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PALGRAVE STUDIES ON GLOBAL POLICY AND
CRITICAL FUTURES IN EDUCATION
Dark Academe
Capitalism, Theory, and the Death Drive
in Higher Education
Jeffrey R. Di Leo
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Palgrave Studies on Global Policy and Critical
Futures in Education
Series Editors
Michael Thomas
Liverpool John Moores University
Liverpool, UK
Jeffrey R. Di Leo
University of Houston-Victoria
Victoria, TX, USA
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This transdisciplinary series investigates developments in the field of education in the age of neoliberalism, interrogating arguments and evidence
for and against it as well as envisioning alternative educational futures.
While much has been written about neoliberalism a key aim of the series is
to explore and develop critical perspectives on how neoliberal and corporatist approaches have changed and impacted on educational institutions
across all sectors, from schools to higher education, across the globe. The
series engages with academics, researchers, curriculum developers, teachers, students and policy makers and provokes them to consider how neoliberal trends and values are affecting the direction of our educational
institutions. Comparative studies with the US in particular as well as other
prominent national and international contexts that have promoted these
values will be encouraged alongside the UK, Australia and EU to identify
the implications of recent policies, strategies and values on teaching, learning and research. Posing important questions and developing a critique
around the need for evidence lies at the center of the series, which invites
responses from advocates and proponents alike in order to shape an agenda
which looks forward to making an impact on policy making. The series
brings together a critical mass of evidence and aims to foster critical understanding and to understand the influence of neoliberal thinking on education in order to articulate alternative futures at this crucial moment when
many professionals are deeply concerned about the developments taking place.
To submit a proposal, please contact the editors or commissioning editor:
Michael Thomas: m.thomas@ljmu.ac.uk and Jeffrey R. Di Leo: dileo@
symploke.org
Milana Vernikova: Commissioning Editor, milana.vernikova@palgrave-­
usa.com
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Jeffrey R. Di Leo
Dark Academe
Capitalism, Theory, and the Death Drive
in Higher Education
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Foreword
By rotting, the university can still do a lot of damage (rotting is a symbolic
mechanism—not political but symbolic, therefore subversive for us). But
for this to be the case it is necessary to start with this very rotting, and not
to dream of resurrection. It is necessary to transform this rotting into a
violent process, into violent death, through mockery and defiance, through
a multiplied simulation that would offer the ritual of the death of the university as a model of decomposition to the whole of society, a contagious
model of the disaffection of a whole social structure, where death would
finally make its ravages, which the strike tries desperately to avert, in complicity with the system, but succeeds, on top of it all, only in transforming
the university into a slow death, a delay that is not even the possible site of
a subversion, of an offensive reversion.
—Jean Baudrillard, “The Spiraling Cadaver” (1981)1
Note
1. Jean Baudrillard, “The Spiraling Cadaver [1981],” in Simulacra and
Simulation, trans. Sheila Faria Glaser (Ann Arbor: The University of
Michigan Press, 1994), 150–151.
v
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Praise for Dark Academe
“It has become difficult to separate the attack on higher education from a frontal
attack on democracy itself. Jeffrey Di Leo takes up this theme with unparalleled
insight while providing a broad and brilliant context and theoretical framework for
understanding and addressing it. And he does so with a prose that is lyrical, poetic,
and engagingly disarming. Dark Academe is a brilliant and urgent book that could
not appear at a more important time in our history. Every educator, student, cultural worker, and anyone concerned about the fate of the academy in dark times
should read this book.”
—Henry A. Giroux, Professor for Scholarship in the Public Interest
and Paulo Freire Distinguished Scholar in Critical Pedagogy,
McMaster University (Canada)
“With fierce honesty, and making use of the latest conceptual tools, such as infrastructure analysis, Dark Academe carves out a new area for critique, political and
social action, and acute self-reflection. Written in an accessible, crisp, and moving
style, Di Leo’s study is ground-breaking and serious, inescapable for all who would
seek to survive ‘the death of the university’ (the title of the book’s final chapter) to
access a new beginning for critical thinking in the human species.”
—Daniel T. O’Hara, Professor of English and Mellon Professor of Humanities,
Temple University (USA)
“‘Be afraid, be very afraid.’ Jeffrey R. Di Leo, one of the keenest observers of the
contemporary university, takes us on a rollicking dystopian ride in Dark Academe
from Protagoras to Popper to Baudrillard and Berlant. Few people can equal Di
Leo in his theoretical range, but he also writes from the perspective not of the cosseted Ivy League but of those who fight in the trenches of our public universities,
where the vast majority of American students learn and their professors teach. For
Di Leo, the neoliberal academy is a dark and paranoid place, and our fears are not
misplaced, but they can be enlightening.”
—Paul Allen Miller, Carolina Distinguished Professor of Classics
and Comparative Literature, University of South Carolina (USA), and
Distinguished Guest Professor of English,
Ewha Woman’s University (Korea)
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“In an uncompromising account of the ideological forces strangling higher education, Jeffrey Di Leo names the enemies of academia with clarity and fervor. Living
in dark times, with racist and fascists horizons proliferating, and nostalgic yearnings for humanist times that never were, Di Leo turns to theory and critique’s
most generative tools to unsettle the grounds of the neoliberal academy. In this
bold defense of democratic education and critical citizenship, Di Leo not only
marshals literary and cultural theory as a counter to the life-draining forces of dark
academe, he also reenergizes theory, so often maligned from within and without
academia, infusing it with a new purpose. Dark Academe is an unabashed testimony to theory’s resilience and indispensability.”
—Zahi Zalloua, Cushing Eells Professor of Philosophy
and Literature, Whitman College (USA)
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Contents
1 Introduction 1
Dark Fashion 3
The Dark Ages of Academe 5
Dark Control 10
Dark Humanities 11
The Measure Is Man 13
Humanism and Antihumanism 16
Man Is Not the Measure 17
Conclusion 21
2 Dark Infrastructure 29
The Lifeworld of Structure 31
Infrastructure, Failure, and Neoliberal Academe 35
Theory in Dark Times 40
Conclusion 44
3 Are
All Professors Paranoid? 47
The Scope of Paranoia in Higher Education 49
Critical Paranoia 55
Conclusion 60
xi
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xii
Contents
4 Affective Education 67
Pandemic as a Strong Theory of Academe 71
Labor as a Strong Theory of Academe 75
Conclusion 80
5 Academic Racism 87
Race, Tenure, and Academe 89
Race, Critique, and the Fear of Theory 92
Critical Race Theorists as Bare Life 96
Neoliberal Sell-Outs 98
Conclusion 100
6 An
Epistemology of Ignorance107
A Dangerous Creed 109
On False Epistemology 113
The Secularization of a Religious Superstition 119
Antitheory and the Open Society 123
Conclusion 126
7 Ugly Theory133
Stealing Theory 134
Intersectional Identity Politics 136
Racist Identity Politics 142
The Theory Toolbox 144
Conclusion 147
8 The
Pleasure of Cynicism153
Cynical Austerity 154
Cynical Controversialism 157
Cynical Hedonism 163
Conclusion 170
9 Let
it Be Your Dread175
Fear, Dread, and Angst 177
The Dread of Neoliberalism 179
Dread in the Classroom 184
Conclusion 188
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Contents xiii
10 The
Death of the University193
Death and Symbolic Exchange 194
Birth of the Death Drive 198
The Dialectics of Death 200
Radicalizing Death 203
Death After Capitalism 207
Conclusion 210
11 Coda219
Bibliography227
Index243
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About the Author
Jeffrey R. Di Leo is Professor of English and Philosophy at the University
of Houston-Victoria. He is editor and founder of the critical theory journal symploke˦, editor-in-chief of the American Book Review, and Executive
Director of the Society for Critical Exchange and its Winter Theory
Institute. His books include Morality Matters: Race, Class and Gender in
Applied Ethics (2002), Affiliations: Identity in Academic Culture (2003),
On Anthologies: Politics and Pedagogy (2004), If Classrooms Matter:
Progressive Visions of Educational Environments (2004, with W. Jacobs),
From Socrates to Cinema: An Introduction to Philosophy (2007), Fiction’s
Present: Situating Contemporary Narrative Innovation (2008, with
R. M. Berry), Federman’s Fictions: Innovation, Theory, and the Holocaust
(2010), Academe Degree Zero: Reconsidering the Politics of Higher
Education (2012), Neoliberalism, Education, and Terrorism: Contemporary
Dialogues (2013, with H. Giroux, K. Saltman, and S. McClennen),
Corporate Humanities in Higher Education: Moving Beyond the Neoliberal
Academy (2013), Turning the Page: Book Culture in the Digital Age
(2014), Criticism after Critique: Aesthetics, Literature, and the Political
(2014), The New Public Intellectual: Politics, Theory, and the Public Sphere
(2016, with P. Hitchcock), Dead Theory: Death, Derrida, and the Afterlife
of Theory (2016), Higher Education under Late Capitalism: Identity,
Conduct and the Neoliberal Condition (2017), American Literature as
World Literature (2017), The Debt Age (2018, with P. Hitchcock and
S. McClennen), Bloomsbury Handbook of Literary and Cultural Theory
xv
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xvi
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
(2018), The End of American Literature: Essays from the Late Age of Print
(2019), Biotheory: Life and Death under Capitalism (2020, with
P. Hitchcock), What’s Wrong with Antitheory? (2020), Philosophy as World
Literature (2020), Vinyl Theory (2020), Catastrophe and Higher
Education: Neoliberalism, Theory and the Future of the Humanities (2020),
Happiness (2022), Contemporary Literary and Cultural Theory: An
Overview (2023), and Selling the Humanities (2023).
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction
In its most basic sense, dark academe is simply a term that can be used to
refer to higher education carried out in dark times in support of dreadful
ends. In the twentieth century, for example, there was no darker period for
academe than the militarization of higher education in Nazi Germany.
During this period, says Professor A. Wolf in Higher Education in Nazi
Germany: Or Education for World-Conquest (1944),
[m]ilitary instruction and indoctrination with Nazi ideas form the major
portion of university education. “Every subject,” says a Nazi authority,
“should be treated as applied politics”—that is to say, Nazi politics, of
course. All students have to attend certain courses of lectures on military
subjects and Nazi racial, socio-logical, and political theories. Moreover, all
courses of lectures are impregnated with Nazi views. Like the professors and
the students many subjects of study have been put into military uniforms.
“Physics,” “Chemistry,” “Biology,” “Medicine,” “Hygiene,” etc. now
appear as “War-Physics,” “War-Chemistry,” “War-Biology,” “War-­
Medicine,” “War-Hygiene,” and so on.1
But to term this period of higher education in Germany dark academe
does not exhaust its meaning. Nor does it imply that all variations of the
term need to be associated with world conquest, fascism, and war. Rather,
its use here in the context of higher education in Nazi Germany is merely
to point out one of the more extreme and obvious connotations of the
1
J. R. Di Leo, Dark Academe, Palgrave Studies on Global Policy
and Critical Futures in Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-56351-5_1
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2
J. R. DI LEO
term—and to start the process of thinking through the range of meanings
associable with dark academe.
In the twenty-first century, or what we call the new millennium, it is
tempting to solely identify dark academe with the dark times that neoliberalism has brought about in higher education. From the corporatization
of higher education and the recalibration of academic identity to the fear
associated with student debt, continuous surveillance, and obsessive managerialism, neoliberal academe has become a veritable house of horrors.
And though the horrors of neoliberal academe in the twenty-first century
fall short of Wolf’s description of the universities of Berlin, Halle,
Heidelberg, and Tübingen wherein there was “the atmosphere of military
camps,” and “[m]ost of the students were in uniform, [and] so where
many of the teachers,”2 this is little consolation to the students, faculty,
and staff that are currently living—and dying—through a very dark period
in the history of higher education.
The recent COVID-19 pandemic has amplified the resiliency of neoliberalism in higher education. This situation has left many scrambling for
ways to deal with the rising paranoia and dread associated with job insecurity, changing teaching conditions, and threats to academic freedom.
Challenges to longstanding affirmative action3 and diversity, equity, and
inclusion (DEI)4 initiatives have given new life to racism, elitism, and
homophobia in higher education. While higher education in America has
not yet hit its darkest hour, many fear that it will soon be upon us.
Borrowing from Wolf, dark academe today might be described as follows:
[F]ree-market instruction and indoctrination with neoliberal ideas form the
major portion of university education. “Every subject,” says a neoliberal-­
education authority, “should be treated as applied economics”—that is to say,
neoliberal economics, of course. All students have to attend certain courses of
lectures on free-market subjects and neoliberal racial, socio-logical, and
political theories. Moreover, all courses of lectures are impregnated with
neoliberal views. Like the professors and the students many subjects of study
have been put into free-market uniforms. “Physics,” “Chemistry,” “Biology,”
“Medicine,” “Hygiene,” etc. now appear as “late capitalist Physics,” “late
capitalist Chemistry,” “late capitalist Biology,” “late capitalist Medicine,”
“late capitalist Hygiene,” and so on.
In short, dark academe in the new millennium can be summarized by
evoking its semantic and systemic parallels with the nadir of dark academe
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1
INTRODUCTION
3
in the previous century. To do so is a reminder that we must always strive
to not allow higher education to become complicit in repeating the horrific legacies of Nazism, fascism, and totalitarianism.
Dark Fashion
While it is important to continuously think of dark academe in view of
Nazi, fascist, and neoliberal higher education, none of them accurately
depicts the contemporary genealogy of the term. Rather, there is another
source to its use today. It is one that is located in the reading practices of
a particular demographic. Specifically, Generation Z—the designation for
young people who were born between 1997 and 2012.5 These so-called
Zoomers, who currently number nearly 68 million in the US alone,6 widely
have in common an extensive knowledge of one particular academy, and
the life and adventures of its most celebrated student.
The academy, of course, is “Hogwarts,” and the student, who is perhaps
the most well-known of the new millennium, is “Harry Potter.” J. K. Rowling,
the creator of this student and his academy, has sold more than half a billion
Harry Potter novels7—and her influence only continues to grow. However,
over a decade and a half after the release of the seventh and final installment
in her series—Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows (2007)—its impact is
not just measured in the sale and readership of her books worldwide.8 Or
even in viewership of the films or the purchase of trinkets based on them.
Rather, her influence now includes the generative role her work has played
in dark academe, an aesthetic style that has cast a powerful spell over Gen-Z.9
While the Age of Bookstores seems like ancient history now that the
rise of Amazon and ebooks have brought them to the brink of extinction,
Rowling’s success was in large part achieved in the twilight years of the
bricks and mortar bookstore. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, bookstores would often organize midnight parties to celebrate the release of
new titles in the series. Scholastic, the publisher of the Harry Potter series,
would even supply these bookstores with midnight-party event-kits complete with lightning-bolt tattoos.10 These things were only possible at a
time when books were primarily sold from shelves in bookstores—and the
thrill of lining up for the release of a new book was on the same par as
standing in queue at midnight for the release of an album, movie, or concert tickets.
It has been said that if all the printed copies of Harry Potter books ever
sold were placed end to end, they would go around the equator over 16
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4
J. R. DI LEO
times. In the US alone, Book 4 in the series (Harry Potter and the Goblet
of Fire), which was published in 2000, sold 3 million copies in the first
weekend of sales; Book 6 (Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince), published in 2005, sold 6.9 copies in the first 24 hours; and Book 7, the final
book in the series, published in 2007, sold 8.3 million copies on the first
day of its release. The initial print run of this last title was a mind-boggling
12 million copies. Moreover, in just the US, more than 180 million copies
of this children’s book have been sold.11 So many copies of these books
were supplied to big-box bookstores that customers would often be
greeted upon entry to them by a Harry Potter book monster: a huge stack
of these books on display which was impossible to miss when one first
entered the store.
In 2016 it was estimated that 37 percent of children in the US at the
time had read a Harry Potter book, and that almost 50 percent of children
aged 15–17 had read one.12 Moreover, it has often been said that Harry
Potter has increased literacy among children.13 For example, one survey of
parents resulted in 85 percent of them stating that reading these books led
their child to want to read more frequently, and 76 percent said that reading Harry Potter books helped them in school.14 But what studies do not
show is the connection between reading Harry Potter books and the
explosion today of what has come to be known as dark academe—an aesthetic that is often linked back to the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and
Wizardry.
Dark academe is huge on social media today. #darkacademia has 13,000
videos and 4000 channels on YouTube, 2.2 million posts on Instagram,
and 4.6 billion views on TikTok.15 In addition, Google reports that
searches for “Dark Academia” have increased 4750 percent. According to
the first ever Instagram Trend Report, which bills itself as a “guide to the
upcoming next-gen trends defined by Gen-Z that will shape culture in the
next year,” 50 percent of teens and young adults in 2022 were going to be
trying “Dark Academia” as a “bold fashion.”16 Described as a form of
“maximalist fashion” and “alt-fashion,” the survey17 contends that dark-­
academia fashion will reach its peak by the end of the year.
In contrast to “athleisure fashion,” a hybrid of athletic wear and leisure
wear worn in the gym, workplace, and other settings, dark academia as
fashion might be characterized as what you would wear if you attended or
worked at the fictional Hogwarts School: blazers, cardigans, Oxford shoes,
and shirts. The color palate of dark-academe fashion consists primarily of
beige, black, browns, dark green, and white—with navy blue thrown in for
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1
INTRODUCTION
5
some spice and variety. And all-the-better if this clothing and these colors
come in tweed, houndstooth, or plaid.
But dark-academe fashion is also associated with the type of clothing
worn in the 1930s and 1940s at prestigious preps schools, colleges, and
universities such as Oxford University and Cambridge University in the
UK, and the Ivy League universities in the US.18 Ironically, this is the same
period when in Germany university students were making another dark-­
academe fashion statement by wearing their military uniforms to class.
Nevertheless, why teens are all of a sudden gravitating toward slow-drying
tweeds rather than dry-fit t-shirts is a question that involves not only associations and imagery drawn from the ubiquitous middle-school narratives
of Rowling but also an entire genre of fiction that is set in elite institutions
of learning. Along with the Rowling’s narratives, this other genre of fiction establishes two differing ideological paths for the fictional roots of the
dark-academe aesthetic. Let’s now look at each these two “ages” of dark
academe a bit closer.
The Dark Ages of Academe
The novelist Amy Gentry argues that the fiction of dark academia is a new
form of the campus novel.19 For her, it goes back to the publication of
Donna Tartt’s The Secret History (1992), which shifted the focus of the
campus thriller from “sleuthing professors and students—often working-­
class outsiders struggling with imposter syndrome among posh classmates” to “a coming-of-age tale.”20 In this new form of campus thriller,
Tartt “harnessed the intensity and volatility of young-adult relationships,”
says Gentry, “suggesting that the Dostoevskian combo of hormones and
heady intellectualism could turn deadly.”21
But the impact of Tartt’s novel on the campus thriller was not immediate. It would only be many years later that a group of writers who grew up
“worshipping” The Secret History began to imitate it in their own work.
For Gentry, the foundational text of the “gothic, bookish online aesthetic”
of dark academe is not Harry Potter, but rather The Secret History, which
was published five years before the first volume in Rowling’s series.22 “We
are now living, belatedly,” writes Gentry, “in the [A]ge of Tartt.”23
For Gentry, the “belatedness” of the Age of Tartt is because the first
novels that clearly were influenced by the Secret History appeared over a
decade after the publication of the novel. Both Tana French’s The Secret
Place (2014), which is set in a boarding school where four young girls
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6
J. R. DI LEO
discover a secret power that sets them apart from other students in the
school, and James Tate Hill’s Academy Gothic (2014), where an amateur
detective discovers the dean dead under his desk, are the first wave of the
Age of Tartt. The latter novel is set on the gothic campus of Parshall
College, which is annually ranked by US News and World Report as
“Worst Value” in education. For Gentry, these characteristics move it from
the more commonplace category of academic satire to the less common
category of dark academia.24
Then, three years after the publication of Academy Gothic and The
Secret Place—and a dozen years after The Secret History—there was an outpouring of dark-academia fiction that continues today. It includes,
M. L. Rio’s If We Were Villains (2017), Ruth Ware’s The Lying Game
(2017), Megan Abbott’s Give Me Your Hand (2018), Leigh Bardugo’s
Ninth House (2019), Rebecca Dinerstein Knight’s Hex (2019), Susan
Choi’s Trust Exercise (2019), Nina Revoyr’s A Student of History (2019),
Mona Awad’s Bunny (2019), Lisa Lutz’s The Swallows (2019), J. T. Ellison’s
Good Girls Lie (2019), Kate Weinberg’s The Truants (2019), Susie Yang’s
White Ivy (2019), Elisabeth Thomas’s Catherine House (2020), Kate
Elizabeth Russell’s My Dark Vanessa (2020), Micah Nemerever’s These
Violent Delights (2020), Layne Fargo’s They Never Learn (2020), David
Hopen’s The Orchard (2021), Laurie Elizabeth Flynn’s The Girls Are So
Nice Here (2021), Ashley Winstead’s In My Dreams I Hold a Knife (2021),
David Bell’s Kill All Your Darlings (2021), and Gentry’s Bad Habits
(2021).25
In Bad Habits, Gentry says that she “checks the boxes” of the elements
of dark-academia fiction established by both Tartt and those that follow in
her path.26 These elements include “a fish-out-of-water protagonist from
a hardscrabble background,” “a charismatic professor who inspires cultish
devotion in her students,” “a gothic campus with lots of gargoyles,” and
“as much sex and drinking as studying.”27 But Gentry checks one more
box regarding the fiction of dark academia: it is socially and politically
progressive. According to her, all of the novels listed above including her
own “reckon frankly with sexual harassment and abuse, class disparities,
homophobia, and systemic racism.”28 This additional element of the dark-­
academic fiction is important because many have characterized it as reactionary: a genre of fiction that fetishizes assimilation, gender normativity,
and whiteness.
One of the ways of distancing dark academe from reactionary views has
been to distance it from Rowling, who has become identified of late with
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1
INTRODUCTION
7
the view that discussions of gender identity negate biological sex.29 In
2020, for example, she posted a series of anti-trans tweets, and in 2022 she
used social media to oppose Scotland’s Gender Recognition Reform Bill.
The bill would allow a trans person to receive a new birth certificate with
their correct gender. “The law Nicola Sturgeon’s trying to pass in
Scotland,” posted Rowling on Twitter, “will harm the most vulnerable
women in society: those seeking help after male violence/rape and incarcerated women.”30 “Statistics show,” she continued, “that imprisoned
women are already far more likely to have been previously abused.”31
Her disagreement with Sturgeon, the First Minister of Scotland, has
been international news—one that because of Rowling’s association with
dark academe unintentionally casts a reactionary shadow over it. The
Gender Recognition Reform Bill, said Sturgeon, “doesn’t give trans people any more rights, doesn’t give trans people one single additional right
that they don’t have right now.”32 “Nor does it take away from women,”
he continues, “any of the current existing rights that women have under
the Equalities Act.”33 But it has not just been Sturgeon who has spoken
out about Rowling’s beliefs about gender and anti-trans positions. So too
have some of the stars from the movie adaptations of her dark-­academe,
middle-school, book series. For example, Daniel Radcliffe, who plays
Harry Potter in the film adaptations, wrote in response to Rowling’s views:
“[T]ransgender women are women.”34 “Any statement to the contrary,”
he continued, “erases the identity and dignity of transgender people and
goes against all advice given by professional health care associations who
have far more expertise on this than either Jo [Rowling] or I.”35
To be sure, association of dark academe with Rowling may be accurate.
Nevertheless, for many, it is not politically correct. If you want your dark
academe to be progressive, then it serves your social and political interest
to locate its foundations in the Age of Tartt. However, if you are reactionary and want your political beliefs to mirror the fictional foundations of
your dark academe, then you would be best to set it in the Age of Rowling.
Nonetheless, in spite of their ideological differences, both the Age of
Rowling and the Age of Tartt offer a similar color and fashion aesthetic.
“The first time I read Donna Tartt’s The Secret History,” writes a student
at the University of Sydney in her student newspaper, “my daydreams
were haunted by the woolen plaid blazers and wire-rimmed spectacles of
dark academia for some time afterwards.”36 But, the student, Ezara
Norton, also says that what interested her “was not just the colour palette
and textures, but the base thirst for knowledge free of concern for
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8
J. R. DI LEO
employment prospects or grades.”37 “It was so contrary to my own studies,” continues Norton, “dictated by exams and assignments where it
seemed my marks would determine both my future and my personal
worth.”38
Norton’s remarks go on to reveal one of the reasons that some say
accounts for the rise of dark academe of late. “The shutdown of in-person
teaching and shift to online learning models,” writes Norton, “renewed
passion for seeking knowledge and learning for the sake of it.”39 For this
student and many others, immersion into the dark-academe aesthetic is a
form of escape from neoliberal academe. Dark academe, both in its reactionary and progressive formations, affords us the opportunity to immerse
ourselves in an academic environment where knowledge can be pursued
without considerations of its market value or career impact. Moreover, the
rise of dark academia during the COVID-19 pandemic might be attributed to the loss of more traditional spaces of learning—and the desire to
once again participate in them.
Thus, whether it is a desire to pursue knowledge outside of its formation in neoliberal academe or to return to campus and a more traditional
classroom setting, dark academe has been working overtime in the production of youth fantasy of late. That 50 percent of teens and young adults
wanted to dress as if both the COVID-19 pandemic and neoliberal academe were over (when in fact both were still in full force) speaks to not
only the deep value of education in our society but also the need for it to
be conducted the right way. Still, dark academe provides conflicting portraits of what conducting education the right way means.
For those who enter dark academe in the Age of Rowling, it has come
to involve a belief in the power of magic solutions and righteous battles.
“A generation of Harry Potter-loving children,” writes Gentry, “were
raised on the idea that a perfect combination of heart, ancient birthright,
and excellent study skills dispatch any villain.”40 Yet, what if those villains
are neoliberalism, elitism, and homophobia? Or sexual harassment and
abuse, class disparities, and systemic racism? The socio-political landscape
has changed a great deal since Rowling began writing her series in the late
1980s. For one thing, identity politics has been replaced by a performative
politics that is much more responsive to the needs and interests of the
LGBTQ+ community. And critical race theory has shown the damage that
privilege and elitism enacts on the BIPOC community.
For some, the Age of Rowling leaves us unequipped to deal with the
villains we are battling today. In fact, given her recent anti-trans positions,
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1
INTRODUCTION
9
Rowling’s version of dark academe has, for some, become the real villain:
a villain that fetishizes assimilation, gender normativity, and whiteness.
But as one vision of dark academe closes the door to progressive politics,
another has been opened by the dark-academic descendants of Tartt. The
Age of Tartt is one where there is no magic solution to the problems facing society. It is also one where there are no righteous warriors fighting
battles against society’s villains. Rather, as Gentry points out, dark academe in the Age of Tartt is one populated by antiheroes, revenge schemes,
and vigilantes. It is a world where never-ending guerilla warfare is waged
against villains—villains that include some of the nastiest and most resilient ones of all such as racism, gender normativity, and neoliberalism.
Still, in spite of the differences in the ideology of their aesthetic, dark
academe in the Age of Rowling and the Age of Tartt offer “the promise of
a fantasy of control, of mastery of the canon, and most importantly,”
writes Amanda Horgan, “of already being special.”41 For Horgan, a British
philosopher, dark academe is not about education transforming you.
Rather, dark academe “offers the illusion of already having been transformed.”42 For her, it might be described as “ersatz Romanticism,” which
offers “feelings of coziness and specialness.”43 Thus, for Horgan, dark academia is dangerous because it negates education and learning. “Learning,”
she argues, “relies on letting go of the idea of your own specialness, of
being open to the possibility of being transformed, together.”44 If Horgan
is accurate in her accounting of the underlying cultural assumptions about
the attraction of dark academe to Gen-Z, then all of those young people
who are using #darkacademe on social media do not believe in the transformative power of academe. For them, education and learning are nothing more or less than this year’s hottest fashion—one whose real power is
its capacity to generate billions of views under the dark-academe hashtag
on TikTok and Instagram. And just what is it that is viewed on the majority of these dark academia platforms? Answer: “[W]hite, thin, middle-­
class, cis women,” says the British sociologist, Sarah Burton.45
While these two ideologies of dark academe give academics something
to think about the next time they consider wearing a tweed skirt or houndstooth jacket to campus, they are not going to drive many to post their
faculty-meeting fashions on TikTok. Nor are they going to sit well with
those who still believe in the transformative power of critical education. A
key part of this critical education is the recognition that We live in a control
society and that “Mastery of the canon” is not possible. The former comes via
the critical theory of Gilles Deleuze and the latter via the Culture Wars
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that reshaped the humanities. Let’s look at each in turn for a different
perspective on the “promises” of dark academe offered in the Ages of
Rowling and Tartt.
Dark Control
Regarding “the promise of a fantasy of control,” Gilles Deleuze argues the
disciplinary societies of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that
Michel Foucault “brilliantly analyzed” were “vast spaces of enclosure.”46
“The individual never ceases passing from one closed environment to
another,” comments Deleuze of these enclosures, “each has its own laws:
first, the family; then the school (‘you are longer in your family’); then the
barracks (‘you are no longer at school’); then the factory; from time to
time the hospital; possibly the prison, the preeminent instance of the
enclosed environment.”47 Foucault, comments Deleuze, saw the enclosures of disciplinary society as a way “to concentrate; to distribute in space;
to order in time; to compose a productive force within the dimension of
space-time whose effect will be greater than the sum of its component
forces.”48 They marked a transition from the goal and functions of societies of sovereignty that were “to tax rather than organize production to
rule on death rather than administer life.”49
But for Deleuze, the “interiors” of disciplinary society underwent a
crisis that accelerated at a rapid pace after World War II. For him, the
prison, hospital, factory, family, and school endured a crisis of interiority.
In spite of many efforts to reform these interiors, “everyone knows that
these institutions are finished, whatever the life of their expiration periods.”50 “These are the societies of control,” writes Deleuze, “which are in
the process of replacing disciplinary societies.”51 As such, for Deleuze,
control society is currently in the process of replacing the prison, hospital,
factory, family, and school of disciplinary society—interiorities with their
own set of laws.
The shift from disciplinary society to control society ultimately concerns a fundamental change in social and political power. For Michael
Hardt, Deleuze’s political philosophy also amounts to a shift in focus from
civil society to post-civil society. Whereas for early moderns such as Hobbes
(and Rousseau), the distinction between the state of nature and the civil
state, that is, between natural and civil society, was fundamental to the
political order, by Hegel’s time the focus shifted to a different dualism,
namely, to civil society and political society.52 As Hardt sees it, Deleuze’s
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1 INTRODUCTION
11
notion of control society is “a first attempt to understand the decline of
the rule of civil society and the rise of a new form of control.”53 Instead of
disciplinary enclosures, comments Hardt, where the “coordinated striations formed by the institutions of civil society branch out through social
space in structured networks” for Deleuze “like the tunnels of a mole,”54
we need to move to a new animal to characterize societies of control: the
snake, whose “infinite undulations” characterize for Deleuze “the smooth
space of the societies of control.”55 “Instead of disciplining the citizen as a
fixed social identity,” writes Hardt, “the new social regime seeks to control
the citizen as a whatever identity, or rather an infinitely flexible placeholder
of identity.”56
From the perspective of control society, the fears about the crisis lead to
the increased use of surveillance technologies in a futile effort to end the
crisis. In this regard, there is a similarity among schools, hospitals, prisons,
corporations, and other institutions that turn to surveillance technologies
as a response to fear and anxiety regarding their respective institutional
crises. But as we know very well in the case of universities, no amount of
student and faculty surveillance is going to end the crises facing the university under late capitalism. In fact, they often intensify the problems.57
Not only do surveillance technologies not provide the desired type of control; they also hasten the demise of the university. As such, contra Rowling
and Tartt, in the dark academe of Deleuze, there is no promise of a fantasy
of control. Rather, academic life in control society is one where fear, anxiety, and institutional crisis dominate. In short, control society is hastening
the death of the university, and the fantasy of control over its impending
demise only remains with readers of fiction writers like Rowling and Tartt.
Dark Humanities
Critical consideration of the second promise of dark academe in the Ages
of Rowling and Tartt, namely, mastery of the canon, calls for us to revisit
the Culture Wars that reshaped the humanities. One of the surprising consequences of these Culture Wars is that in spite of all of acrimony that they
produced, public attitudes toward the humanities today appear to be
favorable. We know this because the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences recently conducted “the first nationally representative survey
dedicated to understanding Americans’ engagement with and attitudes
towards the humanities.”58 The academy asked just over five-thousand
people “what they believe the humanities contribute to the American
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12
J. R. DI LEO
experience,” and how often they “engage in different humanities
activities.”59
One of the major findings was that 85 percent of Americans responded
favorably to the term humanities. Moreover, most of the adults surveyed
wished they had taken more humanities courses in school and believe that
“the humanities confer personal, societal, and economic benefits.”60 There
was also strong support for teaching humanities in the schools. In short,
the overall conclusion from this survey is that Americans have a favorable
impression of the humanities and support humanities education. So why
then does the humanities appear to be experiencing dark times? Why, for
example, has the number of undergraduate majors in the humanities been
in steep decline in the US since the 2008 financial crisis? Many departments have seen their enrollment decrease in excess of 50 percent with the
average decline in the neighborhood of 25–30 percent from its peak.
There are several major lines of argument that have been put forward
regarding this decrease.
The first, and perhaps most often stated one, is the Taxi-Driver
Argument: majoring in the humanities jeopardizes your annual salary and
job prospects. Therefore, if you want a job with a good salary, stay clear of
a humanities major. But this is a myth. While the median salary of those
with a bachelor’s degree in the humanities is about five thousand dollars
less than those with any other type of bachelor’s degree, by their mid-50s,
humanities majors are employed at similar rates to those who studied in
the professional and pre-professional fields—and make more money on
average. Nevertheless, the perception that the opposite is the case persists—especially among those who did not major in the humanities.
Another is the Welfare-State Argument: the rise in student debt and the
decrease in state and federal funding for higher education have led to
declining interest in majoring in the humanities. But if this were the case,
would it not also lead to a decrease across the board in university majors?
While the defunding of higher education and the passing along of the cost
to students is accurate, there is no reason to believe that it should disproportionately affect humanities majors. Unless, of course, the Welfare-State
Argument is combined with the Taxi-Driver Argument, which, of course,
it usually is.
The final one is the Culture-Wars Argument: there has been fifty years
of warring waged against academe in general and the humanities in particular that has resulted in a decline of interest in majoring in the humanities. But if this were true, then why did the American Academy of Arts and
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1 INTRODUCTION
13
Sciences find that Americans overwhelmingly respond favorably to the
term humanities, and that most wish they had taken more humanities
courses and believe that the humanities confer personal, societal, and economic benefits? Does this mean that the humanities won the Culture Wars
for the hearts and minds of Americans?
What this academy survey reveals is something quite different about the
humanities than the standard narrative of their demise and decline.
Namely, that the aftermath of the Culture Wars was not the devaluation of
the humanities, but rather their revaluation. For example, we know that
one of the consequences of the Culture Wars was the reinvention and
revaluation of the American Canon. Why can’t the same be claimed for the
humanities? And is this perhaps part of the reason for their public favor
today despite claims of their demise from within the academy? Let’s see.
The Measure Is Man
When the roots of humanism are traced back to ancient Greece, its starting point is the thought of a man who traveled from city to city for forty
years offering instruction for a fee. When he visited Athens, his great reputation preceded him, and the young men flocked to see him in a scene
described by Plato in his dialogue, Protagoras.
Though Plato disagreed with Protagoras of Abdera, calling him a
Sophist because he took money for teaching, he greatly respected his
thought. The cornerstone of Protagoras’s philosophy is found in the
opening line of a book that he wrote called On Truth: “Of all things the
measure is man: of existing things, that they exist; of non-existent things,
that they do not exist.”61 Unfortunately, however, the rest of On Truth has
been lost. Still, two major characteristics of humanism are quite clear from
the line that survived: first, by “man” he means the individual; and second,
by “measure” he means judge.
Consequently, at the heart of humanism is the idea that the individual
is the judge of whether a thing has a particular nature or not. So, if something appears to have a particular nature, then it has that particular nature.
In other words, for Protagoras, all beliefs are true. Thus, at the origins of
humanism is relativism, the view that no absolutes exist and that human
judgment is always conditioned by a number of factors including our personal biases and beliefs.
What is immediately striking here is the opposition of Protagoras’s
humanism to the thought of Plato and Aristotle, who would never say that
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J. R. DI LEO
something is true just because we believe it to be true. Plato believed that
the world as it appears to us is but a reflection of an ideal world: the world
of becoming (or appearances) and the world of being (or reality) are two
different things. He uses the analogy of a cave to describe the difference
between these two worlds.
In The Republic, Plato famously writes of cave-dwellers who discover
that their senses have led them to false knowledge about the world and
come to learn the impact of true knowledge and education on a person.
Plato’s general approach to knowledge is called rationalism, which means
that he believes that reason alone, without the aid of information from the
senses, is capable of arriving at knowledge. The allegory of the cave tells us
that not having true knowledge of the world is like being a person who
mistakes shadows projected on the wall of a cave to be real things. The
prisoners in the cave are akin to ordinary persons who do not know how
to distinguish appearance from reality, false beliefs from justified true
beliefs, or opinion from knowledge.
Once people are shown the source of the shadows on the cave wall,
there is no going back to a state of ignorance. While it is a painful journey
out of the cave and into the sunlight, it changes us for the rest of our lives.
When we see things for what they really are, we will not want to lack true
knowledge ever again, even if it means being the subject of ridicule.
Alluding to the trial of Socrates on the charges of impiety and corrupting
the youth of Athens, Plato adds the following touch: “As for the man who
tried to free them and lead them upward, if they could somehow lay their
hands on him and kill him, they would do so.”62
While the eyes of the student of literature and culture might glaze over
when Platonic metaphysics and epistemology are discussed, they always
open wide when he discusses both the role of art in his ideal state and the
intrinsic nature of art. Plato argues that art ought to have positive influence
on its audience, and when it does not exert this type of influence, it must
be censored. For Plato, not even the great poets of Greek antiquity are
beyond censorship. Furthermore, art is regarded as an imitation of an
imitation: something with much stronger ties to the world of appearances
than the world of reality and truth.
In The Republic, Plato explains why the censorship of art is especially
important for children, that is, those who are just forming their character
and are much more amenable to taking in the “desired impression.” He
argues that we should keep them away from stories that contain “notions
which are the very opposite of those which are to be held by them when
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1 INTRODUCTION
15
they are grown up.”63 Plato says that children “cannot judge what is allegorical and what is literal.”64 Consequently, given that literature often
does not represent things or events as they truly are, it can exert a bad
moral influence on the character development of the young. “Whenever
an erroneous representation is made of the nature of gods and heroes,”65
it must be kept away from the developing young minds in Plato’s ideal
state—even if the representation is made by Homer or Hesiod, the two
cornerstones of ancient Greek literature. In American culture, this would
be the equivalent of keeping William Shakespeare and Walt Whitman away
from school children.
This line of thought leads Plato to banish poets from his ideal state
because “the mimetic poet sets up in each individual soul a vicious constitution by fashioning phantoms far removed from reality, and by currying
favour with the senseless element that cannot distinguish the greater from
the less, but calls the same thing now one, now the other.”66 This latter
attribute of the poets, that is, calling “the same thing now one, now the
other,” is precisely one of the flaws of Protagoras’s humanism according
to Plato. For Plato, poetry has the power to corrupt; therefore, it along
with poets must be banished from the ideal state that is established by
philosophy—and ruled by a philosopher. Thus when considering the classical sources of humanism, the relativistic humanism of Protagoras stands
in opposition to the absolutist humanism of Plato. Furthermore, when
one takes into account the “quarrel” between philosophy and poetry, that
is, its role in the state and relation to truth and reality, one begins to see
that there are several very different senses of humanism.
Whereas Aristotle agrees with Plato that art is a mode of imitation
(mimesis), he disagrees with him on what art imitates as well as on its psychological and moral effects on human beings. Plato believes that art is an
imitation of an imitation, a feature that makes art far removed from truth.
Aristotle, however, contends that while art is imitation, it is not an imitation of an imitation. For him, the artist does not imitate particular characters, emotions, or actions, but rather imitates universal characters,
emotions, and actions. This places art in a closer relationship with truth,
since these universal characters, emotions, and actions are truer than particular ones. For Aristotle, art, then, is an idealization of human life, not a
direct copy. In addition, “it is not the function of the poet to relate what
has happened, but what may happen—what is possible according to the
law of probability or necessity.”67 “Poetry, therefore, is a more philosophical and a higher thing than history: for poetry tends to express the universal, history the particular.”68
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Humanism and Antihumanism
On the front lines of the Culture Wars was the battle between humanism
and antihumanism. The conservatives argued for the continuance of
humanist traditions, whereas progressives argued that they must be
replaced with antihumanist ones. The best vantage point to see this battle
unfolding was in literary and cultural theory.
Much humanist literary theory builds upon basic ideas established by
Protagoras, Plato, and Aristotle. Of particular relevance are three basic
ideas regarding the relationship of literature to morality, truth, and
emotions.
The first is that literature is a source of morality. Plato’s banishment of
the poets is an extreme position of the view that literature has a moral
dimension. More moderate positions regard some works of literature as
sources of moral improvement and others moving in the opposite direction. The latter direction raises issues of the viability of censorship as a
means of protecting society from immorality.
The second is that literature is a source of truth. Whereas Plato’s metaphysics does not allow literature access to truth, Aristotle does provide for
some type of relationship. These issues raise more general ones for humanist literary theory about the role of truth, fact, and history in literature.
And the third is that literature is related to the emotions. Whereas both
Plato and Aristotle agree that literature is related to human emotions they
disagree on the specific role. Both of these thinkers open up broader questions though about the relationship between human emotions and literature including its ability to communicate universal truths about love, joy,
empathy, fear, hatred, and pity.
As such, humanism is often associated with the centrality of morality,
emotions, and truth in literature and culture—or more broadly, human
(or better, humane) values. During the Renaissance, emphasis was placed
on a broad reading of classical thinkers, which were viewed as an antidote
to the religious authority and Scholasticism of the Middle Ages. Still, the
humanists of this period tended to be Christians. Humanism that denies
any role for religious authority, and claims that all values are human values,
is sometimes called secular humanism to distinguish it from humanism
associable with the Judeo-Christian tradition. Since the Renaissance, the
term humanism has generally signified a return to Greek sources like Plato
and Aristotle as opposed to religious authority and Scholasticism.
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1 INTRODUCTION
17
Regardless though whether the source of human value and freedom is
superhuman or secular, humanism always comes back to the individual
identified by Protagoras. The question though is whether the beliefs and
values of that individual—the human—are sourced in God, nature, or, are
of her own “measure.”
For the Romans, the Latin word humanitas referred to both the commitment to humane values and a broad education in subjects such as history, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, and moral philosophy. These subjects
would come to form part of the core of what we might call Humanities
1.0, that is, the “Old Humanities.”
The humanist conception of literary and cultural theory, which is but a
part of the greater Western tradition, is contained in classic texts from the
Greeks to the present. These texts are sometimes referred to as the Great
Books of the Western World, as they were eponymously titled in the fifty-­
four-­volume set of works ranging from Homer to Freud, famously published under the editorship of Robert Maynard Hutchins in 1952 by
Encyclopedia Britannica. Hutchins, who served as President and
Chancellor of the University of Chicago, was a fierce proponent of centering the university curriculum on these Great Books—and their Great
Conversation on perennial questions and themes.
Generally speaking, the schools and movements that more or less positively embrace and develop aspects of classical literary and cultural theory
are called humanist. They include the work associated with rhetoric,
hermeneutics, aestheticism, and new criticism, as well as the antitheory
movement, which has been epitomized by the postcritique that is now
afoot in literary and cultural studies.69 However, humanist literary theory
is not the prevailing one in the humanities today. Rather, it is the theories,
that in one way or another, embrace versions of antihumanism that are the
central ones: LGBTQ+ theory, race and justice theory, biopolitics, globalization, ecocriticism, posthumanism, affect theory, and cultural studies.
These areas and their subareas are the warp and woof of Humanities 2.0—
the humanities that now dominates in the aftermath of the Culture Wars.
Man Is Not the Measure
Humanities 2.0 focuses on the ways in which domination manifests itself
throughout our society and empowers us with the tools to work to overcome it both symbolically and institutionally. It seeks to produce citizens
who are critical, self-reflective, and knowledgeable; who are responsible
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18
J. R. DI LEO
moral agents that see politics, education, and the economy as a continuum
rather than separate spheres. It advocates for critical citizenship and democratic education to provide democracy the backdrop it needs to be successful. In short, Humanities 2.0 provides society with the hope that we
can make the world better in terms of social, political, and economic
justice.
While the study of history, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, and moral philosophy are important to Humanities 2.0, they are not as central as they
were in Humanities 1.0. Rather, they are displaced by concerns about the
devastating effects of racial and social injustice and the ways in which globalization and neoliberalism work together to both undermine democratic
values and destroy the environment. If LGBTQ+ issues were non-existent
in Humanities 1.0, then they are a driving force of Humanities 2.0.
Everywhere you turn in Humanities 2.0, from the concerns of biopolitics
and ecocriticism to affect theory and posthumanism, you find the revaluation of the humanities toward the social, economic, and politic order, and
away from the imperial, patriarchal, and hegemonic one.
Humanities 2.0 is a blend of political economy, identity studies, textual
analysis, and environmental studies that helps us to learn the materiality of
how meaning is made, conveyed, and discarded. Its impetus is to work
across disciplines to solve common problems and to make our planet more
sustainable and habitable, rather than to seek the shelter and comfort of
disciplinary silos and perennial conversations. Moreover, it also aims to
reveal, transform, and hold accountable those who control the means of
communication and culture including book publishers.
Nevertheless, by critiquing the business plans and press coverage of the
multinational companies that produce and distribute texts, Humanities
2.0 finds itself at a crossroad regarding the censorship of books and
authors. The National Coalition Against Censorship frames the situation
of Humanities 2.0 well:
In the early 20th century, publishers frequently made decisions about what
was “appropriate” literature for the reading public, attempting to stifle
“immoral” content. The industry was rife with censorship. The increased
pressure on publishers today to police the morality of their writers threatens
to turn back the clock on publisher’s defense of unfettered expression
of ideas.
The ongoing cultural reckoning of what to do with the art of morally-­
compromised artists is a complicated one. Erasure and silencing can gratify
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1 INTRODUCTION
19
the desire to punish, but it does so at the cost of constraining the circulation
of ideas. Other will want to read it whether or not he is guilty of the allegations against him. Readers deserve the right to make this choice for
themselves.70
Whereas the literary and cultural theory of Humanities 1.0 tended to separate literature from social and political considerations, its Humanities 2.0
version takes them as its starting point.
Consider, for example, the recent case of W. W. Norton taking its biography of Philip Roth by Blake Bailey out of print because the biographer
has been accused of sexual assault.71 Or Penguin Random House putting
some of Theodor Seuss Geisel’s children’s books with racist imagery out
of print.72 Or Hachette Book Group pulping Woody Allen’s memoir amid
a wave of criticism regarding longstanding accusations that he molested
his adopted stepdaughter, Dylan.73
Humanities 2.0 regards each of these situations as opportunities to
combat sexual assault, racist imagery, and child molestation. While there is
full recognition that it is impossible to completely erase or silence these
works by Bailey, Geisel, and Allen because they will find second-life with
publishers or outlets who either have no problem with profiting from sexual assault, racist imagery, and child molestation or are at least willing to
ignore them by making these books accessible to others, Humanities 2.0
is willing draw a line that it will not cross—and to advocate that others not
cross it as well.
The social-and-political-advocacy imperative of Humanities 2.0 is one
of the ways that the humanities have been revalued and reinvented after
the Culture Wars. The sweetness and light of Humanities 1.0 that often
suffered from blindness to social and political justice when faced with the
literature of hatred and oppression has given way to the activist vision of
Humanities 2.0 that is locked in to identifying and eradicating all forms of
intersectional violence, hatred, and oppression. In this way, literature is
still regarded as a source of morality, truth, and the emotions—even if now
it involves railing against an age where moral regard for others is in short
supply; where fake news has supplanted truth; and where terror, fear, and
hatred dominate our emotional landscape.
Humanities 2.0 is the dominant humanities today. Whereas within the
university it is attacked from advocates of Humanities 1.0 for its social and
political advocacy, and often devalued by those in the professions as not
providing the necessary workforce skills to land a well-paying job, the
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J. R. DI LEO
public seems to be unmoved as to its potential negative value. Not only is
the public perception of the humanities overwhelmingly favorable, but
most believe that its benefits are considerable.
Still, regardless if one is a proponent of Humanities 1.0, it does not
change the fact that classical thought had an enormous impact on many of
the antihumanist schools and movements of the twentieth century, particularly in psychoanalytic theory, poststructuralism, and feminist theory.
Nevertheless, because much of the impact on these particular schools and
movements was negative, these schools and movements are often termed
antihumanism, but not antihumanities. To get a sense of this, consider
that whereas the work of Foucault is as fundamental to Humanities 2.0 as
the work of Protagoras, Plato, and Aristotle was to Humanities 1.0, this
antihumanist nevertheless announced the end of the human era in the
1960s and predicted in hindsight that man will turn out to have been relatively unimportant. In brief, humanism and antihumanism might be
regarded as the working fault lines for both the schools and the movements associated with theory—and between the “old” humanities
(Humanities 1.0) and the “new” antihumanist one (Humanities 2.0).
The humanities that exists after the Culture Wars is an activist and progressive one. In addition, the current state of literary and cultural theory
reveals the humanities to be more inter- and multi-disciplinary than at any
other time in its institutional history. The recent study of the humanities
from the Academy of Arts and Sciences indicates that its problem is not its
public perception. Nor is it the Taxi-Driver or Welfare-State Arguments.
Rather, the problems of the humanities come from within the university, namely, the reluctance of institutions to reconfigure their disciplinary
menus to meet the needs of the changing shape of knowledge formation
and dissemination. This, more than anything else, explains the conjunction of the high perception of the humanities among the public and its
lowering enrollments in the university. Academe has been slow to adjust
their disciplinary configurations to the protocols of the new humanities.
Twenty-first-century literary and cultural theory—the bell-weather of the
humanities—is already a force within the creative industries but has yet to
make its mark on the educational ones. We are no longer a country for old
humanities—but academe is still not ready for the new humanities. Until
such time as they are ready, the designation dark academe is a most appropriate one for an academy that has not fully incorporated a humanities that
is locked in to identifying and eradicating all forms of intersectional violence, hatred, and oppression.
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1 INTRODUCTION
21
Conclusion
Academe is slipping into darkness. It is a course that was set for it ever
since higher education came under the boot of neoliberalism. Nevertheless,
there are a number of different ideological shades of this darkness. On the
reactionary side of the darkness spectrum, there are those who favor a
return to the ideals of humanism, and, on the progressive side, there are
those who favor antihumanism. For some, the former ideology is a legacy
of the Age of Rowling and the latter ideology a legacy of the Age of Tartt.
But such clear-cut distinctions among the ideologies of dark academe
are quickly problematized if one assumes that both of these Dark Ages
offer the promise of the fantasy of control, mastery of the canon, and the
always already “specialness” of the individual. Why? Because antihumanism does not promise control, mastery of the canon, or individual specialness, calling the Age of Tartt—which promises control, mastery of the
canon, or individual specialness—progressive is problematic. If anything
because the Ages of Rowling and Tartt share humanist values, then they
should both be regarded as reactionary.
Moreover, and perhaps more importantly, neither the Age of Rowling
nor the Age of Tartt leave much room for a critical understanding of dark
academe. The latter is achieved not by grounding dark academe in the
reading habits of Gen-Z and the novelists who appeal to them, but rather
in the work of critical theory. Thus, given the ideological problems of
grounding dark academe in the Ages of Rowling and Tartt; the fact that
these ideologies are primarily utilized in support of a fading Gen-Z fashion
trend; and the absence of critique in the Ages of Rowling and Tartt, this
book will turn elsewhere for a critical ideology of dark academe.
Though some believe that dark academe is nothing more than a youth
fashion trend or a category of contemporary fiction, this book argues that
it is something much deeper and more dangerous. The argument it makes
is that a critical understanding of dark academe is vital to the futures of
democracy and education. Drawing upon contemporary literary and cultural theory, particularly, affect theory, queer epistemology, and critical
race theory, as well as critiques of capitalism and accounts of the death
drive, it builds a case for identifying dark academe as anything that prohibits the pursuit of democratic education and critical citizenship.
Nevertheless, as Chaps. 2 and 3 argue, dark times require a reassessment of the ways theory and knowledge are approached in the humanities.
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22
J. R. DI LEO
This is necessary if the aim is to truly understand the darkness at the heart
of the higher education today.
Chapter 2, “Dark Infrastructure,” proposes an alternative way to study
theory in dark times. It argues that if this infrastructural approach to theory is adopted in the academy, it has the potential to initiate the process of
fixing the failures of neoliberal academe. It is argued that it is perhaps the
only approach to theory with the capacity to fix the failures of neoliberal
academe as opposed to compound them. Consequently, it demonstrates
both the potential value of theory in the humanities and a means to dissipating the darkness that neoliberalism has cast over higher education.
Chapter 3, “Are All Professors Paranoid?,” and Chapter 4, “Affective
Education,” then argue that a complete account of dark academe is not
possible without taking stock of the affective dimensions of neoliberal academe. By utilizing the Deleuzian affect theories of Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick,
and Hardt and Antonio Negri, the study of academe becomes not the
quest for educational utopia, but rather effectively the study of non-places
of higher education. Affective academe as presented here involves the use
of strong theories of paranoia, pandemic, and labor, which in turn provide
an alternative epistemology of dark academe. It suggests that non-affective
studies of academe are limited by the foundational epistemologies and
essentialist metaphysics that they imply.
Chapters 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 then proceed to take up in turn some of
the other key dimensions of dark academe: racism (Chap. 5), ignorance
and conspiracy (Chap. 6), fascism and totalitarianism (Chap. 7), cynicism
(Chap. 8), dread and fear (Chap. 9), and capitalism and the death drive
(Chap. 10). One of the consistent themes in these chapters is that when
theory and critique are challenged, and antitheory and postcritique are
allowed to flourish in higher education, then academe moves ever closer
toward its darkest hour. Conversely, when theory and critique are pursued, then the humanities can show its true value in the new millennium
by being a leading force against neofascist, neo-totalitarian, and neo-Nazi
ideologies. In short, attacks on theory are regarded here as the agents of
dark academe.
Dark academe works to negate education and learning by continuously
telling us that the quest for knowledge is empty, and the pursuit of critique
is blind. In this educational darkness, neoliberal academe becomes a force
that works against intellectual transformation and the deepening of critical
sights. Nevertheless, when such forces are identified, they must be rejected
as a destructive form of indoctrination—a form of indoctrination that
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1 INTRODUCTION
23
paves the way for a repetition of the horrific educational legacies associated
with world conquest and its domination. Dark academe is the central signifier for the horrors of higher education in the new millennium. It is one
that reminds us that if the work of theory and the humanities truly becomes
empty knowledge and blind critique, then expect dark academe to finally
become a meaningful fashion statement—one symbolized by a neofascist
patch that is required to be worn by everyone who works in higher
education.
Notes
1. A. Wolf, Higher Education in Nazi Germany: Or Education for World
Conquest (London: Methuen & Co., 1944), 49.
2. A. Wolf, Higher Education in Nazi Germany, 48–49.
3. In Students for Fair Admissions, Inc. v. President and Fellows of Harvard
College (No. 20-1199), which was argued on October 31, 2022, and
decided on June 29, 2023, the Supreme Court of the United States prohibited affirmative action in university admissions.
4. In 2023, both Florida (Senate Bill 266, signed by Governor Ron DeSantis
on May 15) and Texas (Senate Bill 17, signed by Gov. Greg Abbott on
June 14) passed bills banning diversity, equity, and inclusion offices in public universities.
5. In addition to Generation Z, are six more generations: the Greatest
Generation (born 1901–1927); the Silent Generation (born 1928–1945);
the Baby Boomer Generation (born 1946–1964); Generation X (born
1965–1980); Millennials (born 1981–1996); and Gen Alpha (born
2013–2025).
6. “Boomers, Gen X, Gen Y, Gen Z, and Gen A Explained,” Kasasa, 22 June
2023. https://www.kasasa.com/blog/boomers-­gen-­x-­gen-­y-­gen-­z-­and-­
gen-­a-­explained#:~:text=Gen%20Z%3A%20Gen%20Z%20is,million%20
people%20in%20the%20U.S
7. “20 Facts about the Harry Potter Book Series,” Scholastic Corporation,
September 2018. http://mediaroom.scholastic.com/files/20-­HARRY-­
POTTER-­FACTS_SEPT2018.pdf
8. There are seven books in the original Harry Potter series. However, Harry
Potter and the Cursed Child, a screenplay published in 2016, which picks
up the storyline of the original series one generation later, is considered by
some as the eighth book in the series.
9. For Gen-Z in online communities such as TikTok and Tumblr, “an aesthetic,” says Ana Quiring, is “a set of tropes, clothing styles, media properties, and visual themes collected by mass consensus and continually
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24
J. R. DI LEO
revised.” It is also used as an adjective for “a blog, person, or image” that
“cultivates attention to the sublime in everyday moments.” See, Ana
Quiring, “What’s Dark about Dark Academia,” Los Angeles Review of
Books, 31 March 2021, https://avidly.lareviewofbooks.org/2021/03/31/
whats-­dark-­about-­dark-­academia/
10. “20 Facts about the Harry Potter Book Series.”
11. “20 Facts about the Harry Potter Book Series.”
12. Amy Watson, “Share of kids who have read a Harry Potter book in the United
States in 2016, by age,” Statista, 21 March 2018. https://www.statista.
com/statistics/689693/kids-­read-­harry-­potter-­books-­by-­age-­group/
13. See, for example, Linda Doherty, “Harry Potter Helps Lift School
Literacy Rates,” The Sydney Morning Herald, 19 September 2002, http://
www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/09/19/1032054870385.html; Vicky
Hallett, “The Power of Potter,” U.S. News & World Report, Special report:
cover story, 139.3 (2005): 44–51; and, Arthur MacMillan, “Potter Works
Wonders for Kids’ Literacy,” The Scotsman, 9 July 2005, http://news.
scotsman.com/Scotland.cfm?id=765922005
14. Arthur MacMillan, “Potter Works Wonders for Kids’ Literacy.”
15. Numbers as of July 23, 2023.
16. “The 2022 Instagram Trend Report,” December 13, 2021. https://scontent-­
hou1-­1 .xx.fbcdn.net/v/t39.8562-­6 /10000000_94941907566429
8_9008714295827995738_n.pdf?_nc_cat=103&ccb=1-­7 &_nc_
sid=ad8a9d&_nc_ohc=VHgjVqhrqroAX8GCJi6&_nc_ht=scontent-­
hou1-­1.xx&oh=00_AfABmUEkd9Y8Kitq-­H7AfWwqd7cvWfv3SjErdmQ
Jz0Sm7A&oe=64C00450
17. According to “The 2022 Instagram Trend Report,” YPulse, “the leading
authority on Gen-Zers and Millennials,” conducted a survey of 1200
weekly social media users in the US, ages 13–24, in October 2021.
18. Tim Brinkhof, “What is ‘Dark Academia,’ and Why is It Trending on
Social Media in 2022,” High Culture, 22 January 2022. ­hpps://bigthink.
com/high-­culture/dark-­academia
19. For other new forms of the campus novel, see “The New Campus Novel,”
ed. Matthew Roberson, American Book Review 43.4 (Winter 2022): 9–42.
20. Amy Gentry, “Dark Academia: Your Guide to the New Wave of Post-­Secret
History Campus Thrillers,” Crime Reads, 18 February 2021. https://crimereads.com/dark-­academia-­your-­guide-­to-­the-­new-­wave-­of-­post-­secret-­
history-­campus-­thrillers/
21. Amy Gentry, “Dark Academia.”
22. Amy Gentry, “Dark Academia.”
23. Amy Gentry, “Dark Academia.”
24. Amy Gentry, “Dark Academia.”
25. Amy Gentry, “Dark Academia.”
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1 INTRODUCTION
25
26. Amy Gentry, “Dark Academia.”
27. Amy Gentry, “Dark Academia.”
28. Amy Gentry, “Dark Academia.”
29. Zack Sharf, “J. K. Rowling Criticizes Reform Bill That Makes it Easier
for Trans People to Legally Change Gender,” Variety, 8 March 2022.
https://variety.com/2022/film/news/jk-­rowling-­opposes-­reform-­bill-­
trans-­people-­gender-­1235198750/
30. J. K. Rowling (@jk_rowling), “#Exactly this. The law @NicolaSturgeon’s
trying to pass will harm,” Twitter, 5 March 2022, 2:07 p.m., https://twitter.com/jk_rowling/status/1500201278730903553
31. J. K. Rowling (@jk_rowling), “#Exactly this.”
32. Zack Sharf, “J. K. Rowling Criticizes Reform Bill.”
33. Zack Sharf, “J. K. Rowling Criticizes Reform Bill.”
34. Daniel Radcliffe, “Daniel Radcliffe Responds to J. K. Rowling’s Tweets
on Gender Identity,” The Trevor Project, 8 June 2020. https://www.
thetrevorproject.org/blog/daniel-­r adcliffe-­r esponds-­t o-­j -­k -­r owlings-­
tweets-­on-­gender-­identity/
35. Daniel Radcliffe, “Daniel Radcliffe Responds to J. K. Rowling.”
36. Ezara Norton, “Dark Academia: How Institutions Fail Learning,” Honi
Soit, 9 May 2021. https://honisoit.com/2021/05/dark-­academia-­how-­
institutions-­fail-­learning/
37. Ezara Norton, “Dark Academia.”
38. Ezara Norton, “Dark Academia.”
39. Ezara Norton, “Dark Academia.”
40. Amy Gentry, “Dark Academia.”
41. Amelia Horgan, “The ‘Dark Academia’ Subculture Offers a Fantasy
Alternative to the Neoliberal University,” Jacobin, 19 December 2021.
https://jacobin.com/2021/12/instagram-­tumblr-­humanities-­romanticism-­
old-­money-­uk
42. Amelia Horgan, “The ‘Dark Academia’ Subculture.”
43. Amelia Horgan, “The ‘Dark Academia’ Subculture.”
44. Amelia Horgan, “The ‘Dark Academia’ Subculture.”
45. Priya Elan, “TikTok’s Dark Academia Trend Criticised for ‘Whiteness,’”
The Guardian, 10 February 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2021/feb/10/tik-­toks-­dark-­academia-­trend-­criticised-­for-­whiteness
46. Gilles Deleuze, “Postscript on the Societies of Control,” October 59
(Winter, 1992), 3.
47. Gilles Deleuze, “Postscript on the Societies of Control,” 3.
48. Gilles Deleuze, “Postscript on the Societies of Control,” 3.
49. Gilles Deleuze, “Postscript on the Societies of Control,” 3.
50. Gilles Deleuze, “Postscript on the Societies of Control,” 4.
51. Gilles Deleuze, “Postscript on the Societies of Control,” 4.
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26
J. R. DI LEO
52. Michael Hardt, “The Withering of Civil Society,” in Deleuze and Guattari:
New Mappings in Politics, Philosophy, and Culture, ed. Eleanor Kaufman
and Kevin Jon Heller (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1998), 24.
53. Michael Hardt, “The Withering of Civil Society,” 30.
54. Michael Hardt, “The Withering of Civil Society,” 30.
55. Michael Hardt, “The Withering of Civil Society,” 31.
56. Michael Hardt, “The Withering of Civil Society,” 36.
57. For an account of the intensification of the “crises” facing the university via
surveillance, see Jeffrey R. Di Leo, Higher Education Under Late
Capitalism: Identity, Conduct, and the Neoliberal Condition (New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), esp. 23–48 & 77–82.
58. Academy of Arts and Science, “The Humanities in American Life: A
Survey of the Public’s Attitudes and Engagement,” 10 November 2020,
https://www.amacad.org/humanities-­indicators/humanities-­american-­
life-­survey-­publics-­attitudes-­and-­engagement
59. Academy of Arts and Science, “The Humanities in American Life.”
60. Academy of Arts and Science, “The Humanities in American Life.”
61. John Mansley Robinson, An Introduction to Early Greek Philosophy
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968), 245.
62. Plato, The Republic, trans. G. M. A. Grube (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett,
1974), Book V, 517a.
63. Plato, The Republic, in The Dialogues of Plato, Vol. III, 2nd edition, trans.
Benjamin Jowett (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1875), 249; Book II, 377.
64. Plato, The Republic, in The Dialogues of Plato, Vol. III, 251; Book II, 378.
65. Plato, The Republic, in The Dialogues of Plato, Vol. III, 250; Book II, 377.
66. Plato, The Republic, trans. Paul Shorey, in The Collected Dialogues of Plato,
eds. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1961), Book x, 605b.
67. Aristotle, Poetics, 3rd edition revised, trans. S. H. Butcher (London:
Macmillan, 1902) 35; 1451a, ix, 1–2.
68. Aristotle, Poetics, 35; 1451b, ix, 3–4.
69. For a range of position on antitheory and postcritique, see What’s Wrong
with Antitheory?, ed. Jeffrey R. Di Leo (New York and London:
Bloomsbury, 2020).
70. The National Coalition Against Censorship, “NCAC Statement on
Publisher’s “Pause” on Blake Bailey Book,” April 22, 2021, https://ncac.
org/news/book-­blake-­bailey-­allegations-­norton
71. Alexandra Alter and Rachel Abrams, “Sexual Assault Allegations Against
Biographer Halt Shipping of His Roth Book,” The New York Times, 21
April 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/21/books/philip-­
roth-­blake-­bailey.html
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1 INTRODUCTION
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72. Jenny Gross, “6 Dr. Seuss Books Will No Longer Be Published Over
Offensive Images,” The New York Times, 2 March 2021, https://www.
nytimes.com/2021/03/02/books/dr-­seuss-­mulberry-­street.html
73. Elahe Izadi, “Woody Allen’s Publisher Cancels Plans to Release His
Memoir,” The Washington Post, 6 March 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/arts-­e ntertainment/2020/03/06/woody-­a llen-­h achette-­
book-­group/; and, Caitlin Flanagan, “I Actually Read Woody Allen’s
Memoir,” The Atlantic, 7 June 2020, https://www.theatlantic.com/
ideas/archive/2020/06/i-­read-­woody-­allen-­memoir/612736/
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