow. Her publications
include Narrative Comprehension: A Discourse Perspective (1997) and
Mind, Brain and Narrative (2012, with Anthony J. Sanford). Her research
interests include cognitive stylistics, narrative analysis, reference in written texts, medical humanities, and the stylistics of detective fiction.
Polina Gavin is a doctoral researcher at Aston University, UK. Her
research interests include the stylistics of creative writing practices, with a
focus on ekphrastic writing in response to visual art. Her ongoing work
involves developing a model to describe the intricacies of writerly interventions in response to art and examining the impact of ekphrasis as a
holistic phenomenon on readers.
Craig Hamilton is a professor of English at the University of Upper
Alsace in France, where he teaches stylistics and cognitive linguistics. He
has also taught at Paris 8 University, Nottingham University, UC Irvine,
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Notes on Contributors
xiii
the University of Waterloo, and Colgate University, where he was a visiting professor in 2013–2014. He has published more than 60 articles,
book chapters, and reviews on topics in rhetoric, stylistics, and cognitive
linguistics. He was a contributing author for Persuading People: An
Introduction to Rhetoric, 3rd edition (Palgrave Macmillan 2014), and also
for Grammaire Explicative de l’Anglais, niveau C1/C2, 6th edition
(Pearson 2024).
Maitali Khanna is an assistant professor and associate head, Department
of Languages and Literature at Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning,
Puttaparthi, Andhra Pradesh. Dr. Khanna is MPhil and PhD in (Post)
Modern English Poetry and Literary Theory. While her core competency
is poetry, Dr. Khanna keeps keen interest in applied stylistics, and has
published papers in the peer-reviewed journals in these areas. Presently,
Dr. Khanna is guiding doctoral scholars in the areas of comparative poetics: Sanskrit and Western, Narrative Stylistics and Cognitive Poetics.
Besides her regular participation in the conferences and workshops, Dr.
Khanna is actively involved in organising conferences, seminars, and
workshops in the department.
Jean-Rémi Lapaire teaches cognitive linguistics, pragmatics, gesture
semiotics, and performance theory at Université Bordeaux Montaigne
(UBM), France. He has explored the role played by physical motion in
grammar, abstract reasoning and social interaction, and shown that the
sensing, moving, and cognizing body may articulate and project just
about any “meaning” (however elusive or complex). His current research
is centred on intersemiotic translation and performance-­based approaches
to education. He has designed and tested mixed teaching and learning
strategies—spoken, written, visual-kinaesthetic—which allow educators
and students to engage more fully in observation and reasoning in all
domains of human enquiry.
Louise Nuttall is a researcher in cognitive stylistics, specialising in applications of cognitive linguistics to fiction and non-fiction discourses,
alongside methods of empirical reader response research. She is the author
of Mind Style and Cognitive Grammar: Language and Worldview in
Speculative Fiction (2018, Bloomsbury) and co-editor of Cognitive
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xiv
Notes on Contributors
Grammar in Literature (2014, John Benjamins) and New Directions in
Cognitive Grammar and Style (2021, Bloomsbury).
Linda Pillière is a professor in English Language and Linguistics at the
University of Aix-Marseille. She has recently published Intralingual
Translation of British Novels: A Multimodal Stylistic Perspective (Bloomsbury,
2021) and has just completed editing The Routledge Handbook of
Intralingual Translation with Özlem Berk Albachten (2024). Other coedited volumes include Memory and Identity: Ghosts of the Past in the
English-speaking World with Karine Bigand and Standardising English:
Norms and Margins in the History of the English Language with Wilfrid
Andrieu, Valérie Kerfelec and Diana Lewis. Her research interests include
stylistics, prescriptivism, the role of copy editors in standardising English,
and museum discourse.
Sreenidhi Sivakumar is a PhD candidate in the Department of
Languages and Literature at the Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher
Learning, India. Her research interests are in cognitive stylistics and
Indian Writings in English. Her doctoral research primarily focuses on
reconfiguring existing studies in Indian Poetry in English using cognitive
stylistics in order to provide a fresh and systematic perspective on the
poetics and style of the Indian poets who write in English.
Sandrine Sorlin is a professor of English linguistics at Université Paul-­
Valéry—Montpellier 3, specializing in stylistics and pragmatics. Her latest books are Language and Manipulation in House of Cards (Palgrave,
2016, ESSE book award 2018) and The Stylistics of ‘you’. Second-Person
Pronoun and Its Pragmatic Effects (Cambridge University Press, 2022).
Interested in personal pronouns and addresses to the reader, she co-edited
The Pragmatics of Personal Pronouns (John Benjamins, 2015) with
L. Gardelle and The Rhetoric of Literary Communication. From Classical
English Novels to Contemporary Digital Fiction (Routledge, 2022) with
V. Iché. She is the editor of a book on manipulation in fiction entitled
Stylistic Manipulation of the Reader in Contemporary Fiction (Bloomsbury,
2020). She is also an assistant editor of Language and Literature.
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Notes on Contributors
xv
Violeta Sotirova is an associate professor in Stylistics at the University
of Nottingham. Her research focuses on the stylistics of narrative consciousness, literary Modernism, the linguistic expression of viewpoint.
She has published two books on D.H. Lawrence and Narrative Viewpoint
(Bloomsbury, 2011) and Consciousness in Modernist Fiction (Palgrave,
2013). She is the editor of The Bloomsbury Companion to Stylistics
(Bloomsbury, 2015) and a co-editor of Linguistics and Literary History
(John Benjamins, 2016). She is also an assistant editor of the journal of
the Poetics and Linguistics Association—Language and Literature (Sage).
Michael Toolan is an emeritus professor of English Language at the
University of Birmingham, where for 25 years he taught courses in many
branches of language studies, but particularly Stylistics and Narrative
Analysis, the fields in which he has published most extensively. In retirement he has turned to writing fiction. His most recent academic monographs are Making Sense of Narrative Text: Situation, Repetition, and
Picturing in the Reading of Short Stories (Routledge 2016) and The
Language of Inequality in the News (Cambridge University Press 2018)
which analyses changes in the representation of UK wealth inequality in
the British press.
Willie van Peer is an emeritus professor of Literary Studies and
Intercultural Hermeneutics at the Ludwig-Maximilian-University of
Munich; former president of IGEL (International Association for the
Empirical Study of Literature), and former chair of PALA (Poetics and
Linguistics Association). He is the author of several books and articles on
poetics and the epistemological foundations of literary studies. His publication Stylistics and Psychology. Investigations of Foregrounding (London:
Croom Helm, 1986) marks the beginning of the empirical study of ‘foregrounding theory’. He is also the founding general editor of the journal
Scientific Study of Literature. Together with his wife he has co-­founded the
development Project Mali-ka-di (see www.malikadi.org).
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List of Figures
Fig. 8.1
Fig. 8.2
Fig. 8.3
Fig. 10.1
Fig. 10.2
Fig. 10.3
Fig. 11.1
Schematic representation of source–path–goal image
schema (Duong 2021, 17)
The moving-language contained within human life model.
(Adapted from Evans and Green (2006, 85); Figure 3.16)
Schematic representation of VERTICALITY image schema
(Duong 2021, 19)
Significant differences between reading the poems aloud
Significant differences between reading the poems silently
Significant differences between reading the three
poems aloud
A Blind Girl Reading (1905), by Ejnar Nielsen; exhibited
the National Gallery of Denmark, Copenhagen
189
200
202
243
244
246
265
xvii
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List of Tables
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 8.1
Table 8.2
X3 Sensory lexis, frequencies in ‘Tomorrow is too far’ 34 total
X3 Sensory lexis, frequencies in McGahern, ‘All sorts of
impossible things’ 53 total
X3 Sensory lexis, frequencies in ‘The Love of a Good
Woman’ 245 total
Adjectives cooccurring with NS
Semantic types of adjectives cooccurring with NS
Verbs cooccurring with the noun smell (as the subject)
The RESTAURANT script
From expectations to evaluations
Sensory–conceptual domains constituting auditory
imagery in “Before the Word”
Synaesthetic transfer in synaesthetic metaphors through
Conceptual Metaphor
63
64
65
76
78
85
101
115
190
194
xix
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1
Introduction: Enacting Style
and Sense(s)
Linda Pillière and Sandrine Sorlin
This volume is the fruit of the 2022 edition of the international stylistics
conference under the aegis of the Poetics and Linguistics Association
(PALA) that was supposed to be held in 2020 for the first time in France
in Aix-Marseille University. The year 2020 would have marked the 40th
anniversary of the association that was to be duly celebrated in the presence of two of its founder members, Mick Short and Katie Wales. But the
COVID-19 pandemic forced us, the French organizing team, to cancel
the event and postpone it till the following year (2021), by which time it
became clear that PALA could still not be held on site because of the
many uncertainties surrounding the spread of the virus. The University of
Nottingham took up the baton and proposed an online version of the
conference, coming full circle, so to speak, since the very first PALA
L. Pillière (*)
LERMA, Aix-Marseille University, Aix-en-Provence, France
e-mail: linda.pilliere@univ-amu.fr
S. Sorlin
EMMA, University Paul-Valéry – Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France
e-mail: sandrine.sorlin@univ-montp3.fr
L. Pillière, S. Sorlin (eds.), Style and Sense(s),
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54884-0_1
1
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2
L. Pillière and S. Sorlin
conference was held there in 1980. This 40+1 event, expertly organized
by Peter Stockwell and his team, was an ideal solution to maintain a virtual link between stylisticians around the globe but it also crucially made
us realise what is absolutely essential in conferences, that is the pleasure
to be had from sharing thoughts, ideas, or jokes in between sessions and
to be wholly, that means “bodily” and “mindly”, together in the very
same time and space.
The topic for the 2020 PALA edition was chosen before the pandemic
broke out but it proved a timely title when it came for us all in 2022 to
reunite in person, body and mind, in Aix-en-Provence. The 40+2 edition
was a literal celebration of the senses that we had been deprived of for so
long, locked away behind our computer screens. Isolated in our Teams or
Zoom cells, our barely moving bodies in computer-mediated communication (CMS) were subjected to a flattening of physical elements in the
form of a symbiosis between person, background and technology—what
Nadler (2020) calls “third skin”. This concept brings into relief by contrast the significance of the body in face-to-face interactions and how its
movement (or lack thereof ) affects our very interactions. CMC exhaustion (or “zoom fatigue”) is the result of the cognitive effort exerted on and
by our bodies as they negotiate with this new environment. The 40th
(+2) anniversary of the Poetics and Linguistics Association was then postponed until 2022 for a live celebration and a fully embodied experience
savouring the wine and olive oil and breathing in the fragrance of the
lavender fields—it was also a celebratory year for the journal of the association, Language and Literature. International Journal of Stylistics whose
2022 special issue edited by Dan McIntyre and Rocío Montoro (2022)
gave a retrospective view of 30 years of stylistics by giving the floor to the
successive editors of the journal, Mick Short, Katie Wales, Paul Simpson
and Geoff Hall.
As it is often the case, we perceive the importance of a phenomenon
when we are deprived of it. Some of us affected by COVID temporarily
lost their sense of smell and taste and then realised how hard it was to
make sense of the world without them, or to put it differently, how our
senses critically help us make sense of the world and are even the very
conditions of our sense-making. The “post-covid” context invites us to
celebrate a stylistics of the senses or some “sensory stylistics” and grasp
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1 Introduction: Enacting Style and Sense(s)
3
anew how style can convey our sensory interaction with the world around
us. There has traditionally been an imbalance though in the weight
granted to each of the five senses, sight being hierarchically placed first.
Human language gives pride of place to what humans see in their daily
interaction with their environment, so much so that cognitive linguistics
has made the visual mode the paramount access to understanding the
world. The cognitive metaphor understanding is seeing (Grady 1997;
Lakoff and Johnson 1999; Sweetser 1991) is one instance of the focus on
visual mappings in cognitive linguistics. And yet tactile metaphors
(understanding is grasping) are equally used in our attempt to comprehend ideas or the world around us.
In his body-oriented theory of language, Horst Ruthrof (2015) calls
for a redress of “this imbalance in thinking about meaning” (106). He
speaks of the “corporeal turn” that has superseded the linguistic turn. For
him indeed, the body as grounding base has returned in force, showing
up in a great many book titles, and yet he questions whether the shift is
so radical when the body is not addressed in its role as the base of linguistic communication. The (often) missing question is how the body enters
language and what role it plays “in meaning events” (vi). Going beyond
cognitive linguistics but acknowledging its vital contribution—it has had
the huge merit of seeing mappings as primary links between mind and
world, in which language only comes second—Ruthrof states that “meaning is the event of an association of nonverbal and linguistic signs” (2).
Without any nonverbal signs, it would be impossible to make sense of the
world for there is no meaning in language per se; it needs to be activated
by mental images, imagination or nonverbal signs in the form of “olfactory, tactile, gustative, aural, visual and many other subtle nonverbal
readings of the world” (vii): “our words could mean nothing without the
corporeality of feeling, or any other form in which the perceptual body
activates language” (115). These nonverbal signs are what make us transform the language we read into meaning. For Ruthrof, they are “the deep
structure of language” (34), so the body is always already part of language
and cannot be construed as a mere supplementary capacity.
The objective of a book on “style and sense(s)” is then to investigate
how style can convey these nonverbal signs that are embedded in our
mental processes. How do narratives bring to the surface the sensory deep
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L. Pillière and S. Sorlin
structure of language? Literature is the best sensory laboratory to make us
experience anew our perceptual world. It is the most apt to rebalance the
pre-eminence given to the sense of sight. One of the questions addressed
in this volume concerns the role our different senses play in constructing
story worlds. Virginia Woolf ’s novel Flush: A Biography (2016[1933]) narrated through the eyes of a dog is one instance of the defamiliarizing
effect of literature offering renewed olfactory readings of the world. Smell
was once our primary means to read our environment until it “lost its
interpretative primacy” in favour of sight and hearing that proved “more
important for survival” (Ackerman 1991, 30). Stéphanie Béligon’s chapter in this volume specifically delves into the complexity of rendering the
immediacy of smells through the mediation of words.
In fact, there seems to be a continuum between our senses that is not
necessarily the result of our evolution but is inherent to the nature of the
senses themselves. Toolan (this volume) sees the five senses as being on a
distance-intimacy cline which reflects and affects our grasp of the world,
with sight and hearing being potentially more detached than touch and
taste which imply a greater bodily proximity. Taste seems the most intimate of all since it involves taking something into our body—taste is also
the most dangerous as it can be lethal if the food is rotten or poisonous.
The proximity with the body inherent to taste is interesting as it can help
explain why, when asked to write a restaurant review, Artificial Intelligence
(AI) cannot compete with a human description steeped in sensory metaphors. Exploring the way multisensory experience is translated into words
in restaurant reviews, Hamilton and Dougherty (this volume) highlight
the stylistic patterns that feature in human reviews and that are lacking
when an AI system is asked to write about food. These patterns are
similes/metaphors, hyperboles, rhetorical questions, not forgetting
humour and specific references to the different senses blended in diverse
figures of speech. However, some humans may be equipped with more
acute senses than others, which connect them more closely to their surroundings. In detective fiction, Sherlock Holmes may be seen as the most
sensorily gifted detective capable of making sense of his environment
thanks to his ability to let sensory cues speak directly to him. In this volume, Catherine Emmott and Marc Alexander show how Holmes’ superior
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1 Introduction: Enacting Style and Sense(s)
5
sensory observations activate his reasoning skills. We readers may fail to
perceive the sensory details that lead the detective to the solutions.
But if senses are the sine qua non condition for our making sense of
the world, we respond to the world in a more holistic fully embodied
way, going beyond the Aristotelian fivefold scheme. We are engaged in
space through our body’s disposition as another source of information-­
gathering. For that matter, as Toolan’s chapter indicates, a corpus search
for sensory perception verbs (see, smell, hear, touch, etc.) in fiction does
not take us very far as they tend to be rarely used and when they are, it is
in a most idiomatic way. The mental images produced by authors to render a scene “seeable” are constructed in indirect ways namely through
backgrounding effects as opposed to other elements more directly seen
(heard, tasted, touched) in the foreground. Toolan seems to oppose what
is directly seen/heard/tasted/touched and what is indirectly “seeable”. He
conceives this “seeing” as encompassing all senses. Taking up Joseph
Conrad’s cue in his description of a fiction writer’s task in The Nigger of
the “Narcissus” (1897) that consists in making the reader “see”, he perceives “seeing” as metonymic of an entire sensorial engagement. Through
stylistic crafting, authors strive to have readers “see” the world “by hearing it, smelling it, touching and tasting it”. In fact, as Talmy (2000) puts
it, we “ceive” the world at different levels of palpability. Jean-Rémi Lapaire
(this volume) highlights the absence of the real divide between perception and conception, relying on Talmy’s gradient from “the most clearly
perceptual end of the conceptual domain” to the “most conceptual end”
(Talmy 2000, 140), the logics of language being based on a “mix of convention and physical ability” (Lapaire, this volume).
Making us “see” in this metonymic sense is to have us experience a
situation, a world, a scene in a fully embodied way. In addition to having
us experience what it could be like to grasp the world through smell, the
dog’s perspective in Woolf ’s Flush, mentioned above, also offers a decentring of our familiar human perspective, which brings into sharp relief
how anthropomorphic our conception of the world is. Our highly sophisticated language seems to be what separates us from the other animals or
the non-human world, driving a wedge between species. Yet this verbalnonverbal separation between beings does not hold for long if we consider the perceptual world we share and are embedded with, in Ruthrof ’s
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6
L. Pillière and S. Sorlin
words: “After all our linguistically constructing world, as we have seen,
relies entirely on our nonverbal grasp. Linguistic expressions then are no
more than conventional markers which stand in for perceptual readings”
(69). Some chapters in this book are devoted to the way stylistic markers
can bring about renewed perceptual readings. In his interpretation of
How I Became a Tree (2017) by Sumana Roy, Esterino Adami exposes the
rhetorical and stylistic means used by Roy to “refresh” our sensations.
Roy proposes ways to bring the language in tune with a new potential
“enmeshment” with the natural world in the Anthropocene, to use
Morton’s word (2010), in a holistic relationship between body, mind and
environment.
The first sentence of How I Became a Tree, “I was tired of speed. I
wanted to live to tree time”, expresses the narrator’s desire for a slowing
rhythm that has ideological undertones. In Slow Narrative and Nonhuman
Materialities (2022), Marco Caracciolo construes today’s climate crisis as
the result of a linear narrative of natural exploitation that sees ever-­
increasing production and consumption as the only way forward: “If
humanity faces the vast challenges of today’s climate crisis, it is because
this Western view of nature as a set of ‘resources’ to be harvested has
become entrenched in a global financial system based on linear narratives
of economic growth and technological progress” (3). As a corollary to
this, we have been taught to see animals and the non-human world as
“categorically distinct from the human” (5) precluding any intimate connection with them. As a counter-move to this linear plot, Caracciolo
emphasizes instead “slow narratives” where slowness becomes an embodied sensation that brings about what he calls “a thickness of attention”
(11). Absorbing oneself in the slow, “somatic rhythm” stylistically conveyed in “slow narratives” is the best way to challenge culturally entrenched
assumptions and reimagine new human-nonhuman relationships: “It is
in these terms that slow narrative can make a difference, heightening our
awareness of interconnectedness and undermining the hierarchical and
instrumentalizing way of looking at the nonhuman world that has led to
the current crisis” (9). In a similar way, Roy’s narrative stylistically performs a slowing down of experience affecting both body and mind and
destabilising anthropocentric hierarchies. Likewise, from their Indian
perspective, Sreenidhi Sivakumar and Maitali Khanna (this volume) offer
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1 Introduction: Enacting Style and Sense(s)
7
a precious non-Western perspective on Keki Daruwalla’s poem “Before
the Word” (2006) whose texture resonates with material entanglements
through the specific use of synaesthetic metaphorical patterns.
Tuning in to the “rhythmicity” of a narrative is a way to get an experiential feel of what is being described. Through syntactic and lexical
means, narratives invite us to experience the rhythms of situations we
have never experienced before. Drawing on the cognitive science programme known as “embodied cognition”, some authors have shown how
readers make an embodied simulation of what they read, re-enacting the
verbally evoked situations (Gallese and Wojciehowski 2011). In her enactive approach emphasizing the inextricable link between cognitive processes and “an organism’s embedded activity”, Popova (2015) sees
narrative understanding as enaction: “narrativity is something that we
perform or enact as we read, not something that is automatically given in
specific types of texts” (36). In short, we read with our bodies: “we see
and experience the world because we ‘enact’ it and it ‘shows up’ for us in
the process of our interactive engagement with it” (54).
In this volume, Louise Nuttall brings together enaction and a concept
that is very important in stylistic studies, that of “mind style”. “Mind
style” was originally defined by Fowler (1977, 103) as “any distinctive
linguistic representation of an individual mental self ”. The distinctive
linguistic patterns of a mind style convey the world-view of idiosyncratic
characters or of individuals having the same characteristics because they
are going through the same experience (see Semino 2014 for autism or
Lugea 2021 for dementia, for instance). Readers do not engage with
mind style in some abstract way but on the basis of their previous knowledge and experience. Nuttall shows how mind styles are enacted by readers through their minds and senses. She evinces the way readers are
“coerced” into iconic simulation of the experience described in narratives, bringing about powerful embodied and emotional effects. A close
analysis of the linguistic technique used in a stream of consciousness-type
novel, Eimear McBride’s A Girl is a Half-Formed Thing (2014), reveals
how the reader gets an experiential feel of the character’s hardships
through embodied enactment of her consciousness.
Authors’ (re)presentation of consciousness in literary novels has been
much written about and yet in this volume Violeta Sotirova brings to our
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8
L. Pillière and S. Sorlin
attention how the representation of a character’s action can itself be an
indicator of subjectivity that would make it closer to Free Indirect Style
than to what has been traditionally classified as “Narrative Report of
Action” under the aegis of the narrator. Iconicity is at work here as well
since what Modernist texts attempt to capture is the experience of the
character as it occurs in some “extreme mimeticism”. The performing of
the action is iconically transcribed as subjectively experienced by the
character. Readers enact the character’s action through the character’s
subjective point of view rather than attributing it to the narrator’s. It is no
surprise that modernism emerged at the same time as phenomenology,
which can be said to be the philosophical foundation of the enactivist
approach mentioned above. For Popova (2015, 72) the claim that “forms
of human engagement with others (beliefs, intentions, attentional states
and even emotions) are fundamentally intersubjective and mutually oriented” has indeed been around for a long time, ever since Merleau-Ponty’s
work (1945), but these ideas have been “sidelined” by mainstream cognitive science that was focused on the individual mind’s private mental
states. In an enactive or phenomenological perspective, understanding a
text is similar to understanding the world and the others around us: it is
an “intersubjective process of sense-making” (72).
Sensory stylistics is also interested in the affective effects produced by
a switch from one medium to another or one semiotic system to the next.
What are the sensory transfers involved when we read out loud something which is written, write about something painted, or dance something written? Poetry is now read silently in our minds but comes from a
long oral tradition. Does reading poetry aloud or silently to oneself trigger a different emotional experience? This is the experiment conducted by
Willie van Peer and Anna Chesnokova in this volume as they try to measure how sense and sounds echo each other when activated by the voicing
out loud of the verses. By focusing on ekphrastic descriptions of visual art
turned into a literary exercise, Polina Gavin expounds here the processes
of creative writing. The multimodal texts created are a good way to have
us experience how style can enact different worlds by following different
interpretative routes, “thickening” our attention on specific sensory
details to use Caracciolo’s term cited above, challenging centres of attraction, thereby bringing about renewed insights as to how the same work
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1 Introduction: Enacting Style and Sense(s)
9
of art can be both encoded and decoded. But sensory imagery can be
explored through semiotic translation more radically still, when the
whole body is invited to enact style physically through what Lapaire
(2021) calls “physical reading”, whereby the reading of a text becomes a
phenomenological “activity”, the whole phenomenal body being required
to process the perceptual input. In different scenes of re-enaction, Lapaire
(this volume) describes how the literature class can be turned into a
“physical thinking space” where students are prompted to enact verbal
metaphors physically, enfleshing style in a most engaging way, blurring
the lines between perception and conception.
The volume is divided into four parts, each of which explores how style
makes sense and how senses make style, how senses combine or blend to
refresh our cognitive schemas, how narrators/authors go about orientating or disorientating sense and cognition to reflect new perceptual worlds
and absorb the reader in the texture of the narrative. They all delve into
how language, written, oral, visual, gestural is stylistically sculpted to
heighten sense and sensibility. Far from being mere decorative flourishes,
the specific stylistic techniques and expressive devices scrutinised in the
volume are shown to be constitutive of the narratives under study.
In the first part, the focus is on the representation of sense and sense-­
making in fiction. The part opens with Violeta Sotirova’s chapter entitled
“The Representation of Experience in Modernist Fiction”. After providing a detailed analysis of existing models of consciousness representation
in terms of discourse and verbal thought, Sotirova uses examples from
Modernist fiction by writers such as Virginia Woolf and Katharine
Mansfield to argue that the report of action, which is traditionally
assigned to the narrator as external observer, can nevertheless be attributed, in part, to the character’s consciousness. The representation of consciousness has long been presented in terms of speech and thought
representation, but through a close analysis of extracts from Modernist
fiction, Sotirova introduces the idea that action can also be seen as belonging to a character’s subjective experience, and she demonstrates that even
in works by an author such as Hemingway, where passages seem to bear
no or little evidence of Free Indirect Style, iconicity, deixis and various
verb forms can combine to convey a sense of sharpened sensory perceptions. Sotirova thus challenges the binary opposition between objective
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10
L. Pillière and S. Sorlin
external report and subjective inner speech by suggesting that Modernist
fiction blurs the distinctions between the two categories.
The third chapter in this part is Michael Toolan’s “To Make You
Hear, Make You Feel, Make You See: Representing Sense-Perceptions in
Narrative Fiction”. In this chapter, Toolan explores both the role played
by the five senses (sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell) in contemporary
literary narratives, and how they are lexicalized. He begins by presenting the five senses in terms of a cline, from distant to intimate, with
sight and hearing at one end and touch and taste at the other. A short
analysis of a passage from Jon McGregor’s Lean Fall Stand (2021),
reveals how the loss of senses, and in particular balance, following a
stroke, can be conveyed in a narrative through the use of broken, incoherent sentences. While all the sense-perceptions may come into play in
Joyce’s Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (2000[1916], Toolan suggests that in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s short story, “Tomorrow is
Too Far” (2009), there is a contrast between what is foregrounded in
the narrative as directly seen or heard and what is merely implied to be
seeable or hearable. Other extracts from Munro and McGahern also
point to sight playing a dominant role while senses of touch, taste and
smell, more intimate and deictically proximal, occur at critical moments
in the narrative, moments of extreme intimacy between the experiencer
and what is experienced.
The fourth and final chapter in this part, “The Sense of the Sense of
Smell in Virginia Woolf ’s Flush”, focuses on the representation of one
specific sense: the sense of smell, as seen through the character of a dog,
Flush. Stéphanie Béligon begins by providing a survey of the different
ways in which smell are described in the novella, focussing both on the
different nouns (smell, but also aroma, essence, odour, scent or whiff) that
are used to refer to smell and their syntactic properties, including the
adjectives that qualify such nouns. She underlines that to smell is to perceive something which is independent of the perceiver or experiencer
while at the same time referring to the experience itself and its effect. In
this respect she follows Toolan’s cline where smell is perceived as being
more intimate than sight or hearing—at least for humans. Using Lakoff
and Johnson’s cognitive metaphor theory (1980), she suggests that smells
become agentive entities in the novella. Quoting Woolf, Béligon argues
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Introduction: Enacting Style and Sense(s)
11
that smells and the senses are linguistically difficult to characterize and to
communicate, and the emphasis in the novella on the incommensurability of smells is one way to overcome these limits. Finally, Béligon suggests
that Woolf ’s style, which challenges linearity, chronological sequencing
and ontological distinctions, reflects her desire to recreate the immediacy
and simultaneity of the senses, and specifically that of olfaction.
The second part is entitled “Sensory Details Across Genres” and
explores the interplay between specific genres and the senses. The opening chapter by Áine Dougherty and Craig Hamilton, “‘The Mt Everest
for Restaurant Experiences’: Multisensory Style in Restaurant Reviews”,
investigates how restaurant reviews seek to recreate the multisensory
experience of dining through language, based on a corpus of 36 online
reviews of a 3-star Michelin restaurant in Chicago, written by both professionals and amateurs. The two authors begin their study by using a
cognitive stylistics theoretical framework to analyse the structure of such
reviews. They then investigate the varying degrees to which the five senses
are evoked by the reviewers to convey to readers their experience of eating
at the restaurant. Finally, an analysis of rhetorical structures such as metaphor, simile, systrophe, hypophora, erotesis, epiplexis and hyperbole
leads Dougherty and Hamilton to suggest that these structures are used
by all reviewers in varying degrees in an attempt to engage with and
amuse readers while simultaneously giving credence to their opinions.
Comparison with a short review written by an AI program reveals that
the AI review lacks the specific references to the different senses that
Dougherty and Hamilton discovered in their corpus.
In “‘You See, But You Do Not Observe’: Sensory Manipulation and
Sense-Making in the Sherlock Holmes Detective Stories”, Catherine
Emmott and Marc Alexander examine sense and sensory manipulation in
the genre of detective fiction, and more specifically in the Sherlock
Holmes stories with a detailed analysis of three specific cases: The Hound
of the Baskervilles (Doyle 1987), “The Adventure of the Lion’s Mane”
(Doyle 1985), and “The Adventure of the Cardboard Box” (Doyle 1985).
In the stories, Sherlock Holmes is shown to have superior sensory skills (a
rhetorical strategy in itself ) that enable him to observe what others miss,
and to make sense of crimes and other puzzles that leave his fellow characters, such as Watson and Lestrade, baffled. However, important sensory
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L. Pillière and S. Sorlin
information is often withheld from the reader or reversed in the final
denouement when all finally becomes clear and makes sense. Holmes’
explanations may seem reasonable but that does not mean Doyle has not
used sleight of hand and, after presenting the standard schema of the
genre, Emmott and Alexander examine the various manipulative strategies used by Doyle to withhold sensory information from the reader.
The third part “Experiencing Otherness” looks at how writers aim to
implicate the mind and body of the reader in the aesthetic experience
they are trying to create. Louise Nuttall’s “Experiencing Mind Style:
From Iconicity to Sensory Simulation” takes as its starting point Roger
Fowler’s theory of mind-style (1977) but also situates itself with later
research on the topic (Lugea 2021; Nuttall 2018), and notably focuses on
how readers “enact” the way of thinking presented in texts, in other
words, the emotional and aesthetic effects of mind-style. In her analysis,
Nuttall combines stylistic accounts of the emotive effects of iconicity, and
specifically Haiman’s three types of iconicity (iconic sequencing, iconic
proximity and iconic quantity) with research on “mental simulation”
from cognitive linguistics and psychology. The main focus is on an extract
from the novel A Girl is a Half-formed Thing by Eimear McBride (2014)
and reader-response to the novel from reviews found on the website
Goodreads.com. The fragmented syntax and style of the narrative often
make for uncomfortable reading, but as all events are seen through the
eyes of the character-narrator, the reader has no choice but to go along
with the mind style presented. Mind style is thus a powerful tool in making the reader participate in the experience of texts and characters.
In the second chapter of this part (Chap. 8), “Painting a World Before
Language Using Language: A Cognitive Stylistic Analysis of Synaesthetic
Metaphors in the Imagery of Keki Daruwalla’s ‘Before the Word’”,
Sreenidhi Sivakumar and Maitali Khanna use the theoretical framework
of cognitive stylistics, notably Lakoff and Johnson’s form is motion metaphor, along with Stephan Ullman’s theory of the hierarchy of senses to
analyse the effects of synaesthetic metaphors in Keki Daruwalla’s lesser-­
known poem “Before the Word”. Auditory, visual and kinaesthetic images
are studied and shown to create both multiple sensory meanings and a
network of references within the poem, enabling the poet to introduce
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Introduction: Enacting Style and Sense(s)
13
new varieties of collocation and by doing so to depict a world before language existed.
The final chapter in this part is by Esterino Adami and entitled
“Remaking the Sense(s) in Sumana Roy’s How I Became a Tree: A Stylistic
Analysis”. Adami’s chapter focuses on an experimental non-fictional narrative by another Indian writer, Sumana Roy. In this instance, the writer
uses metaphor and defamiliarization techniques to project a fresh perspective on the environment and sensory perceptions. Roy moves away
from conventional metaphors that are cognitively unidirectional to introduce patterns such as trees are people, introducing a new mental space
(human and non-human). Rather than simply anthropomorphising
plants and trees, the narrative shows how the arboreal species share the
same characteristics as humans. Adami’s close reading of a number of passages using a multidisciplinary methodology that draws on (eco)stylistics,
postcolonial criticism and metaphor studies, reveals how Roy appropriates sensory images and metaphors to challenge preconceived ideas of
trees as being inert or without volition, and to posit that trees are living
beings capable of sensing their environment.
“Senses Through Medium and Semiotic Systems”, the fourth part,
explores the affective effect of the use of one medium (orality rather than
silent reading) or two semiotic systems (text and image or text and dance)
in terms of empathy, creativity and social impact. The case studies in this
part explore readers’ aesthetic experiences, based on various experiments
that offer new insights into which senses are solicited when we engage
with art.
The part opens with a chapter by Willie van Peer and Anna Chesnokova
entitled “‘The Sound Must Seem an Echo to the Sense’: Experiencing
Oral and Silent Reading of Poetry”. The authors focus on the oral and
social nature of poetry and the way in which reading a poem aloud
engages with our senses, a relatively unexplored domain in stylistics. In
order to better understand how reading aloud a poem may affect us emotionally, van Peer and Chesnokova present the results of two experiments
in which respondents read two poems aloud or in silence. In the first
experiment, respondents read “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good
Night” by Dylan Thomas (1951) and “Do Not Stand at My Grave and
Weep” by Mary Elisabeth Frye (1932) either silently or aloud and
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L. Pillière and S. Sorlin
registered their cognitive, aesthetic, emotional, social, musical and sensual reactions. A second experiment was carried out on “I Wish You Were
Here” by Joseph Brodsky (2002). The results of the experiments revealed
that while silently reading a poem presented similar results for all three
poems, reading a poem aloud, giving sense to the poet’s words, produced
statistically significant differences to the emotional responses of the
readers.
Polina Gavin’s chapter “Creative Writing Practice of Ekphrastic
Intervention: A Case Study of Literary Responses to A Blind Girl Reading
by Ejnar Nielsen” studies how the mind perceives and enacts with visual
art through ekphrasis, a creative literary response to the image. Using a
corpus of 21 literary responses to the painting A Blind Girl Reading
(1905) by the Danish artist Ejnar Nielsen, written by authors with varying levels of expertise, Gavin seeks to reveal the strategies used by authors
when formulating their sensorial response to artwork. To do so, she uses
a methodology that combines Text World Theory with the theoretical
framework of visual grammar (Kress and van Leeuwen 2021). Pope’s
(1995) concept of intervention is a third approach that enables Gavin to
investigate whether the literary text is an adaptation closely aligned with
the base text (textual intervention); whether a connection is maintained
with the base textworld scene but explores it in a different setting (contextual intervention) or whether there is a deliberate shift onto a different
text (cross-textual intervention). Examples from the corpus are analysed
stylistically from the perspective of Pope’s threefold structure, and the
identified patterns of ekphrastic intervention are viewed in terms of readerly experience.
The fourth part, and the volume, close with Jean-Rémi Lapaire’s chapter entitled “Putting Some Flesh on Sensory Language: An Experiential
Approach to Style”. In his chapter, Lapaire investigates how embodied
learning techniques can be used to process sensory imagery found in
works of literature, and specifically the writings of Virginia Woolf.
Woolf ’s writings frequently refer to “moments of being”, heightened
instances of sensory perception which are given concrete physical existence or “conceptual reification” (Lapaire 2016). At such moments, body
and mind are intertwined and the boundaries between sensory and
thought experience become blurred. Woolf herself thus challenges the
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Introduction: Enacting Style and Sense(s)
15
division between perception and conception. Lapaire demonstrates how
in a physical reading scenario participants are able to translate their initial
reading experience of such moments into gesture and movement, physically exploring the sensations and images of the written text. The traditional act of textual interpretation which in teaching is usually transmitted
through writing, is thus expanded and transformed into “a physical
thinking space” (Lapaire, this volume), enabling students to engage differently with a text in powerful and innovative ways.
The chapters in this volume, celebrating 40 years of stylistic conferences around the world, all give pride of place to sense and senses. Each
in its separate way investigates how body and mind are inextricably interwoven, how emotions are both conveyed and perceived, how impressions, thoughts and worldviews are induced by a certain style, a certain
structure, a certain word, revisiting the notion of mindstyle in the wake
of the enactivist approach. We hope that their varied approaches and new
perspectives will encourage further research in this domain.
References
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Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. 2009. Tomorrow Is Too Far. In The Thing Around
Your Neck, 187–197. London: Fourth Estate.
Brodsky, Joseph. 2002. Collected Poems, 248–347. New York: Farrar, Straus
and Giroux.
Caracciolo, Marco. 2022. Slow Narrative and Nonhuman Materialities. Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press.
Conrad, Joseph. 1897. Preface, The Nigger of the “Narcissus”. London:
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Frye, Mary Elizabeth. 1932. Do Not Stand at My Grave and Weep. Poemhunter.
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do-­not-­stand-­at-­my-­grave-­and-­weep/.
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Pope, Rob. 1995. Textual Intervention: Critical and Creative Strategies for Literary
Studies. London: Routledge.
Popova, Yanna. 2015. Stories, Meaning, and Experience. New York: Routledge.
Roy, Sumana. 2017. How I Became a Tree. New Delhi: Aleph.
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Part I
The Representation of Sense and
Sense-making in Fiction
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