1
RESEARCH
LEARNING
GUIDE
TP-IMD-02 v0 No. 0205
Rodulfo T. Aunzo, Jr
VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY - ISABEL
College of Teacher Education, Arts &
Sciences and Agribusiness
Department of Teacher Education
2023
2
No copies temporary or permanent, in whole or in part of this
Instructional Material shall be made without written permission
from the author/s.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Vision
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and
environmental conservation
Mission
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cuttingedge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies for
sustainable communities and environment.
Quality Policy
The Visayas State University (VSU) is a higher education institution created by law
to provide excellent instruction, conduct relevant research and foster community
engagement that produce highly competent graduates necessary for the development
of the country. Toward this end, we, at the Visayas State University, commit to:
1. produce highly competent, quality and world-class manpower in science and
technology (S&T), especially for agriculture, environmental management and
industry who are proficient in communication skills, critical thinking and
analytical abilities,
2. generate and disseminate relevant knowledge and technology that lead to
improved productivity, profitability and sustainability in agriculture,
environment and industry,
3. satisfy the needs of the industry, the community and government sector who
are in need of quality graduates and technology ready for commercialization
through the establishment, operation, maintenance and continuous
improvement of a Quality Management System which is aligned with the
requirements of ISO 9001:2015.
It shall be the policy of the university that the quality policies and procedures are
communicated to and understood by all faculties, staff, students and other
stakeholders and that the system shall be continually improved for their relevance and
effectiveness.
5
Learning Guide in
Title
Vision:
Mission:
Research
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Foreword
Our goal in life will always keep us guided as we take our journey in this earth. No
matter happens, let us always keep our eyes focused to our destination.
Amidst this pandemic, we continue to learn. We learn thru this distance learning
education. We remain steadfast in pursuing our dreams regardless of how challenging
the path we take.
Take this challenge humbly and heartily. Let us learn to embrace this new way of
acquiring knowledge that will eventually shape up our future.
Be honest! Avoid cheating. Always remember the old adage that goes, “If you cannot
be trusted in small things, how can you be trusted in bigger things.”
My dear students, start creating your dreams today. Build the foundation of success
now. No one else will create it, except you. Read, study, and continue being a
responsible student.
#LabanLang
Rodulfo T. Aunzo, Jr.
Assistant Professor IV, Department of Teacher Education
College of Teacher Education, Arts and Sciences, and Agribusiness
Visayas State University - Isabel
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Acknowledgment
Thanks to Almighty God
for the divine guidance
and intervention.
May God bless us always.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
About the Author
Rodulfo T. Aunzo, Jr.
Aunzo finished his BSIEd-Math (Cum
Laude) in 2003 and MAT-Math degrees at
Palompon Institute of Technology and Doctor of
Education in 2010 at Silliman University. He was
an assistant professor in Mathematics
Department, University of San Carlos, Cebu City.
He handled Business Mathematics, Advance
Algebra, Statistics. He also handled Research
and Statistics classes at the senior high school of
the same university. He presented and published
papers on Mathematics education, and pure and
applied mathematics in both local and
international journals. He developed instructional
materials for remedial math, for subjects like
College Algebra and Statistics, and for primary
subject. He delivered talks on teaching
techniques and strategies, art of questioning,
workbook writing, assessment and evaluation,
technology and research paper writing. He
authored books in General Mathematics for
senior high school and Teaching Statistics and
Probabilities Through Activities. He is a national
math trainer of the Private Education Assistance
Committee (PEAC). He is an international
mathematics education consultant of the CASIO
Gakuhan Education. He is an Editorial Board
Member of IJRDO - Journal of Education
Research. He also served as Reviewer of local
and international journals. He is the President of
the Basic Education - Math Teachers’ Society
(BE-MTS). He is currently an assistant professor
at the Department of Teacher Education, Visayas
State University - Isabel.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Table of Contents
Vision
i
Mission
i
Quality Policy
i
Title Page
iii
Foreword
iv
Acknowledgment
v
About the Author/s
vi
Table of Contents
vii
List of Tables
viii
List of Figures
ix
Module 1: Review on Introduction to Research
1
Module Pretest
1
Lesson 1.1: Introduction to Research
2
Lesson 1.2: Real-world Application
4
Module Posttest
5
References and Additional Resources
5
Answers to the Pretest
5
Answer to the Posttest
5
Module 2: The Research Problem
6
Module Pretest
6
Lesson 2.1: Writing The Research Problem
7
Lesson 2.2: Real-world Application
7
Module Posttest
8
References and Additional Resources
8
Answers to the Pretest
8
Answer to the Posttest
Module 3: The Review of Related Literature
6
Module Pretest
6
Lesson 3.1: Writing Related Literature
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
7
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PhEd 140 - Research
Lesson 3.2: Real-world Application
7
Module Posttest
8
References and Additional Resources
8
Answers to the Pretest
8
Answer to the Posttest
Module 4: The Methodology
6
Module Pretest
6
Lesson 4.1: Developing the Research Design
7
Lesson 4.2: Real-world Application
7
Module Posttest
8
References and Additional Resources
8
Answers to the Pretest
8
Answer to the Posttest
8
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Module 1:
Review on Introduction
to Research
Module Overview
This module presents a very brief background information of what is research. This will
prepare the learners to developing their own research title or research problem (Chapter 1). The lessons
that will be learned by the students in this chapter will give them an idea on how to find, make, develop
their research title or research problem.
Motivation Question
How research studies are being prepared?
Module Pretest
Directions: Read and analyze the problems below before reading this module. This will test your
prior knowledge of the lesson. Answer each problem carefully.
I. Observe the research activity presented in Column A and match its name found in Column B.
Column A
Vision:
Mission:
Column B
•
•
Panel Discussion
•
•
Conducting a Survey
•
•
One-on-one Interview
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
II. From the set of research-related items below, encircle the word/phrase which does not belong
to the group.
1) ₱50,000
50 kilogram
male
4 pieces
Assist Supervisor
Philippines
Grade Four
3) Text Analysis
Encoding
Interview
Survey
4) Seminar
Tabular
Graphical
Textual
5) Research Problem
Literature Review
Conclusions
Channel
2)
Vision:
Mission:
1st honor
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Lesson 1.1:
Introduction to Research
Lesson Summary
This lesson presents fundamental concepts that are necessary to make a research paper.
Important research terminologies are reviewed in this lesson. These terminologies will be used all
thoughtout the conduct of a research study.
Learning Outcomes
In this lesson, the learners would be able to:
1) Define research.
2) Determine the type of research used.
3) Identify the research data
4) Identify the research methods used.
5) Classify the variables used in a research study.
6) Explain the research process
Motivation Question
What important terms you need to learn in order to become well-prepared in making a research study?
Discussion
Research
In the light of an an unexplainable phenomenon, one will conduct a research to find better answer,
clearer solutions or reliable facts to the problems. The investigation includes scientific process from
establishing the main problem, building information about the problem, establishing procedure to find
solutions to the problems from gathering data to analyzing the gathered data, and producing conclusions
and recommendations.
Conducting research follows a systematic inquiry in order to describe, explain, predict and control
the problem. The researcher has the option to involve either inductive or deductive methods. The
inductive methods are used by the researcher to analyze an observed event. This aims to develop a
theory. While the deductive methods are used by the researchers to verify the observed event. This
aims to test a theory.
In conducting research, the researcher observes a process of systematic inquiry that deals with
collection of data, documentation of sensitive information, and analysis and interpretation of the data.
The Research Data
The data is the heart and soul of a research study. In conducting research, the research will
primarily consider the type of data that will be gathered. The type of research data is normally
associated with the corresponding research methods and procedures.
Primary Data and Secondary Data. The primary data is gathered directly by the researcher from
the main source of information. This is usually done by survey,interview or experiments. The secondary
data is gathered by the researcher from from any primary source that is made readily available for use in
any research study. The most common sources of secondary data include census, data collected by the
Vision:
Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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government offices, and information gathered by the school registrar. These information can be
accessed by the researcher through a formal communication letter asking permission to access
information. This is usually addressed to identified authorities. Other sources of secondary data which
do not require formal communication letter to ask permission to gather are those in a form of publication,
These include information published in newspapers or magazine, and findings published by researchers
in a research journal. The researchers need to cite the sources of the information when they are used in
their research study.
Qualitative Data and Quantitative Data. The qualitative data is described as data that
characterizes and approximates. These are focused on words and meanings. The qualitative data can
be observed and recorded. This type of data is non-numeric in nature which can be collected through
observation method, one-on-one interview, focus-group discussion, or panel discussion. It is
investigative and open-ended which allows the respondents to freely express themselves. The
quantitative data are measures of counts and values which are expressed as numbers. These are
information about quantities which can be mathematically computed or calculated.
Characteristics of Research
Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions.
The following are characteristics of a research:
Empirical. The findings are results of concrete evidences based on the gathered data
collected from real life experiences or observations
Systematic. A research follows an orderly, sequential, and logical procedure when
undertaking investigation. Some procedures must follow others and the steps cannot be taken
haphazardly.
Controlled. All variables in research except those that are tested or experimented upon are
kept constant.
Rigorous. The research is carefully following relevant, appropriate, and justified procedures in
order to find answers to questions.
Valid and Verifiable. The conclusions made which are results from the findings are correct
and can be verified by the users of the information, future researchers, and immediate readers.
Critical. It is crucial to observe a strong critical scrutiny of the procedures used and methods
employed in order to attain an investigation that is free from drawbacks.
Analytical. The observance of critical analysis of all data used is crucial so that errors in the
interpretation will be avoided.
Employs quantitative or statistical methods. The gathered data are converted into
numerical measures and are treated statistically.
Types of Research
There are generally several types of research. They are classified according to the following: a)
according to nature of data; b) basis of application; c) basis of objectives, and d) basis of mode of inquiry.
According to Nature of the Data. The types of research according to nature of data are
qualitative research and quantitative research. Quantitative research is mainly utilizing numeric data.
This includes relationship of two numeric data such as relationship between height and weight of
freshmen students, relationship between daily allowance and amount spent for lunch, or relationship
between hours spent using mobile phone in a day and weight gain. Qualitative research is mainly
focusing on non-numeric data. This includes finding meanings to certain phenomenon, lived-in
experiences on certain situations, or case study of a certain behavioral problem.
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Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
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The most commonly known methods of qualitative research are content analysis, historical
research, ethnographic study, narrative, phenomenological study, grounded theory, and case study. The
most commonly known methods of quantitative research are experimental, quasi-experimental, singlesubject, correlational, causal-comparative, survey, and action research.
According to Basis of Application. The types of research according to basis of application are
pure research and applied research. Pure research aims to develop and test theories and hypothesis
that are mentally challenging to the researcher. This may or may not have practical applications at the
present time or in the future. It produced knowledge that is added to the existing body of research
methods. Applied research aims to solve specific, practical questions for the purpose of forming policies
and understanding phenomenon.
According to Basis of Objectives. The types of research according to basis of objectives are
descriptive research, correlational research, explanatory research, and exploratory research. Descriptive
research aims to describe logically a problem, situation, phenomenon. It provides information or
describes conditions towards a certain problem. Correlational research aims to establish the presence of
relationship between two or more factors of a phenomenon. Explanatory research aims to clarify the
existence of relationship between two or more factors of a phenomenon. Exploratory research aims to
explore a phenomenon where there is limited information.
According to Basis of Mode of Inquiry. The types of research according to basis of mode of
inquiry are structured and unstructured. Structured research is normally classified as quantitative
research. In a structured research, the objectives, design, sample, and questions are established before
hand. In this type of research, it is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or
phenomenon by quantifying the variation. Unstructured research is usually classified as qualitative
research. This type of research allows flexibility in all the aspects of the research process. In this type of
research, it is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without
quantifying it. Unstructured research aims mainly to describe the variation in phenomenon. This may
include historical enumeration of events, accounts of different opinions on a certain issue from different
people, description of working condition in a particular school.
The Research Variables
A variable is a characteristic or feature that changes within a study. In an experimental study, a
researcher will investigate the differences between grade 11 and grade 12 students, grade level would
be a variable. In some study, the respondents are only grade 11 students, grade level would not be a
variable since there would only be grade 11. However, if the study includes grade 11 and grade 12
students as respondents, but is not interested in the difference between grade 11 and grade 12, and
does not compare them, grade level would not be a variable in that study.
In a correlational study, the researcher investigates the relationship between height and weight of
the students, both height and weight are variables in that study. In an experimental study, the midterm
examination score of section A and section B are being compared, both the examination score and the
section are variables in that study.
Dependent Variable and Independent Variable. The types of research variable according to how
they are treated in the study are dependent and independent variables. A research variable simply
refers to a quantity, count, person, place, thing, or phenomenon that a researcher is trying to
measure. The dependent variable is the resulting variable which is influenced by manipulation of
the independent variable. In the experimental study entitled Impact of Cooperative Learning in
Teaching-Learning Integers in Grade 2 students.The experimental group was exposed to
cooperative learning style of teaching and learning the lesson on integer, while the control group
was exposed to the traditional way of teaching and learning the lesson on integer. After the
experimentation period, the two group of students were asked to take the assessment test. Their
score were being recorded and compared. In this study, the teaching style was the independent
variable. It was different between the two groups, cooperative learning for the experimental group
and traditional teaching-learning for the control group.The resulting variable (dependent variable),
which depended upon the teaching style, was the score in the assessment test.
In another experimental study on the effects of malunggay juice on the incidence of stomach
worm in grade 1 students. The experimental group was provided with malunggay juice, while the
control group was provide with the over-the-counter juice for stomach worm. After the
experimentation period, the number stomach worm were examined through the feces of the grade
Vision:
Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
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1 students. The number of stomach worm were being recorded and compared. In this study, the
kind of juice was the independent variable, while the number of stomach worm was the dependent
variable.
Dependent variables are variables that depends on other factors that are measured. The
dependent variable are expected to change as a result of experimental manipulation of the
independent variable. Dependent variables are presumed to be the effect. Independent variables
are stable and unaffected by the other variables being measured. Independent variables are
presumed to be the cause. The opposite of variable is constant, which refer to something that does
not change. In mathematics, the symbols x, y, and z, represent the variables in an equation.
While  , read as “pi”, represents the constant, with a value of 3.1415.
In the previous study on the effects of malunggay juice, the independent variable can also be
considered in a different manner. If parent were asked to observe the number of times their grade
1 students drink the malunggay juice in a day (say 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5), then the researcher will no
longer compare the number of stomach worms but investigate the relationship between the
drinking regime of the malunggay juice and the number of stomach work. Here, the independent
variable is the drinking regime malunggay juice, while the dependent variable is still the same,
number of stomach worm.
Qualitative Variable and Quantitative Variable. The types of research variable according to the
types of data are qualitative variable and quantitative variable. Qualitative variables are also known as
categorical variables. They have no natural sense of ordering and are not numerical. They are not
results from measuring or counting. For instance, eye color (black, blue, brown, grey) is a qualitative
variable. Other examples of qualitative variables are gender (male, female), country (Philippines, China,
Singapore), color (yellow, pink, orange, black), dog breeds (Shih tzu, Maltese, Siberian Husky, German
Shepherd, Aspin), and year-level (first year, second year, third year, fourth year). Quantitative variables
are measured on a numeric scale. They are results from counting or measuring something, thus they
represent measurable quantity. Quantitative variables are counts, percents, or numbers. For instance,
when you speak of population of students in a school, you are talking of the number of students in a
school which is a measurable attribute of a school. Thus, population is a quantitative variable. The
general rule of thumb, if you can add it, it is quantitative variable. Other examples of quantitative
variables are high school grade point average (78, 85, 89, 90), number of siblings (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6),
amount in your bank account (₱15,000, ₱30,000, ₱55,000, ₱80,000), and body temperature (34°C,
35°C, 37°C, 38°C).
The quantitative variables are also classifies a discrete variable and continuous variable. A
discrete variable is a variable which is obtained by counting such as number of students in a class,
number of ballpens in a box, or number of bottles of softdrinks sold. A continuous variable is a variable
which is obtained by measuring such as height of students, distanced travel, volume of water.
Levels of Measurement. A variable has one of the four levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal,
interval, ratio. The first level of measurement is nominal. In this level, words, letters, alphanumeric are
used. Nominal means “in name only”. It deals with names, categories or level. There is no ordering
being implied. Examples of nominal level are gender (male, female), religion (Roman Catholic,
Protestant, Adventist, Aglipay), and favorite color (yellow, pink, red, black). In the case of jersey number
in basketball, it is a measure under nominal. The number just represent the name of the player.
The second level of measurement is ordinal. In this level, data are rank-ordered. It allows
comparisons of the degree. Examples of ordinal level are year-level (first year, second year, third year,
fourth year), educational attainment (elementary, high school, college, post college), and level of
satisfaction (very satisfied, satisfied, dissatisfied, very dissatisfied).
The third level of measurement is interval. In this level, data can be ordered. Data in this level
does not have starting point. The interval level does not only classify and orders the measurement, but
is also specifies the distance between each interval on the scale are equivalent along the scale from low
interval to high interval. For example, the distance between 34°C and 37°C is the same as the distance
between 47°C and 50°C. Interval level does not have true zero point even if one of the scaled values
carry the name “zero”. The 0°C does not represent the complete absence of temperature.
The fourth level of measurement is ratio. In this level, in addition to having equal intervals also
have a value of zero. There is always an absolute zero that is meaningful. This means that a meaningful
fraction can be constructed with a ratio variable. Examples of ratio variable are weight, height, and
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distance. The “count” variables are ratio. For example, the number of students enrolled in a class is ratio.
In this example, there is a case that zero students enrolled in a class.
Types of Research Methods
Research methods are generally classified qualitative and quantitative. Both methods have
different properties and different data collection methods.
Qualitative Methods. The qualitative research is a method that collects data utilizing the
conversational method. Open-ended questions are asked to the participants. The responses collected
are nun-numeric. The types of qualitative methods include one-on-one interview, focus group,
ethnographic research, text analysis, case study, and phenomenology.
One-on-one Interview. It is a face-to-face talking with the respondents asking open-ended
questions related to the research problem. This will allow the researcher to go much deeper details with
a much need speaking time. In this method, more insights can possibly collected which could be useful
for a quantitative phase. The interviewer may use audio or video recording materials provided that the
interviewee may permit him to do so. The record must be kept confidential by the interview and saved
for future use.
Focus Group. It is similar to one-on-one interview, but with a group of participants. It is usually with
no more than ten participants recruited to attend the focus group. The selection of participants strictly
based on criteria that are related to the research problem. The venue of the focus group is at a place
where participants feel comfortable on an average of two hours discussion time. In the discussion proper,
a moderator guides a discussion while the researchers observe and take down notes on information
given by the participants. An audio or video recording material can be used provided that permission is
given by the participants. The recorded material must be kept confidential and saved for future use.
Ethnographic Research. It is a methods where researcher observes and/or interact with the
participants in their real-life environment. This aims to gain insights into how the participants interact with
things in their natural environment. This method was popularized by anthropologist. The athropological
ethnographers normally live with a group/society for one year or more in order to learn from the
participants. Ethnographers perform direct observation, diary studies, video recordings, photography
and artefact analysis.
Text Analysis. It is used by researchers to describe and interpret the characteristics of a recorded
or visual images. It aims to describe the content, structure, and functions of the messages contained in
texts. It also deals with selecting the type of texts to be studied, acquiring appropriate texts, and
determining which particular approach to use in analyzing them. Text analysis include rhetorical criticism,
content analysis, interaction analysis, and performance analysis. Rhetorical criticism is method used to
describe, analyze, interpret, and evaluate the persuasive force of messages embedded within texts.
Content analysis is a method used to identify, enumerate, and analyze occurrences of specific
messages and message characteristic embedded in texts. Interaction analysis is a method used to
describe interaction. The researcher focus on the characteristics which include linguistic feature, types
of topics that people talk about, and purpose of specific actions and utterances in an interaction.
Case Study. It deals with in-depth investigation of a single person, group, event, or community.
The data are gathered from different sources through observation and interview. The information
gathered in this method is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s pasts, as well as
to significant events which are currently occurring in his or her everyday life. This is commonly used in
social, educational, clinical, and business research.
Phenomenology. It is a study of human experience and of the ways things present themselves to
us in and through such experience. It is also a study of structures of consciousness as experienced from
the first-person point of view. The ultimate source of all meanings and values is the lived experiences of
human beings. In this method, the researcher aimed to describe the structures of experiences and
reflect and prereflect human experiences.
Quantitative Methods. The quantitative methods deals with numbers and measurable forms. It is
used to answer questions in terms of justifying relationships with measurable variables to either explain,
predict, or control a phenomenon. The three most commonly used method by the researchers under
quantitative methods are survey research, descriptive research, and correlational research.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Survey Research. It is most commonly used in quantitative research. The research selects a
sample of respondents from a population and administer a standardized questionnaire to them. The
questionnaire is a written document that is completed by the person being surveyed. The data collected
from surveys is then then statistically analyzed to draw meaningful research conclusions.
Descriptive Research. It aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation, or
characteristic of the population or phenomenon under study. It focuses more on the “what” of the
research subject rather than the “why” of the research subject. It can also answer the when, where, and
how questions. In marketing research, it will uncover the details on “what is the purchasing pattern of
students” but not on “why the pattern exists”. It is commonly used in healthcare, psychology, and
education.
Correlational Research. It is a type of non-experimental method wherein the researcher will
investigate, understand, or assess the statistical relationship between two variables with little or no effort
to control extraneous variables. The aim of correlational research is identify variables that have some
sort of relationship do the extent that a change in one creates some change in the other. In marketing
research, a researcher will find out the statistical relationship between high-earning resellers and access
to social media. That is, the more resellers earn, the more they are likely to access social media.
The Research Process
In conducting a research study, several steps are normally followed in order to find answers to the
research questions. These steps are carefully and critically done by the researchers which lead them to
contribute to the body of knowledge in research
Formulating the research problem. This is the topmost important step in research. Identifying
the main problem will guide the research on what to find out and how will he find out. The research
problem may revolve in people, problem, programs, or phenomena. Given a group of people, like,
students, administrators, politicians, teens, or parents, a research can formulate a research problem.
Given a certain problem or issue relating to lives, attitudes, health, or products, a researcher can
formulate a research problem. Given a certain program in a school, community, or family, a research
can formulate a research problem which includes assessment and evaluation of an intervention. Given a
certain phenomenon such as existence of irregularities, health threat, or low performance, a researcher
can formulate a research problem.
Formulating the research problem includes developing the objectives, which break down the main
research problem into bits and pieces of small problems. This also includes formulating the
hypothesis/es. This hypothesis sets a clear, specific and testable judgment or predictive conclusion
about the possible outcome of a scientific research study. This is normally based on a particular property
of a population. This includes the presumed differences between groups on a particular variable or
relationship between variables. Further details will be discussed in the succeeding chapter.
Conducting Extensive Literature Review. Literature review serves as a survey of scholarly
publications related to the research problem. This allows the researcher to review past and present
information in order to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the research problem. Readings
from various sources related to the research problem will aslo shed light to the researcher in his
research undertakings. This will aid the researcher from the enhancement of the research objectives,
formulation of the hypothesis/es, development of the research methodologies, presentation of results
and discussions, and refinement of the conclusions and recommendations. Further details will be
discussed in the succeeding chapter.
Developing Research Methodology. Research methodology is a systematic plan to conduct the
research. This process or procedure is used by the researcher to identify, select, process, and analyze
information about the research problem. This is also used to evaluate the over-all validity and reliability
of the entire research paper.
Presenting Results and Discussion. This process or procedures allows the researcher to
present the bulk of discussions of the results and findings of the gathered data. In quantitative research,
the researcher in this section will use tabular, graphical, and textual presentations as results of the
statistical measures. In qualitative research, the research will present in this section the bulk of the
discussions of the gathered data through thematic approach.
Formulating Conclusions and Recommendations. This process or procedure allows the
researcher to present the summary of the discussions. The research will lay down the essential feature
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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of the study, or the significant outcomes of the investigation. From the summary, the research will
recommendations as baseline information as solutions to the problems. This will also serve as
springboard for researchers to start a new research study subsequent to the conducted study.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Learning Tasks/Activities
Name___________________________________________ Lesson No______ Course & Year_______
Directions: Analyze and answer the problems below.
A) Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1) What is primary data?
a) Data collected from published sources
b) Data collected directly from original sources
c) Data collected from secondary research
2) What is secondary data?
a) Data collected from primary research
b) Data collected directly from original sources
c) Data collected from published sources
3) Choose the correct statement about primary data:
a) It is less reliable than secondary data
b) It is expensive to collect
c) It is collected specifically for a particular research purpose
4) Choose the correct statement about secondary data:
a) It is collected from surveys and experiments
b) It is collected by observing and recording data
c) It is readily available and saves time and resources
5) What is qualitative data?
a) Data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms
b) Data that describes qualities or characteristics
c) Data that can be categorized into groups
6) What is quantitative data?
a) Data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms
b) Data that describes qualities or characteristics
c) Data that can be categorized into groups
7) Which of the following is an example of qualitative data?
a) Age
b) Height
c) Opinion
8) Which of the following is an example of quantitative data?
a) Favorite color
b) Gender
c) Income in dollars
9) Choose the appropriate type of data for counting the number of survey respondents who
selected "yes" or "no" to a question.
a) Primary qualitative data
b) Secondary qualitative data
c) Primary quantitative data
10) You want to analyze the emotions expressed in customer reviews of a product. Which type of data
would be most appropriate?
a) Primary qualitative data
b) Secondary qualitative data
c) Secondary quantitative data
11) Which type of research aims to explore a relatively unknown topic or phenomenon?
a) Qualitative research
b) Quantitative research
c) Pure research
d) Applied research
12) Which type of research focuses on gathering numerical data for statistical analysis?
a) Qualitative research
b) Quantitative research
c) Pure research
d) Applied research
13) Which type of research seeks to solve practical problems and find solutions?
a) Qualitative research
b) Quantitative research
c) Pure research
d) Applied research
14) Which type of research is conducted primarily to gain knowledge and understanding of a specific
field?
a) Qualitative research
b) Quantitative research
c) Pure research
d) Applied research
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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15) Which type of research aims to describe characteristics, behaviors, or opinions of a specific group?
a) Descriptive research
b) Correlational research
c) Explanatory research
d) Exploratory research
16) Which type of research examines the relationship between two or more variables?
a) Descriptive research
b) Correlational research
c) Explanatory research
d) Exploratory research
17) Which type of research aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships?
a) Descriptive research
b) Correlational research
c) Explanatory research
d) Exploratory research
18) Which type of research is carried out with the intention of gaining new insights and generating
hypotheses?
a) Descriptive research
b) Correlational research
c) Explanatory research
d) Exploratory research
19) Which type of research uses non-numerical data such as interviews and observations?
a) Qualitative research
b) Quantitative research
c) Pure research
d) Applied research
20) Which type of research uses statistical analysis to draw conclusions and make predictions?
a) Qualitative research
b) Quantitative research
c) Pure research
d) Applied research
B) Identify what is being stated in each item.
1) Which characteristic describes research that is based on direct observation or experience rather than
theory?
2) What term is used to describe research that is carefully planned and organized?
3) What characteristic ensures that research is conducted under specific conditions in order to minimize
biases and other sources of error?
4) What quality is necessary for research to produce reliable and accurate results?
5) Which characteristic ensures that research findings are based on solid evidence and can be
supported by data?
6) What term describes research that is objective, analytical, and includes an unbiased examination of
sources and evidence?
7) What technique is commonly used in research to analyze and interpret data?
8) True or False: Research cannot be considered valid if it does not employ statistical analysis.
9) True or False: Research can still be valuable even if it lacks strict control over variables.
10) True or False: Research is conducted solely to confirm pre-existing beliefs and ideas.
C) Indentify each item as indicated.
1) Identify each item as nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio.
A) Gender (Male, Female)
B) Ranking the top five favorite movies from best to worst
C) Measuring the temperature in degrees Celsius
D) Recording people's daily step count using a pedometer
E) Identifying the level of agreement among participants on a Likert scale questionnaire
F) Counting the number of hours spent studying for an exam
2) Identify qualitative method or quantitative method. If qualitative method, identify as one-on-one
interview, text analysis, ethnographic, case study, focus group discussion, or phenomenology. If
quantiative method, identify as survey, descriptive correlational:
A) Conducting a one-on-one interview to understand the experiences of trauma survivors
B) Analyzing text messages to identify patterns in communication
C) Studying a group of students' daily activities and social interactions at a college campus
D) Examining a specific case to understand the impacts of a new education policy
E) Investigating individuals' perceptions of online shopping through a web-based survey
F) Describing the frequency of smartphone usage among teenagers
G) Exploring the relationship between income level and happiness using statistical analysis
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
D) Analyze and answer the following items carefully.
1.
Differentiate primary and secondary data, qualitative quantitative research, dependent and
independent variable, and qualitative and quantitative methods.
2. Cite two (2) characteristics of research that you think will challenge you in making a research
study.
3. Explain briefly the research process.
Instructions on how to submit student output
Write the answer in your notebook which will be checked next meeting. Be ready for an oral exam.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Lesson 1.2:
Real-world Applications
Let us Observe and Learn From Published Papers
Presented in this section are sample research papers published in an international research
journal. Presented after the abstract of each paper are the breakdown of information that will discuss
fundamental concepts of research.
Illustrative Example 1
A Correlational Study of Nature of Awareness and Science Achievement
Kelly Chandler and Monica Swartzentruber
Johnson Bible College
Abstract
As part of a pilot program, the researchers sought to develop an instrument that would effectively
measure the nature awareness of students. With this information, the researchers correlated nature
awareness scores and science averages. According to Salomon and Perkins’ theory of transfer,
experiences in one situation can influence experiences in other situations. Experience (in this study)
deals specifically with encounters with nature. Following a structure made by Kellert (2002), as cited in
Davis, Rea, and Waite (2006), the researchers chose to evaluate direct experiences, indirect
experiences and vicarious experiences in nature. As a result of the connection between nature and the
science curriculum, the researchers chose to assess a correlation for the students’ nature awareness
scores and science averages. The purpose of this study was to determine if the theory of transfer as
presented by Perkins and Salomon (1988) relates to students’ experience in nature (as determined by
nature awareness score) which in turn correlates to their science averages. Two groups of fourth grade
students were studied (one from a suburban school and the other from an urban school). This study
included fifty six (56) 4th grade student participants. Each student completed the Nature Awareness
Survey, and the researchers compiled a Nature Awareness Score for each student. Then the
researchers calculated the students’ third nine week science averages. The researchers applied a
Spearman’s rho and a Pearson correlation in order to determine if a significant correlation existed. The
results of the study revealed significant data to support the proposed hypothesis.
Observe the breakdown of information of the abstract in Example 1 presented in this table:
Title
A Correlational Study of Nature of Awareness and Science Achievement
Authors
Kelly Chandler and Monica Swartzentruber
Affiliation
Johnson Bible College
Method
Survey - the researchers utilized the researcher-made Nature Awareness Survey
Research Data
 Primary Data - information on Nature Awareness and Science Grade were
gathered first hand by the researchers
 Quantitative Data - both data on Nature Awareness and Science Grade are
numerical data
Type
of  According to Types of Data: Quantitative Research
Research
 According to Basis of Application: Pure Research
 According to Basis of Objectives: Correlational Research
 According to Mode of Inquiry: Unstructured Research
Variables
Level of
Type of Variable
Measurement
Nature Awareness
Independent
Quantitative
Interval
Statistical Tools
Science Achievement
Dependent
Spearman’s rho and Pearson Correlation
Quantitative
Interval
SOURCE: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED520105.pdf
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Illustrative Example 2
A Phenomenological Study of the Lived Experiences of Social Studies Teachers: Constructing Ideas
about Democratic Citizenship and Teaching
Om Kumar Thapa
The University of Toledo
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to explore how social studies teachers conceptualized democracy,
developed ideas about democratic citizenship, and implemented their perspectives and experiences into
teaching. The study used phenomenological approach of qualitative research design. Six participants
were selected using a convenient sampling method with data analyzed by Moustakas’s transcendental
approach. The participants conceptualized democracy as a political system, civic participation, and
influence of government decision making. They developed ideas about democratic citizenship from
multiple sources, such as family members, networking, citizenship projects, professional development
training, political engagement, travel, and involvement in community services. Teachers implemented
their perspectives utilizing experiential learning, incorporating student’s ideas into teaching methods,
and employing technology. This emphasized the need to learn continuously, to reflect on their teaching
practices, to use multiple resources, and to participate in professional networking. Other findings that
emerged included the educator’s inadequate preparation of instructional strategies and student’s
apathetic responses to learn about the democratic process. This study reveals the need for educators,
teachers, and policy makers to collaborate to develop instructional practices, incorporate experiential
learning experiences, and improve social studies curricula to promote student engagement.
Observe the breakdown of information of the abstract in Example 2 presented in this table:
A Phenomenological Study of the Lived Experiences of Social Studies
Teachers: Constructing Ideas about Democratic Citizenship and Teaching
Authors
Om Kumar Thapa
Affiliation
The University of Toledo
Method
One-on-one interview
Phenomenology
Research Data
 Primary Data - the social studies teachers’ concept on democracy and
democratic citizenship and how they implemented them into teaching
were gathered first hand by the researchers through interview
 Qualitative Data - data are non-numeric, which are the perspective and
experiences of the social studies teachers on democracy and democratic
citizenship
Type of Research
 According to Types of Data: Qualitative Research
 According to Basis of Application: Pure Research
 According to Basis of Objectives: Exploratory Research
 According to Mode of Inquiry: Structured Research
Data Analysis
Moustakas’s transcendental approach
Title
SOURCE: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED576974
Illustrative Example 3
Case Studies of Fifth-Grade Student Modeling in Science Through Programming: Comparison Modeling
Practices and Conversations
Loucas Louca
University of Maryland
This is a descriptive case study investigating the use of two computer-based programming
environments (CPEs), MicroWorldsTM (MW) and Stagecast CreatorTM (SC), as modeling tools for
collaborative fifth grade science learning. In this study I investigated how CPEs might support fifth grade
student work and inquiry in science. There is a longstanding awareness of the need to help students
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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learn about models and modeling in science, and CPEs are promising tools for this. A computer
program can be a model of a physical system, and modeling through programming may make the
process more tangible: Programming involves making decisions and assumptions; the code is used to
express ideas; running the program shows the implications of those ideas.
In this study I have analyzed and compared students’ activities and conversations in two afterschool clubs, one working with MW and the other with SC. The findings confirm the promise of CPEs as
tools for teaching practices of modeling and science, and they suggest advantages and disadvantages
to that purpose of particular aspects of CPE designs.
MW is an open-ended, textual CPE that uses procedural programming. MW students focused on
breaking down phenomena into small programmable pieces, which is useful for scientific modeling.
Developing their programs, the students focused on writing, testing and debugging code, which are also
useful for scientific modeling. SC is a non-linear, object-oriented CPE that uses visual program language.
SC students saw their work as creating games. They were focused on the overall story which they then
translated it into SC rules, which was in conflict with SC’s object-oriented interface. However, telling the
story of individual causal agents was useful for scientific modeling. Programming in SC was easier,
whereas reading code in MW was more tangible. The latter helped MW students to use the code as the
representation of the phenomenon rather than merely as a tool for creating a simulation. The analyses
also pointed to three emerging “frames” that describe student’s work focus, based on their goals,
strategies, and criteria for success. Emerging “frames” are the programming, the visualization, and the
modeling frame. One way to understand the respective advantages and disadvantages of the two CPEs
is with respect to which frames they engendered in students.
Observe the breakdown of information of the abstract in Example 3 presented in this table:
Case Studies of Fifth-Grade Student Modeling in Science Through
Programming: Comparison Modeling Practices and Conversations
Authors
Loucas Louca
Affiliation
University of Maryland
Method
Case Study
Research Data
 Primary Data - the data on how CPEs might support fifth grade student
work and inquiry in science were gathered first hand by the research
through case study.
 Qualitative Data - data are non-numeric, which are the perspective and
experiences of the social studies teachers on democracy and democratic
citizenship
Type of Research
 According to Types of Data: Qualitative Research
 According to Basis of Application: Pure Research
 According to Basis of Objectives: Exploratory Research
 According to Mode of Inquiry: Unstructured Research
SOURCE:
https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PhDT........38L/abstract
Title
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Learning Tasks/Activities
Name___________________________________________ Lesson No______ Course & Year_______
Directions: Breakdown the information of the research abstracts below by making a breakdown
summary table (refer to summary table in Lesson 1.2).
Abstract 1
The Lived Experiences of Single Teenage Mothers in Botswana
Tshepiso D. Mojapelo
Edith Cowan University
Abstract
This study was designed to explore-the lived-experiences of single teenage mothers in Botswana,
as perceived by them. The participants were teenage mothers who had to leave school due.to
pregnancy. They had either completed year one in secondary school or were in year two. Their ages
ranged between 16 and 19 years. The ages of their babies range from five to 10 months, with the
exception of one child who was three years old. All teenage mothers came from low socio-economic
backgrounds with families whose parents were either not working, or were working in the lowest paying
jobs as cleaners or drivers. Some were from single parent families with the mother working as a cleaner
in government offices. They all lived in the high population density area of Gaborone such as Old Naledi
and Broadhurst Self Help Agency, where many illicit behaviours are observed. The study is undertaken
through a phenomenological approach which is guided by the reality of lived experiences to a theoretical
construct. This research was conducted to uncover young single experiences .concerning motherhood.
SOURCE: Mojapelo, T. D. (1997). The lived experiences of single teenage mothers in Botswana : a
phenomenological study. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/890
Abstract 2
A Quantitative Study of the Impact of Social Media Reviews on Brand Perception
Neha Joshi
The City University of New York
Abstract
This thesis can be categorized under the Influencer Marketing industry with respect to social
media initiatives. Influencer marketing is a modern tactic used by brands to enhance their visibility to
their target audience by using the services of influential people. The objective of this thesis is to quantify
the impact of social media reviews on brand perception. Specifically, this thesis focuses on two diverse
media platforms commonly used for sharing opinions about products or services by publishing audiovisual or textual reviews: YouTube and Yelp. First, we quantitatively analyze the impact of YouTube
reviews of Smartphones on the audience through their response to these video reviews. Second, using
our findings from 942 YouTube Smartphone reviews, we introduce a statistical model to predict
audience engagement on a given video. Finally, we apply our method of quantifying the impact of
reviews on the content published on Yelp.com in the restaurant industry. The results from this validation
show that our method can be generically applied to other social media platforms and consumer-focused
industries. Our method can be employed by brand managers to turn social media reviews into real-time
feedback mechanism in order to improve brand perception in the minds of their target audience.
SOURCE: https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.08836
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Abstract 3
Students’ Perception and Attitude on ICT Integration in Mathematics Classroom
Rodulfo T. Aunzo, Jr.
Joseph Anthony Climaco
University of San Carlos
Abstract
In the advent of the mobile gadgets such as cellphone, iPhone, iPod, iPad, and tablet, people in all
walks of life are using them anywhere and anytime. These mobile gadgets are equipped with
applications which can read pdf files, PowerPoint presentations, and documents. With these, a research
study on Student’ Perception and Attitude on ICT Integration in Mathematics Classroom was conducted.
This also investigated how mobile gadgets were utilized inside a Mathematics classroom during the
teaching-learning process. With 93-sample students, the following findings were established: The
students: 1) have a positive attitude towards mathematics; 2) agreed if ICT will be integrated in the
teaching-learning inside the classroom; 3) still agreed after the ICT integration; and 4) evaluated the ICT
integration as effective. Moreover, there is: 1) an increased level of agreement of the students after
experiencing the ICT integration in Mathematics classroom; 2) a significant relationship between the
students’ attitude towards Mathematics and the students’ perception on ICT integration inside the
classroom; and 3) a significant relationship between the students’ assessment on the effectiveness
indicator of ICT integration and the students’ attitude on ICT integration.
SOURCE:
https://www.pearlresearchjournals.org/journals/rjesr/archive/2015/Jul/Abstract/Rodulfo%20and%20Clim
aco.html
Abstract 4
Impact of the Integration of Text-Messaging in Mathematics Teaching-Learning Process
Rodulfo T. Aunzo, Jr.
University of San Carlos
Abstract
This research study established the impact of the integration of text-messaging in Mathematics
teaching-learning process. This one shot design study employed the Pre-Post Test method of
investigation. After the students took the Pre-Test, the integration of text-messaging in the teachinglearning process was done for two weeks. At the end of the two-week allotment of the lesson, the
students took the Post-Test and were surveyed on their attitude towards the integration of textmessaging. It was found out that the Post-Test result is higher than the PreTest result (Alpha 0.05).
Furthermore, the students “agreed” on the integration of text-messaging in the teaching-learning process.
SOURCE: https://globaljournals.org/item/4954-impact-of-the-integration-of-text-messaging-inmathematics-teaching-learning-process
Instructions on how to submit student output
Write the answer in your notebook which will be checked next meeting. Be ready for an oral exam.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Activity Number: 1M
Name___________________________________________ Activity No______ Course & Year_______
Directions: Analyze and perform the activity below.
TEST I: Download the full paper of the research papers presented below. Then, identify the
different chapter names and sub-chapter names of a full-blown research paper.
Describe the content of each chapter and sub-chapters. The purpose of this activity is
for you to understand the entire research process and grasp in advance how to write a
full blown research paper. For your Midterm Practical Quizzes, you will make Chapters 1,
2, and 3. For the Finals Practical Quizzes, you will make Chapters 4 and 5.
1) Research Paper 1:
A Quantitative Correlational Study between Transformational Leadership Behavior and Job Satisfaction
among California Card Room Casino Employees
Lydell H. Hall
Brandman University
SOURCE:
https://digitalcommons.umassglobal.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1195&context=edd_dissertations
2) Research Paper 2:
A Qualitative Study of the Lived Experiences of Adults with African American
and Korean Heritages
Elizabeth Sue Bradshaw
Western Michigan University
SOURCE:
https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1353&context=dissertations
TEST II: Based on your chosen research area in Group Activity 1, find one (1) published fullblown research papers that contains the five (5) chapters. Write the research title, author,
name of school, and link. Write below the chapter title and sub-chapter titles of that
research paper. Use the format presented below.
Research Title:___________
Author:__________________
School:__________________
Link: ____________________
Chapter 1
__________
______________
______________
Chapter 2
__________
_____________
_______________
_______________
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Chapter 3
__________
______________
______________
Chapter 4
__________
______________
______________
Chapter 5
__________
______________
______________
Instructions on how to submit student output
Write the answer in your notebook which will be checked next meeting. Be ready for an oral exam.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Module Posttest
Directions: Read and analyze the problems below after you submit Activity No. 1M. This will test
your knowledge gained in this module. Answer each problem carefully.
I. Observe the research activity presented in Column A and match its name found in Column B.
Column A
Column B
•
•
Panel Discussion
•
•
Conducting a Survey
•
•
One-on-one Interview
II. From the set of research-related items below, encircle the word/phrase which does not belong
to the group.
1) ₱50,000
50 kilogram
male
4 pieces
Assist Supervisor
Philippines
Grade Four
3) Text Analysis
Encoding
Interview
Survey
4) Seminar
Tabular
Graphical
Textual
5) Research Problem
Literature Review
Conclusions
Channel
2)
1st honor
Instructions on how to submit student output
Write the answer in your notebook which will be checked next meeting. Be ready for an oral exam.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Module 2:
The Research Problem
Module Overview
This chapter presents concepts about an ideal research problem. This will guide the learners in
writing the first chapter of their of research paper using fundamental concepts in formulating the
research problem.
Motivation Question
How to write a research problem?
Module Pretest
Directions: Read and analyze the problems below before reading this module. This will test your
prior knowledge of the lesson. Answer each problem carefully.
I. Classify the following research titles as quantitative research and qualitative research. Write
your answer on the blank provided.
___________________ 1) The Effect of Autonomy, Personality, Stress and Job Satisfaction to Job
Performance of Teachers at Senior High School
___________________ 2) A Phenomenological Study of the Lived Experiences of Elementary
Principals Involved in Dual-Career Relationships with Children
___________________ 3) Cognitive Styles and Gender as Predictors of Students’ Achievement in
Summary Writing in Selected Secondary Schools in Ibadan, Nigeria
___________________ 4) Determinants of Self-Esteem, Educational Performance and Career
Prospects among Secondary School Students in Navakholo Constituency,
Kakamega, Kenya
___________________ 5) The Vietnam War, Its Causes, Consequences, and Scars it Left
II. From the set of research topics below, encircle the general topic and underline the specific
topics.
1)
blended-learning in tertiary education | impact of blended-learning | methods of blended-learning
2)
effect of stress in job performance | job performance of math teachers |
relationship between personality and job performance
3)
association between entrance exam results and licensure exam results |
influence of study habits to the licensure exam results |
licensure exam results of BEED graduates
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Lesson 2.1:
Writing A Research Problem
Lesson Summary
This lesson discusses how to begin writing a research paper by writing the research problem.
Learning Outcomes
In this chapter, the learners would be able to:
1) Describe the an ideal research problem
2) Develop a research problem
3) Formulate research objectives
4) Write the first chapter of the research paper
Motivation Question
What are the steps you need to follow when writing a research problem?
Discussion
The Research Problem
A research problem is the concrete and specific issue, irregularity, uncertainty, difficulty,
contradiction, or gap in knowledge that a researcher desire to address in the research. Other
researchers opt for recent and prevalent problems and seek to provide solutions, or simply pose
theories that will expand knowledge about the problem.
Formulating the Research Problem
Formulating the research problem is the first and most important step in the research process. It is
like the foundation of a building to be constructed. Also, it is like identifying the identifying the destination
for undertaking a journey. The main role of formulating the research problem is to decide what a
researcher want to find out and how will a researcher find out. Normally, in social science researches,
they revolved around people, problems, programs, or phenomenon.
Vision:
Mission:

People refers to the group of individual such as students, parents, families, members
of an organization, residents of a barangay, or school officials. A researcher can
generate a research problem from these group of people.

Problems refer to issues concerning the lives of the people. A researcher can
generate a research problem specifically on the attitude of the people towards a
certain problem. Or simply a knowledge or theory that a researcher wants to add to
the problem.

Programs refer to policies or interventions concerning people. This includes the new
teaching strategy being implemented to ease learning problems of students. The
researcher may establish the impact of the new teaching strategy. This may also
include the retention guidelines of students in a specific curricular program. The
researcher may evaluate the effectiveness of the guidelines.

Phenomenon refers to condition or scenario concerning people. The researcher can
explore the phenomenon to add new additional theories about the phenomenon. In
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the light of the pandemic COVID-19, several researchers brought out new knowledge
about the virus. Apart from discovering the anti-viral solution, the new knowledge
include the following: the life span of the virus on metals, wood, or cloth; the mortality
rate; and the type of blood susceptible to the virus.
A research problem may take from very simple to the very complex form. The way a researcher
formulate the research problem determine the steps that will be followed in the research process. This
includes the decision to choose an appropriate research design, the specific selection of respondents in
the study, the appropriate, concrete or specific instruments to be developed or used, and the kind of
analysis and interpretation that will be used.
Considerations When Selecting a Research Problem
In choosing a research problem, the following considerations are kept in mind. These will ensure
that the research study that will be conducted in manageable.

Interest. This includes the personal motivation of the researcher to finish the research
study. Also, this includes the selection topic that is of great interest to the researcher
and the community. The interesting the topic is, the higher chance of completion.

Magnitude. This refers the coverage of the research problem in terms of time and
resources. The researcher needs to narrow down the research problem into
manageable, clear, or specific details of the study.

Level of Expertise. This refers to the adequacy of knowledge of the researcher in
conducting the research study. This includes the professional background,
experiences, or support of the researcher.

Relevance. This refers to the potential of the study to add new knowledge to the
present conditions or phenomenon. The results of the study is useful in making
decisions, policies or guidelines.

Availability of Data. This refers to the assurance of the readily available data once
data-gathering is conducted. The data is the soul of a research study, thus the
researcher has to see ahead of time the availability of data.

Ethical Issues. This includes the legal or ethical aspects to be followed in the conduct
of the study. This includes the preservation of integrity of the life (human, plants and
animals).
Steps in Formulating the Research Problem
A specific, clear, and well-defined research problem keep the research more focused that the
results much achievable. The research problem is the primary statement that poses a big question that a
research is geared to answer. It is also considered as main problem that a researcher will solve.
Formulating the research problem is a very important part in conducting research. The research
problem reflect the quality and relevance of the entire research study. The following steps are normally
used by the researchers in formulating a research problem:
Step 1: Choose a Broad Topic. Identify an interesting broad topic. Choose an under-explored
topics, conflicts, or controversies. Your aim to find the gap that your research can fill. It is commonly
suggested to think about topics which are useful after graduation or in your future career.
Step 2: Dissect the Broad Topic into Sub-topics. Break down, as many as you can, the broad
topic into specific topics that are manageable, researchable, and doable at a specific period of time.
Step 3: Select Sub-topics. Select one or two sub-topic that is/are of interest to you. Choose the
sub-topic that is manageable and researchable. The best sub-topic is the one that has a very high
research significance to your future career.
Step 4: Formulate the Objectives. Formulate reasonable number of objectives based on the
selected sub-topic. The objectives of the study should stem out from the selected sub-topic. The
objectives are listed down in sequential and logical order according to the flow of the needed information.
Vision:
Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Step 5. Develop the Research Title. Develop the research title that captures the final list of
objectives. The title must contain the main sub-topics, methods, and participants of the study, among
others.
Illustrative Example 1
STEPS
Step 1
RESULTS OF BRAINSTORMING
BPED and MAPEH Students
Step 2










Step 3


Step 4
Step 5
Skills of BPED and MAPEH
students prior to enrollment
Test anxiety of BPED and MAPEH
students
Time-management of BPED and
MAPEH students
Reasons for choosing BPED and
MAPEH
Study habits of BPED and
MAPEH students
Factors in making decision to
choose BPED and MAPEH
Work status of the BPED and
MAPEH graduates today
Perceptions of the BPED and
MAPEH students about the course
before enrolling.
Attitude of the BPED and MAPEH
students during their stay with the
program (at lest 1 year)
Recommendations of the BPED
and MAPEH graduates
Test anxiety of BPED and MAPEH
students
Study habits of BPED and
MAPEH students
To determine the test anxiety level
of the BPED and MAPEH
students.
 To identify the different study
habits of the BPED and MAPEH
students.
 To establish the relationship
between test anxiety and the
study habits of the BPED and
MAPEH students.
Correlational Study: Test Anxiety and
Study Habits of BPED and MAPEH
Students at VSU-Isabel

EXPLANATIONS
The researcher is a group of 4th year
MAPEH students. They chose this topic
because this of interest to them and is
useful in their field.
The members of the group gave randomly
break down of the main topic “BPED and
MAPEH students”
The group decided to choose “test anxiety”
and “study habits” because of the limited
time to finish the research study. With
these sub-topics, they can find readily
available survey materials than can be
used on the study.
The members of the group formulated
these objectives and listed down in
sequential and logical order.
The group decided to use the correlational
method with the two (2) sub-topics. They
chose the BPED and MAPEH Students at
VSU-Isabel so that it would be easy for
them to gather the data with the given
short time to finish the study.
As researchers, three things consider in making a research title: 1) the title is original; 2) the title is
of good interest; and 3) the title is researchable. Presented below are sample research titles.
Topics
Business
Vision:
Mission:

Sample Research Titles
The Effect of Advertisement on Consumer Behavior.
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Academic Achievement











Math Education




Science Education
Physical Education
Vision:
Mission:
Impact of Wages on Employee Productivity
Strategic Management and Productivity
Staff Motivation and Impact on Productivity
Management and Measuring of Employee Retention
The Effect of Extra-Curricular Activities on Student’s
Perceived Academic Self-Efficacy
Homelessness and Academic Success Among Females
The Impact of Cooperative Learning on Student
Achievement
The Effects of Outside Employment on High School
Students Academic Achievement
The Effects of Student Participation in Organized,
Competitive Sports on Academic Success
The Relationship Between Socio-Economic Status and
Student Achievement
The Impact of Parental Involvement on the Academic
Achievement of 3rd Grade Students
An Exploration into Teacher’s Pedagogical Content
Knowledge (PCK) for Teaching Quadratic Functions in
Grade 10
Overcoming Difficulties in Learning Calculus Concepts: The
Case of Grade 12S Students
The Impact of Integrating Smartphone Technology on Grade
10 Learners’ Achievement in Algebra
A Case Study: Investigating a Model that Integrates
Dictionary and Polygon Pieces in Teaching and Learning of
Geometry to Grade 8 Learners
For more sample titles with abstract, click the link below:
 http://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/6440
 https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/mathed_etd/
 The Impact of Integrating Traditional Ecological Knowledge
in Summer Camps on Middle School Students’
Understanding of the Nature of Science
 Computer-Based Instruction as a Form of Differentiated
Instruction in a Traditional, Teacher-led, Low-Income, High
School Biology Classroom
For more sample titles with abstract, click the link below:
 https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/scienceeducation_grad/
 https://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/SCIENCE_TEACH
ING
 http://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/6442
 The full golf swing: comparing computer-based and teacherdirected instructions.
 Skill acquisition in basketball: the effect of observational
learning.
 Physical training teacher education: the integration of
technology.
 Athletic training: using the computer simulation to measure
decision-making skills.
 The effect of in-service training on the attitudes of physical
education teachers.
 Analyzing the effect of a computer-based fitness program on
students’ fitness scores.
 The usage of the video instruction to train female university
badminton players.
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PhEd 140 - Research








The influence of music on the step frequency of recreational
runners.
Practical blood flow restriction training and its hypertrophic
effects.
The responses of the overweight individuals to high-intensity
interval training.
Maximal effort strength training and acute neuromuscular
fatigue after it.
Physical fitness exercises and the core muscle
electromyographic activity.
The impact of the unexpected exercises on an untrained
individual.
The effect on female soccer players after consuming
carbohydrate supplements.
A comparison of different middle school physical education
programs.
Characteristics of Good Research Objectives
After formulating the research objectives of the study, it is best for the researchers to evaluate
them. Presented below are the characteristics of good research objectives with the acronym SMART.
Specific or Systematic. The research objectives are specific when they have clear and in-depth
meaning or detail. They observe a systematic arrangement by listing down in sequential and logical
order.
Measurable. The research objectives are capable of being measured or gathered. The researcher
may use readily available survey material after asking permission from the main source. After having
gathered the data, they are capable of being applied with statistical measurements.
Achievable. The research objectives are achievable after considering the availability of personal
resources, capacity, and capability of the researchers.
Relevant or Reliable. The research objectives are relevant in the sense that they can be useful to
the community. The expected results of the study is reliable after considering the authentic participants
of the research study
Time-Based. The research objectives are time-based when the specific timeline set for the entire
research study can be attained.
Writing the First Chapter of the Research Paper
The Chapter One of a research study is normally entitled as The Research Problem. It presents
background of the entire research study. The basic parts of the chapter one includes introduction,
statement of the problems, significance of the study, scope and limitation of the study, and definition of
terms.
The Introduction. There are three thing to consider when writing the introduction in your research
paper. It includes the following: 1) attract attention; 2) establish credibility; 3) present benefit; and 3)
outline the structure of the study.
The introduction is the first part of a research paper, which plays a significant role in the entire
research study. It is the part where other researchers likely to read first. The introduction will guide the
readers from the general problem to the sub-problems. It presents the scope, context, and significance
of the research study. Assuming that other researchers are interested with your research title and the
abstract, the introduction captures the attention of other researchers to keep reading once they started
reading it. The introduction section narrates why you choose this topic and explains why it is important. It
is also in the introduction section that you will point out the gap of knowledge where your research study
can fill in. It also gives background information of your research study by describing the research
problem and lead to offering solutions to the problem. The background information covers from the local
information, national information to international information. You also need to include short reviews of
other solutions to the problem that have been tried in the past. The last part of the introduction will cite
the main objectives of the research study that your research study aim to achieve.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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The four basic parts will serve as your guide in your introduction: 1) present background
information; 2) introduce the specific topic and explain its importance; 3) cite previous attempts in
solving the problem; and 4) mention objectives of the research study.
The Statement of the Problem. The statement of the problem section presents the general and
specific problems of the research study. Normally, the research title captures the entirety of the research
study. The specific details are presented in the statement of the problem, which are written either
question form or objective form.
An adequate statement of the problem is a crucial part of the research. It presents the specific
sub-problems (or sub-topic) covered in a broad problem (or topic). In many cases, there are research
studies that have the same problem but different sub-problems. The statement of the problem outlines
the flow of the sub-problem that are necessary to solve the main problem or issues focused in the study.
Each of these sub-problems are crucial, relevant, and contributory to solve the main problem. The
researcher will not include a sub-problem that does not contribute to the main problem. Instead, that can
be be used as a springboard to another research study.
The statement of the problem presents clear purpose of the research study, both to yourself and
the reader. It is a very important device in keeping you in track with your research study. This can also
be used in evaluating whether the research address the problem as being stated.
The Significance of the Study. The significance of the study section provides details of the
contribution of the research study to groups of individual. The groups of individuals who will benefit the
research study are enumerated in this section. Normally, the groups of individuals will include the future
researchers, the communities with immediate concern of the problem, and policy makers or
administrators. In this section, you will clearly describe how the groups of individuals will benefit the
research study.
The Scope and Limitation of the Study. The scope and limitation section describes the extent of
the study. This includes the actual place where the study will be conducted, duration of the conduct of
the study, inclusion of the study (only the specific aspect of the topic or study), limit of the number of
respondents, and area limit (if applicable).
The Definition of Terms. The definition of terms section provides an alphabetical list of important
terms or acronyms used in the research study. These include particular theoretical constructs, formulas,
operational definitions that differ from colloquial definitions, schools of thought and discipline-specific
acronyms.
This section presents how these important terminologies are operationally used in the research
study. You will not necessarily use the definition from dictionary, books, thesaurus, etc. It only explicitly
describes how these specific terminologies, theoretical constructs, or formulas are operationally used in
the study, which operational definitions differ from the colloquial definitions. This section includes as
many terms as needed.
In writing the operational definition of the terms in this section, you have to be consistent of its
definition all throughout the research study. How you define such terms would considerably affect how
the reader understands your study.
Presented below are common examples of terms used in the research study. Along with the
examples are definition from books, dictionaries, or thesaurus, and the operational definition.
Terminologies
Effectiveness
Vision:
Mission:
Definition from Books,
Dictionaries, etc
Effectiveness means having an
intended or expected effect.
Media
An agency by which something is
accomplished,
conveyed
or
translated is called media.
Perception of the
Students
The ability to see, hear, or become
aware of something through the
senses.
Operational Definition
Effectiveness refers to the scores earned
by the respondents on environment
awareness test.
Media refers to the computer taken as
media to convey (teaching), for Power
Point Presentation and audio video
cassettes.
Perception of the Students refers to the
response results in the survey before the
students are exposed to the technology in
teaching linear equation.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Attitude of
Students
the
A settled way of thinking or feeling
about someone or something,
typically one that is reflected in a
person's behavior.
Attitude of the Students refers to the
response results in the survey after the
students are exposed to the technology in
teaching linear equation.
Learning Tasks/Activities
Name___________________________________________ Lesson No______ Course & Year_______
Directions: Analyze and answer the problems below.
A) Match Box A contains questions about formulating the research problem. Box B
contains answer to the questions in Box A. Simply match Box A with Box B.
BOX A
1)
What is the first step in formulating a research problem?
2)
Why is it important to formulate a clear research problem?
3)
What elements should be included in a well-formulated research problem?
4)
How can a researcher ensure that the research problem is feasible?
5)
True or False: The research problem should be specific and narrow in scope.
6)
What does formulating the research problem involve?
7)
Why is formulating the research problem important?
8)
What are some common pitfalls to avoid when formulating the research problem?
9)
How can a well-formulated research problem contribute to the success of a study?
BOX B
Vision:
Mission:
a)
It involves identifying and defining the issue that the research aims to address.
b)
Identifying a topic of interest or an issue that requires investigation.
c)
A clear research problem helps in guiding the research process, identifying the scope of the study, and
determining the research objectives and hypotheses.
d)
It provides a clear direction for the research, helps in developing appropriate research questions, and
increases the chances of obtaining meaningful results.
e)
It helps researchers clarify the focus of their study and establish the foundation for further investigation.
f)
A well-formulated research problem includes a clear statement of the problem, the variables involved,
the population of interest, and the research objectives.
g)
By conducting a preliminary literature review, assessing available resources, and considering ethical
and practical implications.
h)
True. A specific and narrow research problem allows for focused research and helps avoid ambiguity.
i)
Lack of clarity, vague wording, and making assumptions without supporting evidence.
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B) Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1) Which of the following is an important consideration when selecting a research problem?
a) Availability of data
b) Number of participants recruited
c) Research funding
d) Length of the research project
2) Why is interest an important consideration when selecting a research problem?
a) It ensures that the research problem will have a broad impact.
b) It increases the likelihood of successfully completing the research.
c) It guarantees the availability of funding for the research.
d) It eliminates the need for a literature review.
3) Which of the following is NOT a factor contributing to the magnitude of a research problem?
a) The potential impact on society or a specific field
b) The complexity of the research question
c) The time required to collect and analyze data
d) The expertise of the researcher
4) What is an important consideration when it comes to the level of expertise in selecting a
research problem?
a) The more complex the research problem, the less expertise is required.
b) The researcher should always select a problem related to their expertise.
c) Consulting with experts in the field is unnecessary.
d) The researcher may select a problem that requires some level of learning and
acquiring new skills.
5) Why is relevance an important consideration when selecting a research problem?
a) It ensures the research will attract media attention.
b) It guarantees the research findings will be universally accepted.
c) It aligns the research with current societal or academic needs.
d) It prevents the researcher from publishing negative results.
6) Why is the availability of data an important consideration when selecting a research problem?
a) It determines the cost of the research project.
b) It ensures the research will be statistically significant.
c) It saves time and resources in data collection.
d) It guarantees the researcher will have access to all necessary equipment.
7) What is an important consideration related to ethical issues when selecting a research
problem?
a) Ethical issues are irrelevant when selecting a research problem.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
b) The potential risks and benefits to participants or stakeholders.
c) Ethical issues only apply to medical and psychological research.
d) Ethical approval is not necessary for research projects.
8) What is the purpose of the first chapter of a research paper?
a) To present the findings of the research
b) To introduce the research topic and provide background information
c) To discuss the methodologies used in the study
d) To analyze the data collected
9) Which section of the research paper addresses the specific issue or problem that the study
aims to resolve?
a) The Introduction
b) The Statement of the Problem
c) The Significance of the Study
d) The Scope and Limitation of the Study
10) What is the purpose of the Significance of the Study section in the first chapter?
a)
To explain the statistical methods used in the study
b)
To discuss the implications and importance of the research
c)
To provide a detailed description of the study's limitations
d)
To present a comprehensive definition of terms
11) Which section of the research paper defines the boundaries and limitations of the study?
a) The Introduction
b) The Statement of the Problem
c) The Significance of the Study
d) The Scope and Limitation of the Study
12) What is the purpose of the Definition of Terms section in the first chapter?
a) To provide a summary of the literature review
b) To present the research methodology
c) To describe the target population for the study
d) To clarify the meaning of key terms used in the research
C) Identify what characteristic of a good research objective is stated in each item below.
1) Which characteristic of good research objectives emphasizes the need for objectives to be
clear, concise, and well-defined?
2) Which characteristic of good research objectives ensures that objectives can be observed,
recorded, or quantified?
3) Which characteristic of good research objectives ensures that objectives are realistic and
attainable within the available resources?
4) Which characteristic of good research objectives ensures that objectives are directly related
to the research problem and provide valuable information?
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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5) Which characteristic of good research objectives emphasizes the need for objectives to
have a specific time frame or deadline?
Instructions on how to submit student output
Write the answer in your notebook which will be checked next meeting. Be ready for an oral exam.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Lesson 2.2:
Real-world Applications
Let us Observe and Learn From Research Outputs
Presented in this section are sample research outputs. Some of these are published in
international research journals. Observe how the parts of chapter one of the research papers are written
by the researchers.
Illustrative Example 2
The Introduction. Presented below is a sample introduction of a research study about
collaborative learning conducted by Ha Le, Jeroen Janseen, and Theo Wubbels. The introduction below
composed of two (2) paragraphs and sixteen (16) sentences, which are numbered for convenience.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Collaborative Learning Practices: Teacher and Student Perceived Obstacles to Effective Student
Collaboration
Ha Le, Jeroen Janssen and Theo Wubbels
Introduction
Collaborative learning (CL) can be defined as a set of teaching and learning strategies
promoting student collaboration in small groups (two to five students) in order to optimise their own
and each other’s learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). 2To achieve this purpose, teachers have tried
to organise different types of collaborative activities in their classroom teaching. 3In this paper, we
report on teacher and student perceived features of collaborative activities that teachers have
implemented to foster student collaboration. 4Over the last decades, research has demonstrated that
CL can promote academic and social educational outcomes (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 2007;
Slavin, 1996). 5However, research also shows that the implementation of CL is not always adequate in
daily classroom practice. 6For example, even though teachers organise different types of student
groupings (e.g. heterogeneous or homogeneous according to ability or gender), they do not always
structure these group interactions to foster effective collaboration (Baker & Clark, 2010; Blatchford,
Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003). 7When examining the effectiveness of CL, researchers have noted
challenges that students experience such as unequal individual participation in group tasks (e.g.
Freeman & Greenacre, 2010; Janssen, Erkens, Kanselaar, & Jaspers, 2007), and students’ lack of
communicative and collaborative skills (e.g. Li & Campbell, 2008; Pauli, Mohiyeddini, Bray, Michie, &
Street, 2008). 8Similarly, teachers also encounter challenges while organising collaborative activities,
such as designing appropriate group tasks, composing groups, managing class time (Gillies &
Boyle, 2010), and enhancing and monitoring productive collaboration (Hämäläinen &
Vähäsantanen, 2011; Van Leeuwen, Janssen, Erkens, & Brekelmans, 2013).
9Studies on the application of CL until now have investigated challenges perceived by only one
actor, either teachers (e.g. Gillies & Boyle, 2010) or students (e.g. Popov et al., 2012). 10By focusing
solely on teachers or students, the underlying antecedents of problems that teachers and students
encounter during CL and the consequences of these problems have not been explored
comprehensively. 11For example, understanding the commonly mentioned problem of free-riding
(Dommeyer, 2007; Popov et al., 2012) requires investigating decisions teachers make while
constructing collaborative tasks (e.g. deciding to incorporate individual accountability and positive
interdependence or not; cf. Roseth, Johnson, & Johnson, 2008) and how these decisions
subsequently affect students’ perceptions of the collaborative task and the collaborative behaviour this
elicits (e.g. deciding to participate less than other group members because the task is not perceived to
be a true group task that requires the input of all group members; cf. Janssen et al., 2007). 12Hence,
our study extends previous work in two ways. 13First, we investigate multiple obstacles that affect the
collaborative process perceived by both students and teachers. 14Previous studies focused either on
one obstacle instead of multiple (e.g. Freeman & Greenacre, 2010; Ross, 2008), or investigated
obstacles only from the perception of either the teachers (e.g. Abrami, Poulsen, & Chambers, 2004) or
the students (e.g. Chiriac & Granström, 2012). 15Second, we explore possible antecedents that might
help on explaining the identified obstacles. 16This is important because understanding possible causes
of ineffective collaboration can help teachers to promote more successful and enjoyable CL
experiences.
1
SOURCE:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0305764X.2016.1259389
The introduction presented above shows the four parts of the introduction: 1) present background
information; 2) introduce the specific topic and explain its importance; 3) cite previous attempts in
solving the problem; and 4) mention the main objective of the research study.
As observed in sentences 1 and 2, the background information of the collaborative learning was
presented. In sentence 3, a specific topic on teacher and student perceived features of collaborative
activities was presented. Also, its importance which is fostering student collaboration was cited. The
sentences 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 cited previous attempts in solving classroom management using
the collaborative learning. The sentence 12, 13, 14, and 15 mentioned the objectives of the research
study. The sentence 16 explained further the importance of the research study.
Generally the sample introduction above possessed the following characteristics: 1) attract
attention; 2) establish credibility; 3) present benefit; and 3) outline the structure of the study
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Another important feature in the sample introduction shown above is the author-year citation For
instance, Baker & Clark, 2010; Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003. This shows that its
preceding statement was cited by the researchers from the published source whose authors are Baker
and Clark (published in 2010) and Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, & Galton (published in 2003).
Illustrative Example 3
The Statement of the Problem. Presented below is a sample statement of the problem from an
unpublished research paper. In some cases, the publication format from different international and local
journals no longer cite a specific section of the statement of the problem. This is already incorporated in
the introduction. For classroom teaching purposes, the statement of the problem in chapter one, the
statement of the problem is explicitly cited by the student researchers. Also, when researchers submit
research proposals for funding, this section is explicitly cited for evaluation purposes.
The Relationship Between Learning Style and Mathematics Performance of
1st Year Students at VSU-Isabel.
Engely V. Camogao, Cherie O. Gallo, Wendelyn T. Limpangog
Mirosal Q. Saliente, Jennifer S. Sumalo, Gennieveve O. Velez, Rhona C. Ymas
BEED-III, Department of Teacher Education, Visayas State University - Isabel
Statement of the Problem
This study aimed to determine the relationship between VARK (Visual, Auditory, Reading,
Kinesthetic) learning style and mathematics performance of BSEd-Math 1, BSEd-English 1, BSAB-1, and
BEEd-1 VSU-I Students. Specifically, this study aimed:
1. To determine VARK Learning Styles of the respondents;
2. To evaluate the Mathematics Performance of the respondents; and
3. To establish the relationship between the VARK Learning Styles and Mathematics
Performance of the respondents.
Observe that the three (3) sub-problems above are stated in objectives form. In other format, they
are stated in interrogative form. In this example, there are two variables (VARK Learning Style and
Mathematics Performance). The main objective is to find out if there is a relationship between these
variable. In the specific objectives 1 and 2, these two variable are cited in objective form separately.
In objective 1, the researchers will classify each student-respondents according to learning
learning style using the VARK survey. The students will be classified to any of the following: visual
learners, auditory learners, reading learners, and kinesthetic learners.
In objective 2, the researchers will evaluate the mathematics performance of the studentrespondents using the mathematics midterm grade of the students in the same subject under the same
instructor. Based on their grades, they will be classified as excellent, very good, good, average, poor,
and needs improvement.
In objective 3, the researchers will establish the relationship between VARK learning style and
mathematics performance. Considering the categorical data information in objectives 1 and 2, the
researcher will utilize the chi-square analysis in establishing the relationship. In this objective, the
researcher will use the tabular presentation below during the data presentation and analysis stage.
Further details about data presentation and analysis will be discusses in the later chapter.
Visual
Auditory
Reading
Kinesthetic
p-value
Significance
Excellent
Very Good
Good
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Average
Poor
Needs
Improvement
Observe another sample of statement of the problem below. Some publication format are using
the term Objectives of the Study.
Illustrative Example 4
The Influence of University Entrance Examination Results, Gender and Field of Study on Semester
Cumulative Grade-point Averages (CGPAs) of First Year Students: The Case of Raya University
Mengesha Nigus Birhanu
College of Social Science and Humanities, Raya University
Objectives of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate university entrance examination, sex and field of study
as predictors of first year students’ GPA among Raya University students.
Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of the study include:
1) To examine the interrelationship between predictor variables (university entrance
examination, sex and field of study) and semester CGPAs of students;
2) To see gender differences among first year students’ GPA scores; and
3) To identify the most predictor variable among predictor variables of the study.
Observe that there are three (3) three specific objectives. The main objective is to investigate the
university entrance examination, sex, and field of study as predictors grade point average.
In objective 1, the researcher will find out if the three predictor variables (university entrance
examination, sex and field of study) has a relationship with the GPA of the students.
In objective 2, the researcher will find out if there is a significant difference between the grades of
male and female students.
In objective 3, the researcher will find out which among the three predictor variables (university
entrance examination, sex and field of study) is the consider as the most predictor to the GPA of the
students. The kinds of statistical treatment of data on this kind of data sets will be discussed in the other
chapter.
Illustrative Example 5
The Significance of the Study. Presented below is an example of significance of the study from
from unpublished student research outputs. In most cases, this section is not anymore cited in various
publication format. For classroom teaching purposes, this section in chapter one is explicitly cited by the
student researchers. Also, when researchers submit research proposals for funding, this section is
explicitly cited for evaluation purposes.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Personality and Stress Level of BSEd-Math Students in VSU-Isabel: The Association Analysis
Daphny R.Donayre, Aljohn B. Estrera, Dianne P.Ignacio,
Eleazer P. Lagadon, Aira M. Monterona, and Marvie R. Surigao
BSED Math IV, Visayas State University - Isabel
Significance of the Study
The study is focused on the relationship of personality and stress level of BSEd-Math students
that is beneficial to the following:
Student. The student will be benefited from this study in a way that they will know their
personality type and how to cope up stress base on their innate personality trait/s.
Math Students. The BSEd-Math students will benefit from this study in a way that they will be
aware in the different stressors that affects their academic performance so that they will know how to
avoid the stress that will affect their personality.
Teacher. The teacher will benefit from the study in a way that they can help the students in
coping up stress through implementing and using strategies or methods of teaching that will lessen the
students’ stress level.
Department of Teacher Education (DTE). The DTE will benefit from this study in a way that
they will conduct seminars, symposiums and make some adjustments on handling the students to
avoid high level of stress of the students.
School. The school in general will benefit from this study in a way that the they can determine
the factors that affects the students’ emotional, physical and academic performance and can
implement possible solutions that will also benefit the students especially in dealing their stress level.
Future Researchers. This study will benefit future researchers in a way they will be able to use
this study as their references and will serve as a guide to complete research study.
In this section, you can think of as many group of individuals as necessary who will take benefit of
the study. Observe that it is explained above how the group of individuals can make use of the study. It
is wiser to explicitly and deliberately present how they can make use of your study so that more
researchers will quote and cite your study.
Illustrative Example 6
The Scope and Limitation of the Study. Presented below is a sample of published research
output showing the scope and limitation section of the study about the relationship between types of
intelligence and career choice. It is composed of two (2) paragraphs and eight (8)sentences. The
sentences are numbered for your convenience.
Relationship Between Types of Intelligence And Career Choice Among Undergraduate Students Of
Maseno University, Kenya
Richard Juma Atela, Prof. Lucas Othuon Ph.D, and Prof. John .O. Agak, Ph.D.
School of Education, Maseno University, P.O Private Bag, Maseno, Kenya
Scope and Limitation of the Study
1
The target population was first-year students and therefore the sample did not include all students
in other academic years at Maseno University or in any other public university. 2The B.Ed. programmes
were included in the scope of the study because of their strong bearing on multiple intelligence as
reflected in the five cohorts in the B.Ed. programmes. 3Lastly, B.Ed. programmes are also a
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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representative in study units either in sciences, humanities or languages.
4Due
to the uniformity and duplicity of the B.Ed programmes and courses in Kenyan public
universities, the study was limited to only one public university, Maseno University. 5For comprehensive
results all public, private universities and other institutions of higher should have been included in the
study, but financial and other logistical constraints made it impossible to cover all institutions of higher
learning in the country. 6The integration of (KUCCPS) regular and self-sponsored (Special) students
posed a daunting limitation to administration of instruments as it was difficult to decipher the motives of
the career choice. 7Further, cohorts may be difficult to isolate due to confounding variables like
similarity in subject choices and common units. 8Since the study was done with large groups especially
in the B.Ed Arts and B.Ed-Science, this may have obscured important individual and subgroup
differences for groups with low enrolments like B.Ed-French.
The first paragraph presents the scope of the research study. In sentence 1, it is explained that the
set of respondents are first year students of Maseno University. In sentence 2, it is specifically explained
that students under B.Ed programmes were included in the study. In sentence 3, it is clearly specified
further that students under sciences, humanities, or languages curriculum were covered in the study.
Observe that sentences 1 and 2 provide brief explanation on the selection of this set of respondents.
The second paragraph presents that limitation of the research study. In sentence 4, it explained
that only one public university is used in the study - the Maseno University. In sentence 5, it is explained
why non-inclusion of all university is made. This is due to financial and logical constraints. In sentence 6,
it presents further other limitations in relation to administration of instruments when self-sponsored
students are included. In sentences 7 and 8, it explained further other reasons why non-inclusion of
other sets of students are made.
In this section, you can present as many scope and limitations as needed. You can also include
explanation why limited only to certain few variables. Also for data that has concern to time element, you
can also include explanation on why only a specific period of time is used in the study. This is the
section where you can present certain coverage and boundaries of the research study.
Illustrative Example 7
The Definition of Terms. Presented below is a sample of unpublished student research output
showing the definition of terms section.
Associational Analysis: Teaching Styles and Teaching Efficacy of the Fourth-Year Education Students
at VSU-Isabel
Jamaica Olorvida, Gerald Anderson D. Zamora, Anjo A. Alcorroque,
Ma. Florafel M. Requiso, Amelita E. Astillero, Jessie P. Palad, Mariane G. Lacbayo
BSED-MAPEH IV, Visayas State University - Isabel
Definition of Terms
Teaching Efficacy. It refers to the level of efficiency of the education students during their
practice teaching as reflected in their response on the survey questionnaire developed by Megan
Tschannen-Moran, College of William and Mary Anita Woolfolk Hoy, the Ohio State University.
Teaching Style. It refers to the varied teaching style used by the practice teachers that
determine their efficacy in the field of teaching as reflected in their response on the survey
questionnaire developed by Grasha-Riechamann
Observe that teaching efficacy and teaching style are explicitly defined by the researchers as the
results from the survey responded by the student-respondents. Aside from its original definition, this kind
of definition of this section will give enlightenment to the readers that these significant variables of the
study will produce data ready for data analysis and interpretation.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Learning Tasks/Activities
Name__________________________________________ Lesson No. _____ Course & Year ________
Directions: Analyze and answer the problems below.
A) Identify what is being stated in each item. Choose from the different parts of Chapter 1 in a
research paper; namely, Introduction, Statement of the Problem, Significance of the Study,
Scope and Limitation of the Study, and Definition of Terms.
1) Which part of Chapter 1 in a research paper provides an overview of the topic and presents
background information?
2) In which part of Chapter 1 does the researcher explicitly state the aim of the study?
3) Which component of Chapter 1 focuses on the practical application and implications of the research?
4) Which part of Chapter 1 outlines the boundaries, range or constraints within which the study is
conducted?
5) Which part of Chapter 1 defines and clarifies any technical or ambiguous terms used in the research?
B) Identify what part of Chapter 1 of a research paper is presented in column 1. Choose from the
different parts of Chapter 1 in a research paper; namely, Introduction, Statement of the
Problem, Significance of the Study, Scope and Limitation of the Study, and Definition of
Terms. Write your answer in Column 2.
Research Title: Correlation Between Test Anxiety in Math and Study Habits
Item No.
Column 1
1
The study on the correlation between test anxiety in math and study habits
has various importance for different stakeholders.
Column 2
Parents: The study will help parents understand the possible impact of
test anxiety on their child's math performance. They will become aware that
high levels of test anxiety can negatively affect study habits, leading to lower
grades. Armed with this knowledge, parents can provide the necessary
support to help their child manage test anxiety, such as teaching relaxation
techniques or seeking professional help if required. Parents can guide their
child in developing effective study habits and strategies, which can minimize
anxiety and improve math performance.
Teachers: The study findings will help teachers identify students who
exhibit signs of high test anxiety. This will enable them to provide additional
support and resources tailored to those students' needs. With knowledge of
the correlation between test anxiety and study habits, teachers can adapt
their teaching strategies to reduce anxiety-inducing situations during learning
and assessment. This may involve providing clear guidelines, creating a
positive classroom environment, or using alternative evaluation methods.
Students: The study will allow students to recognize the impact of test
anxiety on their study habits. It will encourage them to reflect on their anxiety
levels and seek ways to manage it effectively. Students will be empowered to
take control of their learning process by implementing strategies to cope with
test anxiety. This includes time management, breaking down tasks, seeking
help, and practicing self-care. By understanding the correlation, students can
develop study habits that reduce their anxiety and enhance their learning
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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experience in math, ultimately leading to improved academic performance.
Principals: The study will help principals allocate resources towards
supporting students with test anxiety. They can invest in counseling services,
workshops, or professional development opportunities focused on strategies
to manage anxiety and improve study habits. Principals can use the study
findings as a basis for formulating school-wide policies that promote a
supportive learning environment and encourage effective study habits. This
may involve incorporating stress-management programs or revising
assessment approaches to reduce anxiety levels.
2
This study aims to investigate the correlation between test anxiety in math
and study habits. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following research
questions:
1) What is the level of test anxiety among students in math?
2) What are the different study habits employed by students in mathematics?
3) Is there a significant relationship between test anxiety in math and study
habits?
3
To ensure clarity and understanding throughout the study, the following key
terms are defined operationally:
Test Anxiety: Refers to the psychological and physiological distress
experienced by students before, during, or after taking a math test,
manifested through symptoms such as increased heart rate, sweating,
difficulty concentrating, and fear of failure.
Study Habits: Pertains to the behaviors, strategies, and techniques
employed by students to enhance their learning and understanding of
mathematics, including time management, organization, note-taking, and
practice.
Correlation: Defines the statistical relationship between two variables,
indicating the strength and direction of their association. In this study, it
specifically refers to the relationship between test anxiety in math and study
habits.
4
Students' academic performance is influenced by various factors, such
as study habits and test anxiety. These factors play a crucial role in
determining students' success in their academic endeavors. Among all
subjects, mathematics is often considered as one of the most challenging
subjects, and students often experience anxiety when faced with math tests.
On the other hand, study habits are defined as the behaviors and techniques
employed by students to enhance their learning and understanding of the
subject matter. It is essential to examine the correlation between test anxiety
in math and study habits to gain insights into how these factors interact and
influence academic performance.
5
Vision:
Mission:
This study will focus on students in the secondary level (grades 9-12)
and will be conducted in a specific educational institution. The research will
involve collecting quantitative data through surveys and questionnaires to
measure students' levels of test anxiety and study habits in mathematics.
However, it should be noted that this study does not account for other factors
that may contribute to test anxiety, such as individual learning differences,
teaching methods, or external pressures. Furthermore, the study's findings
may not be generalizable to students in other educational levels or
institutions.
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
C) There are two (2) research topic boxes presented below. Classify the topics according to
general topic, specific topic, and research objectives. Write your answers inside the table
below.
Box No.
1
General Topic
Specific Topic
Research Objectives
2
Research Topic Box 1

What is the relationship between Internet addiction level among high school students at Irbid
public schools, and their psychosocial adaptation problems?

Level of internet addiction among high school students

Are there any statistically significant differences for the Internet addiction among high school
students at Irbid public schools that may be attributed to the variables of (study branch, gender,
grade, average browsing hours per session, average in the first semester)?

Relationship of psychosocial adaptation and level of internet addiction

What is the level of Internet addiction among high school students at Irbid Public Schools?

What are the negative results of using Internet among high school students at Irbid Public
Schools, from their standpoint?
Research Topic Box 2

To determine the school based factors that affect student performance in science & mathematics
in primary schools.

Students' Academic Achievement in Science and Mathematics in Primary Schools of Hawassa
City.

To identify the student related factors that affect student performance in science & mathematics
in primary schools.

Relationship between socio-economic status and student performance in science & mathematics
in primary schools.

To investigate the parents related factors that affect student performance in science &
mathematics in primary schools.

To assess demographic and socio-economic factors that affect student performance in science &
mathematics in primary schools.

Relationship between demographic and student performance in science & mathematics in
primary schools.

To evaluate whether there is significant difference in academic achievement between male and
female students?
Instructions on how to submit student output
Write the answer in your notebook which will be checked next meeting. Be ready for an oral exam.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Activity No. 2M
Name__________________________________________ Activity No. _____ Course & Year ________
Directions: Make the Chapter 1 of your chosen/assigned research topic. Encode your work and
submit to your research instructor. Use A4 paper, Time New Roman 12, and double
spacing. The rubric below will be used in grading your outputs
RUBRIC IN GRADING THE GROUP OUTPUT
Criteria
Grade
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
Lay-out, Margin, Spacing, Font Style and Size,etc.
Grammar, Spelling, Punctuation, Capitalization, etc.
Submitted on time
Quality of the Introduction
Quality of the Statement of the Problem
Quality of the Significance of the Study
Quality of the Scope and Limitation of the Study
Quality of the Definition of Terms
RECOMMENDATION
__ Accepted, No Revisions Needed
__ Slightly Revise and Re-submit
__ Major Revision and Re-Submit
__ Read Again Module 2, Create New, Submit
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Module Posttest
Directions: Read and analyze the problems below after reading this module. This will test your
prior knowledge of the lesson. Answer each problem carefully.
I. Classify the following research titles as quantitative research and qualitative research. Write
your answer on the blank provided.
___________________ 1) The Effect of Autonomy, Personality, Stress and Job Satisfaction to Job
Performance of Teachers at Senior High School
___________________ 2) A Phenomenological Study of the Lived Experiences of Elementary
Principals Involved in Dual-Career Relationships with Children
___________________ 3) Cognitive Styles and Gender as Predictors of Students’ Achievement in
Summary Writing in Selected Secondary Schools in Ibadan, Nigeria
___________________ 4) Determinants of Self-Esteem, Educational Performance and Career
Prospects among Secondary School Students in Navakholo Constituency,
Kakamega, Kenya
___________________ 5) The Vietnam War, Its Causes, Consequences, and Scars it Left
II. From the set of research topics below, encircle the general topic and underline the specific
topics.
1)
blended-learning in tertiary education | impact of blended-learning | methods of blended-learning
2)
effect of stress in job performance | job performance of math teachers |
relationship between personality and job performance
3)
association between entrance exam results and licensure exam results |
influence of study habits to the licensure exam results |
licensure exam results of BEED graduates
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Module 3: Review of
Related Literature
Module Overview
This chapter will provide the students concepts and background in writing the chapter of a
research paper, The Related Literature. The student will learn to make their own version of related
literature of their research study.
Motivation Question
Why need to review literature when conducting research study?
Module Pretest
Directions: Read and analyze the problems below before reading this module. This will test your
prior knowledge of the lesson. Answer each problem carefully.
I. Presented below is a sample biographical note. Identify each part correctly. Write your answers
on the blank provided.
Worthington, A. C., & Lee, B. L. (2008). Efficiency, technology and productivity change in Australian
universities, 1998-2003. Economics of education review, 27(3), 285-298.
1) Volume Number
________________________________________________________
2) Pages
________________________________________________________
3) Author/s
________________________________________________________
4) Year Published
________________________________________________________
5) Name of Journal
________________________________________________________
6) Title of the Article
________________________________________________________
7) Issue Number
________________________________________________________
II. The sentence below are erroneous in terms of punctuation marks, comma, period, parenthesis,
semi-colon, or quotation mark. Put those marks in the sentence appropriately.
1) The first principle guiding this work entails that teacher educators model the instructional techniques
they are suggesting ISTs use with their own students Bailey & Taylor 2015 Putnam & Borko 2000
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
2) Goldsmith & Schifter 1997 argue Teachers seeking to change their practice may not have useful
images from their personal experience to guide the creation of a focused and productive classroom
culture
3) As many research studies have documented reflection is closely related to learning Artzt, ArmourThomas & Gurl 2015 Borasi et al. 1999
4) For example Artzt 1999 used structured writing assignments to assist preservice teachers in reflecting
before and after teaching
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Lesson 3.1:
Writing in APA Format
Lesson Summary
This lesson presents fundamental concepts in writing APA format. Includes writing APA format
in in-text citations and references.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the learners would be able to:
1) Explain what is APA format
2) Write in-text citation in APA format.
3) Write references in APA format.
Motivation Question
Why is APA format?
Discussion
What is APA format?
APA format refers to the style and guidelines established by the American Psychological
Association for writing academic papers in the social sciences and other related disciplines. It provides
rules for organizing and formatting research papers, citing sources, and creating a reference list. APA
format ensures consistency and clarity in academic writing, making it easier for readers to understand
and evaluate the research.
Different Sources in Writing Literature Review
When writing a review of related literature, you can draw information from various sources to
provide a comprehensive understanding of your chosen topic. Here are different sources you can
consider:
Scholarly articles: Academic journals are primary sources of research where scholars
publish their findings. These articles provide in-depth analysis, methods, and results relevant to your
topic.
Books: Books written by experts in a specific field offer a wealth of information. They often
provide comprehensive overviews, historical context, and theoretical frameworks.
Government reports: Reports published by government agencies can provide valuable
statistics, data, and policy discussions related to your topic. These reports often contain research done
by experts commissioned by the government.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Conference papers: Presentations and papers from academic conferences can offer the
latest research developments in your chosen field. They can be a good source for identifying recent
trends and emerging perspectives.
Dissertations and theses: Doctoral dissertations and master's theses are valuable sources
for comprehensive literature reviews. They often showcase detailed research and extensive literature
exploration.
Websites: Depending on the quality and credibility of the source, websites can offer valuable
information, particularly when researching contemporary topics or gathering industry-specific data.
Ensure the website is reliable, such as government websites, reputable organizations, or academic
institutions.
Industry reports: Reports published by industry research firms or think tanks provide insights
into specific sectors, including market trends, consumer behaviors, and statistics. These reports are
helpful when researching topics related to business, economics, or industry-specific fields.
Newspapers and magazines: Articles published in reputable newspapers and magazines
can provide current events, societal perspectives, and real-world examples related to your topic. These
sources often discuss practical applications of research and offer different viewpoints.
Online databases: Access to databases like PubMed, JSTOR, or Google Scholar allows you
to research and access a wide range of academic sources. These platforms compile numerous scholarly
articles and papers in various disciplines.
Expert interviews: Conducting interviews with subject matter experts can add depth and
firsthand insights to your literature review. Experts can provide unique perspectives, personal
experiences, and recommendations for further reading.
Remember to critically evaluate and cite your sources according to academic standards.
Ensuring the reliability and relevance of sources will enhance the credibility of your literature review.
General Guidelines for Citing Sources
1) Include the author's last name and the year of publication for direct quotations, paraphrased
information, or any ideas and data borrowed from other sources.
Example: (Smith, 2019)
2) If the author's name is mentioned in the text, only the year of publication needs to be included in the
parenthesis.
Example: According to Smith (2019), …
3) When citing a specific page or section, include the page number preceded by "p." (for one page) or
"pp." (for multiple pages).
Example: (Smith, 2019, p. 42)
4) If there are two authors, cite both last names every time the reference occurs.
Example: (Smith & Johnson, 2019)
5) For three or more authors, use the first author's last name followed by "et al." in subsequent citations.
Example: (Smith et al., 2019)
6) If there is no author, use the first few words of the title in the in-text citation.
Example: ("Title of Article," 2019)
7) When citing multiple sources by the same author, arrange them in chronological order, and use lowercase letters after the publication year to differentiate them.
Example: (Smith, 2019a; Smith, 2019b)
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8) If you are citing a source with multiple authors, separate the names with commas and use an
ampersand (&) before the last author's name.
Example: (Smith, Johnson, & Davis, 2019)
9) When citing a work with no date, use "n.d." in place of the year.
Example: (Smith, n.d.)
Remember, these guidelines may vary depending on the specific circumstances or types of sources
being cited, so it is important to consult the APA Manual or the official APA website for more specific
information.
Guidelines for Citing Information from an Interview
1) Begin with the interviewee's last name, followed by a comma and the initials of their first and middle
names. If the interviewee's first name is unknown or cannot be determined, use a description in
square brackets, such as [Anonymous], [Personal Communication], or [Interviewee's Job Title].
Example: Doe, J. M.
2) Include the date of the interview in parentheses, using the format: (Year, Month Day).
Example: (2021, January 15)
3) Specify the type of communication in square brackets, such as [personal interview], [personal
communication], or [telephone interview].
4) If the interview is unpublished, that is, it is not available to the public or not retrievable, the citation
should not be included in the reference list but can be cited as an in-text citation.
Example: (Doe, 2021, January 15, personal interview)
5) If the interview is published, you should include it in the reference list and include additional
information such as the interviewer's name, the title of the interview, the name of the publication or a
URL, and any other necessary details.
Example: Doe, J. M. (2021, January 15). [Personal interview].
It is important to obtain permission from the interviewee before including personal
communication in a publication or paper. Additionally, if you are citing an interview in a different
language, translate the necessary information to English in the citation.
When writing references for a published interview, it is essential to include all necessary
information to enable readers to locate the original source. Here is an example of how to format
references for a published interview:
In-text citation:
When referring to the interview within the text, include the name of the person interviewed, the
year of the interview, and the relevant page number (if applicable).
Example:
According to John Doe (2010), the importance of education cannot be
overstated (p. 15).
Reference list entry:
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At the end of your document, provide a comprehensive reference list entry for the interview.
The exact format may vary depending on the citation style you are using (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
Below is an example of how to format a reference list entry in APA style:
Example:
Doe, J. (2010). The value of education: A personal perspective [Interview
transcript]. In E. Smith (Ed.), Insights: Interviews on Education (pp. 10-20). New
York, NY: Publishing House.
In this example, the reference list entry includes the following elements:
The name of the interviewee (Doe, J.).
The year the interview took place (2010).
The title of the interview, presented within square brackets as "Interview transcript."
The title of the book or publication (Insights: Interviews on Education).
The name of the editor, presented as initials and last name (E. Smith).
The range of pages the interview appears on (pp. 10-20).
The location of the publisher (New York, NY).
The name of the publisher (Publishing House).
Remember to consult the specific citation style guide you are using for any additional
formatting requirements or variations.
Guidelines for Writing Reference from a Book
Referencing from a book typically involves including several basic elements in a specific order.
Here is a step-by-step guide on how to reference from a book in APA (American Psychological
Association) style:
1) Start with the author's last name, followed by initials. If there are multiple authors, list them in the
same order as they appear on the book.
2) Include the publication year in parentheses after the authors' names.
3) Provide the title of the book in sentence case (capitalize only the first word of the title, the first word of
the subtitle, and any proper nouns).
4) Italicize or underline the book title, but do not use both.
5) If applicable, include the edition number after the book title. Abbreviate "edition" as "ed."
5) State the place of publication: usually the city, followed by a colon.
6) Include the name of the publisher.
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7) If you are referencing a specific page, add the page number(s) at the end. Use the abbreviation "p."
for a single page or "pp." for multiple pages.
Here's an example of an APA book reference:
Smith, J. D., & Johnson, A. B. (2022). The Science of Psychology. (7th ed.). New
York, NY: Random House.
If you are following a different referencing style, such as MLA or Chicago, the order and format
of the elements might vary slightly. Remember to consult the specific style guide or instructions provided
by your academic institution.
Guidelines for Writing Reference from a Journal
A research journal is a formal document that provides a detailed account of a research study
or project carried out by a researcher or a group of researchers. It typically follows a specific format,
including sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion.
The purpose of a research journal is to present and communicate the findings and insights gained from
the research to the academic and scientific community. It serves as a platform for researchers to
document their work, share knowledge, and contribute to the existing body of research in a particular
field. Research journals are often peer-reviewed, which means the content is evaluated by experts in the
field before publication to ensure the quality and validity of the research.
Figure 1: Sample Journals
The APA (American Psychological Association) guidelines for writing references from a journal
are as follows:
Format:
Author(s) Last Name, First Initial(s). (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, Volume(Issue),
Page numbers. DOI or URL (if available).
1) Author(s) Last Name, First Initial(s): List the last name and initials of all authors, separated by
commas. If there are more than seven authors, list the first six followed by an ellipsis (…) and then
the last author's name.
2) Year: Provide the year of publication in parentheses.
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3) Title of article: Capitalize only the first word of the title, the first word after a colon or dash, and proper
nouns. Italicize the title of the journal as well.
4) Title of Journal: Italicize the title of the journal in which the article was published. Use sentence case
(capitalize only the first word of the title, the first word after a colon or dash, and proper nouns).
5) Volume(Issue): Include the volume and issue number of the journal in parentheses, separated by a
comma. If there is no issue number, delete the parentheses but retain the comma.
6) Page numbers: Provide the page numbers of the article, separated by a hyphen if they are
consecutive.
7) DOI or URL (if available): Include the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) if one is assigned to the article. If
a DOI is not available, include the URL of the journal's homepage or the article itself.
Example:
Smith, J. L., Johnson, R. A., & Williams, C. D. (2020). The effects of exercise on mental health.
Journal of Health Psychology, 35(2), 135-150. DOI: 10.1080/123456789.12345678
Note: If a reference is retrieved from an online database, additional information may be required, such
as the database name or a retrieval date.
Guidelines for Writing Reference from a Newspaper
According to the APA (American Psychological Association) guidelines for writing references
from a newspaper, the basic format is as follows:
Format:
AuthorLastName, AuthorFirstInitial. (Year, Month Day). Title of the article. Title of the
Newspaper, Page(s). URL or DOI (if available).
Please keep in mind that not all elements may be present or applicable in every case. Here is
a breakdown of each component:
1) AuthorLastName, AuthorFirstInitial: Include the last name of the author(s) followed by their initials
(separated by a comma).
Example: Smith, J.
2) (Year, Month Day): Provide the year of publication in parentheses, followed by the complete date in
month-day format. If the date is not available, use n.d. (no date) instead.
Example: (2022, January 15)
3) Title of the article: Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of the title and any proper nouns or
subtitles. Italicize the entire title.
Example: The Advantages of Exercise for Mental Health
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4) Title of the Newspaper: Italicize the name of the newspaper.
Example: The New York Times
5) Page(s): If the article spans multiple pages, include the page numbers using the abbreviation "p." for
a single page or "pp." for multiple pages.
Example: p. A1 or pp. B1-B2
6) URL or DOI (Digital Object Identifier): If the article is available online, provide the URL or DOI.
However, if the article is from a print newspaper, the URL or DOI is not necessary.
Example: https://www.newspaperarticle.com or doi:10.xxxx/xxxxx
Here is an example of a complete APA reference for an article from a newspaper:
Smith, J. (2022, January 15). The Advantages of Exercise for Mental
Health. The New York Times, p. A1. https://www.newspaperarticle.com
When citing in-text, include the author's last name and the year of publication, such as "(Smith,
2022)" or "According to Smith (2022)."
It's important to consult the most recent APA Publication Manual for specific guidelines and
any updates.
Guidelines for Writing Reference from a Website
According to the APA (American Psychological Association) guidelines, when writing a
reference for information sourced from a website, the following elements should be included:
1) Author(s): Include the last name and initials of the author(s) when available. If there is no author listed,
use the name of the organization or website as the author.
2) Date of publication: Provide the year when the webpage or online content was published, or the most
recent update, if available. If no date is provided, use "n.d." to indicate "no date."
3) Title of the webpage or article: Use sentence case capitalization (capitalize only the first word and any
proper nouns). Italicize the title.
4) Website name: Include the name of the website in italics.
5) URL: Provide the full URL or direct link to the webpage or article. If the URL is very long, it is
recommended to use a shortened version.
Here is an format of how an APA reference for a website should look:
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Author(s). (Year). Title of webpage/article. Title of website. Retrieved from URL
Example:
Smith, J. (2022). The Benefits of Exercise. Health Now. Retrieved from
https://www.healthnow.com/exercise-benefits
If an item is not applicable or is not available, the element should be left out from the reference.
It's important to consult the official APA Publication Manual or Purdue OWL website for comprehensive
guidelines and further examples.
Readily Available APA Citations from Journals
There are journals which provide readily available APA citations in every article. The readers
will just simply copy and paste the reference details from the source articles
.
Figure 2: Sample journal that provides APA reference citation per article published
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Learning Tasks/Activities
Name__________________________________________ Lesson No. _____ Course & Year ________
Directions: Analyze and answer each item below.
A) Identify the source of literature review specified in each item.
1) Which source of literature is typically written by experts within a specific field and undergoes rigorous
peer review before publication?
2) Which source of literature is usually written by journalists and contains current news, articles, opinions,
and editorials?
3) Which source of literature often involves direct interaction with individuals who possess knowledge or
experience in a particular subject?
4) Which source of literature is typically a written work of fiction or non-fiction, often authored by one or
more individuals?
5) Which source of literature primarily focuses on presenting information, news, and reports in a simple
and concise manner for the general public?
6) Which source of literature provides firsthand accounts, opinions, or perspectives on specific subjects?
7) Which source of literature often contains extensive research on specialist topics, with references and
citations?
8) Which source of literature is known as a long-form narrative typically explored in-depth by authors?
9) Which source of literature is an excellent resource for understanding historical events, biographies, or
novel concepts?
10) Which source of literature allows the reader to delve into specialized topics, theories, and academic
research?
B) Arrange the following information using APA format such that they will be included in the
reference list:
1) From a Journal
Author: John Francis Shraida
Year: 2022
Title of Article: The Academic Faltering of Orphan Students in the Quarantine of Covid-19
Title of Journal: Journal La Edusci
Volume No.:3
Series No.: 2
Page Number: 112-120
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37899/journallaedusci.v3i3.699
2) From a Book
Author: John Smith
Year: 2020
Title: The Power of Knowledge
Publisher: ABC Publishing
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Page numbers: 45-48
3) From an online newspaper article
Author: Harold Johnson and Lian M. White
Year: 2020
Title of article: COVID-19 Vaccination Efforts Expand Globally
Name of Newspaper: The Chronicle
Section/Page Number: A5
Website: http://www.example.com/article
4) From a published interview
Author: Mike Carte
Date: March 9, 2020
Title of interview: Championing gender equality: An interview with Emma Watson
Magazine Name: Time Magazine
Volume (Issue): 193(9)
Page: 42-45
C) Provide three different online research articles related to your program of study (BEED, BSEd
Math, etc.) with readily available APA citations. Fill-up the table for your answer.
No.
1
2
3
Details of the Article
Link of the Article
Title of the Article:
Author:
Title of the Journal
Volume (Issue):
Pages:
Title of the Article:
Author:
Title of the Journal
Volume (Issue):
Pages:
Title of the Article:
Author:
Title of the Journal
Volume (Issue):
Pages:
Instructions on how to submit student output
Write the answer in your notebook which will be checked next meeting. Be ready for an oral exam.
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Lesson 3.2:
Conducting Literature Review
Lesson Summary
This lesson presents the importance of conducting related literature and the guidelines in
conducting review of related literature.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the learners would be able to:
1) Identify different forms of plagiarism.
2) Express their opinions about a plagiarized article.
3) Differentiate conceptual and theoretical framework.
4) Develop a conceptual and theoretical framework of their research study.
5) Cite properly the sources of their materials.
Motivation Question
Why review related literature?
Discussion
Review of Related Literature
A literature review gives a thorough background of the research problem. It is a written explanation
of the researcher about the research problem. This will guide the reader of the overview of major
findings and existing gaps about the problem.
It is not a list, but a narrative that will help the reader understand the topic and let them know
where you stand between the debate of the scholars about the research problem. This will also help the
reader see the different sides of the research problem. Also, they will see who are giving the arguments
and are studying about the research problem.
The reader can make a sense on how you will answer the research problem by reading the
literature review. A good literature review highlights previous arguments and evidences that are helpful
towards the solution of the main research problem.
As an initial start about the writing the review of related literature, be guided of the following:

Select and evaluate relevant sources such as books, journals.

Make a system in keeping the gathered related literature.

Classify the gathered literature according to the statement of the problem.

Write the narrative or story about the relevant literature on the research problem.

Cite the sources properly.
Ethical Standards in Writing Literature Review
Researchers must observe ethical standards when writing literature review. This will ensure high
value of credibility, academic honesty and integrity in research outputs. Observe below the following
basic guidelines when writing literature review,
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Avoid Plagiarism. Plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty where a writer uses
someone else’s text, works, thought, or ideas, with or without consent, by incorporating them in
one’s own work without full acknowledgment. The rule of thumb is always acknowledge the
source of information. Always give due credit to the authors of those ideas by creating a
reference list and in-text citation. Avoid making it appear as your own works.
Avoid Self-Plagiarism. Text recycling is reusing one’s own work or data in a ‘new” written
product without informing the readers that the source is already appeared in another literature.
This practice is also a form of academic dishonesty. Another form of this academic dishonesty is
dividing a huge research study, that should have been presented in a single study, into smaller
published research studies.
Acknowledge People. Recognition of people who contributed ideas, theories, and original
concepts is a must in literature review, or in a research study in general. Those people or authors
who made significant contributions in the making of your research need to be acknowledged.
Your research paper will not be complete without them.
Observe Fairness. If reviewing major studies related to your study is a must, then
reviewing minor studies is also important. Include in your review those minor studies that will
provide significant contributions to your research study. Avoid the attitude of giving discredit to
other study that show contradiction to your research problem.
Different Forms of Plagiarism
There are various types of plagiarism which are serious forms of academic dishonesty. Some
writers have either intentionally of unintentionally committed these violations. Regardless of the intention,
you must avoid them so as not to smear your reputation as a researcher.
Complete Plagiarism. This is the most severe form of plagiarism. This refers to taking a manuscript
and claiming it as its own and submit it under its name. This form of plagiarism is equivalent to
intellectual stealing.
Direct Plagiarism. This refers to the word-for-word copying of someone’s work without attribution
and without quotation marks. This is unethical, academically dishonest, and grounds for disciplinary
actions, including expulsion.
Source-based Plagiarism. This refers to using secondary data or information but citing only the
primary source of the data or information.
Self Plagiarism. This refers to copying a content of his own work, which was previously published,
without proper attribution. Another form of self-plagiarism is submission of the same work to different
entities without disclosure. A classroom scenario of this form is when a student submits the same project
or output to different instructors without the knowledge of these instructors.
Mosaic Plagiarism. This refers to copying the content of a certain source and just simply changing
some words using its synonyms. Then the original sentence structures are not changed. This is the
poorest form of paraphrasing which is called as patch writing. This remains to be academically dishonest,
even if you cite the source.
Inaccurate Authorship Plagiarism. This refers to attributing ideas, quote, or excerpts to incorrect
source or wrong author. This also includes a nonexistent source. This can be avoided by taking down
source immediately upon picking out the ideas of the authors. Developing a good documentation
practice will help you do away with this kind of plagiarism.
Accidental Plagiarism. This form of plagiarism includes negligence to cite sources, unintentionally
use of similar words, phrases, or even sentence structures without attribution. This form remains to be
academically dishonest and subject to grounds for disciplinary action.
Plagiarism does not only apply to written works. It also applies to pictures, artwork, music, and any
form of visual presentations.
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Writing Related Literature Review
A literature review is a document where different sources are being presented and their overall
relationship to the research problem. The characteristics of a good literature review is a sign of
synthesis and understanding of the topic. It is this section of the research paper where the connections
between the literature being reviewed is being illustrated, which in turn is a strong evidence of
analytical thinking. The simple listing and identifying the sources is being avoided in this section.
Otherwise, it will appear as annotated bibliography.
When writing a review of the related literature, work around the variables, or research sub-topics
you have selected. Source materials should be critically evaluated and weighed for adequacy,
appropriateness, and thoroughness prior to inclusion in the review. Those which do not meet this
criteria should not be included in the literature review.
Collecting Related Literature. Identifying potential sources is an important element in literature
review. It requires vast knowledge on different sources, such as journals, books, newspapers, among
others. These sources can either be print or online materials. The online sources will provide you a
bulk or tons of different materials. You simply key in keywords in the search engines. However, you
have to meticulously evaluate legitimate sources by considering the following elements:

Author. The credibility of the author can be evaluated by its professional background.
Look for the contact information or credentials of the author in the site. Also, look for
the complete details of information necessary to make bibliographical notes when
considering its inclusion in your literature review.

Reliability. The reliability of the source can be evaluated by the purpose or motive or
the creator of the site. You may consider the domain of the page (.com, .org., .net.,
or .edu)
As a rule of thumb, you have to consider scholarly sources over personal and nonscholarly
sources. The reputable sources have to on top of the list which includes the following: scholarly journal,
books, thesis and dissertations, government documents, policy reports and presented papers.
Reviewing Related Literature. Reviewing literature is a tedious task in a research paper.
Various methods are being used by many researchers from novice to expert researchers. The
applicability of the method depends on the personality, comfort, or expertise of the user.

Note Card. This method is simply writing down chosen literature in note sheets. There
is only one source and one topic per sheet for convenience, when segregating in
terms of similarities. The sheets with similar topic will be grouped together in
preparation for the synthesis stage of writing the literature review. As the technology
has evolved, this has been done using the word document files and saved in a folder
in laptops.

Literature Map. It is a visual summary of past researches and studies presented in a
chart. There are various ways of framing the literature map. One can work on
hierarchical or top-to-down representation in which the bottom of the hierarchy is the
proposed study.

Venn Diagram. Each circle houses a specific study, then the intersections formed
between the circles contain possible topics of research based on highlighted
similarities and differences.

Literature Grid. This can be done using a tabular form. The column headings are the
themes (or topics) of the collected literature. The row heading are the authors of the
collected literature
There can be many possible methods to be used in reviewing literature. Regardless of what
method to use, the main idea is the presentation of existing literature and highlighting the “research
gap” that needs to be studied.
Synthesizing Related Literature. Synthesizing is putting together different ideas from different
sources into a whole. In literature review, it is making connections among and between varied and
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numerous source materials. The topics or argument are being grouped together in order to create a
whole view of literature related to the research problem.
When writing the synthesis of related literature for a quantitative research study, you must
contain the sections for introduction, topic 1 for independent variable, topic 2 for dependent variable,
topic 3 or the link between these variables through previously conducted studies or the intervening
variables, and summary. In this strategy, you stay on focus and relate your literature review closely to
your research problem.
Citing References (APA In-text Citations)
Citing references is a process of documenting the various sources of materials and information
relevant to the study. It is the way of informing the readers that certain materials in your work came
form other source.
There are plenty of socials sciences disciplines use the APA format for citing sources. The most
current guide is the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association 6th Edition (2010).
There are other guides such as Modern Language Association (MLA) and Chicago Manual of Style
(CMS). In this book, we will use the American Psychological Association (APA).
Presented below are the most common types of in-text citations which are adapted from the 6th
edition (2010) of the APA manual. For more examples, visit the Chapter 6 (pages 174 - 179) of the
APA manual or browse the APA Style online guide at http://www.apastyle.org/index.aspx. At page 177
is a useful chart about in-text citations.
Book,
Single Author
6.11
For paraphrasing and quotations, always include the author's last
name and the date published. Paraphrases do not have to include
page numbers (and some instructors may prefer this method, so
check with them). However, in the new edition of the APA Manual,
they are recommended.
Examples:
1) Referring the author in the text:
According to Ball (2001), the earth contains many bright
colors (p.10).
2) Author not referred to in the text:
The earth contains many bright colors (Ball, 2001, p.10).
Book,
Multiple Authors
6.12
If a work has only two authors, cite both names each time you
reference the material.
Example:
led a tragic life.
According to Bird and Martin (2005), Robert Oppenheimer
If a work has three, four, or five authors, you should cite all of the
authors by last name in the first in-text reference. In a subsequent
reference, you would cite the name of the first author listed followed
by et al.
Examples:
Johnson, Lee, and
this experiment. [first in-text citation]
Martin
(2010)
attempted
Johnson et al (2010) confirmed the number of
participants.
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If a work has six or more authors, only cite the first author's last
name followed by et al for all in-text citations.
Example:
Vidal et al (2010) concluded that working in a library is
the best job a student can have.
Works with no author
6.15
For an in-text citation for a source with no identified author, your intext citation will include the first part of your reference, usually the
title.
Example:
When research is completed in a timely manner, student
grades are better ("How To Succeed," 2010).
Corporate author
(easily identified by
acronym)
Examples:
According to the National Institute of Mental Health
(NIMH, 2007), high cholesterol levels are affecting children as well as
adults.
In subsequent in-text citations, you should
use NIMH (2003).
Para-phrasing. This refers to restating someone’s idea (or your own previously published idea) in
your own words. It allows you to summarize or synthesize information from one or more sources, focus
on significant information, and compare and contrast relevant details. Many published authors are using
this method. The student authors are also encourage to do paraphrasing in their work. While doing
paraphrasing, always cite the original work using either the narrative or parenthetical citation format.
Direct Quotation. This refers to reproducing words verbatim from another source or from your own
previously published work. Instead of directly quoting from the source, it is better to paraphrase in order
to custom fit to your writing style or to the context of the paper. However, you can always use direct
quotation on the following instances:
 Reproducing an exact definition;
 Quoting an author’s memorable or succinct statements; or
 Responding to exact wording.
A proper consultation to immediate supervisors are important since some of them consider some
limitations on allowing certain number of direct quotations.
Observe below the difference between the examples of Direct Quotation and Para-phrasing:
Direct Quotation
Randler (2009) states that late risers have “a high
misalignment of social and biological time” which
results in a mismatch between their natural
schedules and the normal workday (p. 2793).
or
“People with a high misalignment of social and
biological time may be less able to act in a
proactive manner, probably because of sleep
delay” (Randler, 2009, p. 2793).
Notice that there are two ways to incorporate a
source:

Vision:
Mission:
Singal phrase – using the author’s
name in your own narrative, and then
incorporating their idea or words into a
Para-phrasing
Randler (2009) states that people who are
naturally morning people often also display traits
that are considered proactive. He also suggests
that late risers may not show as many proactive
traits because they naturally operate on a different
sleep schedule (p. 2793).
or
People who are naturally morning people have
been shown to also display traits that are
considered proactive, and late risers display fewer
of these traits because they don’t get enough
sleep on days when they have to go to work or
school (Randler, 2009, p. 2793).
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
sentence, like the first example above.
Direct quotation – Using the words or
ideas of the source independently and
adding the author’s name in the in-text
citation, like in the second example.
Source: https://libguides.bristolcc.edu/c.php?g=978345&p=7411079
Writing the Conceptual and Theoretical Framework
The theoretical and conceptual frameworks created by many researchers include philosophical
and methodological model to help design their work. They provide an explanation on why the study is
important and how the research will find solutions to the research problem. These frameworks are like
foundations of a house.They provide important support for the structures of the study and clarify the
context of the study. They are similar to the blueprint of the house.
A formal theory will guide the outcomes of a research. This serves as a beacon that will lead the
researcher to find solutions to the research problem. It also serves as basis in gathering and analysis
the data that will provide strong evidence of academic standards and procedure.
The Conceptual Framework. This section can be presented in graphical form or narrative
form, or combination of graphical and narrative forms. It is in this section where the arguments
about why the research problem needs to be studied are being presented. This also provides
explanation of the presumed relationships of the variables.
This section plays a vital role of the entire research study. This provides the overall
background of the study that guides both the reader and the researcher in looking at how the
research study help additional knowledge about the research topic. This will also reflect how the
other elements of the study are align with each other. Also, this will also provide a clearer picture
of the research standards that are met by the research design and the research methodology.
The Theoretical Framework. This section can be presented in graphical form or narrative
form, or combination of graphical and narrative forms. This section presents published and highly
identifiable theory that serves as the guide in finding solutions to the research problem.
It is in this section that the researcher will identify the theory selected for the study. The
researcher in this section will specify the theory to be used and will present the content of the
theory that will relate to the study. The researcher can also present review of prior studies where
the theory are being used. The researcher in this section will also explain how the research study
can contribute to the body of knowledge on the topic in relation to the theory.
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Learning Tasks/Activities
Name__________________________________________ Lesson No. _____ Course & Year ________
Directions: Analyze and answer the problems below.
I. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1) What is the purpose of a review of related literature?
a) To provide a summary of previously published research on a specific topic
b) To present the author's own research findings
c) To highlight the limitations of existing literature
d) To propose new research questions
2) Which of the following is NOT included in a review of related literature?
a) Research articles
b) Books and book chapters
c) Personal opinions and anecdotes
d) Conference papers
3) What is the main benefit of conducting a thorough review of related literature?
a) It helps identify the research gaps that need to be addressed
b) It allows the researcher to showcase their own expertise
c) It provides evidence to support the researcher's hypothesis
d) It serves as a literature review chapter in a thesis or dissertation
4) What is the significance of citing relevant literature in a review?
a) It shows the researcher's knowledge of the field
b) It builds a strong foundation for the research study
c) It helps establish the credibility of the research findings
d) All of the above
5) Which of the following is an appropriate strategy for conducting a review of
related literature?
a) Skimming through articles and selecting only those that confirm the
researcher's hypothesis
b) Reading the abstracts of articles without delving into the full content
c) Systematically searching for and critically analyzing relevant literature
d) Relying solely on personal experiences and observations
6) What is the significance of a literature review in research?
a) It helps in formulating research questions and hypotheses
b) It provides statistical analysis of previous studies
c) It determines the sample size for the study
d) It establishes the research design and methodology
7) What is the main goal of synthesizing related literature?
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a) To create a comprehensive bibliography
b) To identify conflicting viewpoints
c) To provide a summary of each study
d) To integrate and analyze findings from multiple studies
8) Which of the following is NOT a step in conducting a literature review?
a) Defining the research question
b) Collecting data for analysis
c) Evaluating the quality of sources
d) Organizing and synthesizing the information
9) What is the purpose of citing sources in a literature review?
a) To avoid plagiarism
b) To acknowledge the original authors
c) To provide evidence for claims and arguments
d) All of the above
10) What is the recommended approach for organizing a literature review?
a) Chronological order
b) Alphabetical order
c) Random order
d) Based on the popularity of the sources
11) What is the term used to describe the process of searching for relevant literature?
a) Literature synthesis
b) Literature analysis
c) Literature retrieval
d) Literature exploration
12) What is the purpose of critically evaluating sources in a literature review?
a) To identify the strengths and weaknesses of each study
b) To determine the publication date of each source
c) To compare the length of each study
d) To establish the popularity of each source
13) What is the final step in conducting a literature review?
a) Writing the introduction section of the research paper
b) Analyzing the data collected from the literature review
c) Summarizing the findings of each study
d) Drawing conclusions and identifying future research directions
14) What is a conceptual framework?
a) A visual representation of research findings
b) A set of interconnected concepts or ideas
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c) A statistical analysis technique
d) A research methodology
15) What is a theoretical framework?
a) A hypothesis to be tested in research
b) A summary of research findings
c) A set of assumptions and principles guiding research
d) A data collection method
16) What is the main purpose of a conceptual framework?
a) To provide a step-by-step guide for conducting research
b) To summarize the results of a study
c) To establish the research objectives and questions
d) To provide a structure for organizing and understanding research concepts
17) What does a theoretical framework help researchers with?
a) Identifying research participants
b) Analyzing research data
c) Developing research hypotheses
d) Writing research reports
18) How are conceptual and theoretical frameworks related?
a) They are the same thing, just different terms
b) Conceptual frameworks are derived from theoretical frameworks
c) Theoretical frameworks are derived from conceptual frameworks
d) They have no relation to each other
II. The statement in Box A are the answers to the questions in Box B. Match
them correspondingly. Write the letter of your answer.
BOX A
1) What is plagiarism?
2) What are the consequences of plagiarism?
3) What is self-plagiarism?
4) Why is it important to avoid self-plagiarism?
5) How can you avoid plagiarism in your literature review?
6) What is the purpose of acknowledging people in your literature review?
7) Why is it important to observe fairness in your literature review?
8) How can you ensure fairness in your literature review?
9) Can you use someone else's work without citation if you have paraphrased it?
10) What are some common citation styles used in academic writing?
A) To maintain ethical standards and ensure the integrity of one's research by
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providing accurate references and citations.
B) To give appropriate credit and recognition to the authors or researchers whose
work has been cited or used as a reference.
C) Even if you have paraphrased someone else's work, you must still provide a
proper citation to give credit to the original source.
D) APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language
Association), and Chicago/Turabian style.
E) Thoroughly research and include various perspectives, properly analyze and
evaluate each source, and provide evidence-based arguments without personal
biases or prejudices.
F) It is the act of using someone else's ideas, words, or work without proper
attribution or giving credit to the original source.
G) Properly cite and reference all sources used, paraphrase and summarize
information in their own words, and use quotation marks when directly quoting
another author's words.
H) Academic penalties, loss of credibility, legal issues, and damage to professional
reputation.
I) It occurs when a writer reuses their own previously published work without proper
citation or acknowledgment.
J) To give equal consideration to all relevant viewpoints and incorporating a
balanced analysis. It is important to maintain objectivity and avoid bias in your
writing.
III. Identify what is being stated in each item.
1. It is to copying an entire work without giving credit to the original author.
2. It involves copying someone else's work word-for-word without proper citation.
3. It occurs when someone uses ideas or information from a source without proper
attribution.
4. Is the act of reusing one's own previously published work without acknowledging
it as such.
5. It involves combining various sources without proper citation, resulting in a
patchwork of copied content.
6. It occurs when someone falsely claims authorship of a work that was created by
someone else.
7. It refers to unintentionally using someone else's work without proper citation due
to lack of awareness or carelessness.
IV. Paraphrase the original statements using in-text citations.
A) Paraphrase the given original statement and cite the reference using an intext citation using the (author, year) format. Item # 1 is done for you. You
choose may choose an answer inside the box below or make your own answer.
1) Original statement: "According to Smith (2019), climate change is a pressing
global issue."
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Paraphrased statement: Climate change is a significant worldwide concern (Smith,
2019).
2) Original statement: "Johnson and Brown (2020) argue that technology has
revolutionized the way we communicate."
Paraphrased statement:
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________
3) Original statement: "In a study conducted by Lee et al. (2018), it was found that
exercise improves mental health."
Paraphrased statement:
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________
4) Original statement: "According to the American Heart Association (AHA, 2021),
a healthy diet reduces the risk of heart disease."
Paraphrased statement:
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________
5) Original statement: "Smith et al. (2017) found that social media usage is linked to
increased feelings of loneliness."
Paraphrased statement:
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________
Note: If ever you will pick answer from below, just replace the xxxxx., xxxx with
appropriate authors’ name and year.
The researchers discovered that engaging in physical activity enhances
mental well-being (xxxxxxx., xxxx).
The researchers discovered a correlation between social media usage and
heightened experiences of isolation (xxxxxxx., xxxx).
A balanced diet can lower the chances of developing heart-related illnesses
(xxxxxxx., xxxx).
The authors contend that advancements in technology have transformed
communication methods (xxxxxxx., xxxx).
B) Paraphrase the given original statement using the Author(year) citation
format. Item # 1 is done for you. You choose may choose an answer inside the
box below or make your own answer.
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PhEd 140 - Research
1) Statement: "In a study conducted by Thompson in 2019, it was found that stress
levels among college students have increased over the past decade."
Paraphrased statement with correct citation: The study conducted by Thompson
(2019) revealed a rise in stress levels among college students in the last decade.
2) Statement: "According to a research article published by Brown et al. in 2018, the
implementation of mindfulness techniques can reduce anxiety symptoms."
Paraphrased statement:
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________
3) Statement: "In a recent publication, Brown and Davis (2020) suggest that
technology has revolutionized the way we communicate."
Paraphrased statement:
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________
4) Statement: "The findings of a research conducted by Lee and Johnson (2019)
indicate a correlation between sleep deprivation and decreased cognitive function."
Paraphrased statement:
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________
5) Statement: "According to a study published in 2020, the consumption of sugary
beverages is linked to an increased risk of obesity (Garcia)."
Paraphrased statement:
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________
6) Statement: "In his book published in 2016, Johnson argues that education is the
key to societal progress."
Paraphrased statement:
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________
8) Statement: "According to a recent article by Smith (2021), the use of renewable
energy sources is crucial for environmental sustainability."
Paraphrased statement:
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________
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Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Note: If ever you will pick answer from below, just replace the xxxxx (xxxx) with
appropriate authors’ name and year.
Xxxxxx (xxxx) highlights the significance of utilizing renewable energy
sources for the sake of environmental sustainability.
Education is emphasized as the cornerstone of societal advancement by
Xxxxxx (xxxx).
The research conducted by Xxxxxx (xxxx) reveals a connection between
lack of sleep and reduced cognitive function.
The study conducted by Xxxxxx (xxxx) establishes a connection between
the intake of sugary drinks and a higher likelihood of obesity.
The authors Xxxxxx (xxxx) propose that communication has been
revolutionized by technology.
The research article by Xxxxxx (xxxx) suggests that incorporating
mindfulness techniques can alleviate symptoms of anxiety.
Instructions on how to submit student output
Write the answer in your notebook which will be checked next meeting. Be ready for an oral exam.
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Lesson 3.3:
Real-world Applications
Let us Observe and Learn From Published Papers
Presented in this section are sample research outputs. Others are published in international
research journals. Observe how these parts of chapter two of the research papers are written by the
researchers.
Illustrative Example 1
Observe the published paper on Impact Teacher Absenteeism on Student at Primary Level in
Balocchistan. The literature review is composed of two (2) sections. The first section presented related
literature review about Teacher Absenteeism. The second section is about Effects of Teacher
Absenteeism on Student Achievement.
In the first section, the researchers focused their review about the main topic teacher absenteeism.
The researchers made a synthesis on the different ideas, thoughts, research findings from different
sources about teacher absenteeism. These different ideas are joined together to form one whole idea
that comprises the section on teacher absenteeism in this paper.
The second section focus on the sub-topic effects of teacher absenteeism on student achievement.
As an extension (sub-topic) on teacher absenteeism, the researcher focused the review on how teacher
absenteeism affect the achievement of the students. Observe closely in this section that ideas from
different sources are joined together which formed into one whole idea and become one section in the
literature review.
You notice that the titles of the two sections are closely relevant to the main title of the research
paper. This shows that the main title are broken into small topics and explained thoroughly utilizing the
ideas from different sources. This literature review is giving a thorough background of the teacher
absenteeism. This also explains further about the impact of teacher absenteeism on the student
achievement and guides the reader of the overview of major findings and existing gaps about the
teacher absenteeism.
Impact of Teacher Absenteeism on Student Achievement at Primary Level in Balochistan
Rukhsana Niamatullah1, Ajaz Shaheen1, Nagina Gul2, Abdul Rab3, Ali Murtaza Shah1
1Faculty of Education, Lasbela University of Agriculture, Water and Marine Sciences, LUAWMS Uthal,
Balochistan, Pakistan.
2Department of Management Sciences, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering
& Management Sciences (BUITES), Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan.
Faculty of Management and Social Sciences, Lasbela University of Agriculture, Water and Marine
Sciences, LUAWMS Uthal, Balochistan, Pakistan.
3
Literature Review
Teacher Absenteeism
Teacher absenteeism is contemplated a main barrier through the worldwide organization and
creates hurdles and difficulties to staff and stop them to achieve the objectives. Teacher absenteeism
means excused and unexcused absency, excused absence includes sickness, funeral leave and
problem of transport, while, unexcused absence is done without official reason (Walfin, 1981). A study
was conducted by Bullington (2002), found that really the rate of teacher absenteeism is affecting
student achievement some teachers make day of by themselves on the bases of illness while some
teachers have to pay their duty and the communicable disease move to their coteachers. In result of
this teacher absenteeism becomes greater and lessens the capacity of teacher’s work that performs
while ill (Bullington, 2002). According to Nelson and Quick (2008) teacher absenteeism is caused by
the dissatisfaction of teacher job, monthly salary and lack of motivation which creates negative
relationship and also affect student academic performance. Many researchers have accepted teacher
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absenteeism as critical issue in educational system than in any occupation.
According to Luthans and Kreitner (1985) distance from school and transportation is challenging
teacher to make absent. Lots of teachers keep themselves away from school because they do not have
transport facility. In rural areas, mostly teachers do not go to schools because they are aware that
place is far and roads are not proper for transport that any circuit supervisor will be able to easily get to
the school that is why teachers do not go to school and they excuse to not having money for fare, rain
and funeral etc (Lai and Chan 2000). Lacking interest in job also causing teacher absenteeism, it was
investigated that teacher obtained higher degree they mostly missed the class and use teaching as a
stepping stone in life and nonprofessional teachers always find better jobs (Blau,1985). Dissatisfaction
is another reason to stay away from schools; teachers who are not satisfied of their jobs they mostly
make off from their work (Nelson and quick, 2008). Also, in international research, five broad categories
were found that cause teacher absenteeism including working condition, management, social and
cultural responsibilities and community conditions. (Mary et al., 2015).
Extent research have examined the causes of teacher absenteeism. They found that low salary is
one of the causes that is barrier to fulfill their life goals and teachers are not satisfied from it. Lack of
basic health means also causes the teacher absenteeism; it shows that lack of food and access to a
hospital and shortage of clean water compels teacher to make absence and results in sickness and
disease (Tao, 2013). Furthermore, lack of motivation is another cause of teacher absenteeism.
Professional development opportunities were reduced due to lack of motivation for teachers. Women
are forced by patriarchal division of labor and expectations to be primary caregivers and housekeepers.
Actual opportunities to advance school policies are not reflected, which mentions that men and women
have equal opportunities to advance them. Female teachers mostly have less time to study the
certification exam and perform poorly because of domestic obligations; this may lead teacher to higher
absence rate (Tao, 2013).
Usman and Suryadarma (2007) studied Indonesian teachers’ absenteeism and found that
headmasters and highly educated teachers missed school days more than grade teachers (such as
teachers who teach subjects other than physical education and religion). Extra jobs availability and
opportunities outside of the schools were not found significant factor in teacher absence rates for highly
educated teachers. Because of low control of District Education Office headmaster had high
absenteeism rates than grade level teachers (Usman and Suryadarma, 2007). in addition, Illness was
mentioned as cause of absenteeism of teachers in Malawi. In an HIV/AIDS study personal sickness,
funeral attendance and attending sick family members considered the reason of teacher absenteeism
(Kadzamira, 2006). Although teachers with some health problems might still attend work, some
problems affect the ability of the teacher to carry the learning process. For example, a study was
conducted on voice problem in United States, and found that 3.35% of female teachers were absent
due to voice problem (Medeiros et al., 2011).
Attending workshops and meetings caused teacher absenteeism in the Pacific Region which
hurdles teacher to plan and fulfill professional development opportunities and other professional duties
(Uehara, 1999). According to study conducted in Indonesia by Muralidharan and Sundararaman (2013)
found that contract teachers were mostly absent than non-contract teachers. Contract teachers were
appointed on agreement by local school were less trained and paid less. acquiring permanent teaching
positions are also low for contract teachers (Usman & Suryadarma, 2007). Moreover, structuring a
school with multigrade classrooms results higher teacher absenteeism. Teachers in India and
Indonesia were more likely to be absent in schools where multigrade teaching took place. Teachers
were in stress due to multigrade classroom (Usman and Suryadarma, 2007). Poor work conditions are
another cause to increase teacher absenteeism rates in different areas (Ngimbudzi, 2009). Such
conditions include poor quality or inadequate school infrastructure such as teachers’ offices,
classrooms, furniture and toilets. In rural areas where decent accommodation is a challenge, lack of
teacher housing forces teachers to leave far away from the school. In addition, locations of some
schools are such that there is no restaurant or food delivery services in the school vicinity. As a result,
lack of staff lunch might cause some teachers to skip work (Okurut, 2012; Al-Hassan, 2009; Alcazar et
al., 2006).
Effects of Teacher Absenteeism on Student Academic Achievement
Teacher absenteeism is a growing and key challenge in schools negatively affecting quality
education. A teacher in the classroom is an important but insufficient prerequisite for improving learning
achievement. However, absenteeism significantly influences the learning outcomes of the children in
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the classroom.
The learning passion of students in classroom ultimately consumes when a teacher makes days off
on regular basis; teacher absenteeism impacts (Bruno 2002). Replacement of absent teacher is
different in urban schools. Teacher, who is substituted, is not always able to the usual classroom
teacher’s routine although, instructional methods do not encourage students to take interest in learning
(Darling-Hammond, 1995; St. Michel, 1995). Further research was conducted that students’ behavior
and class performance disturb when they have to fit themselves with new teacher as compare to
previous teacher because substitute teacher is not able to teach effectively. Furthermore, the regular
teacher cannot concentrate on their instruction when she is substituted with an unqualified teacher and
it causes the low concentration and energy of students towards learning as they do with their regular
teacher (Elliot & Manlove, 1977). Because of teacher absenteeism the regular activities and procedures
of school and classroom are disturbed e.g. discontinuities of instructions may affect the student
achievement. Teacher absenteeism and poor attitude slow the student academic progress and the
relationship of student and teacher would be weakening when absence of teacher is high and cause
student absenteeism as well; for instance, when student get absent frequently from school and asked
why they do not go to school in response that his teacher also makes day off (Jacobson, 1989).
According to Ehrenberg et al. (1991) high rate of teacher absenteeism discourage student to attend
classes and impacts on student regularity in school. It was proved that urban teacher did not care the
problem of teacher absenteeism while this study shows that only 1.6% teachers accept that teacher
absenteeism interferes student performance (national data from the United States Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 1996).
A study by Miller (2012) shows that teacher has the most important role to the academic success of
students but teachers, who make absences frequently are not able to transfer the quality of education.
Colleagues have to bear the work burden of their fellow teachers who are often absent then trust and
harmony among staff is decreased. In Indonesia, the teachers who teach subjects have low teacher
absenteeism rate as compare to high qualified teachers who deliver the physical and regional
education. Extra job opportunities were not available for high educators and headmasters had the high
rate of absenteeism due to insufficient guidance (Usman & Suryadarma, 2007). Furthermore, teacher
absenteeism causes wastage of public and private resources and significantly damages the system of
school (Miller 2012). Das et al. (2005) reported that when a teacher had the same class for two years it
increased 5% of teacher absence rate and reduced the learning level of students by 48% in that
duration. This study demonstrated that regular absence of classroom teacher had slowed and stopped
the academic growth of students and they lost time in playing in order to learn (Darling-Hammond,
1995). Yiga and Wandega (2010) reported that 80% of students responded that their syllabus remained
incomplete due to teacher absence and resulted in low grades (Yiga and Wandega, 2010). In addition,
teacher attendance is as important as student attendance. If teacher misses the school a day,
substitute teacher is directly affects student achievement. Teacher absenteeism does not only affect
learning level of students but also disturbs the overall running building including people in school.
In developing countries, many researchers observed that high rate of teacher absenteeism is hurdle
to impart education. Absence of teacher is a serious issue to improve education system effectively in a
country. Similarly, the negative bond of teacher absenteeism and students’ achievement (Bayard,
2003; Manatt, 1987; Sankale, 2014). When teacher makes days off over 7.5%, highly affects the
students’ achievement (Mdden, Flanigan, Richardson, 1991). The increase rate of teacher absenteeism
is high in rural area as compare to urban schools of Pakistan; most of the teachers may have troubles
due to lack of training (World Bank Report, 2015). Teacher absenteeism is very common problem and
affecting the student achievement (Barbara Knapp and Gene, 2004). A research conducted in Nepal
Karnali and Gandaki shows that 18% teacher were absent from school while 21% was present but they
were out of the class during lecture (Narhari et al, 1971). Another study was conducted that teacher
absenteeism negatively affected the students’ achievement; the high rate of teacher absenteeism could
decrease the level of student performance (Uehara, 1999). Similarly, in Indonesia, it was researched
that when teacher makes more days off the interest of students decrease in mathematics and get the
low scores as well as the reading power cannot improve well (Suryadarma et al., 2006). Clotfelter, Ladd
and Vigor argued (2007) that absences of teacher in classroom lessen the learning opportunities of
students; furthermore, it was stated that teacher absenteeism reduced the math test score.
Another study investigated the Nigerian teachers’ absenteeism, found that teacher absenteeism rate
was found low and high rate of teaching activity was high in private schools rather than public schools
(Tooley, Dixon, & Olaniyan, 2005); in same year another study was conducted by National Bureau of
Economics that to qualities school system was hard until reduced teacher absenteeism from
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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developing countries. Ehrenberg et al. (1991 relevant research also shows that when teacher is absent
regularly from school can negatively impact the students’ performance. Moreover, the more absence of
teacher from the classroom causes the students to get low score in every test. Another study was
conducted in Nigeria that teacher absenteeism is broad issue which negates the goal which was set for
improvement almost 20% of teaching staff was absent without having permission in Nigeria (World
Bank, 2010). Ehrenberg et al. (1991) reported that teacher absenteeism directly affects the quality of
instruction and results in low performance of schools.
If teacher makes regular absence the negative impression goes to students and society regarding
teachers, relationship among staff can be disturbed and cause the negative school working
environment. Similarly, quality of education, student academic success as well as the implementation
of teaching plan in class have been interrupted (Hassan, 2009). Comparing both developed and
developing countries, teacher absenteeism rate is high in developing countries. In India the study was
conducted on primary education that shows when 226 Schools were visited so the one-third principles
were on their duty whereas, 17% teachers were absent from schools and 20% were not in class during
the visit of schools. Another study was conducted in India that absenteeism is equal among the old
teachers, qualified teachers and head teachers (Chaudhury et al., 2004). As compared to developing
countries, developed countries’ rate of teacher absenteeism is low, estimated rate of absenteeism is
between 6-8% (Bowers, 2001; Bradley, Green & Levee, 2007).
Pakistan is a developing country and its place is 113th among 120 countries and literacy rate is only
57% (Bejwa, 2011). Also Pakistan is one of them where the issue of teacher absenteeism is increasing
day by day. Mostly, teacher absenteeism is hurdle in rural schools of country. Ghuman and Lioyd
(2010) found that the female absenteeism rate is greater than male teachers in Pakistan. In
government schools 17% of boys and 25% of girls had the problem of teachers’ absence and also
examined that local community appointed teachers do the less absence as compare to those teachers
who come from outside (Ghuman & Lioyd, 2010) Many causes of teacher absenteeism have been
explored in Pakistan’s schools like political interference, job safety, lack of social accountability and
teacher unions (Harris, 2009).
According to Annual Status of Education Report (2015), in Pakistan, 11% teachers make the day off
from the classroom negates the quality of education and student future which they receive from absent
teachers. Such environment is harmful for students where teachers are not interested and difficult to
inspire students. Due to teacher absenteeism less learning occurs and students are discouraged to
attend the school that is why student academic performance affected negatively and obtained poor
scores on tests. Similarly, Hasnain (2008) concluded that less accountability and check and balance
are so weak in the system which cause the teacher absenteeism in Pakistan. Lack of motivation and
incentives, and low wages which are not sufficient to fulfill their family needs as well as less incentives
to teachers reduce the teaching interest, are considered the reason that cause teacher absenteeism in
schools.
Observe that it is not written in a list form, but in a narrative form. This sample literature review will
help the reader understand about teacher absenteeism. By reading this literature review, the readers will
know where researchers stand between the debate of the scholars about teacher absenteeism. This
also help the reader see the different sides of teacher absenteeism.
Additionally, the readers will see who are giving the arguments and are studying about the teacher
absenteeism because the names of the authors are presented in every statements as quoted by the
researchers of this study. Notice that there are two formats in citing the authors, the (Author,Year) and
the Author (Year). The (Author, Year) form is used at the end of the quoted idea. While the Author (Year)
is used at the beginning of the quoted idea. The Author (Year) format usually comes along with the
phrases such as according to, based on the study of, a study was conducted by, to name few.
Because of this literature review, the reader can make a sense on how you will answer the
research problem. Observe that the previous arguments and evidences are highlighted and are helpful
towards the solution of the main research problem.
Illustrative Example 2
Observe below another sample of published paper entitled Technology Fatigue of Faculty in
Higher Education. The title technology fatigue is a broad topic. In this sample, the literature review has
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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five (5) sections: a) short introduction, b) Technology Overload, c) Faculty Perceptions of Technology in
the Higher Education Classroom, d) Technology Stress, and e) Change and Technology Fatigue. This
kind of sectioning has clearly broken down the broad topic technology fatigue into sub-topics. With this,
the reader can clearly understand what specific areas of technology fatigue are being covered in the
research study.
Another way of sectioning in the literature review is by using the sequence on the Statement of the
Problem. Knowingly, its sequence is listed in logical order, then you may form 2 - 3 themes (sections) in
the literature review from the statement of the problem.
Technology Fatigue of Faculty in Higher Education
Colleen Halupa
Academic Affairs, East Texas Baptist University, One Tiger Drive, Marshall, TX 75670, U.S.A E-mail:
chalupa@etbu.edu
Doris U. Bolliger Darden
College of Education and Professional Studies, Old Dominion University 5115 Hampton Boulevard,
Norfolk, VA 23529, U.S.A. E-mail: dorisbolliger@gmail.com
Literature Review
Research about technology fatigue in society started to become prevalent after the second decade
of the 21st century. Although humanity has had a love affair with technology since its inception, the
“bloom is off the rose” of technology, and people are reporting a higher incidence of technology
overload. In its most extreme form, it is technology addiction. Information overload has been reported
in the research in certain fields prior to the regular use of technology in higher education. This research
primarily began with the analysis of excessive television watching and its perceived negative effects
during the 1950s. In 1980, O’Reilly studied the negative impact of technology overload on personnel in
the workplace. In the mid-1990s, literature on technology-related information overload began to appear
(Reuters Business Information, 1996; Swash, 1998).
Technology Overload
There are several different aspects of technology overload. This can include gadget fatigue defined
by Technopedia (2018) as “a state that occurs when a user becomes confused, indecisive and
overwhelmed when selecting technological or digital gadgets” (para 1). Grandhi, Jones, and Hiltz
(2005) defined technology overload (also called technostress) as something that causes cognitive and
physical burdens due to overuse of multiple, complicated gadgets. La Torre, Esposito, Schiarra, and
Chiapette (2019) noted the definition of technostress has changed from the 1980s when it was defined
as the inability to cope with new information technology in a healthy manner, to the negative impact of
physical or mental attributes caused directly or indirectly by technology. Ayyagari (2012) defined
technostress as someone’s inability to deal with information overload and technology, and found it
decreases productivity and job satisfaction. Some Americans are not viewing technology as positively
as before (80% positive in 2014 compared to 69% positive in 2018) (Jiang, 2018). In addition,
technology overload can affect physical health (Okonoda et al., 2017). Symptoms can include
headaches, stiff shoulders, eyestrain, backaches, difficulty sleeping, and depression. Additional
symptoms can include decreased productivity, dissatisfaction with work, fatigue, and anxiety
(Marchiori, Mainardes, & Rodrigues, 2019). With higher education in flux, faculty members are
expected to perform more than ever before, and their workload is greatly increased (Flaherty, 2018).
This can result in technology overload. Barley, Meyerson, and Grodal (2011) investigated the impact of
e-mail on workload and subsequent stress. They noted e-mail became a “… symbol of overload” (p.
905). Because e-mail does not stop outside of regular work hours, participants felt they were losing
control, which resulted in undue stress.
Faculty Perceptions of Technology in the Higher Education Classroom
Faculty members are not completely convinced that the use of technology is always necessary or
has improved/facilitated student learning. Almost two-thirds of instructors who participated in a study
regarding faculty attitudes towards technology felt the benefits of educational technology was
exaggerated, particularly considering the significant financial investment universities and colleges have
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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made in technology. Slightly over half of the respondents felt there were any gains in student learning.
Most respondents admitted they did not use most of the technologies available to them, and half of
faculty members felt technology was not helpful and only made their jobs more difficult and time
consuming (Leder & McMillan, 2017; Jaschik & Lederman, 2016). Similar results were found by other
researchers (Bolliger & Wasilik, 2009; De Gagne & Walters, 2010; Green, Alejandro, & Brown, 2009;
Wingo, Ivankova, & Moss, 2017). When faculty members perceive technology causes additional work,
they will be less satisfied with its use. Mamun, Rahman, and Danaher (2015) found instructors spend
approximately 43 hours a week using technology.
Technology Stress
While some researchers and experts call for the increased use of technology in higher learning to
improve learning outcomes, faculty members who are not technologically adept become overwhelmed.
Although research regarding technology stress in the general populace and business settings has
been conducted, there are few studies that investigated stress technology can cause faculty members.
When higher education faculty experience stress caused by technology use, they either avoid using
technology or they try to keep up with constant changes. Okonoda et al. (2017) evaluated technostress
in a sample of 144 faculty and found 53% reported high stress due to technology use. Of the 53%,
40% felt stress negatively impacted their job performance. No significant relationships between age
and gender were found, but those who had been teaching a decade were three times as likely not to
report they suffered from technostress. Overall, participants found it difficult to keep their technology
skills current.
There are contributing factors to technostress other than the sheer number of technology tools and
systems available to faculty. Faculty members felt overwhelmed due to insufficient university resources
for training and support (Buchanan, Sainter, & Sauntersinter, 2013; Lederman & McMillan, 2017).
Another source of stress is the perception that students have better technology skills than the faculty.
Faculty members also fear that they cannot detect issues such as students committing academic
honesty violations (McGee, 2013; Stuber-McEwen et al., 2009).
A significant element of technostress is the perception of being available on a constant basis. In the
past, students were limited to contacting instructors during class or during designated office hours.
Today, due to technology and the flexible delivery of academic courses and degree programs,
students perceive an increased availability of faculty members. Many students expect instructors to
answer their e-mails or phone calls instantly. However, John Horrigan, associate director of research
at Pew Internet, mentioned in an interview that faculty members need time away from students and job
responsibilities to decompress (Sutter, 2009).
Çoklar, Effiti, and Şahin (2017) developed a technostress scale for teachers. In 2016, Çoklar, Efilti,
Şahin, and Akçay (2016) conducted a research study with teachers in Turkey using this instrument and
found medium levels of general technostress. Other researchers (Harahap & Effiyanti, 2015)
investigated relationships between technostress, technology acceptance, work overload, and job
insecurity in vocational schools in Indonesia. They found teachers’ technostress could be alleviated
with buy-in for technology use.
Khan, Rehman, and Rehman (2013) conducted a study at universities in Pakistan and found a
negative significant relationship between three elements of technostress (overload, invasion, and
uncertainty) and job satisfaction in academic librarians. Burke (2009) investigated technological stress
in nurse educators at a U.S.based institution. Results showed participants experienced technological
stress, and administrative support was a key factor in the reduction of stress.
Change and Technology Fatigue
External stressors such as technology can lead to physical illness, depression, and fatigue (Wedro,
2018). Fatigue is defined as “a weariness from stress” or “a state of indifference or apathy brought on
by an overexposure to something” (Merriam-Webster, 2019, para. 1). Change fatigue is a known
phenomenon that occurs when employees are exposed to too many changes at once, and saturation
is reached (Bernerth, Walker, & Harris, 2011; Meinert, 2015). The result can be stress. McMillan and
Perron (2013) argue that change fatigue and change resistance are not the same. Change fatigue
occurs when there is a difference in how someone perceives things should be, and how things truly
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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are during times of change. Those who experience change fatigue are not resistant—rather they are
overwhelmed by change. Although researchers have developed instruments to measure change
fatigue in different disciplines (Bernerth et al., 2011; McMillan & Perron, 2013; Nunally, 2016), an
instrument has not been developed to measure change fatigue in higher education faculty caused by
technology integration and utilization. Researchers postulate that technology fatigue is a combination
of both technostress and change fatigue. Someone may suffer one without the other; however, either
can result in technology fatigue.
There are some universities which trained their students to do in-depth readings by using the
sequence of the chapter for review of related literature as below:
I. Review of Related Literature
a) Foreign Related Literature
b) Local Related Literature
II. Review of Related Studies
a) Foreign Related Studies
b) Local Related Studies
However, some universities just simply use Review of Related Literature that incorporates related
studies in this section literature. The format of this chapter largely depends on the instruction of the
research instructors.
Illustrative Example 3
Presented below is a published paper showing the Theoretical Framework and Conceptual
Framework. In this example, the paper uses several theories being anchored by this study. The theories
are Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping (TTSC), Coping-based Models of Adaptive Functioning,
General Needs Satisfaction Theory, Social Identity Theory, Social and Behavioural Adaptation Model,
Transition Theory and the Gullahorn and Gullahorn W-curve Model of Adjustment.
It is being explained this section of chapter three of the research paper how these highly
identifiable theory serve as guide in finding solutions to the research problem. The researchers also
explain how the research study can contribute to the body of knowledge on the topic in relation to the
theory.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Academic and Personal-Social Adjustment Challenges of University of Cape Coast Freshmen
Sylvester Tenkorang1
Linda Dzama Forde1
Eric Nyarko-Sampson2
1
Counselling Centre,
2
Department of Guidance and Counselling
University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
Theoretical Framework
Theories that were reviewed in relation to the study in this chapter included the Transactional
Theory of Stress and Coping (TTSC), Coping-based Models of Adaptive Functioning, General Needs
Satisfaction Theory, Social Identity Theory, Social and Behavioural Adaptation Model, Transition
Theory and the Gullahorn and Gullahorn (1963) W-curve Model of Adjustment. These theories were all
related to the problem under study since they all dealt with how freshmen adjust to the challenges they
encounter in the university. The Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping (TTSC) was reviewed
because it was concerned mainly with how an individual perceives a situation and how that perception
influences how the individual adjusts to the situation. Thus, it was suitable for the study because how a
freshman perceives his/her new environment can influence his/her ability to adjust to the new
environment. The Coping-based Models of Adaptive Functioning views an individual’s ability to adapt
to an environment as dependent on the resources at the individual’s disposal. The theory was thus
reviewed because it would highlight the resources that freshmen need to be able to successfully adjust
to the university environment. Furthermore, the General Needs Satisfaction Theory was reviewed in
the study because it is assumed in the theory that freshmen would adjust better in their new
environment when their needs are satisfied. The Social Identity Theory was of relevance in the study
because the theory assumes that how freshmen are received in the new school environment
influences their identities. This in turn influences their adjustment in the new environment. The
interactions that freshmen have when they enter the new environment are considered to have an
influence on their general level of adjustment. This is the focus of the Social and Behavioural
Adaptation Model, making it a model of relevance to the study. The Transition theory which views
adjustment as a function of the situational factors, self-factors, supports and strategies also have
relevance to the current study. This is because the adjustment of freshmen is assumed to be
influenced by all the factors considered by the Transition theory. Finally, the W-curve model of
Gullahorn and Gullahorn (1963) gave a presentation of the life stages of freshmen. This made it a
model relevant to the study.
Illustrative Example 4
Presented in this example is the Conceptual Framework of a published paper. In this example, the
paper uses a combination of graphical and narrative form. It is in this section that the researcher
presents the arguments about why employability status of Makerere University graduates needs to be
studied. This also provides explanation of the presumed relationships of the variables.
The researchers provide here the overall background of employability status of Makerere
University graduates. This guide both the reader and the researcher in looking at how this study study
contribute additional knowledge about employability status.
The Employability Status of Makerere University Graduates
Ssembatya A. Vincent1
Ngobi Kiwanuka Robert2
1Quality Assurance Directorate, Makerere University
2P.O. Box 24911 Kampala
Conceptual Framework
Graduate unemployment remains a social cancer in many developing countries. It results in a
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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waste of resources spent on studies and reduces the quality of life & self-esteem of the graduates.
Although graduate unemployment is an empirical issue, in developing countries it is attributed to
either the mismatch of skills imparted to graduates by higher education institutions & those required
by prospective employers and or the small size of the country economies that do not provide enough
beginner jobs to enable fresh graduates to launch their career paths and professional growth.
Graduate employability is further complicated by other social factors such as unequal access to
employment opportunities, pre-work experiences, study disciplines, repute of training institutions and
differences in employability attributes such as communication skills, team work, interpersonal
relations, Information and Communication Technology skills, self-management etc (Harvey, 2001,
Rosenburg, Heimler & Morote, 2012).
Since finding a job after studies is one of the major objectives of graduates, failure to find one is a
concern to a number of stakeholders including governments, higher education training institutions,
prospective students and families of the graduates. Graduate tracer studies have hence become a
useful feedback mechanism to higher education instructions to ascertain the employability status of
their graduates, employer expectations of their graduates, relevance of courses of studies and further
study progressions of graduates. Forging strong linkages between the universities and the world of
work will hence make universities responsive to societal and professional needs of their graduates.
This will be achieved by universities ensuring that the graduates they produce are: of the right type,
equipped with appropriate knowledge, expertise & skills so as to be able to meet the changing needs
of the contemporary labour market (Martin, Lang-ay & Guidangen, 2015). Schomburg (2003) notes
that graduate destination surveys /tracer studies are a tangible feedback mechanism for “analysis of
the relationship between higher education and work”. A model for analysis of the concept of tracer
studies applicable to higher education suggested by Schomburg (2003) is illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Model of Analysis in Higher Education Tracer Study.
Schomburg (2003) asserts that the retrospective views of graduates on higher education based on
their career experiences, the extent to which they consider higher education training as either a waste
or opportunity and how broad or narrow the knowledge imparted to them in comparison to
occupational tasks are some of the key areas graduate trace studies unravel. Graduate tracer studies
however, need to be timed carefully to ensure that sufficient time has elapsed to provide tangible and
informative feedback (Saide, 2011).
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Learning Tasks/Activities
Name___________________________________________________ Lesson No ________ Section___
Directions: Observe carefully the sample review of related literature, conceptual framework and
theoretical framework. Based on theories or concepts presented in this module, describe how
the authors below wrote their review of related literature, conceptual framework and
theoretical framework.
1) Review of Related Literature
Learning Across Discipline Boundaries Through Narrative Inquiry: A Study of a Collaboration to
Improve Mathematics Teacher Education
Edwina Butler
Elena Prieto
Judy-Anne Osborn
Peter Howley
Adam Lloyd
Andrew Kepert
Malcolm Roberts
The University of Newcastle, Australia
Literature Review
This section of the paper presents literature that will shed light in the conduct of this research
study.
Interacting in Multidisciplinary Teams
The complex social relationships required for multidisciplinary work develop when participants
undertake meaningful activities and genuine practices together. Useful interactions are crucial for
these activities to occur (Wenger, 1999).
Factors identified in the literature that work against successful and sustainable multidisciplinary
collaboration include poor communication, consultation, voice, or feedback (Carroll et al., 2014;
Duffield et al., 2013; Vanasupa et al., 2012; Wenger, 1999); a hierarchical structure of teams
(Borrego, Boden, & Newswander, 2014; Duffield et al., 2013; Hall, 2005; Vanasupa et al., 2012);
being too close or too distant and therefore lacking opportunity for independence and
interdependence respectively (Borrego et al., 2014; Wenger, 1999); and a culture that necessitates
protection of self and one’s work (Duffield et al., 2013).
Attributes such as humility, trust, openness, and tolerance of diversity support more positive and
productive interactions in multidisciplinary teams (Carroll et al., 2014; Duffield et al., 2013; Ness &
Riese, 2015). Carroll et al. (2014) stated that teams whose contact together is only transient and
fragmented are not undertaking real multidisciplinary team work. Across disciplines, a better
understanding of why there may be “unexpected interpretations of events, actions, statements or
documents” can be critical to successful interdisciplinary work (Wenger 1999, p. 254).
Learning in Multidisciplinary Teams
With a focus on the boundaries as understood by Wenger (1999), there is potential for greater
learning, innovative problem solving, and the emergence of new knowledge and practices. Wenger’s
(1999) work on the ways people see and work together reveals that groups operating as a community
of practice provide an environment for both innovation and sustainability. What distinguishes these
working groups from other groups is that they have the capacity to take active control of their own
learning, leading to the development of shared practices. These practices further enhance the
learning and motivation of the group toward sustainable productive relationships. In the case of this
research improving mathematics teacher education may be as much about discovering how teacher
educators learn in a community of practice across discipline boundaries as it is about improving preservice teacher education per se (Goos, 2014).
The skills to operate effectively as a community of practice have been considered throughout this
study. Wenger (1999) categorised them as: deep engagement with the object and subject , a balance
between planned and opportunistic learning, transformative experiences across fields that are broad
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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without losing depth, and the maintenance of alignment and relevance. However, learning,
performance, and motivation can be adversely affected when a team has insufficient support (Borrego
et al., 2014; Schaffer et al., 2008; Seethaler et al., 2013; Vanasupa et al., 2012; Wenger, 1999). Also
important to facilitate learning are conflict, healthy debate (Vanasupa et al., 2012) and critical, candid
conversations (Duffield et al., 2013). The gradual development of a transferable hybrid language
enhances accessibility to all (Dillon, 2008), and the development of a space where neither discipline
dominates enables a new collective understanding to emerge (Vanasupa et al., 2012).
Wenger (1999) points out that it is possible that members of the community of practice will have a
shallow understanding of the hybrid language even though they might use it, and even after exposure
to aspects of the other discipline’s practice. According to Wenger (1999), for deeper, more meaningful
learning to occur, a pedagogical approach is required that uses authentic learning experiences. For
these learning experiences to be authentic, they need to be based on activities that are typical of how
the relevant knowledge would normally be used or applied. For those who are new to these types of
activities and this way of learning, it will require them to deliberately apply knowledge to a particular
context, often employing a different way of thinking and rendering the experience meaningful.
A balanced focus on both process and product is also necessary for the success and sustainability
of learning in multidisciplinary teams (Vanasupa et al., 2012; Waitoller & Kozleski, 2013). This means
moving beyond focusing solely on discipline knowledge to building a greater knowledge of oneself
and others in the context of the multidisciplinary work. There needs to be an opportunity for
assumptions to come to the surface, for these may constrain the ability to work together (Waitoller &
Kozleski, 2013). Such opportunities also help team members to better understand what is important
to others and, therefore, possible approaches to take. The ability to understand other people’s
motives aids multidisciplinary work (Ness & Riese, 2015). Not making connections between team
members’ values and the aims of the project can result in disengagement (Vanasupa et al., 2012).
A willingness to co-evolve with the project, study oneself, conduct research on one’s own thoughts
and actions and the impact they have, and then apply this learning, is important for the success of
multidisciplinary relationships (Vanasupa et al., 2012; Waitoller & Kozleski, 2013). A clear example of
the consequences of not doing this is described in the work of Vanasupa et al. (2012) with respect to
the failure of their collaboration across faculties in a tertiary institution. They concluded that it was not
the obstacles themselves that led to the failure of their work together, but the lack of their examination
of those obstacles. They recommend strongly that team members work to develop a high level of selfawareness and self-reflection through processes that examine the intentions and expected outcomes
of all team members.
2) Theoretical Framework
Mathematics Teachers’ First Engagement with Research Articles in Mathematics Education:
Sketches of New Praxeologies
Annette Rouleau1
Rina Zazkis1
Igor’ Kontorovich2
1
Simon Fraser University
2The University of Auckland
Theoretical Framework
In noting the growing trend towards the involvement of practicing teachers in research, Reis-Jorge
(2005) suggests that the goal is not to produce more academic scholars, but to prepare reflective
practitioners, “who are more conversant with theoretical discourse and more competent users of
research literature” (p. 303). Accordingly, we see teachers’ consumption of research literature as an
activity targeted at professional growth through sharing knowledge across communities in
mathematics education, rather than a path towards teachers’ full immersion into the research
enterprise. This conceptualisation led us to frame our study with the theoretical model of
metadidactical transposition (Arzarello et al., 2014), which was introduced to capture the complex
dynamic that takes place when teachers and researchers interact with each other.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Meta-Didactical Transposition Model
The meta-didactical transposition (MDT) model draws on the anthropological theory of Chevallard
(1985, 1992, 1999). At the core of the theory are the notions of didactical transposition and
praxeology. Didactical transposition highlights the way mathematical knowledge and activities
transform within institutions, the particular configurations that appear, and the relationships among
them (Bosch, 2014). Praxeology, in turn, encompasses praxis (know how), in which a family of
similar problems can be solved with particular techniques and logos (knowledge), which pertain to a
frame of discourses that describe, explain, and justify these techniques.
MDT extends Chevallard’s anthropological theory to the context of teacher education, where it
takes into consideration the meta-didactical praxeologies of researchers and those of teachers when
both engage in professional development activities (Arzarello et al., 2014). These meta-level
praxeologies “consist of the tasks, techniques, and justifying discourses that develop during the
process of teacher education” (Arzarello et al., p. 353). Thus, a meta-didactical transposition is a
dynamic process through which “both the didactic praxeologies of the community of researchers and
of the teachers’ community change within the institutional environment in which the two communities
reside” (Arzarello et al., p. 355). The transposition is usually led by the researchers, who broker
components of their praxeology to teachers, turning these components from external to internal,
thereby, making the components accessible to the latter cohort. The dialectics of such a process
ensures that praxeological components of both communities change their status over time. For
example, a research finding in mathematics education may be an external component for teachers
unfamiliar with the studies in which the finding emerged. By introducing and discussing studies in a
professional development program or a graduate course, a mathematics research educator is
brokering the shift of the finding to an internal component with the goal of developing new teacher
praxeologies. This shift constitutes a meta-didactical transposition. Figure 1 summarises the model
schematically, and it shows that as a result of MDT, each community may gain a new praxeology
both emerging from a shared one “which consist[s] of a blending of the two initial praxeologies” (p.
354).
Figure 1. Visual representation of the MDT model
In MDT, the brokering of shared praxeologies is frequently accomplished through the use of
boundary objects, which Star and Griesemer (1989) define as “objects that are both plastic enough to
adapt to local needs and constraints of the several parties employing them, yet robust enough to
maintain a common identity across sites” (p. 393). They suggest boundary objects function as a
means for coordination of perspectives between communities and may result in “generative and
productive tensions” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009, p. 123), which can be used by both teachers and
mathematics research educators as a means for reflection, discussion, and change. In this paper we
focus on Teachers’ Change.
Framing the Study with MDT
In previous MDT studies (e.g., Prodromou, Robutti, & Panero, 2017; Wilkie, 2017), the brokering
process was led by researchers, in which they were the ones to choose boundary objects, to
instigate the delineation of initial components internal to both communities, and to promote the
emergence of a shared praxeology. Yet, Arzarello et al. (2014) maintain that the flexibility of the MDT
model makes it extendable to other contexts. We exploit this flexibility to frame the interaction
between research literature and teachers who engage with it.
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The literature, in our case, plays the role of a repository of boundary objects (Star, 2010). This is
because by comprising articles on mathematics teaching and learning, the literature has the potential
to appeal to the needs and interests of communities of researchers and teachers alike. We find Star’s
metaphor of repository useful as we do not assume that any one research article in mathematics
education is a boundary object for any community of mathematics teachers by definition, that is, it
satisfies their informational and work requirements (Bowker & Star, 1999) simply because it is
concerned with mathematics teaching and learning. A repository is an encapsulation of modular units
that can be selected and acted on individually. We associate such selections and acts with
processes through which a research article can be placed at the boundary between the researchers’
and teachers’ communities.
Once an article is chosen by its readers it unfolds the voices of its authors brokering particular
narratives. However, being written by mathematics education researchers and intended for such,
research literature is aimed at transferring knowledge within the researchers' community. Thus,
teachers who engage with such literature are required to broker the praxes and logos that it narrates,
some components of which might be more foreign to them than the other.
Through the MDT lens, the question instigating our study was : What praxeologies may emerge
when in - service mathematics teachers turn research articles in mathematics education into
boundary objects? Specifically, we were interested in new praxeologies of teachers and researchers
that may develop from teachers’ first engagement with scholarly articles.
It seems obvious that the emergence of new teachers’ praxeologies would not be possible without
teachers investing a considerable effort in the brokering process. In the next section, we describe the
institutional environment that afforded the teachers' commitment to these processes.
3) Conceptual Framework
A Correlational Study Examining the Relationship Between Restorative Practices and School Climate
in Selected Elementary Schools in a Large Mid-Atlantic Urban School District
Akil A. Boucaud
Concordia University - Portland
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework used in this study to examine the relationship between restorative
practices and school climate is based on the concepts and theories of zero tolerance, the school-toprison pipeline, school-wide positive behavior support, restorative practices, and school climate.
Zero Tolerance. Zero tolerance is a punitive approach based on the theory that the threat of
removal will deter students from engaging in negative behavior or violating school rules(Wilson,
2014); students who engage in these behaviors are usually suspended or expelled. Morrison and
Skiba (2001) described suspension as a "disciplinary action that is administered as a consequence
for a student's inappropriate behavior and requires that a student absent him/herself from the
classroom or from the school for a specified period of time" (p. 174). Schools utilize suspensions for
many different reasons. If there are threats to the physical safety of students or staff, a suspension
may be given. Also, if a student is exhibiting extremely inappropriate behavior and is disturbing the
learning environment and only removal of the offender will allow learning to continue, then this
student may be suspended.
The Code of Maryland Agency Regulations (2009) describes out-of-school suspension as the
removal of a student from school for disciplinary reasons by administration. The New Jersey
Department of Education (2016) describes out-of-school suspension as temporary removal by
administration from school and activites for dangerous or unsafe behaviors. In-school suspension is
when a student is removed for disciplinary reasons from the classroom but not the school. Expulsion
is when a student is removed from the school and is not allowed to return.
School-to-Prison Pipeline. The school-to-prison pipeline is when a school decides to punitively
punish a student which results in suspension or expulsions. Policies that offer automatic punishments
that result in suspensions, out-of-class time and harsh physical interactions, and that encourage
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Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
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police presence at schools, are major contributors to the schoolto-prison pipeline (Wilson, 2014).
Away from the safe haven of the school environment, a student’s chances of being introduced to the
juvenile justice system increases. Studies indicate that African-American and Latino students are
disproportionately represented in the school-toprison pipeline; and that African-American students,
particularly males, face disproportionately greater retribution and consequences in our nation's public
schools (The United States Department of Education, 2012).
School-wide Positive Behavior Support. School-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) is an
emerging model that is an alternative to punitive discipline (Sugai & Horner,2002). Horner and his
colleagues described SWPBS as a proactive school-wide approach (Crone & Horner, 2003; Crone,
Horner, & Hawken, 2004). It focuses on minimizing problem behaviors while teaching and supporting
positive behaviors in the entire student body (Frey, Lingo, & Nelson, 2008), providing positive
behavioral strategies and methods to attain socially essential behavior change (Sugai et al., 2000).
Positive behaviors are essential skills to be successful across a variety of settings such as school,
work, home, and in the community (Carr et al., 2002); SWPBS provides students with a repertoire of
positive behaviors through a variety of educational, therapeutic and system-wide strategies (Carr et
al., 2002; Teasley, 2014).
Restorative Practices. Restorative practices were introduced by Wachtel (2004) and has roots in
the restorative justice philosophy of the 1970s (Zehr, 2002). It is a relatively new field and is
experiencing a progression in the development of theory and practice. Many schools in the United
States have implemented restorative practices, and many of these schools have demonstrated a
positive school climate that promotes safety, inclusion, positive relationships and respect (Wachtel,
2013). These schools also experienced positive impacts in relationships between students and staff,
and decreases in the need for outside assistance, discipline referrals, and exclusions (McCluskey et
al., 2008). Restorative practices can be referred to as wholeschool change, because it is a new
approach to addressing negative behaviors and student infractions. Rundell (2007) stated that wholeschool change or restorative practices has eleven core tools that create a productive community:
restorative conferences and responsive circles; proactive circles; small impromptu conferences; basic
theory understanding; restorative approaches with families; restorative community of staff; and
learning how to address shame, fair process, restorative questions, and affective statements (Rundell
2007).
School Climate. Many aspects of a student’s educational experience can be explained by the
broad, multifaceted concept of school climate. Hoy, Tarter, and Kottkamp (1991) stated that school
climate influences the behavior of a school’s members, and is the set of internal characteristics that
distinguishes one school from another. It is the expectations, values, and norms that support people
feeling emotionally, socially, and physically safe (National School Climate Center, 2012). A school’s
success is critically related to its climate: a positive climate will promote safety, a supportive
academic environment, and encourage respect, trust, and caring relationships throughout the school
community.
Instructions on how to submit student output
Write the answer in your notebook which will be checked next meeting. Be ready for an oral exam.
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Activity No. 3M
Name__________________________________________ Activity No. _____ Course & Year ________
Directions: Analyze and perform the activity below.
TEST I: Based on your research topic (Activity 2M - Test II), conduct a source scanning of
possible materials that you will include in making the Chapter 2 of your research paper.
Fill-in the table below. Include at least 35 sources.
Type of
Source
(online/print)
Title
Author/s
Year
Published
Date
Retrieved
Link
Where to
include?
(RS/RL/CF/TF)
*RS = related studies; RL = related literature; CF = conceptual framework; TF = theoretical framework
TEST II: Write down below the Chapter 2 of your research paper utilizing your outputs in Test I
above. Refer to module 3 on how to write the Chapter 2 of your research paper.
RUBRIC IN GRADING YOUR OUTPUT
Criteria
1.0
2.0
Grade
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
Lay-out, Margin, Spacing, Font Style and Size,etc.
Grammar, Spelling, Punctuation, Capitalization, etc.
Submitted on time
Organization of Ideas
Coherence of Thoughts
Quality of the Related Literature
Quality of the Related Studies
RECOMMENDATION __ Accepted, No Revisions Needed
__ Slightly Revise and Re-submit
__ Major Revision and Re-Submit
__ Read Again Module 2, Create New, Submit
Instructions on how to submit student output
Write the answer in your notebook which will be checked next meeting. Be ready for an oral exam.
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Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Module Post-test
Directions: Read and analyze the problems below after reading this module. This will test your
prior knowledge of the lesson. Answer each problem carefully.
I. Presented below is a sample biographical note. Identify each part correctly. Write your answers
on the blank provided.
Worthington, A. C., & Lee, B. L. (2008). Efficiency, technology and productivity change in Australian
universities, 1998-2003. Economics of education review, 27(3), 285-298.
8) Volume Number
________________________________________________________
9) Pages
________________________________________________________
10) Author/s
________________________________________________________
11) Year Published
________________________________________________________
12) Name of Journal
________________________________________________________
13) Title of the Article
________________________________________________________
14) Issue Number
________________________________________________________
II. The sentence below are erroneous in terms of punctuation marks, comma, period, parenthesis,
semi-colon, or quotation mark. Put those marks in the sentence appropriately.
5) The first principle guiding this work entails that teacher educators model the instructional techniques
they are suggesting ISTs use with their own students Bailey & Taylor 2015 Putnam & Borko 2000
6) Goldsmith & Schifter 1997 argue Teachers seeking to change their practice may not have useful
images from their personal experience to guide the creation of a focused and productive classroom
culture
7) As many research studies have documented reflection is closely related to learning Artzt, ArmourThomas & Gurl 2015 Borasi et al. 1999
8) For example Artzt 1999 used structured writing assignments to assist preservice teachers in reflecting
before and after teaching
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
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Module 4:
The Research
Methodology
Module Overview
This module presents fundamental concepts of a research methodology. This will prepare the
learners to developing their own research methodoogy (Chapter 3). The lessons that will be learned by
the students in this module will give them an idea on how to write the Chapter 3 The Research
Methodology of their research paper.
Motivation Question
What it is important to prepare the Chapter 3 before gathering the actual data?
Module Pretest
Directions: Read and analyze the questions below before reading this module. This will test your
prior knowledge of the lesson. Answer them carefully.
1) What is research methodology?
2) What is a sample in research?
3) What is the purpose of random sampling in research?
3) What is a research design?
4) What is the purpose of data analysis in research?
5) What is a research ethics committee?
6) What is a research population?
7) What is the difference between reliability and validity in research?
8) What is a research instrument?
9) What is the purpose of a research proposal?
10) What is data-gathering procedure?
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
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Lesson 4.1:
Research Methodology
Lesson Summary
This lesson presents fundamental concepts on research methodology. This will prepare the
learner in composing the research methodology in their research paper.
Learning Outcomes
In this lesson, the learners would be able to:
1) Define research research methodology.
2) Explain the different sections in research methodology.
Motivation Question
Why is it important to establish the research methodology prior to actual data gathering?
Discussion
The Research Methodology
Research methodology refers to the systematic approach and techniques used to conduct
research and gather information in order to answer research questions or investigate a specific topic. It
involves the overall design and framework of a research study, including the methods, procedures, and
tools used to collect and analyze data.
Research methodology encompasses various aspects, such as the selection of research
methods, data collection techniques, sampling strategies, and data analysis procedures. It provides a
structured and logical framework for researchers to plan, execute, and evaluate their studies.
The choice of research methodology depends on the nature of the research question, the type
of data required, and the overall goals of the study. Common research methodologies include
quantitative research, qualitative research, mixed methods research, experimental research,
observational research, and case study research, among others.
By following a well-defined research methodology, researchers can ensure the reliability,
validity, and generalizability of their findings, as well as maintain ethical standards throughout the
research process.
The Research Design
Researchers use various research designs to investigate different phenomena and answer
research questions. Here are some commonly used research designs along with sample research titles
for each design:
Quantitative Research Designs
There are several quantitative research designs commonly used by researchers. Here is an
overview of three primary designs along with sample research titles:
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Experimental Design. Experimental research designs aim to establish cause-and-effect
relationships between variables by manipulating an independent variable and measuring its impact on a
dependent variable. Here is an overview of three primary experimental designs along with five sample
research titles:
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design. In this design, participants are randomly
assigned to either an experimental group or a control group. Both groups are assessed before
and after the experimental manipulation, but only the experimental group receives the
treatment.
Sample Research Titles:
1. "The Impact of a Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program on
Anxiety Levels in College Students: A Pretest-Posttest Control Group
Study"
This research employs a Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design to
evaluate the effects of a mindfulness-based stress reduction program
on anxiety levels in college students. Two groups of students are
randomly assigned, one receiving the mindfulness program and the
other serving as a control group. Anxiety levels are measured before
and after the intervention to assess its impact.
2. "Assessing the Efficacy of a Dietary Intervention on Blood Sugar Levels
in Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes: A Pretest-Posttest Control Group
Analysis"
This study utilizes a Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design to
investigate the effectiveness of a dietary intervention on blood sugar
levels in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Participants are randomly
assigned to either the dietary intervention group or the control group.
Blood sugar levels are measured before and after the intervention to
determine its impact on diabetes management.
3. "The Influence of a Parenting Workshop on Parent-Child Interaction: A
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Experiment"
This research involves a Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design to
examine the influence of a parenting workshop on parent-child
interaction. Parents are randomly assigned to attend the workshop
(intervention group) or not (control group). Parent-child interactions are
assessed through observations before and after the workshop to
assess the workshop's impact
In these research titles, the Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design is used to assess
the effects of an intervention or treatment by comparing the outcomes of a group that receives
the intervention to a control group that does not. Pretest and posttest measurements allow
researchers to evaluate changes over time due to the intervention.
Posttest-Only Control Group Design. A Posttest-Only Control Group Design is a
research design commonly used in experimental research to assess the impact of an
intervention or treatment on a group of participants. In this design, participants are randomly
assigned to one of two or more groups: the treatment group(s) and the control group.
Sample Research Titles:
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1. "Evaluating the Effectiveness of a New Educational App on Vocabulary
Acquisition: A Posttest-Only Control Group Study"
This research employs a Posttest-Only Control Group Design to
assess the effectiveness of a new educational app in improving
vocabulary acquisition among students. Two groups of students are
randomly assigned, one using the app and the other serving as a
control group. Vocabulary skills are measured only after the
intervention to determine if the app had a significant impact.
2. "The Influence of a Workplace Wellness Program on Employee Stress
Levels: A Posttest-Only Control Group Analysis"
This study utilizes a Posttest-Only Control Group Design to investigate
the influence of a workplace wellness program on employee stress
levels. Employees are assigned to either participate in the program or
not, and their stress levels are measured only after the program's
completion to assess its impact on stress reduction.
3. "Assessing the Impact of a Financial Literacy Workshop on Financial
Decision-Making: A Posttest-Only Control Group Experiment"
This research involves a Posttest-Only Control Group Design to
assess the impact of a financial literacy workshop on financial
decision-making skills. Participants are randomly assigned to attend
the workshop or not, and their financial decision-making abilities are
measured only after the workshop to determine if it improved their
financial decision-making.
In these research titles, the Posttest-Only Control Group Design is used to evaluate
the effects of an intervention or treatment by comparing the outcomes of a group that receives
the intervention to a control group that does not. Unlike the Pretest-Posttest Design, this
design measures the outcome only after the intervention, eliminating the potential influence of
pretest assessments.
The primary distinction is that the Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design includes a
pretest assessment to measure participants' baseline characteristics before the intervention,
whereas the Posttest-Only Control Group Design does not include a pretest and relies solely
on posttest data to assess the impact of the intervention. Both designs are used to evaluate
the effectiveness of interventions, but they provide different types of information and have
specific advantages and limitations.
Solomon Four-Group Design. This design is an extension of the pretest-posttest
control group design and includes a second control group that does not receive a pretest. It
helps researchers determine if the pretest itself influences participants' reactions.
The Solomon Four-Group Design is a research design that combines elements of
the Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design and the Posttest-Only Control Group Design.
Sample Research Titles:
1. "The Impact of a New Teaching Method on Student Achievement in
Mathematics: A Solomon Four-Group Experiment"
This research employs a Solomon Four-Group Design to assess the
effectiveness of a new teaching method on student achievement in
mathematics. Four groups of students are used to compare the
outcomes: two groups receive a pretest, and two groups do not.
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Additionally, one group from each pretest condition receives the
new teaching method, while the others receive traditional instruction.
The study aims to determine whether the new teaching method is
more effective and whether the pretest influences the results.
2. "Evaluating the Effects of an Anti-Smoking Campaign on Teenagers: A
Solomon Four-Group Study"
This study utilizes a Solomon Four-Group Design to evaluate the
effects of an anti-smoking campaign on teenagers' attitudes and
behaviors. Four groups of teenagers are involved, with two groups
receiving a pretest, and two groups not receiving a pretest. The
campaign is administered to one group from each pretest condition,
while the other groups do not receive the campaign. The research
aims to determine whether the campaign is effective and whether
the pretest influences the results.
3. "Assessing the Impact of a Stress-Reduction Program on Employee
Well-being: A Solomon Four-Group Analysis"
This research involves a Solomon Four-Group Design to assess the
impact of a stress-reduction program on employee well-being. Four
groups of employees participate, with two groups taking a pretest
and two groups not taking a pretest. The stress-reduction program
is implemented for one group from each pretest condition, while the
others do not receive the program. The study aims to determine
whether the program is effective in improving employee well-being
and whether the pretest influences the results.
In these research titles, the Solomon Four-Group Design allows for a more
comprehensive analysis by considering the potential influence of pretesting on the outcomes
of interest. This design is useful for assessing both the effects of an intervention or treatment
and the impact of pretesting itself.
Within-Subjects Design. In this design, each participant serves as their own control.
The same participants are exposed to different experimental conditions, and comparisons are
made within the same group.
Sample Research Titles:
1. "Comparing Memory Recall Accuracy in Young and Older Adults: A
Within-Subjects Study"
This research employs a Within-Subjects Design to investigate
memory recall accuracy in both young and older adults.
Participants from both age groups are exposed to memory tasks,
and their performance is compared, allowing for a direct withinparticipant comparison.
2. "The Impact of Sleep Deprivation on Cognitive Function: A WithinSubjects Experiment"
This study utilizes a Within-Subjects Design to assess the
effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive function. Participants
undergo cognitive tests under both well-rested and sleepdeprived conditions, enabling a direct within-participant
comparison of performance.
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Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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3. "Examining the Effects of Different Teaching Strategies on Student
Learning Outcomes: A Within-Subjects Investigation"
This research involves a Within-Subjects Design to evaluate the
impact of various teaching strategies on student learning
outcomes. Each student experiences multiple teaching methods,
and their performance is compared, allowing for a withinparticipant assessment of teaching effectiveness.
In these research titles, Within-Subjects Design is used to compare the same
participants' performance or responses under different conditions or treatments. This design is
particularly useful for assessing the impact of interventions or treatments within the same
group of individuals, reducing the potential influence of individual differences.
Quasi-Experimental Design. Quasi-experimental research designs are similar to
experimental designs but lack random assignment of participants to different conditions. Researchers
take advantage of naturally occurring groups or events to compare and analyze the effects of an
independent variable on a dependent variable. Here is an overview of three common quasi-experimental
designs, along with five sample research titles:
Nonequivalent Control Group Design. In this design, participants are divided into
two groups, with one group exposed to the treatment (experimental group) and the other
group not receiving the treatment (control group). However, participants are not randomly
assigned.
Sample Research Titles:
1. "Evaluating the Effectiveness of a School-Based Anti-Bullying Program:
A Nonequivalent Control Group Study"
This research employs a Nonequivalent Control Group Design to
assess the impact of a school-based anti-bullying program by
comparing outcomes for students in schools that implement the
program to those in schools that do not. The study aims to determine
whether the program leads to a reduction in bullying incidents.
2. "Assessing the Impact of a Training Intervention on Employee
Productivity: A Nonequivalent Control Group Analysis"
This study utilizes a Nonequivalent Control Group Design to evaluate
the effectiveness of a training intervention in a workplace setting. By
comparing the performance of employees who receive the training to
those who do not, the research aims to determine whether the training
leads to improved productivity.
3. "Measuring the Effects of a Community Health Initiative on Health
Outcomes: A Nonequivalent Control Group Examination"
This research involves a Nonequivalent Control Group Design to
examine the impact of a community health initiative on health
outcomes in a specific neighborhood. By comparing health indicators
in the intervention area to those in a similar area without the initiative,
the study assesses whether the program leads to improved health
outcomes.
In these research titles, the Nonequivalent Control Group Design is used to compare
outcomes between a group that receives an intervention or treatment and a group that does
not, with efforts made to ensure that the groups are as similar as possible except for the
intervention. This design helps evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or programs in realworld settings.
Vision:
Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Time-Series Design. This design involves measuring the dependent variable
repeatedly over time before and after the introduction of the independent variable. There is no
control group, and the same group serves as their own control.
Sample Research Titles:
1. "Analyzing the Impact of Economic Policies on Inflation Rates: A TimeSeries Analysis"
This research involves a Time-Series Design to examine the effects
of various economic policies on inflation rates over several decades.
The study aims to identify patterns and trends in inflation in
response to changes in economic policies.
2. "Tracking Trends in Climate Change: A Long-Term Time-Series Study"
This study utilizes a Time-Series Design to analyze climate data
over a significant time span, assessing trends in temperature,
precipitation, and other climate variables. The research aims to
understand long-term changes and patterns related to climate
change.
3. "Market Volatility and Stock Price Movements: A Time-Series Analysis
of Financial Markets"
This research involves a Time-Series Design to investigate the
relationship between market volatility and stock price movements.
By analyzing historical stock market data, the study aims to identify
patterns and correlations between market volatility and stock prices.
In these research titles, Time-Series Design is used to analyze data collected at
multiple time points to assess trends, patterns, and relationships over time, often providing
insights into long-term phenomena or the impact of temporal changes on various variables.
Regression Discontinuity Design. This design capitalizes on a threshold or cutoff
point to assign participants to different conditions. Participants just above or below the cutoff
are treated differently, allowing for a quasi-experimental comparison.
Sample Research Titles:
1. "The Impact of Grade Retention on Student Achievement: A Regression
Discontinuity Analysis"
This research employs a Regression Discontinuity Design to
investigate the effects of grade retention on student academic
performance. By analyzing data around the cutoff score for
retention, the study assesses whether being retained in a grade has
a significant impact on student achievement.
2. "Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Social Welfare Program: A
Regression Discontinuity Study"
This study utilizes a Regression Discontinuity Design to assess the
effectiveness of a social welfare program by comparing outcomes
for individuals just above and just below the program's eligibility
threshold. The research aims to determine whether participation in
the program leads to improved outcomes.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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3. "Assessing the Impact of Environmental Regulations on Business
Compliance: A Regression Discontinuity Analysis"
This research involves a Regression Discontinuity Design to
examine the effects of environmental regulations on business
compliance. By focusing on firms near the regulatory threshold, the
study investigates whether the introduction of stricter regulations
leads to increased compliance with environmental standards.
In these research titles, Regression Discontinuity Design is used to evaluate the
causal impact of an intervention or policy by comparing outcomes for individuals or entities
that are just above and just below a predetermined threshold, often resulting in valuable
insights into cause-and-effect relationships.
These examples illustrate the application of various quasi-experimental research
designs in different research contexts. Quasi-experimental designs offer opportunities for
studying cause-and-effect relationships when random assignment is not feasible or ethical.
Survey Design. Survey research designs involve collecting data from individuals or groups
using questionnaires or interviews to gather information about their thoughts, opinions, behaviors, or
characteristics. These designs allow researchers to collect a large amount of data quickly and efficiently.
Cross-Sectional Design. This design involves collecting data from a specific
population at a particular point in time. It provides insights into the relationships between
variables within the given timeframe.
Sample Research Title:
1. "Assessing Generational Differences in Technology Adoption: A CrossSectional Study"
This research employs a cross-sectional design to compare technology
adoption patterns among different age groups within a single point in
time. The study aims to identify generational trends in the use of
technology and digital devices.
2. "Cross-Sectional Analysis of Workplace Diversity and Organizational
Performance"
This study utilizes a cross-sectional design to examine the relationship
between workplace diversity and organizational performance across a
diverse set of companies. Data will be collected at a single point in
time to assess the impact of diversity on key performance indicators.
3. "Exploring Cross-Sectional Patterns of Health Behaviors in College
Students"
This research involves a cross-sectional design to investigate the
prevalence of health behaviors, such as exercise, nutrition, and sleep,
among college students from various disciplines. The study aims to
identify common health patterns and potential areas for intervention.
In these research titles, Cross-Sectional Design is used to collect data from
participants or entities at a single point in time, allowing researchers to examine differences,
trends, or relationships among variables across different groups or populations at that specific
moment.
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Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Longitudinal Design. In this design, data is collected from the same individuals or
groups at multiple points in time, allowing researchers to study changes and trends over an
extended period.
Sample Research Title:
1. "Tracking the Career Trajectories of STEM Graduates: A Longitudinal
Study"
This research involves a longitudinal design to follow the career
paths of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics) graduates over a span of several years. The study
aims to understand the factors that influence career choices, job
satisfaction, and professional growth in STEM fields.
2. "The Development of Early Language Skills in Children with Autism: A
Longitudinal Investigation"
This study employs a longitudinal design to observe the
development of language skills in children diagnosed with autism
spectrum disorder from infancy through early childhood. By
collecting data at multiple time points, the research seeks to identify
patterns and factors contributing to language development in this
population.
3. "Long-term Effects of Exercise on Cardiovascular Health: A 20-Year
Longitudinal Analysis"
This research utilizes a longitudinal design to examine the lasting
effects of regular exercise on cardiovascular health. Data will be
collected from a cohort of participants over a 20-year period to
assess changes in cardiovascular risk factors, such as blood
pressure, cholesterol levels, and overall heart health.
In these research titles, Longitudinal Design is employed to collect data from the
same individuals or groups at multiple time points, allowing researchers to investigate changes,
growth, and trends over an extended period, often providing valuable insights into
developmental, health, or career-related outcomes.
Panel Design. Similar to longitudinal designs, panel designs involve collecting data
from the same individuals or groups over time. However, panel designs typically have fixed
intervals between data collection points.
Sample Research Title:
1. "Long-term Effects of Early Childhood Education on Cognitive
Development: A Panel Study"
This research employs a panel design to follow a cohort of children
from early childhood through adolescence to investigate the lasting
impacts of early childhood education programs on cognitive
development, academic achievement, and other related outcomes.
2. "Assessing the Health Trajectories of Aging Adults: A Longitudinal
Panel Study"
This study utilizes a panel design to collect data from a group of
aging adults over several years to examine changes in physical
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Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
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health, mental health, and overall well-being. The research aims to
identify factors that contribute to healthy aging.
3. "Panel Analysis of Economic Mobility Among Low-Income Families"
This research employs a panel design to track the economic
mobility of low-income families over time. By collecting data at
multiple points, the study aims to identify the factors and policies
that influence upward or downward economic mobility within this
population.
In these research titles, Panel Design is used to collect data from the same group of
individuals or entities at multiple time points, allowing researchers to analyze changes and
trends over time and understand the factors contributing to these changes.
Cross-Lagged Panel Design. This design is used to examine causal relationships
between variables by collecting data from the same individuals at multiple time points,
comparing the stability and change in variables across time.
Sample Research Titles:
1. "The Reciprocal Relationship Between Parent-Child Attachment and
Academic Achievement: A Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis"
This research aims to explore the dynamic relationship between
parent-child attachment and academic achievement among schoolaged children. Using a cross-lagged panel design, data will be
collected at multiple time points to determine how changes in
attachment influence subsequent academic performance and vice
versa.
2. "Examining the Longitudinal Links Between Social Media Use and
Adolescent Well-being: A Cross-Lagged Panel Study"
This study investigates the complex relationship between social
media use and the well-being of adolescents over time. By
employing a cross-lagged panel design, researchers will collect
data at multiple intervals to examine whether changes in social
media use predict changes in well-being and vice versa.
3. "Career Development and Work-Life Balance: A Longitudinal Analysis
Using Cross-Lagged Panel Modeling"
This research explores the interplay between career development
and work-life balance among professionals. Employing a crosslagged panel design, data will be collected at various time points to
determine how changes in career development influence
subsequent perceptions of work-life balance and how changes in
work-life balance affect career development trajectories.
In each of these research titles, the Cross-Lagged Panel Design is used to examine
the directional relationships between variables measured at different points in time, providing
insights into the causal and reciprocal connections between the studied constructs.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Explanatory Sequential Design. This design involves collecting survey data
followed by in-depth interviews or focus groups to provide further understanding and
interpretation of the quantitative findings.
Sample Research Titles:
1. "Understanding the Impact of Online Learning on Student Achievement:
A Mixed-Methods Explanatory Sequential Study"
This research aims to investigate the effects of online learning on
student achievement in a K-12 education setting. It begins with a
quantitative phase to assess student performance in online courses
and then follows up with qualitative interviews to explore the factors
that contribute to the observed outcomes.
2. "Examining the Relationship Between Leadership Styles and Employee
Satisfaction in a Multinational Corporation: An Explanatory
Sequential Approach"
This study seeks to understand the connection between leadership
styles (quantitative phase) and employee satisfaction levels within a
multinational corporation. Following the initial survey, in-depth
interviews with employees will be conducted to provide insights into
why certain leadership styles influence satisfaction.
3. "Assessing the Impact of a Community Health Education Program on
Lifestyle Choices: An Explanatory Sequential Study"
This research investigates the effectiveness of a community health
education program in promoting healthy lifestyle choices among
participants. It begins with a quantitative survey to assess changes
in behavior and is followed by qualitative focus group discussions to
explore the underlying factors contributing to these changes.
In each of these research titles, the Explanatory Sequential Design is used
to first gather quantitative data and then follow up with qualitative data collection to
provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic.
Correlational Design. Correlational research designs aim to examine the relationship
between variables without manipulating or controlling them. In this design, researchers measure two or
more variables and analyze whether there is a statistical relationship between them. It does not
establish causal relationships but focuses on understanding the degree and direction of association
between variables. Here is an explanation of correlational design and five sample research titles:
Sample research titles:
1. "The Relationship between Smartphone Use and Sleep Quality among College
Students"
2. "Examining the Link between Emotional Intelligence and Job Performance in
Sales Professionals"
3. "Social Media Usage and Body Image Dissatisfaction: A Correlational Study
among Adolescents"
4. "Exploring the Relationship between Personality Traits and Leadership Styles in
Managers"
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Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
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5. "The Association between Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement
among Middle School Students"
These research titles demonstrate how correlational research designs can be applied to
investigate various domains such as technology use, workplace dynamics, social media impact,
personality traits, parenting, and academic performance. Correlational designs allow researchers to
understand the strength and nature of the relationship between variables, which can provide valuable
insights for future studies or interventions.
Qualitative Research Design
There are several qualitative research designs commonly used by researchers. Here is an
overview of three primary designs along with sample research titles:
Phenomenological Design. Phenomenological research designs aim to understand and
describe the lived experiences and perspectives of individuals regarding a particular phenomenon. It
focuses on exploring the subjective meaning that people attach to their experiences. Researchers
typically conduct in-depth interviews or use other qualitative methods to gather rich, detailed data
directly from participants. Here is an explanation of phenomenological design and five sample research
titles:
Sample research titles:
1. "Exploring the Lived Experience of Cancer Survivors: A Phenomenological
Inquiry"
This study aims to gain an in-depth understanding of the lived experiences of
individuals who have survived cancer, exploring their emotions, challenges, and
coping strategies.
2. "Understanding the Meaning of Homelessness: A Phenomenological
Investigation"
This research seeks to explore the unique perspectives and experiences of
homeless individuals, aiming to understand the meaning and impact of
homelessness on their lives.
3. "Examining the Essence of Mindfulness Practice: A Phenomenological Study"
This study aims to uncover the fundamental essence and subjective
experiences of individuals practicing mindfulness, delving into the perceived
benefits, challenges, and overall impact on well-being.
4. "Exploring the Lived Experiences of Teachers in Multicultural Classrooms: A
Phenomenological Approach"
This research investigates the subjective experiences of teachers working in
diverse classrooms, exploring their perceptions, challenges, and strategies for
creating inclusive educational environments.
5. "Understanding the Essence of Spiritual Awakening: A Phenomenological Inquiry"
This study aims to explore the subjective experiences and transformative nature
of spiritual awakening, delving into the personal insights, shifts in perception,
and overall impact on one's life.
Vision:
Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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These research titles demonstrate how phenomenological research designs can be applied to
explore a wide range of topics, including health, social issues, personal growth, education, and
spirituality. Such designs allow researchers to gain a deep understanding of the lived experiences of
individuals, providing valuable insights into the human experience and informing future interventions or
support systems.
Grounded Theory Design. Grounded Theory research designs are qualitative research
approaches that aim to generate theories or concepts by systematically analyzing data. This
methodology involves an iterative process of data collection and analysis, whereby researchers
continuously compare and analyze data to identify patterns, categories, and relationships. The goal is to
develop a theory that is grounded in the data itself, rather than relying on pre-existing theories. Here is
an explanation of Grounded Theory design and five sample research titles:
Sample research titles:
1. "Developing a Theory of Resilience in Youth Experiencing Homelessness: A
Grounded Theory Approach"
This study seeks to understand the factors that contribute to resilience in young
individuals experiencing homelessness, with the aim of developing a theory that
can inform interventions and support systems.
2. "Exploring the Process of Decision-Making in High-Stakes Environments: A
Grounded Theory Inquiry"
This research investigates the decision-making processes employed by
professionals working in high-stakes environments, aiming to develop a theory
that can enhance decision-making skills and strategies.
3. "Uncovering the Pathway to Successful Career Transitions: A Grounded Theory
Study"
This study aims to explore the experiences and strategies used by individuals
who have successfully transitioned careers, with the goal of developing a theory
that can guide others in navigating similar transitions.
4. "Understanding the Dynamics of Empathy in Healthcare Relationships: A
Grounded Theory Approach"
This research examines the complex nature of empathy in healthcare settings,
aiming to develop a theory that can enhance patient-provider relationships and
improve the delivery of care.
5. "Exploring the Experiences of Women Entrepreneurs: A Grounded Theory
Investigation"
This study investigates the experiences, challenges, and strategies utilized by
women entrepreneurs, aiming to develop a theory that can inform policies and
support mechanisms for female business owners.
These research titles demonstrate how Grounded Theory designs can be used to explore
various fields and generate theories grounded in the data collected. By systematically analyzing the data,
researchers can uncover patterns and generate concepts or theories that provide insights into the
phenomena under investigation. Grounded Theory designs allow for a deep exploration of complex
topics and provide a basis for further research and practical applications.
Vision:
Mission:
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Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
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Ethnographic Design. Ethnographic designs involve immersing researchers in a particular
social or cultural setting to gain an in-depth understanding of the culture, behaviors, beliefs, practices
and social interactions within a specific group or community. Researchers use participant observation,
interviews, and document analysis to collect data.
This methodology aims to understand the cultural context of individuals or communities by
immersing researchers in their natural setting for an extended period. Ethnographers focus on observing
and documenting the beliefs, values, practices, and social dynamics that shape the lives of the people
they study. Here is an explanation of Ethnographic design and five sample research titles:
1. "Exploring the Culture of a Remote Indigenous Community: An Ethnographic
Study"
This research aims to gain a comprehensive understanding of the cultural
traditions, social structures, and daily activities of an isolated indigenous
community, providing insights into their unique way of life.
2. "Investigating Online Gaming Communities: An Ethnographic Analysis"
This study delves into the virtual worlds of online gaming communities,
observing and analyzing the social interactions, norms, and practices that
emerge within these digital environments.
3. "Understanding the Dynamics of Workplace Culture in a Global Organization: An
Ethnographic Inquiry"
This research investigates the cultural nuances and organizational dynamics
within a multinational corporation, exploring how different cultures interact and
influence the overall work environment.
4. "Exploring the Lived Experiences of LGBTQ+ Youth in Urban Settings: An
Ethnographic Perspective"
This study examines the experiences, challenges, and support systems of
LGBTQ+ youth in urban areas, aiming to shed light on their unique cultural
context and identify ways to create inclusive environments.
5. "Uncovering Rituals and Symbolism in a Religious Community: An Ethnographic
Exploration"
This research focuses on a particular religious community, observing and
analyzing their rituals, symbolism, and spiritual practices, aiming to provide a
deep understanding of their beliefs and practices.
These research titles illustrate how Ethnographic designs offer a holistic perspective on
specific groups or communities. By immersing themselves in the natural setting of the participants,
ethnographers can observe and document rich data that captures the complexity and nuances of the
cultural context being studied. Ethnographic research enables researchers to gain insights into the
social, cultural, and behavioral aspects of the communities they investigate, offering in-depth
understanding that can inform policy, interventions, and further research.
Observational Design. Observational design involves observing and recording behaviors or
phenomena without intervening or manipulating variables. It is useful for studying natural settings and
behaviors. This methodology aims to gather objective data about how people behave, interact, and
respond to various stimuli without any direct intervention or manipulation by the researcher.
Observational research can be conducted through structured or unstructured observations, and it
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Mission:
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provides valuable insights into real-world behaviors and social dynamics. Here is an explanation of
observational research designs and five sample research titles:
Sample research titles:
1. "Examining Parent-Child Interactions in Early Childhood Education Settings: A
Naturalistic Observation Study"
This research observes and documents the interactions between parents and
children in early childhood education settings to understand the dynamics,
communication patterns, and quality of parent-child relationships.
2. "Analyzing Consumer Shopping Patterns in Supermarkets: An Ethnographic
Observation Approach"
This study uses naturalistic observation to explore consumer shopping
behaviors, choices, and decision-making processes in supermarkets, shedding
light on factors influencing consumer preferences and shopping habits.
3. "Investigating Classroom Dynamics in High School Mathematics Education: A
Participant Observation Study"
This research involves the researcher actively participating in high school
mathematics classrooms, observing and documenting the teacher-student
interactions, instructional strategies, and student engagement to gain insights
into effective teaching practices.
4. "Understanding Nonverbal Communication in Cross-Cultural
Negotiations: An Observational Analysis"
Business
This study examines nonverbal communication cues and gestures displayed
during cross-cultural business negotiations, aiming to identify cultural
differences, interpret nonverbal signals accurately, and enhance intercultural
communication skills.
5. "Exploring Social Behavior in Public Parks: A Systematic Observation Study"
This research observes and records social interactions, activities, and behavior
patterns of individuals and groups in public parks, providing insights into social
dynamics, community integration, and leisure preferences.
These research titles illustrate the wide range of topics that can be explored using
observational research designs. By observing behavior in natural settings, researchers can gather rich
and detailed data that captures the complexities of human actions and interactions. Observational
research allows for the exploration of real-world contexts, providing valuable insights that can inform
decision-making, policy development, and further research.
Case Study Design. Case study research designs are qualitative research methods that
involve in-depth investigation and analysis of a particular individual, group, event, or phenomenon.
These designs aim to provide a detailed understanding of the subject under study and uncover complex
social, psychological, or behavioral processes.
Sample research titles:
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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1. "Exploring the Impact of Remote Work on Employee Well-being: A Case Study of
XYZ Company"
This study examines the effects of remote work on employee well-being by
conducting in-depth interviews and observations with employees at a specific
organization. It aims to understand the challenges and benefits associated with
remote work and its implications for employee well-being.
2. "Understanding the Dynamics of Successful Collaborative Partnerships in
Sustainable Development: A Multi-case Study"
This research investigates successful collaborative partnerships in sustainable
development by studying multiple cases across different sectors and regions. It
intends to identify key factors contributing to effective partnerships and explore
strategies for enhancing collaboration in sustainability initiatives.
3. "Unveiling Consumer Decision-Making Processes in the Luxury Fashion Industry:
A Single-Case Embedded Study"
This study explores the decision-making processes of luxury fashion consumers
by conducting interviews, observations, and analysis of consumer behavior data
from a single case, such as a high-end fashion brand. It aims to uncover the
underlying motivations, influencers, and decision-making criteria of luxury
fashion consumers.
4. "Examining the Implementation of Project-Based Learning in K-12 Education: A
Comparative Case Study"
This research compares the implementation of project-based learning (PBL) in
multiple K-12 schools. By examining various cases, the study seeks to
understand the factors that contribute to successful PBL implementation,
challenges faced by educators, and the impact of PBL on student learning
outcomes.
5. "Analyzing Crisis Communication Strategies in the Airline Industry: A Cross-case
Study"
This study investigates crisis communication strategies employed by different
airlines during major incidents or accidents. Through analyzing multiple cases, it
aims to identify best practices, examine the effectiveness of different
approaches, and provide recommendations for improving crisis communication
in the airline industry.
Remember, these sample research titles are only meant to demonstrate the potential
applications of case study research designs, and actual studies would require more rigorous planning
and methodology.
The Research Respondents
Researchers use various types of research respondents, also known as participants or
subjects, depending on the nature of their study and research objectives. The choice of respondents is
crucial as they provide valuable data and insights that contribute to the research findings.
Researchers interact with various individuals or groups during their studies, who are classified
based on their roles and levels of involvement. Here are the explanations and five samples each of
different kinds of respondents used by researchers:
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Informants. Informants are individuals who possess specific knowledge or expertise in a
particular area and provide valuable information to researchers. They often have firsthand experience or
insights related to the research topic. Informants can be:
a) Key informants. Researchers select individuals who have in-depth knowledge or expertise in
the research area, such as professionals, scholars, or community leaders.
b) Expert informants. Researchers consult experts or specialists in a field to obtain specialized
knowledge or opinions regarding the research study.
c) Indigenous informants. Researchers collaborate with members of indigenous communities
who possess cultural knowledge or unique perspectives relevant to the research topic.
d) Gatekeepers. Researchers seek permission, guidance, or introductions from gatekeepers,
who are individuals or entities with authority or control over access to the research
population or setting.
e) Peer informants. Researchers gather information from peers or individuals who share a
similar background or experience related to the research study.
Respondents. Respondents are individuals who provide answers or responses to the
researcher's questions or surveys. They are usually the primary source of data collection. Examples of
respondents include:
a)
Survey respondents. Individuals who answer questionnaires or surveys designed by
researchers to collect data.
b)
Interview respondents. Individuals who participate in face-to-face or virtual interviews,
where researchers ask questions and gather qualitative data.
c)
Focus group respondents. Individuals who take part in group discussions facilitated by
researchers to explore specific topics or issues in depth.
d)
Online questionnaire respondents. Individuals who complete online questionnaires or
surveys, commonly used for large-scale data collection.
e)
Panel respondents. Individuals who are part of a pre-selected group or panel and regularly
participate in surveys or studies over a period of time.
Observees. Observees are individuals or groups that researchers directly observe without
actively interacting with them. Observations can be structured or unstructured, and observees may or
may not be aware of being observed. Examples of observees include:
a)
Naturalistic observees. Researchers observe individuals or groups in their natural
environment or real-life settings without any intervention.
b) Participant observees. Researchers immerse themselves in the context or setting and
actively participate while observing others.
c)
Covert observees. Researchers observe individuals or groups without their knowledge or
consent, mainly used in situations where informed consent may compromise the study's
integrity.
d) Structured observees. Researchers utilize predetermined categories or criteria to document
specific behaviors or activities of individuals or groups being observed.
e) Unstructured observees. Researchers record observations without predefined categories or
criteria, allowing for flexibility in capturing unexpected behaviors or phenomena.
Participants. Participants are individuals who actively engage in a research study, often
involving experiments or interventions. They play an active role in contributing to the research process.
Examples of participants include:
a)
Vision:
Mission:
Experimental participants. Individuals who are part of controlled experiments, usually
divided into treatment and control groups, to compare the effects of interventions or variables.
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b)
Clinical trial participants. Individuals who volunteer to participate in medical or
pharmaceutical trials, often to test the efficacy and safety of new treatments or interventions.
c)
Intervention participants. Individuals who receive or undergo specific interventions or
programs as part of the research study, such as educational interventions or therapy
sessions.
d)
Behavioral participants. Individuals who participate in studies focusing on human behavior,
which may involve tasks, simulations, or role-playing exercises.
e)
Longitudinal study participants. Individuals who are followed and assessed over an
extended period to track changes, behaviors, or outcomes.
Registrants. Registrants are individuals who provide their personal information, contact
details, or consent to be contacted for future research studies or mailings. They express interest in
participating but are not directly involved in the current research study. Examples of registrants include:
a) Mailing list registrants. Individuals who sign up or subscribe to newsletters or mailing lists to
receive updates about research studies or related news.
b) Recruitment registrants. Individuals who express their interest in participating in future
research studies and provide their contact details for recruitment purposes.
c) Follow-up registrants. Individuals who agree to be contacted for follow-up studies or
interviews, allowing researchers to reach out to them in the future.
d) Database registrants. Individuals who voluntarily enroll in databases or registries managed
by researchers, often providing demographic or medical information for potential inclusion in
future studies.
e) Consent form registrants. Individuals who consent to participate in research studies and
provide their personal information, indicating their willingness to be contacted for further
studies or updates.
Each kind of respondent serves a specific purpose in the research process. Researchers
should carefully consider ethical considerations, privacy concerns,
It's essential to note that the choice of research respondents should align with the research
objectives and ensure ethical considerations, such as informed consent and protection of participant
confidentiality.
The Sampling Techniques
Sampling technique is a method used in statistics and research to select a subset of
individuals or items from a larger population for the purpose of making inferences or drawing
conclusions about the entire population. Sampling is a practical approach when it is not feasible or
practical to collect data from every member of the population, which is often the case in large or
geographically dispersed populations.
The key objectives of sampling techniques are to:
Vision:
Mission:
a)
Represent the Population. The selected sample should accurately represent the
characteristics of the entire population from which it is drawn. This ensures that any findings
or conclusions made based on the sample can be generalized to the larger population.
b)
Reduce Costs and Resources. Collecting data from an entire population can be timeconsuming and expensive. Sampling allows researchers to gather the necessary information
more efficiently and cost-effectively.
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c)
Minimize Bias. Sampling techniques should aim to minimize bias, which is any systematic
error introduced into the sample selection process that could skew the results. Various
sampling methods are designed to reduce or eliminate bias.
Probability sampling and non-probability sampling are two different approaches used in
research to select samples from a population. Here's an explanation of each technique along with five
examples for both probability and non-probability sampling:
Probability Sampling Technique
Probability sampling techniques are characterized by the use of random selection methods,
which means that every member of the population has a known, non-zero probability of being selected
for the sample. This approach ensures that the sample is representative of the population, and it allows
for the calculation of statistical measures of error and confidence intervals.
Random Sampling. In random sampling, each element in the population has an equal chance
of being selected. Random numbers or a randomization process is typically used to ensure equal
probability of selection.
Examples:
a)
Drawing names out of a hat to select participants for a survey.
b)
Using a random number generator to select households for a door-to-door survey.
c)
Using a lottery system to select a sample of students for a research study.
d)
Using a computer program to randomly select customers for a market research study.
e)
Using a table of random numbers to select patients for a clinical trial.
Systematic Sampling. In systematic sampling, the population is ordered, and every nth
element is selected as part of the sample after selecting a random starting point. It provides a systematic
way of selecting elements.
Examples:
a)
Selecting every 10th person who enters a shopping mall for a consumer behavior
study.
b)
Sampling every 5th book on a library shelf for a content analysis study.
c)
Surveying every 20th house on a street for a housing market study.
d)
Choosing every 15th customer from a list of orders placed for a customer satisfaction
survey.
e)
Sampling every 50th registered voter in a city for a political preference study.
Cluster Sampling. Cluster sampling involves dividing a population into groups or clusters and
randomly selecting entire clusters for inclusion in the sample. It is useful when the population is naturally
divided into subsets or clusters.
Examples:
Vision:
Mission:
a)
Randomly selecting schools and surveying all students within the selected schools for
an education study.
b)
Sampling entire neighborhoods or blocks and surveying all residents for a community
health survey.
c)
Selecting hospitals and including all patients admitted to those hospitals for a
healthcare study.
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d)
Randomly selecting factories and surveying all workers within the selected factories for
an occupational health study.
e)
Choosing cities and surveying all households within the selected cities for a
transportation study.
Stratified Sampling. Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into distinct
subgroups or strata based on certain characteristics. Samples are then randomly selected from each
stratum in proportion to their representation in the population.
Examples:
a)
Dividing a student population into freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors and
randomly selecting a proportionate number of students from each stratum for an
academic study.
b)
Stratifying shoppers by age groups and randomly selecting participants from each age
group for a market research study.
c)
Dividing employees into different departments and randomly selecting individuals from
each department for an employee satisfaction survey.
d)
Stratifying patients by severity of illness and randomly selecting participants from each
stratum for a medical research study.
e)
Dividing customers by geographical location and randomly selecting individuals from
each region for a customer preference study.
Non-Probability Sampling Techniques
Non-probability sampling techniques do not rely on random selection methods and do not
ensure that each member of the population has a known and equal chance of being included in the
sample. While non-probability sampling methods can be quicker and more convenient, they are more
susceptible to bias and do not allow for precise statistical inferences.
Convenience Sampling. Convenience sampling involves selecting participants based on their
accessibility and convenience. It is quick and easy to implement but may introduce bias.
Examples:
a)
Interviewing people passing by on a busy street for a quick opinion survey.
b)
Surveying customers in a shopping mall during peak hours for a market research study.
c)
Collecting data from students available in a classroom for an educational research
project.
d)
Conducting online surveys and gathering responses from visitors to a website.
e)
Interviewing friends and family members for a small-scale research project.
Quota Sampling. Quota sampling involves selecting a sample that matches specific
characteristics (quotas) defined by the researcher. Participants are not randomly selected but are
chosen to ensure representation of different groups. Researchers divide the population into categories
and then select individuals from each category until a predetermined quota for each category is met.
While it ensures diversity, it does not provide randomness.
Examples:
Vision:
Mission:
a)
Selecting a predetermined number of male and female participants for a gender-based
study.
b)
Surveying individuals from different income brackets in proportions determined by the
researcher.
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c)
Collecting responses from people with varying levels of education for an educational
research study.
d)
Choosing participants from different age groups based on predetermined proportions
for an age-related study.
e)
Surveying equal numbers of participants from different ethnic groups for a multicultural
study.
Purposive Sampling. Purposive sampling involves selecting specific individuals who meet
specific criteria relevant to the research question. The researcher purposefully selects participants
based on their knowledge, expertise, or unique characteristics.
Examples:
a)
Selecting expert medical practitioners for interviews in a healthcare research study.
b)
Choosing individuals with a specific medical condition as participants in a study
examining treatment effectiveness.
c)
Surveying individuals who have experienced a specific event or phenomenon for a
qualitative research project.
d)
Sampling individuals who have extensive experience in a particular field for an expert
opinion study.
e)
Recruiting participants who have achieved exceptional success in a particular domain
for a case study.
Snowball Sampling. Snowball sampling involves initially selecting a few participants who
then refer or nominate other potential participants from their social networks. It is useful when the target
population is hard to reach or identify through traditional sampling methods.
Examples:
a)
Selecting a few key informants in a community and asking them to refer others with
similar experiences for an anthropological research study.
b)
Surveying individuals engaged in illegal activities who can provide insights into a
particular phenomenon.
c)
Recruiting participants for a study on rare medical conditions by asking patients to refer
others with similar conditions.
d)
Sampling participants for a study on social media behavior by asking existing users to
nominate other active users.
e)
Interviewing individuals involved in niche hobbies or communities through referrals
from existing members.
Remember, both probability and non-probability sampling techniques have their strengths and
weaknesses. The choice of sampling technique should align with the research objectives and the
characteristics of the target population.
The Locale of the Study
The "locale of the study" (also called Research Environment) refers to the specific physical,
geographical, or social setting where a research study is conducted. It is a fundamental aspect of
research design that helps define the context in which data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted. The
choice of the study locale is often a critical decision, as it can influence the research outcomes and the
generalizability of the findings. Let's explore this concept further with explanations and examples:
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Mission:
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Physical or Geographical Locale. This refers to the physical or geographical location where
the research takes place. It includes considerations such as the site's climate, topography, infrastructure,
and access to resources.
Examples:
a)
Urban Setting. Research conducted in a densely populated city, like a study on traffic
congestion in Cebu City.
b)
Rural Setting. Research focused on agricultural practices in a remote village in Isabel.
c)
Natural Environment. Studies conducted in specific natural environments, like a
research project on marine biodiversity in the Tabuk Island.
Social or Cultural Locale. This pertains to the cultural, social, and community context in
which the research occurs. It includes factors like language, customs, beliefs, and social structures.
Examples:
a)
Ethnic Communities. Research on cultural traditions and customs within a specific
ethnic group, such as a study on Tabunok nipa making practices.
b)
Religious Institutions. Investigations of religious practices and beliefs within a
particular religious community or institution.
c)
Urban Neighborhoods. Studies examining the social dynamics and challenges of a
particular neighborhood or community within a city.
Virtual Locale. In an era of digital research, the locale can also be virtual, referring to online
spaces and communities where data collection or interactions occur.
Examples:
a)
Online Forums. Research involving data collection from discussions in online forums
or social media platforms, like a study on political discourse on Facebook.
b)
Virtual Reality (VR). Experiments conducted in virtual reality environments to assess
human behavior or reactions.
c)
E-learning Environments. Studies exploring online learning platforms and their
effectiveness in education.
Laboratory Locale. Laboratory settings are controlled environments specifically designed for
scientific experiments and data collection.
Examples:
a)
Chemistry Laboratory: Research involving chemical reactions and analysis in a
controlled lab environment.
b)
Psychology Lab: Experiments assessing human behavior or cognition, often conducted
in psychology research labs.
c)
Biological Research Facility: Studies on genetics, cellular biology, or microbiology
conducted in specialized research laboratories.
Historical Locale. Research may focus on historical settings or events, analyzing past
societies, cultures, or time periods.
Examples:
a)
Vision:
Mission:
Archaeological Sites. Research on ancient civilizations and artifacts at archaeological
sites like Pompeii.
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b)
Historical Documents. Studies involving the analysis of historical documents, diaries,
or letters from a specific era.
c)
Oral History Interviews. Research that collects and analyzes oral histories of
individuals who experienced specific historical events, such as World War II veterans.
The choice of the study locale depends on the research objectives, questions, and
methodology. Researchers must consider how the locale influences the variables of interest and
whether the findings can be generalized beyond the specific setting. The locale plays a crucial role in
shaping the research design, data collection methods, and the interpretation of results.
The Methods of Data-Gathering
Methods of data gathering are techniques or approaches used to collect information and data
for research, analysis, and decision-making. These methods vary in their structure, purpose, and the
type of data they produce.
Questionnaire Method. The questionnaire method involves the use of structured sets of
questions presented to respondents. It's typically used to gather standardized data from a sample of
individuals or groups.
Examples:
a)
Customer Satisfaction Survey. A questionnaire given to customers to assess their
satisfaction with a product or service.
b)
Political Opinion Poll. Surveys conducted to collect data on public opinions about
political candidates or issues.
c)
Employee Engagement Survey. A structured questionnaire administered to
employees to measure job satisfaction and engagement.
d)
Market Research Questionnaire. A survey used to collect data on consumer
preferences, buying behavior, and market trends.
e)
Health Assessment Questionnaire. Questionnaires designed to gather information
about an individual's health status, lifestyle, and medical history.
Interview Method. The interview method involves face-to-face or remote interactions between
an interviewer and a respondent. It allows for more in-depth and qualitative data collection compared to
questionnaires.
Examples:
a)
Job Interviews. Interviews conducted by hiring managers to assess job candidates'
qualifications and suitability for a position.
b)
Clinical Interviews. Mental health professionals conduct interviews with patients to
assess and diagnose psychological conditions.
c)
Qualitative Research Interviews. Researchers use interviews to collect rich, in-depth
data for qualitative studies, such as in-depth interviews with participants in a study on
cultural practices.
d)
Market Research Interviews. In-depth interviews with consumers to understand their
motivations, preferences, and buying behavior.
e)
News Interviews. Journalists interview sources to gather information for news articles
or broadcasts.
Observation Method. The observation method involves systematically watching and
recording behaviors, events, or phenomena as they occur in their natural context.
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Examples:
a)
Child Behavior Observation. Observing and recording children's behavior in a
classroom to assess learning and social interactions.
b)
Retail Store Observation. Observing customer behavior, such as browsing,
purchasing decisions, and product interactions, in a retail store.
c)
Wildlife Observation. Observing and documenting animal behavior in natural habitats,
such as birdwatching or studying primate behavior.
d)
Workplace Safety Observation. Safety inspectors observe and document safety
practices and compliance in a workplace.
e)
Classroom Teaching Observation. Evaluating teaching methods, classroom
dynamics, and student engagement through classroom observations.
Experimentation. Experimental research involves the deliberate manipulation of one or more
variables in a controlled setting to observe the effects and draw causal conclusions.
Examples:
a)
Drug Efficacy Experiment. Clinical trials involving the testing of a new drug on
patients to assess its effectiveness and safety.
b)
Psychological Experiment. Researchers manipulate variables to study their impact
on human behavior, such as a study on the effects of stress on cognitive performance.
c)
Physics Experiment. Physicists conduct experiments to test hypotheses and theories,
such as experiments in quantum mechanics.
d)
Agricultural Experiment. Experimentation to determine the optimal conditions and
practices for crop growth and yield.
e)
Consumer Product Testing. Testing the performance and safety of consumer
products, such as crash tests for automobiles.
Registration Method. The registration method involves collecting data by recording
information as individuals register for events, services, or memberships.
Examples:
a)
Conference Registration. Gathering participant details and payment information
when individuals register for a professional conference.
b)
Gym Membership Registration. Collecting personal information and health history
when individuals sign up for a gym membership.
c)
Online Course Enrollment. Capturing student details and course preferences during
online course enrollment.
d)
Patient Intake Form. Gathering patient information, medical history, and insurance
details during hospital or clinic visits.
e)
Library Card Registration. Collecting personal information and contact details when
individuals apply for a library card.
These data gathering methods serve different research purposes and provide various types of
data. Researchers select the most appropriate method(s) based on their research objectives, the nature
of the data required, ethical considerations, available resources, and the target population or sample.
The choice of method can significantly impact the quality and validity of research findings.
The Research Instruments
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Research instruments are tools or techniques used by researchers to collect data during a
research study. These instruments help gather information from participants, observations, or
documents to answer research questions or test hypotheses. Here, I'll explain five common research
instruments, providing five examples for each:
Survey Questionnaire. A survey questionnaire is a structured set of questions designed to
collect data from respondents. It can be administered in various formats, including paper, online, or
through interviews.
Examples:
a)
Customer Satisfaction Survey. A questionnaire asking customers about their
satisfaction with a product or service.
b)
Political Opinion Survey. A survey to gauge public opinions on political candidates or
issues.
c)
Employee Engagement Survey. Questions assessing employees' job satisfaction
and engagement within a company.
d)
Health Assessment Questionnaire. A tool to collect data on an individual's health
status, lifestyle, and habits.
e)
Educational Feedback Form. A survey administered to students to gather feedback
on a course or teacher's performance.
Interview Guide. An interview guide is a structured set of questions or topics used to conduct
interviews with participants. It provides a framework for the interview process.
Examples:
a)
Job Interview Guide. Questions for hiring managers to assess job candidates'
qualifications and fit for a position.
b)
Clinical Interview Guide. A guide for mental health professionals to assess and
diagnose patients' psychological conditions.
c)
Market Research Interview Guide. Questions for conducting in-depth interviews with
consumers about their preferences and buying behavior.
d)
Researcher's Interview Guide. A guide used by researchers to collect qualitative data
from study participants in academic research.
e)
Journalistic Interview Questions. A set of questions for journalists conducting
interviews with sources for news articles.
Observation Guide. An observation guide outlines the procedures and criteria for
systematically observing and recording behaviors, events, or phenomena.
Examples:
Vision:
Mission:
a)
Child Behavior Observation. A guide for educators or psychologists to observe and
document children's behavior in a classroom.
b)
Retail Store Observation. Instructions for researchers to observe and record
customer behaviors, such as browsing and purchasing, in a retail store.
c)
Naturalistic Animal Behavior Observation. A guide for field biologists to observe
and document animal behavior in their natural habitat.
d)
Workplace Safety Observation. A checklist for safety inspectors to observe and
document safety practices in a workplace.
e)
Classroom Teaching Observation. An instrument for educational researchers or
administrators to evaluate teaching methods and classroom management.
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Pre-Test/Post-Test. Pre-test and post-test assessments involve administering a set of
questions or tests to participants before and after an intervention or treatment to measure changes.
Examples:
a)
Educational Pre-Test/Post-Test. Administering a math test to students before and
after a new teaching method to measure learning gains.
b)
Fitness Program Pre-Test/Post-Test. Assessing participants' physical fitness levels
before and after a 12-week exercise program.
c)
Smoking Cessation Program Pre-Test/Post-Test. Measuring the number of
cigarettes smoked per day before and after participation in a smoking cessation
program.
d)
Customer Satisfaction Pre-Test/Post-Test. Surveying customers before and after a
service improvement to gauge changes in satisfaction.
e)
Stress Reduction Program Pre-Test/Post-Test. Evaluating stress levels using
questionnaires before and after participation in a stress reduction program.
Registration Form. A registration form is a document or online form used to collect basic
information from individuals when they register for an event, program, or service.
Examples:
a)
Conference Registration Form. A form completed by attendees when registering for
a professional conference, providing contact details and payment information.
b)
Gym Membership Registration. Collecting information from individuals signing up for
a gym membership, including personal details and health history.
c)
Online Course Enrollment Form. A digital form for students registering for an online
course, capturing their educational background and payment information.
d)
Patient Intake Form. A form used in healthcare settings to gather patient information,
medical history, and insurance details during a clinic or hospital visit.
e)
Library Card Registration. Collecting information from individuals when they apply for
a library card, including name, address, and contact information.
These research instruments are versatile tools used across various fields to collect data,
assess changes over time, and gather information for analysis, decision-making, and academic research.
Researchers select the appropriate instrument based on the research objectives, the type of data
needed, and the research methodology.
The Data-Gathering Procedures
Data gathering procedures refer to the systematic and structured methods or steps used to
collect data for a research study or any other information-gathering process. These procedures are
designed to ensure that data is collected accurately, consistently, and in a way that aligns with the
research objectives and methodology. Well-defined data gathering procedures are essential for
maintaining the reliability and validity of the data collected.
Key Components of Data Gathering Procedures:
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Definition of Data. Begin by clearly defining the type of data you intend to collect. Data can
be quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (descriptive). For example, if you're conducting a customer
satisfaction survey, you need to specify whether you want numerical ratings or descriptive comments.
Selection of Data Sources. Determine where you will obtain the data. Identify the individuals,
groups, or sources from which the data will be collected. For instance, if you're studying employee job
satisfaction, your data source might be employees in a specific department.
Sampling Method. If you are not collecting data from an entire population (which is often the
case due to practical constraints), you need to define your sampling method. This includes specifying
how you will select a representative sample from the population. Common sampling methods include
random sampling, stratified sampling, or convenience sampling.
Data Collection Instruments. Choose the tools or instruments you will use to gather data.
This can include surveys, questionnaires, interviews, observation forms, sensors, or any other data
collection methods that align with your research objectives. For example, if you're studying online
shopping behavior, you might use a web-based survey.
Pilot Testing. Before full-scale data collection, it's often advisable to conduct a pilot test to
refine your data collection instruments and procedures. This involves testing your methods on a small,
representative group to identify and address any issues.
Training. If data collectors are involved (e.g., survey administrators, interviewers, observers),
provide them with proper training. Training ensures they understand the procedures, maintain
consistency, and follow ethical guidelines when interacting with participants.
Data Collection Schedule. Create a timeline or schedule outlining when and where data will
be collected. This schedule should include deadlines, milestones, and any time-sensitive aspects of the
data collection process.
Data Collection Process. Define the step-by-step process for data collection. This includes
instructions for approaching participants, administering surveys or interviews, recording observations,
and managing any unforeseen challenges that may arise.
Data Recording and Storage. Specify how collected data will be recorded and stored.
Consider data security and confidentiality requirements. Digital data may be stored in databases, while
physical forms should be securely stored.
Quality Control and Validation. Implement measures to ensure data quality and reliability.
This may involve double-checking entries, conducting spot checks, or employing validation rules to
identify errors or inconsistencies.
Data Entry and Coding. If applicable, outline the process for entering data into a digital
system and coding or categorizing qualitative data. This step is crucial for quantitative analysis.
Examples of Data Gathering Procedures:
Let's consider a research study as an example—a survey on social media usage among
young adults:
Definition of Data. The data to be collected include the frequency and types of social media
platforms used by young adults, their daily time spent on social media, and their reasons for using these
platforms.
Selection of Data Sources. The data will be gathered from a random sample of young adults
aged 18-30 in a specific city.
Sampling Method. A stratified random sampling method will be used to ensure representation
from different age groups within the target population.
Data Collection Instruments. A structured online survey consisting of multiple-choice and
open-ended questions will be used.
Pilot Testing. A pilot test will be conducted with 30 individuals from the target population to
refine the survey questions.
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Training. Survey administrators will be trained on how to approach potential participants,
obtain informed consent, and administer the survey.
Data Collection Schedule. Data collection will occur over a four-week period, with specific
quotas for each age group.
Data Collection Process. Administrators will approach potential participants in public places
(e.g., parks, malls) or through online platforms, obtain informed consent, and ask them to complete the
online survey.
Data Recording and Storage. Survey responses will be securely stored in a passwordprotected database.
Quality Control and Validation. A random sample of surveys will be reviewed for accuracy
and consistency.
Data Entry and Coding. Quantitative data (e.g., age, time spent) will be entered into a
spreadsheet, while qualitative data (e.g., reasons for social media use) will be coded and categorized for
analysis.
These data gathering procedures ensure that the data collected are reliable, representative,
and aligned with the research goals, ultimately contributing to the validity of the research findings.
The Statistical Treatment of Data
Statistical treatment of data in research refers to the application of statistical techniques and
methods to analyze, interpret, and draw conclusions from the collected data. It involves organizing,
summarizing, and presenting data in a meaningful way to make informed decisions, test hypotheses,
and answer research questions. Statistical treatment is a crucial step in the research process, as it
allows researchers to make objective and data-driven inferences. Here are some key aspects of
statistical treatment of data along with examples:
Data Cleaning and Preparation. Before statistical analysis can begin, data must be cleaned
and prepared. This involves identifying and addressing missing data, outliers, and inconsistencies to
ensure the dataset is reliable.
Example:
In a survey on household income, if some respondents left the income question
blank, the missing data may be replaced with an imputed value based on the average income
of other respondents.
Descriptive Statistics. Descriptive statistics are used to summarize and describe the main
features of a dataset. Common descriptive measures include measures of central tendency (e.g., mean,
median, mode), measures of dispersion (e.g., range, variance, standard deviation), and graphical
representations (e.g., histograms, box plots).
Example:
Calculating the average (mean) income of a sample of 100 households to describe
the central tendency of income in the sample.
Inferential Statistics. Inferential statistics are used to make inferences or predictions about a
population based on data from a sample. These methods include hypothesis testing, confidence
intervals, and regression analysis.
Example:
Conducting a hypothesis test to determine whether there is a significant difference in
test scores between two teaching methods in a study involving a sample of students.
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Correlation and Regression Analysis. Correlation analysis assesses the strength and
direction of relationships between variables, while regression analysis models the relationships between
variables and can be used for prediction.
Example:
Analyzing the correlation between study hours and exam scores to determine if
there is a positive relationship. Using regression analysis to predict sales based on advertising
spending.
Statistical Testing. Statistical tests are used to assess the significance of observed
differences or relationships. Common tests include t-tests, chi-square tests, ANOVA (analysis of
variance), and non-parametric tests.
Example:
Conducting a chi-square test to determine if there is a significant association
between gender (male/female) and the choice of a particular product (yes/no) in a market
research study.
Data Visualization. Data visualization techniques, such as bar charts, scatter plots, and pie
charts, are used to present data visually, making it easier to interpret and communicate findings.
Example:
Creating a bar chart to visualize the distribution of income levels in a population or a
line chart to show trends in stock prices over time.
Statistical Software. Statistical software packages like SPSS, R, SAS, and Python are used
to perform various statistical analyses efficiently and accurately.
Example:
Using SPSS to conduct a regression analysis to determine the factors that influence
customer satisfaction in a retail business.
Interpretation and Reporting. The results of statistical analysis must be interpreted in the
context of the research question and reported in a clear and meaningful manner, often including tables,
figures, and written explanations.
Example:
In a research report, presenting the results of a regression analysis that shows how
changes in advertising spending are associated with changes in sales, along with a written
interpretation of the findings.
Ethical Considerations. Ethical considerations in statistical treatment involve ensuring that
data analysis is conducted in an unbiased and ethical manner, without manipulating results or
misrepresenting findings.
Example:
Avoiding selective reporting of results to support a predetermined hypothesis and
disclosing any conflicts of interest that could bias the analysis.
Statistical treatment of data is fundamental to making sense of research data, drawing valid
conclusions, and providing evidence to support research findings. It helps researchers identify patterns,
relationships, and trends in the data, allowing for informed decision-making and hypothesis testing.
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The Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations in research refer to the principles and guidelines that researchers must
follow to ensure that their research is conducted in an ethical, responsible, and morally acceptable
manner. These considerations are crucial to protect the rights, well-being, and dignity of research
participants and to maintain the integrity and credibility of the research process. Ethical guidelines and
standards may vary across disciplines, institutions, and countries, but they generally share common
principles.
Informed Consent. Informed consent involves obtaining voluntary and informed agreement
from research participants before they take part in a study. Participants should be aware of the study's
purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits.
Example:
In a medical research study, participants must be provided with detailed information
about the study's objectives, potential side effects of medication, and alternative treatments.
They should then sign a consent form indicating their willingness to participate.
Protection of Privacy and Confidentiality. Researchers must respect the privacy of
participants and ensure that any information collected from them is kept confidential and not disclosed
without their permission.
Example:
In a psychological study, participants may share personal experiences during
interviews. Researchers must ensure that these responses are anonymized and cannot be
traced back to individual participants.
Beneficence and Non-Maleficence. Researchers have an ethical obligation to maximize
benefits to participants while minimizing harm. They should strive to do good and avoid causing harm.
Example:
In a clinical trial for a new drug, researchers must carefully monitor and assess
potential side effects to ensure the safety of participants. If severe adverse effects are
observed, the study may need to be halted to protect participants from harm.
Fair Treatment and Equity. Researchers should treat all participants fairly, without
discrimination based on characteristics such as race, gender, age, or socioeconomic status.
Example:
In a study on workplace diversity, researchers must ensure that participants from
different racial and gender backgrounds are treated equally and that no group is unfairly
disadvantaged.
Research Integrity. Researchers must conduct their work with honesty, transparency, and
accuracy. They should not manipulate or fabricate data or results.
Example:
In a scientific study, researchers should report all data, even if it contradicts their
hypotheses, and avoid selectively presenting results that support a particular viewpoint.
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Debriefing. After a research study is complete, participants should be provided with
information about the study's outcomes and offered an opportunity to ask questions or seek further
information.
Example:
In a psychology experiment, participants should be debriefed after their participation,
informed about the study's goals, and given the chance to discuss any concerns or emotional
reactions they may have had.
Respect for Vulnerable Populations. Special protections must be in place for vulnerable
populations, such as children, the elderly, prisoners, and individuals with cognitive impairments, to
ensure they are not exploited or subjected to undue risks.
Example:
When conducting research involving children, researchers must obtain informed
consent from parents or legal guardians in addition to obtaining the child's assent. They should
also use age-appropriate language and procedures.
Publication and Authorship Ethics. In publishing research findings, researchers should
adhere to ethical standards, including proper citation of sources and authorship credit based on
substantial contributions.
Example:
Researchers must give credit to others whose work has influenced their research by
appropriately citing sources in their publications. Co-authors should be those who have made
substantial contributions to the study.
These examples illustrate the importance of ethical considerations in research across various
fields. Ethical conduct is essential not only to protect the rights and well-being of research participants
but also to maintain the public's trust in the research community and the credibility of research findings.
Researchers and institutions often have ethics review boards or committees to ensure that research
projects meet ethical standards and guidelines.
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Learning Tasks/Activities
Name___________________________________________________ Lesson No ________ Section___
Directions: Anayze carefully and answer the problems below.
I. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1) Which research design involves the manipulation of an independent variable to determine its
effect on a dependent variable?
A) Quasi-Experimental Design
B) Survey Design
C) Longitudinal Design
D) Experimental Design
2) In which research design are participants randomly assigned to different groups, and there
is a control group that does not receive the treatment?
A) Cross-Sectional Design
B) Regression Discontinuity Design
C) Nonequivalent Control Group Design
D) Explanatory Sequential Design
3) Which research design involves the collection of data at multiple points in time from the
same group of participants?
A) Longitudinal Design
B) Time-Series Design
C) Correlational Design
D) Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
4) What type of research design uses surveys or questionnaires to gather data from a large
sample of participants?
A) Time-Series Design
B) Solomon Four-Group Design
C) Survey Design
D) Experimental Design
5) In which research design is an initial survey followed by an experiment to explain the survey
results in more detail?
A) Correlational Design
B) Explanatory Sequential Design
C) Longitudinal Design
D) Time-Series Design
6) Which research design involves the collection of data from two or more groups that differ
naturally on one or more variables?
A) Quasi-Experimental Design
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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B) Regression Discontinuity Design
C) Solomon Four-Group Design
D) Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
7) In which research design are participants assigned to groups based on a cutoff score on a
continuous variable?
A) Time-Series Design
B) Cross-Sectional Design
C) Regression Discontinuity Design
D) Explanatory Sequential Design
8) What type of research design involves the collection of data from two or more groups with
no random assignment?
A) Longitudinal Design
B) Quasi-Experimental Design
C) Time-Series Design
D) Correlational Design
9) In which research design are participants randomly assigned to one of four groups: control
with pretest, control without pretest, experimental with pretest, experimental without pretest?
A) Solomon Four-Group Design
B) Cross-Sectional Design
C) Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
D) Survey Design
10) Which research design involves the collection of data at multiple time points before and
after an intervention to assess its impact?
A) Time-Series Design
B) Explanatory Sequential Design
C) Survey Design
D) Nonequivalent Control Group Design
11) In which research design are participants assigned to groups based on characteristics like
age or gender, and data is collected at one point in time?
A) Correlational Design
B) Quasi-Experimental Design
C) Longitudinal Design
D) Cross-Sectional Design
12) Which research design involves collecting data from participants before and after an
intervention and comparing it to a control group?
A) Time-Series Design
B) Solomon Four-Group Design
C) Regression Discontinuity Design
D) Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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13) What type of research design involves the collection of data at multiple time points to
observe trends and patterns over time?
A) Explanatory Sequential Design
B) Time-Series Design
C) Longitudinal Design
D) Correlational Design
14) In which research design is a combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal data
collected from different age groups at multiple time points?
A) Quasi-Experimental Design
B) Regression Discontinuity Design
C) Explanatory Sequential Design
D) Nonequivalent Control Group Design
15) Which research design involves the collection of data from two or more variables to
determine if they are related or correlated?
A) Correlational Design
B) Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
C) Survey Design
D) Experimental Design
16) In which research design are participants randomly assigned to groups, and the groups are
compared to assess the effect of an independent variable?
A) Nonequivalent Control Group Design
B) Time-Series Design
C) Cross-Sectional Design
D) Experimental Design
17) What type of research design involves the collection of data from a single group before and
after an intervention, with no control group?
A) Explanatory Sequential Design
B) Time-Series Design
C) Survey Design
D) Quasi-Experimental Design
18) In which research design is data collected from two groups, one that receives a pretest and
one that does not, followed by an intervention and a posttest for both groups?
A) Solomon Four-Group Design
B) Regression Discontinuity Design
C) Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
D) Experimental Design
19) Which research design involves collecting data at two or more points in time to analyze
changes or trends over time?
A) Quasi-Experimental Design
B) Cross-Sectional Design
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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C) Longitudinal Design
D) Regression Discontinuity Design
20) What type of research design involves data collection at multiple time points before and
after an intervention, with a focus on analyzing the trends and patterns in the data?
A) Correlational Design
B) Time-Series Design
C) Explanatory Sequential Design
D) Survey Design
21) Researchers want to explore the lived experiences of individuals who have recently
overcome a major life crisis and how these experiences have shaped their personal growth
and resilience. Which research design is most appropriate for this study?
a) Grounded Theory Design
b) Observational Design
c) Ethnographic Design
d) Case Study Design
e) Phenomenological Design
22) A researcher is interested in understanding how a specific cultural community in a remote
region maintains its traditional practices and beliefs despite external influences. Which
research design should the researcher choose to immerse in the community and explore their
cultural dynamics?
a) Grounded Theory Design
b) Observational Design
c) Ethnographic Design
d) Case Study Design
e) Phenomenological Design
23) A researcher wants to investigate the natural behavior of a group of chimpanzees in their
habitat without any interventions or manipulations. What research design would be most
suitable for this observational study?
a) Grounded Theory Design
b) Observational Design
c) Ethnographic Design
d) Case Study Design
e) Phenomenological Design
24) A doctoral student is conducting in-depth interviews with survivors of a recent natural
disaster to gain insights into their experiences, coping mechanisms, and long-term recovery.
Which research design aligns with this study's focus on exploring participants' subjective
experiences?
a) Grounded Theory Design
b) Observational Design
c) Ethnographic Design
d) Case Study Design
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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e) Phenomenological Design
25) A researcher is studying a rare medical condition in a single patient over an extended
period to gain a comprehensive understanding of the illness, its progression, and the patient's
responses to treatments. What research design is most appropriate for this in-depth
examination of a unique case?
a) Grounded Theory Design
b) Observational Design
c) Ethnographic Design
d) Case Study Design
e) Phenomenological Design
II. Identify what type of research repondent is described in each item.
1) In a study exploring the cultural practices of a remote indigenous community, individuals
who are members of that community and possess deep knowledge of their traditions and
customs are actively involved in providing insights into their cultural practices. What role
do these individuals play?
2) A researcher is conducting a series of in-depth interviews with experts in the field of artificial
intelligence to gain insights into the latest advancements and future trends in AI
technology. What role do these experts assume in the study?
3) During a qualitative study on urban wildlife, the researcher spends extended periods of time
observing the behavior of raccoons and squirrels in a local park without interfering with
their natural activities. What role does the researcher assume in this study?
4) A clinical trial for a new medication involves individuals who have volunteered to take part in
the study to test the drug's safety and effectiveness. What term best describes these
individuals?
5) In an online survey on consumer preferences for eco-friendly products, individuals who
voluntarily complete the survey and provide their opinions and preferences are best
described as what?
6) In a study on traditional medicine in a remote village, individuals from the community who
possess deep knowledge of local healing practices are actively involved in sharing their
expertise. What role do these individuals play?
7) A researcher is conducting surveys to gather opinions and feedback on a new mobile app's
user interface design. What term best describes those who complete the surveys?
8) During an ethnographic study in an urban neighborhood, a researcher spends several
months living among residents to observe their daily routines and interactions. What role
does the researcher assume in this study?
9) In a clinical trial for a potential vaccine, individuals who have volunteered to receive the
vaccine and participate in the study are referred to as what?:
10) A researcher conducting a psychological experiment assigns participants to two groups,
one exposed to a stress-inducing task and the other to a relaxation task. What term best
describes these individuals?
11) In a study exploring consumer preferences for sustainable fashion, individuals who take
part in a focus group discussion to share their opinions on eco-friendly clothing brands
are considered as what?
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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12) During an observational study of wildlife behavior, a scientist sets up cameras in a forest to
capture footage of animals in their natural habitat. What role do the cameras play in this
study?
13) In a longitudinal study tracking the development of language skills in children, the young
participants who are repeatedly assessed at different ages are known as what?
14) A researcher studying the impact of a new mentoring program on workplace productivity
interviews experienced employees who are providing guidance to their junior colleagues.
What term best describes these experienced employees?
15) In a research project aimed at understanding the experiences of individuals with a rare
medical condition, individuals who join an online support group and actively share their
stories are referred to as what?
III. For each scenario, select the most appropriate sampling technique from the options
provided (Random Sampling, Systematic Sampling, Cluster Sampling, Stratified
Sampling, Convenience Sampling, Quota Sampling, Purposive Sampling, Snowball
Sampling)
1) A research team divides the population of a city into several homogeneous subgroups
based on age, income, and education level. They then randomly select individuals from
each subgroup for their survey.
2) A college professor selects every 10th student from an alphabetical list of students to
participate in a research study.
3) A health researcher wants to study the dietary habits of students at a large university. They
randomly select several classrooms from the university and survey all the students in
those classrooms.
4) A market researcher stands outside a shopping mall and approaches people as they pass
by, asking them to participate in a brief survey about their shopping preferences.
5) A political pollster ensures that they collect survey responses from a specific number of
individuals from various demographic groups to accurately represent the diversity of the
population.
6) In a study on a rare medical condition, researchers identify one initial participant who meets
the inclusion criteria and then ask that participant to recommend others with the same
condition.
7) A team of sociologists is studying a marginalized community. They start by interviewing a
few community leaders and then ask these leaders to refer them to other community
members for interviews.
8) A researcher selects individuals for their study based on their unique characteristics and the
specific insights they can provide, even though they do not represent the broader
population.
IV. For each scenario, select the most appropriate data gathering method from the
options provided (Questionnaire Method, Interview Method, Observation Method,
Experimentation, Registration Method).
1) A researcher wants to collect information on consumer preferences for a new smartphone
model. Participants are given a printed set of questions to complete independently at
their convenience.
2) A team of psychologists is conducting in-depth discussions with trauma survivors to
understand their experiences, emotions, and coping strategies.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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3) A scientist is studying the behavior of a rare species of birds in their natural habitat, carefully
recording their mating rituals, nesting habits, and feeding patterns.
4) In a controlled laboratory setting, a biologist is conducting experiments to test the effects of
varying temperature levels on the growth of a particular type of plant.
5) A government agency collects data on the number of births, deaths, and marriages in a
country and maintains a database for vital statistics.
6) A marketing firm is conducting a focus group discussion with potential customers to gather
feedback on a new product concept.
7) A researcher is using sensors and data loggers to continuously monitor air quality,
temperature, and humidity levels in an industrial facility.
8) An educational psychologist conducts controlled classroom experiments to assess the
impact of a teaching intervention on student learning outcomes.
V. For each scenario, select the most appropriate research instrument from the options
provided (Survey Questionnaire, Interview Guide, Observation Guide, PreTest/Post-Test, Registration Form).
1) A researcher is collecting information about the shopping habits of online consumers by
administering a set of structured questions with multiple-choice options.
2) A team of sociologists is conducting face-to-face interviews with residents of a neighborhood
to gather insights into their community experiences and social interactions.
3) An environmental scientist is observing the behavior of marine mammals in a coastal area
and using a checklist to record their activities, such as feeding and mating.
4) In a psychology study, participants complete a set of cognitive tests before and after
participating in a memory training program.
5) A hospital collects demographic information, medical history, and contact details from
patients upon their admission for medical records and follow-up purposes.
VI. For each scenario or concept, select the most appropriate term or concept from the
options provided (Definition of Data, Selection of Data Sources, Sampling Method,
Data Collection Instruments, Pilot Testing, Training, Data Collection Schedule,
Data Collection Process, Data Recording and Storage, Quality Control and
Validation, Data Entry and Coding).
1) The process of systematically and ethically gathering information from various sources for
research or analysis.
2) The process of choosing which individuals, entities, or units will be included in the study.
3) The methods or tools used to collect data, such as surveys, interviews, or observations.
4) A preliminary test of data collection instruments or procedures to identify and correct issues
before full-scale data collection.
5) The process of teaching data collectors how to properly administer surveys, conduct
interviews, or perform observations.
6) A detailed plan outlining when, where, and how data will be collected, including the timeline
for data collection activities.
7) The systematic and consistent process of collecting data from the identified sources
according to the research plan.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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8) Storing and organizing collected data in a secure and accessible manner for analysis and
future reference.
9) Procedures implemented to ensure data accuracy, consistency, and reliability, including
checks for errors or inconsistencies.
10) The process of transcribing, entering, and categorizing data for analysis, often using
numerical or alphanumeric codes.
VIII. For each scenario or concept, select the most appropriate research ethics principle
or practice from the options provided (Debriefing, Informed Consent, Protection of
Privacy and Confidentiality, Beneficence and Non-Maleficence, Fair Treatment and
Equity, Respect for Vulnerable Populations, Research Integrity, Publication and
Authorship Ethics).
1) Researchers conduct a study involving human participants and provide them with detailed
information about the study's purpose, risks, and benefits before obtaining their voluntary
agreement to participate.
2) After completing a psychological experiment, participants are provided with a session where
they are informed about the study's objectives, procedures, and any deceptive elements
used during the research.
3) A researcher ensures that the personal information and responses of study participants are
kept confidential and not disclosed to unauthorized individuals.
4) In a clinical trial, researchers strive to maximize the potential benefits of a new drug while
minimizing potential harm to the participants, closely monitoring their health throughout
the study.
5) A research team includes individuals from diverse backgrounds and ensures that all
participants are treated fairly and equitably, regardless of their characteristics or
demographics.
6) Researchers conduct a study with elderly individuals and take extra precautions to obtain
informed consent, recognizing that this population may be more vulnerable due to
cognitive impairments.
7) A scientist follows strict research methods and accurately reports the findings, ensuring that
the data is not manipulated or falsified.
8) Authors of a research paper acknowledge the contributions of all team members and follow
ethical guidelines for authorship and publication.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Lesson 4.2:
Real-world Applications
Let us Observe and Learn From Published Papers
Presented in this section are sample research outputs. Others are published in international
research journals. Observe how these parts of chapter three of the research papers are written by the
researchers.
The Research Design
This section presents sample research design statements of published theses. Below each
sample are discussions on what to write and how to write the research design section in your chapter 3.
Example 1:
Presented below is a sample Research Design from the study of Brophy (2023):
Program Evaluation of Teen Parent Support Group
Brianne Brophy
Reseearch Design
The purpose of this study is to identify how participation in support groups aids teen
mothers in their academic success. This is an exploratory research project that aimed to explore how
one nonprofit organization utilizes support groups to encourage young mothers to finish their education.
This study explores the relationship between attending support groups and educational outcomes.
Previous research on support groups for teen mothers have not focused on the mother’s perspective as
it relates to their educational success. Through the use of one-on-one interviews with teen mothers who
have engaged in the support group since they were in high school, this researcher conducted a
qualitative study.
Reference:
Brophy, Brianne Yvonne Irene, “Program evaluation of teen parent support group” (Masters thesis).
California State University, 2023. Retrieved from
https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2808&context=etd
Nota bene: For the whole view of this published article, kindly click the link above. You may fully
comprehend the research method employed in this study by viewing the whole article.
The above cited is an example of a research design statement of Brophy (2023). It is
composed of the following information:
Research Purpose: The primary aim of the study is to understand how participation in
support groups contributes to the academic success of teen mothers.
Exploratory Nature: The research project is described as exploratory, indicating that the
study seeks to gain insights and a deeper understanding of the topic rather than testing specific
hypotheses.
Focus on a Nonprofit Organization: The study specifically focuses on one nonprofit
organization and how it uses support groups to motivate and assist young mothers in completing their
education.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Research Question: The research question centers on examining the relationship between
attending these support groups and the educational outcomes of teen mothers.
Gap in Previous Research: The paragraph mentions that previous research on support
groups for teen mothers has not extensively explored the mothers' perspectives regarding their
educational success. This suggests that the study aims to fill a gap in the existing literature.
Research Method: The researcher conducted a qualitative study, indicating that they
gathered rich, in-depth data. One-on-one interviews with teen mothers who have been part of the
support group since high school were chosen as the primary method for data collection.
In summary, this paragraph outlines a research project that is exploratory in nature, with a
specific focus on understanding the role of support groups in the educational success of teen mothers.
The study aims to gather qualitative data through interviews with the mothers themselves, addressing a
gap in previous research that primarily focused on other aspects of support groups for this demographic.
Example 2:
Presented below is a sample Research Design from the study of Adams (2023):
Examining social determinants of health of formerly incarcerated California students who
graduated from Project Rebound
Ashley Adams
Research Design
Because there is no current research involving graduates of Project Rebound program, and
because there is a lack of research on SDoH of justice impacted alumni in general, this study is
exploratory. Additionally, there is a lack of social work perspective in the small amounts of research on
SDoH for justice impacted individuals.
This study will also utilize quantitative research methods in the form of a survey. This allows for
complete anonymity in responses, which is important for this topic as some questions are sensitive, and
may cause concern surrounding data security and the criminal justice system. Quantitative research
also allows for the ability to examine differences between alumni’s first year at Project Rebound and
after graduation.
One major limitation of this study is the sample size. Because this study utilizes only one Project
Rebound location, and alumni can change their contact information throughout the years, it was
especially difficult to reach a large number of participants. Additionally, in order to protect anonymity
further, no identifying information like emails were collected on the surveys. Because the survey was
open to any who have the link, it may be possible that individuals who responded were not Project
Rebound alumni.
This study aims to answer questions around specific SDoH concerning housing, behavioral
health, employment, and finances, specifically how these factors differ from their first year enrolled at
Project Rebound, and after graduation, and if they are still struggling with any factors today.
Reference:
Adams, A. C. (2023). Examining social determinants of health of formerly incarcerated California
students who graduated from Project Rebound (Masters thesis). California State University, 2023.
Retrieved from https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2719&context=etd
Nota bene: For the whole view of this published article, kindly click the link above. You may fully
comprehend the research method employed in this study by viewing the whole article.
The above cited is an example of a research design statement of Adams (2023). It is
composed of the following information:
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Exploratory Nature: The study is described as exploratory. This indicates that the research
seeks to investigate a relatively unexplored area. In this case, it focuses on graduates of the Project
Rebound program and the Social Determinants of Health (SDoH) of justice-impacted alumni. The
rationale for this is the absence of current research on this specific group and a general lack of research
on SDoH for justice-impacted individuals.
Quantitative Research Methods: The chosen research design utilizes quantitative research
methods, particularly a survey. This method is suitable because it allows for structured data collection
and analysis. Importantly, it offers complete anonymity in responses, which is crucial due to the sensitive
nature of some questions and potential concerns about data security and criminal justice system
involvement.
Sample Size Limitation: The paragraph acknowledges a limitation regarding the sample size.
It explains that the study faced challenges in reaching a large number of participants because it relied on
data from only one Project Rebound location, and contact information for alumni could change over time.
To further protect anonymity, no identifying information like email addresses was collected. Additionally,
the survey was open to anyone with the link, potentially including individuals who were not Project
Rebound alumni.
Research Focus: The study's primary focus is on specific Social Determinants of Health
(housing, behavioral health, employment, and finances) and how these factors differ for participants
during their first year in the Project Rebound program, after graduation, and in their current situation.
This research question aligns with the broader goal of understanding the impact of the Project Rebound
program and SDoH on justice-impacted individuals.
In summary, this paragraph outlines an exploratory research design that employs quantitative
methods through a survey to investigate the Social Determinants of Health among justice-impacted
alumni of the Project Rebound program. It acknowledges the limitation of a relatively small sample size
and explains measures taken to protect participant anonymity in a sensitive research context.
Example 3:
Presented below is a sample Research Design from the study of Benham (2023):
Impact of Outdoor Adventure on the Self-esteem, Self-Confidence, and
Comfort Level of Black and Brown Girls
Nathan T. Benham
Research Design
The purpose of this study is to identify the impact that participation in Atabey Outdoors has on
self-reported self-esteem, self-confidence, and comfort in the outdoors for Black and Brown girls aged 812. This study serves as a program evaluation for Atabey Outdoors using mixed methods research
design.
This study used a combination of open-ended questions and multiple-choice surveys to collect
data regarding self-esteem and self-confidence, and comfort in the outdoors. The study received a full
board approval from the Institutional
Review Board (Appendix A).
This study was a longitudinal program evaluation that utilized data that were collected prior to
engagement with intervention and at timed intervals after the intervention. Prior to engaging in Atabey
Outdoors, the participants completed designated surveys that measured self-esteem and selfconfidence. The participants were asked to retake the surveys after completion of every Atabey
Outdoors program, referred to as an intervention, they attended during the data collection period. In
addition, twice during the data collection period, the participants engaged in a focus group consisting of
five open-ended questions.
The questions explored their comfort level outdoors as well as provided programmatic feedback.
These questions provided the participant the ability to freely express their level of outdoor comfort
without the constraints of a measuring scale. The researcher provided training to Atabey Outdoors’s
program staff so that they could assist the participants without bias and interference to the integrity of
the study. The training included providing methods of clarifying the survey questions without creating an
environment in which the participant would feel inclined to answer a certain way. In addition, the
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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program staff were instructed to give the participants adequate space and time to complete the survey to
void location and time constraints.
Reference:
Benham, N. T. (2023). Impact of outdoor adventure on the self-esteem, self-confidence, and comfort
level of Black and Brown girls (Master's thesis). California State University. Retrieved from
https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2800&context=etd
Nota bene: For the whole view of this published article, kindly click the link above. You may fully
comprehend the research method employed in this study by viewing the whole article.
The above cited is an example of a research design statement of Benham (2023). It is
composed of the following information:
Research Purpose: The primary purpose of the study is to assess the impact of participation
in Atabey Outdoors on self-esteem, self-confidence, and comfort in outdoor settings for a specific
demographic, namely Black and Brown girls aged 8-12.
Mixed Methods Research Design: The study employs a mixed methods research design,
which means it combines both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods to provide a
comprehensive understanding of the research questions.
Data Collection Methods: The research design involves using open-ended questions and
multiple-choice surveys to collect data regarding self-esteem, self-confidence, and comfort in outdoor
environments.
Longitudinal Program Evaluation: The study is described as a longitudinal program
evaluation, meaning that data is collected at multiple time points—both before participants engage with
the Atabey Outdoors program and at timed intervals after each program (intervention) they attend.
Focus Groups: In addition to surveys, participants engage in focus groups at specific
intervals during the data collection period. These focus groups involve open-ended questions that
explore participants' comfort levels outdoors and provide feedback on the program.
IRB Approval: The study received full board approval from the Institutional Review Board
(IRB), which ensures that ethical considerations and participant rights are protected in the research
process.
Researcher Training: The researcher provided training to the program staff of Atabey
Outdoors to ensure unbiased assistance to participants. This training included clarifying survey
questions without influencing responses and allowing participants sufficient space and time to complete
the survey without constraints.
In summary, this paragraph outlines a mixed methods research design for a longitudinal
program evaluation focused on assessing the impact of Atabey Outdoors on self-esteem, selfconfidence, and outdoor comfort among Black and Brown girls aged 8-12. It highlights the use of
surveys, focus groups, and the importance of ethical considerations and staff training in the research
process.
The Research Respondent
This section presents sample research respondent statements of published article. Below
each sample are discussion on what to write and how to write the research respondents section in your
chapter 3.
Example 1:
Presented below is a sample Research Respondents from the study of Metta et.al., (2023):
Socio-Economic Level and ExecutiveFunctioning: Vulnerability and Effects on Development
Luana Metta, Luciana Carneiro, Renata Haesbaert, Mirella Farias, Rodolpho Cortez,
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Priscila Barros-Felinto, Laura Aragão, Izabel Hazin
Participants of the Survey
This study enrolled 80 children ranging between 5 and 8 years of both sexes. To allow a sensible
developmental process evaluation of the participants, the sample was segmented in six-month intervals.
Thus, it was possible to fill in the developmental continuum.
According to their ages, the students were divided into eight subgroups containing 10 participants
each (n = 80). The participants belonged to 4 private and 3 government schools, both from the
administrative regions (south and north) of the city of Natal, to comprehend a greater socioeconomic
variety.
In the sample were included only children who were regularly enrolled in public or private schools
in Natal, RN, after consent formally granted by parents/guardians. As inclusion criteria, only children
without a clinical history of neurological injuries and/or dysfunctions, non-corrected hearing and visual
deficits, or any motor dysfunctions that could affect the performance of the proposed activities were
selected.
Reference:
Metta, L., Carneiro, L., Haesbaert, R., Farias, M., Cortez, R., Barros-Felinto, P., Aragão, L., & Hazin, I.
(2023). Socio-Economic Level and Executive Functioning: Vulnerability and Effects on
Development.
Open
Journal
of
Social
Sciences,
11,
471-481.
https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2023.118032
Nota bene: For the whole view of this published article, kindly click the link above. You may fully
comprehend the research method employed in this study by viewing the whole article.
The paragraph provided describes the methodology and characteristics of the research
respondents in a study involving children aged 5 to 8 years. Here's an explanation of the key points in
the paragraph:
Sample Size and Age Range: The study included a total of 80 children, both boys and girls,
who were between the ages of 5 and 8 years old. This age range was chosen to evaluate the
developmental processes of the participants.
Segmentation by Age: To ensure a comprehensive assessment of developmental changes,
the researchers divided the sample into smaller groups based on six-month intervals. This segmentation
allowed them to observe the participants' development across a continuum.
Subgroups: The eight subgroups were created based on the participants' ages, with each
subgroup containing 10 children, resulting in a total sample size of 80 (n = 80).
School Types and Locations: The participants were drawn from both private and
government schools located in the south and north administrative regions of the city of Natal. This
choice aimed to capture a diverse range of socioeconomic backgrounds, as different types of schools
and geographical locations may represent different socioeconomic levels.
Inclusion Criteria: The study only included children who were regularly enrolled in public or
private schools in Natal, RN (Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil). The participation of each child was
contingent upon formal consent provided by their parents or guardians.
Exclusion Criteria: Children with certain medical or developmental conditions were excluded
from the study. Specifically, those with a clinical history of neurological injuries or dysfunctions,
uncorrected hearing or visual deficits, or motor dysfunctions that could potentially impact their ability to
perform the activities being assessed were not included in the study.
In summary, this paragraph outlines the characteristics of the research sample, including the
age range, segmentation by age, school types and locations, and the inclusion/exclusion criteria applied
to ensure the quality of the data collected for the study on developmental processes in children.
Example 2:
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Presented below is a sample Research Respondents from the study of Zumrah et.al., (2023):
Job Description as a Teacher in Malaysia in the Era of Post Pandemic Covid-19:
A Qualitative Study
Abdul Rahim Zumrah, Marina Munira Abd Mutalib, Rosninawati Hussin
Participants and Setting
Participants in this study were 15 teachers at one district in Malaysia. To obtain as heterogeneous
sample as possible and to achieve maximum variation across a range of participants’ backgrounds, the
purposive sampling was adopted. Teachers with minimum five years working experience as a teacher
were selected in this study. Including the teachers with minimum five years working experience may
provide rich and detailed information about their job as a teacher. Sampling continued concurrently with
data analysis until no new themes were identified.
Reference:
Zumrah, A. R., Mutalib, M. M. A., & Hussin, R. (2023). Job Description as a Teacher in Malaysia in the
Era of Post Pandemic Covid-19: A Qualitative Study. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 11,
290-297. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2023.118019
Nota bene: For the whole view of this published article, kindly click the link above. You may fully
comprehend the research method employed in this study by viewing the whole article.
The paragraph you provided describes the methodology and characteristics of the research
respondents in a study involving teachers in a district in Malaysia. Here's an explanation of the key
points in the paragraph:
Participant Selection: The study involved a total of 15 teachers who were selected as
research participants. These teachers were all from a single district in Malaysia.
Purposive Sampling: The researchers used purposive sampling, which means they
deliberately selected participants based on specific criteria. In this case, the goal was to create a diverse
and varied sample of teachers to ensure a broad representation of backgrounds and experiences.
Minimum Five Years of Teaching Experience: A specific criterion for inclusion in the study
was that the teachers had a minimum of five years of teaching experience. This requirement aimed to
ensure that the participants had substantial experience in their roles as teachers. The rationale behind
this criterion is that teachers with more experience may provide richer and more detailed information
about their job as teachers.
Data Collection and Analysis: The sampling process was conducted in parallel with data
analysis. This means that as data was collected from the selected teachers, the researchers
simultaneously analyzed the data. Sampling continued until no new themes or insights were emerging
from the data. This approach is often used in qualitative research to ensure that the researchers have
gathered a sufficient and comprehensive understanding of the topic under investigation.
In summary, this paragraph provides an overview of how the research participants, in this
case, 15 teachers from a specific district in Malaysia, were selected for the study. The use of purposive
sampling and the inclusion criterion of a minimum of five years of teaching experience were key
elements in shaping the composition of the participant group, and the sampling process continued until
data saturation was achieved, meaning that no new significant information was emerging from the
participants.
Example 3:
Presented below is a sample Research Respondents from the study of Wang et.al., (2023):
The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Mental Health of Individually-Owned
Businesses in China
Zhidan Wang, Fuyu Mei, Pinyan Yu, Chang Wang
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Participants
The study involved the selection of individually-owned businesses from diverse industry sectors.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a cohort of 26 participants who met the inclusion
criteria. The inclusion criteria are as follows: be at least 18 years old, citizens of the People’s Republic of
China, speak Mandarin, subjects agreed to be interviewed and were informed of the purpose of the
interview, have been engaged in production and operation for more than 5 months before the outbreak
of the epidemic, no history of diagnosis of serious mental illness, and no psychiatric drugs at present.
This study was in line with the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki. Prior to their
participation in the study, written informed consent was obtained from all participants, following ethical
approval from the Ethics Committee of [blinded] University. The demographic characteristics of the
participants were presented in Table 1.
Reference:
Wang, Z. D., Mei, F. Y., Yu, P. Y., & Wang, C. (2023). The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the
Mental Health of Individually-Owned Businesses in China. Open Journal of Social Sciences,
11, 57-73. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2023.119005
Nota bene: For the whole view of this published article, kindly click the link above. You may fully
comprehend the research method employed in this study by viewing the whole article.
The paragraph you provided outlines how the research respondents were selected and the
criteria used to define the inclusion of participants in a study focused on the impact of the COVID-19
pandemic on the mental health of individually-owned businesses in China. Here's an explanation of the
key points in the paragraph:
Selection of Businesses: The study involved the selection of individually-owned businesses
from various industry sectors. This suggests that the researchers aimed to capture a diverse range of
businesses rather than focusing on a single type or industry.
Number of Participants: A total of 26 participants were involved in the study, and these
participants were selected based on specific inclusion criteria.
Inclusion Criteria: To be eligible to participate in the study, individuals had to meet several
inclusion criteria. These criteria were:
a) Be at least 18 years old: This ensured that all participants were adults.
b) Citizens of the People’s Republic of China: Participants were required to be Chinese
citizens.
c) Speak Mandarin: Fluency in the Mandarin language was necessary for effective
communication during the interviews.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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d) Agreement to be interviewed and awareness of the interview's purpose: Participants
had to willingly agree to participate in the interviews and understand the study's
objectives.
e) Engaged in production and operation for more than 5 months before the COVID-19
outbreak: This criterion ensured that participants had a certain level of business
experience.
f) No history of diagnosis of serious mental illness: Individuals with a prior history of
severe mental illness were excluded to focus on the impact of the pandemic on
the mental health of individuals without pre-existing conditions.
g) No psychiatric drugs at present: Participants who were currently taking psychiatric
medications were also excluded to study the natural impact of the pandemic on
mental health.
Ethical Considerations: The study adhered to ethical principles, as indicated by the mention
that it was in line with the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki. Additionally, it obtained
written informed consent from all participants, demonstrating respect for their autonomy and ethical
approval from the Ethics Committee of a specific university (the university's name is redacted).
Demographic Information: The paragraph hints that demographic characteristics of the
participants were presented in Table 1, which suggests that the study collected and reported additional
information about the participants beyond the inclusion criteria.
In summary, this paragraph provides important information about how the researchers
selected and defined the criteria for inclusion of participants in their study, ensuring that the sample was
both diverse and appropriate for investigating the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental
health of individually-owned business owners in China. Ethical considerations and informed consent
procedures were also followed to protect the rights and well-being of the participants.
The Research Instrument
This section presents sample research instrument statements of published article. Below each
sample are discussions on what to write and how to write the research instrument section in your
chapter 3.
Example 1:
(2023):
Presented below is a sample Research Instrument section from the study of Metta et.al.,
Socio-Economic Level and Executive Functioning: Vulnerability and Effects on Development
Luana Metta, Luciana Carneiro, Renata Haesbaert, Mirella Farias, Rodolpho Cortez,
Priscila Barros-Felinto, Laura Aragão, Izabel Hazin
Instruments
As an instrument for data collection, it was used the Developmental Neuropsychological Battery
(NEPSY-II) (Korkman, Kirk, & Kemp, 2007) second edition of the Developmental Assessment (Korkman,
1998), which was revised and expanded, making it sensitive to contemplate a wider age range (3 to 16
years) and filling the critical gap in the availability of pediatric neuropsychological assessment
instruments.
The selection of this battery is based on the fact that it is considered accurate to assess the
neuropsychological profile of children without neurodevelopment disorders, as well as the target
audience in question. In addition, the battery is based on the clinical method of A. R. Luria, the
proposition of functional systems, and clinical advances in Child Neuropsychology, which allows the
presence of qualitative data from behavioral observations The NEPSY-II battery is composed of 27
subtests that assess the following functional domains: Attention/Executive Function, Language, VisualSpatial Processing, Sensory-Motor Function, Learning, and Memory. For this study, the subtests of the
domain “Attention/Executive Function” were selected, corresponding respectively to: Response Set;
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Drawing Fluency; Inhibiting Responses, and Producing Words.
Reference:
Metta, L., Carneiro, L., Haesbaert, R., Farias, M., Cortez, R., Barros-Felinto, P., Aragão, L., & Hazin, I.
(2023). Socio-Economic Level and Executive Functioning: Vulnerability and Effects on
Development.
Open
Journal
of
Social
Sciences,
11,
471-481.
https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2023.118032
Nota bene: For the whole view of this published article, kindly click the link above. You may fully
comprehend the research method employed in this study by viewing the whole article.
The paragraph provided above discusses the selection and justification of a specific research
instrument for data collection in a study. The following are the key points in the paragraph in the context
of conceptualizing the research instrument:
Instrument Selection: The chosen instrument for data collection in this study is the
Developmental Neuropsychological Battery (NEPSY-II), specifically the second edition of NEPSY-II,
which was based on the Developmental Assessment by Korkman (1998) and revised to cover a broader
age range from 3 to 16 years. The update aimed to address the lack of pediatric neuropsychological
assessment tools that cover this wide age span.
Justification for Instrument Choice: Several reasons are provided to justify the selection of
NEPSY-II as the research instrument:
Accuracy: The instrument is known for its accuracy in assessing the neuropsychological
profiles of children who do not have neurodevelopmental disorders. This suggests that it can effectively
measure the cognitive and behavioral aspects relevant to the target audience of the study.
Clinical Method and Functional Systems: NEPSY-II is grounded in the clinical method of A.
R. Luria, which is a well-established approach in neuropsychology. It also incorporates the concept of
functional systems, which allows for a comprehensive understanding of cognitive functions.
Qualitative Data: The instrument permits the collection of qualitative data through behavioral
observations, providing a deeper insight into the participants' cognitive processes.
Functional Domains: NEPSY-II is structured into various functional domains, each
comprising specific subtests. In this study, the researchers selected subtests from the
"Attention/Executive Function" domain. The subtests chosen for examination are: Response Set,
Drawing Fluency, Inhibiting Responses, and Producing Words.
In summary, this paragraph outlines the choice of the Developmental Neuropsychological
Battery (NEPSY-II) as the research instrument. It highlights the instrument's suitability for assessing the
neuropsychological profiles of children without neurodevelopmental disorders, its grounding in
established clinical methods, and the specific subtests selected from the "Attention/Executive Function"
domain for use in the study. This instrument was chosen for its ability to provide valuable data for the
research objectives.
Example 2:
Presented below is a sample Research Instrument section from the study of Qiu et.al., (2023):
The Effect of Household Screen Media Experience on Young Children’s Emotion Regulation: The
Mediating Role of Parenting Stress
Siyao Qiu, Zhidan Wang
Tools and Scoring
Household Screen Media Experience Scale
Household screen media experience was assessed through any form of digital screens, such as
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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smartphones, iPads, televisions, and computers, measured using the survey instrument developed by
Xie, Wang, Zhou, and Frankie (2022). The scale includes four subscales with a total of 11 items. The
first subscale consists of two items, inquiring about the frequency per week (ranging from “0 - 5 times” to
“more than 16 times”) and the duration of each screen media use (ranging from “within half an hour” to
“one and a half hours to more than two hours”). Participants can choose the most accurate description
from four options, scored from 1 to 4. The second subscale consists of three items, assessing the
impact of screen experience on children’s behavior. The impact includes questions such as “Does your
child use screen media while eating?” The third subscale evaluated children’s emotional expression
related to screen media, including three items such as “If your child’s screen experience is interrupted,
will he or she get angry or conflict with others?” The final subscale assessed parents’ behavior, including
three items such as “Would you use smartphones or iPads to soothe your child’s emotions?” The last
three subscales were measured based on frequency, using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1
(always) to 4 (never). The sum of all responses constituted the total score for this measurement, with a
potential range of 9 to 36. The total score is 11 to 44; a higher score indicates a higher degree of family
screen media experience for children. The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s α = .73) for this
scale indicates satisfactory reliability.
Parenting Stress Questionnaire
The Abidin Parenting Stress Index (short form) was utilized in this study (Abidin et al., 2006). The
questionnaire consists of 36 items, which are grouped into three dimensions: dysfunctional parent-child
interaction, childcare stress, and difficult children. Each dimension contains 12 items. Childcare stress is
directly related to child-rearing. In this situation, parents may feel a decrease in their ability to raise their
children or a lack thereof, leading to an increase in conflicts between spouses. Additionally, their other
roles in life may be limited, and they may lack social support and experience depressive symptoms.
Dysfunctional parent-child interaction refers to the interaction between parents and children, in which
parents perceive that their children have not met their expectations. They are unlikely to perceive their
children’s progress and feedback, thereby leading to disappointment and dysfunction in the parent-child
relationship. Difficult children refer to children who cause parents stress due to certain troubling and
concerning characteristics, such as the children’s emotions, adaptability, activity level, problem behavior,
as well as learning resistance, disobedience, and dissatisfaction, which makes child rearing difficult. This
questionnaire adopts a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), and
the higher the score, the greater the parenting stress. The internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach’s
α) of each dimension range from .789 to .878, indicating satisfactory reliability.
Emotion Regulation Strategies Questionnaire
The study employed the “Preschool Children’s Emotion Regulation Strategy Questionnaire”
developed by Southwest University (Lu, 2011). This questionnaire consists of 48 items, divided into
eight dimensions. Positive emotion regulation strategies include five dimensions, and negative emotion
regulation strategies include three dimensions. Three dimensions of negative emotion regulation
strategies are selected: passive coping (6 questions), emotional outbursts (7 questions), and aggressive
behavior (4 questions). The scale is rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always),
and the three dimensions are scored separately. The higher the score, the stronger the child’s ability to
use emotion regulation strategies, which is indicative of a lower occurrence of negative strategies
utilized during emotion regulation. Before filling out the questionnaire, parents are requested to make an
assessment based on the actual situation of the child, with a foundation of comprehensive
understanding. The operational definitions for each dimension are as follows: firstly, passive coping
refers to the situation where the child does not know how to deal with negative emotions, and may even
exhibit a non-action state by avoiding or withdrawing from the situation; Secondly, emotional outburst
refers to the child’s expression of negative emotions through means such as yelling or crying;
aggressive behavior refers to the child’s attempt to relieve and release negative emotions by using
verbal or behavioral means to attack others. The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s α = .75) for
this questionnaire indicates satisfactory reliability.
Reference:
Qiu, S. Y., & Wang, Z. D. (2023). The Effect of Household Screen Media Experience on Young
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Children’s Emotion Regulation: The Mediating Role of Parenting Stress. Open Journal of Social
Sciences, 11, 243-259. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2023.117017
Nota bene: For the whole view of this published article, kindly click the link above. You may fully
comprehend the research method employed in this study by viewing the whole article.
The provided text describes three research instruments used in a study, each with its specific
purpose and characteristics. The following are the key points in the paragraph in the context of
conceptualizing the research instrument:
1. Household Screen Media Experience Scale:
Purpose: This scale is used to assess the screen media experience within households,
focusing on digital screens like smartphones, iPads, televisions, and computers.
Components: It includes four subscales with a total of 11 items. These subscales measure
different aspects, such as frequency and duration of screen media use, the impact on children's
behavior, children's emotional expression related to screen media, and parents' behavior concerning
screen media use.
Scoring: Responses are collected using Likert scales, with scores ranging from 1 to 4 for
various questions.
Total Score: The total score for this measurement ranges from 9 to 36.
Interpretation: A higher score indicates a higher degree of family screen media experience
for children.
Reliability: The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s α) for this scale is .73, indicating
satisfactory reliability.
2. Parenting Stress Questionnaire (Abidin Parenting Stress Index):
Purpose: This questionnaire is used to assess parenting stress among participants, which is
categorized into three dimensions: dysfunctional parent-child interaction, childcare stress, and difficult
children.
Components: It consists of 36 items grouped into these three dimensions, with each
dimension containing 12 items.
Scoring: Participants rate their responses on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Interpretation: A higher score indicates a greater level of parenting stress in the respective
dimension.
Reliability: The internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach’s α) for each dimension range
from .789 to .878, indicating satisfactory reliability.
3. Emotion Regulation Strategies Questionnaire (Preschool Children’s Emotion Regulation
Strategy Questionnaire):
Purpose: This questionnaire assesses the emotion regulation strategies employed by
preschool-aged children.
Components: It consists of 48 items divided into eight dimensions, with a focus on positive
and negative emotion regulation strategies.
Selected Dimensions: In this study, three dimensions of negative emotion regulation
strategies are chosen: passive coping, emotional outbursts, and aggressive behavior.
Scoring: Participants use a 5-point Likert scale to rate their responses, ranging from 1 (never)
to 5 (always).
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Interpretation: A higher score indicates a stronger ability to use emotion regulation strategies,
suggesting a lower occurrence of negative strategies during emotion regulation.
Operational Definitions: The text provides operational definitions for each dimension,
clarifying the aspects measured by passive coping, emotional outbursts, and aggressive behavior.
Reliability: The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s α) for this questionnaire is .75,
indicating satisfactory reliability.
In summary, these three research instruments were carefully chosen to measure specific
constructs relevant to the study, and they all demonstrate satisfactory reliability. The provided
information outlines their components, scoring methods, and the interpretations of scores, helping to
conceptualize their use in the research context.
Example 3:
Presented below is a sample Research Instrument section from the study of Shurayyan (2023):
Effectiveness of the Use of Social Media Platforms in Public Health Campaigns
Suhayb Mousa Abu Shurayyan
Materials
Six colored-images with a motivating text and details about the flu clinic including date that the flu
clinic took place on, time, and location are typed on images. Images vary in color, figures appear on
each image, and motivating phrases. However, they all strive to achieve the goal of urging the Saint
Martin’s University’s community members to get the flu shot and be protected against the influenza.
Reference:
Shurayyan, S. M. A. (2023). Effectiveness of the Use of Social Media Platforms in Public Health
Campaigns.
Open
Journal
of
Social
Sciences,
11,
165-184.
https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2023.117012
Nota bene: For the whole view of this published article, kindly click the link above. You may fully
comprehend the research method employed in this study by viewing the whole article.
The paragraph cited above describes a set of visual materials or images that were created for
a specific purpose within a research context. The following are the key points in the paragraph in
the context of conceptualizing the research instrument:
Visual Materials for Promoting Flu Shots
Purpose: The primary purpose of these visual materials is to promote flu vaccinations among
the Saint Martin’s University community members. These materials are designed to encourage
individuals to get a flu shot to protect themselves from influenza.
Content: The visual materials consist of six colored images, each accompanied by a
motivating text. These images provide essential details about the flu clinic, including the date when the
clinic occurred, the specific time it was available, and the clinic's location.
Variety: While the images vary in color and include different figures and motivating phrases,
they all share a common objective: to motivate and persuade members of the Saint Martin’s University
community to take action and get a flu shot.
In the context of research, these visual materials appear to be part of a communication or
intervention strategy aimed at promoting a specific health behavior—getting a flu shot. They use a
combination of text, color, figures, and motivational messaging to convey information and encourage
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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individuals to take the desired action. These visual materials are likely used as a part of a larger
research effort to assess the effectiveness of this communication strategy in increasing flu vaccination
rates within the university community.
The Research Sampling
This section presents sample research sampling statements of published articles. Below each
sample are discussions on what to write and how to write the research sampling section in your chapter
3.
Example 1:
Presented below is a sample Research Instrument section from the study of Nyemara (2023):
Prevalence of Alcohol Consumption and Alcohol Use Disorder among Adolescents in Ibanda
District, South Western Uganda: A Cross-Sectional Study
Novatus Nyemara, Samuel Maling, Aloysius Rukundo, Godfrey Z. Rukundo,
Scholastic Ashaba, Richard Merkel, Elialilia S. Okello
Sampling
Using multi stage cluster sampling, two study areas were selected. The primary sampling units
were Sub counties, the secondary sampling units were Parishes (a parish is a second administrative
division above the village), and the tertiary sampling units were villages. At all stages, simple random
sampling was used. Once the two villages were obtained, the research assistants moved to the middle
of the village with the help of the local leader and spun a pen to obtain the direction by random. All
families that had an adolescent were consecutively recruited to participate in the study. Recruitment
continued until the required number of adolescents was obtained. The sample size was estimated using
the Cochrane sample size proportion based on the available prevalence of 22.2% (Reda, Moges,
Wondmagegn, & Biadgilign, 2012). The sample was arrived at using the formula, n = z2 * p (1 − p)/d2
(Kelsey, 1996) and calculated based on 95% a confidence interval, p = 22.2% prevalence rate of alcohol
use, d = 0.5% margin of error of estimation, and z taken as 1.96. Subsequently, the initial sample was
increased by 10% to compensate for possible non response giving a minimum sample size of 292. The
final sample size was comprised of 308 adolescents.
Reference:
Nyemara, N., Maling, S., Rukundo, A., Rukundo, G. Z., Ashaba, S., Merkel, R., & Okello, E. S. (2023).
Prevalence of Alcohol Consumption and Alcohol Use Disorder among Adolescents in Ibanda
District, South Western Uganda: A Cross-Sectional Study. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 11,
135-149. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2023.118009
Nota bene: For the whole view of this published article, kindly click the link above. You may fully
comprehend the research method employed in this study by viewing the whole article.
The paragraph cited above shows a detailed explanation of the sampling technique used in a
research study, particularly in the context of conceptualizing the sampling technique. Here's a
breakdown of the key elements:
Multi-Stage Cluster Sampling: The research employed a multi-stage cluster sampling
method. This approach involves breaking the sampling process into multiple stages or levels, each with
its own sampling units.
Selection of Study Areas: Two study areas were selected using this method.
Hierarchy of Sampling Units:
Primary Sampling Units (PSUs): The primary sampling units in this study were
Sub counties. These are larger administrative divisions.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Secondary Sampling Units (SSUs): Parishes were designated as the secondary
sampling units, which are administrative divisions above villages but smaller than Sub
counties.
Tertiary Sampling Units (TSUs): Villages were identified as the tertiary sampling
units, representing the smallest geographical units in this hierarchy.
Sampling at All Stages: Simple random sampling was used at all stages, which means that
each unit at each level had an equal chance of being selected.
Selection of Villages: Once the two villages were chosen, random direction was determined
by spinning a pen with the help of a local leader. This random direction was likely used to ensure
unbiased village selection.
Consecutive Recruitment: All families within the selected villages that had an adolescent
were consecutively recruited to participate in the study. This approach ensured that every eligible
adolescent had an opportunity to be included in the sample.
Sample Size Calculation: The sample size was determined using the Cochrane sample size
proportion formula, which takes into account the available prevalence rate (22.2% prevalence of alcohol
use), margin of error (0.5%), confidence level (95%), and z-score (1.96) for a two-tailed test. This
calculation aimed to estimate the minimum sample size needed to achieve statistically significant results.
Adjustment for Non-Response: To account for the possibility of non-response, the initial
sample size was increased by 10%, resulting in a final sample size of 308 adolescents.
In the context of conceptualizing the sampling technique, this paragraph provides a clear
outline of the systematic approach used to select the study areas, identify the sampling units, apply
randomization at various stages, and calculate the sample size to ensure the study's representativeness
and statistical validity. The multi-stage cluster sampling method employed here allowed for a structured
and efficient way to obtain a sample of adolescents for the research study.
Example 2:
Presented below is a sample Research Instrument section from the study of Bbosa (2023):
The Influence of Monitoring and Evaluation Methods on the Performance of
Uganda Red Cross Society in Eastern Uganda
Sulaiman Bbosa, Charles Edaku, Frank Pio Kiyingi
Sampling
Sampling: 1) Quantitative Sampling: A purposive sampling technique was used to select
participants for the survey questionnaire. The sample included URCS staff members who were directly
involved in M&E activities in Eastern Uganda. The sample size was determined based on the principle of
data saturation, ensuring sufficient representation of different roles and responsibilities within the
organization. 2) Qualitative Sampling: For interviews and focus groups, a combination of purposive and
snowball sampling techniques was utilized. Key stakeholders with relevant knowledge and experience in
M&E practices within the URCS were identified and invited to participate. Snowball sampling was used
to expand the sample by asking participants to recommend other individuals who could provide valuable
insights
Reference:
Bbosa, S., Edaku, C., & Kiyingi, F. P. (2023). The Influence of Monitoring and Evaluation Methods on
the Performance of Uganda Red Cross Society in Eastern Uganda. Open Journal of Social
Sciences, 11, 208-227. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2023.117015
Nota bene: For the whole view of this published article, kindly click the link above. You may fully
comprehend the research method employed in this study by viewing the whole article.
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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The provided text above outlines the sampling techniques used in a research study,
differentiating between quantitative and qualitative sampling. Here's an explanation of each method in
the context of the research:
Quantitative Sampling (Survey Questionnaire):
Purposive Sampling Technique: In the quantitative aspect of the study, a
purposive sampling technique was employed. This means that the researchers deliberately
selected specific participants for the survey questionnaire based on certain criteria or
characteristics. In this case, the participants were URCS (Uganda Red Cross Society) staff
members who were directly involved in Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) activities in Eastern
Uganda.
Sample Size Determination: The sample size was determined based on the
principle of "data saturation." Data saturation implies that the researchers continued sampling
until no new information or insights were emerging from the participants. This approach
ensures that there is sufficient representation of different roles and responsibilities within the
URCS organization related to M&E activities.
Qualitative Sampling (Interviews and Focus Groups):
Purposive Sampling Technique: Similar to the quantitative sampling, a purposive
sampling technique was used in the qualitative aspect of the study. Researchers identified and
selected key stakeholders who had relevant knowledge and experience in M&E practices
within the URCS.
Snowball Sampling Technique: In addition to purposive sampling, snowball
sampling was employed for interviews and focus groups. This technique involves asking initial
participants (those identified through purposive sampling) to recommend other individuals who
could provide valuable insights into the research topic. It is a method to expand the sample
and access individuals who might not have been initially identified but have valuable
knowledge or perspectives.
In summary, the research used purposive sampling for both quantitative and qualitative data
collection. The quantitative survey questionnaire involved selecting URCS staff members involved in
M&E activities in Eastern Uganda. In contrast, the qualitative interviews and focus groups started with
purposive sampling and used snowball sampling to identify and include additional participants with
relevant insights. These sampling techniques were chosen to ensure that the study included individuals
with the necessary knowledge and experience to provide valuable data and perspectives related to M&E
practices within URCS.
Example 3:
Presented below is a sample Research Instrument section from the study of Roxas and
Velasco (2023):
Using Video Subtitles and the Reading Competence in World Literature of Grade 10 Students
Marlene C. Roxas and Cecilia Q. Velasco
Sampling Technique
The participants of the study were the selected Grade 10 students from Tayabas Western
Academy located in Candelaria, Quezon. Sixty (60) Grade 10 students were divided into two groups
named as experimental and control groups. There were thirty (30) students who belonged to the
experimental group and another thirty (30) students under the control group. The participants of the
study were identified through the cluster sampling. Cluster sampling is a probability sampling technique
where a certain population is divided into groups known as clusters. In this study, the population of
Grade 10 students from Tayabas Western Academy were grouped or clustered through the sections.
After identifying the sections from Grade 10, the researcher selected two groups from the clusters
through simple random sampling technique and labelled as the experimental and control groups of the
study
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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PhEd 140 - Research
Reference:
Roxas, M. C., & Velasco, C. Q. (2023). Using Video Subtitles and the Reading Competence in World
Literature of Grade 10 Students. International Journal of Social Science Humanity &
Management Research, 02(08), 746-756. https://doi.org/10.58806/ijsshmr.2023.v2i8n01
Nota bene: For the whole view of this published article, kindly click the link above. You may fully
comprehend the research method employed in this study by viewing the whole article.
The paragraph cited above describes the sampling technique used in the study and its context.
Here's a breakdown of the key elements:
Sampling Tecnique
Participants: The participants of the study were Grade 10 students from Tayabas
Western Academy in Candelaria, Quezon. Specifically, the study focused on a total of 60
Grade 10 students.
Experimental and Control Groups: These 60 students were divided into two
groups: an experimental group consisting of 30 students and a control group also consisting of
30 students. This division into two groups is a common practice in experimental research to
compare the effects of an intervention (experimental group) with a baseline or control
condition (control group).
Cluster Sampling: The sampling technique used to select the participants in this
study is cluster sampling. Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method where a larger
population is divided into smaller groups or clusters, and then a random sample of clusters is
selected for further study. In this case, the clusters were the sections of Grade 10 students in
Tayabas Western Academy.
Context
Cluster Sampling in Practice: The Grade 10 student population in the school was
organized into different sections or clusters. Instead of individually selecting students, the
researcher chose to use cluster sampling by first identifying these sections. This approach can
be practical when there are logistical constraints or when it is more feasible to study groups of
individuals rather than every individual in the population.
Random Selection: Within these clusters or sections, two groups (experimental and
control) were randomly selected using a simple random sampling technique. Simple random
sampling ensures that each section had an equal chance of being chosen, which helps reduce
bias and make the sample more representative.
In summary, the sampling technique used in this study was cluster sampling, where sections
of Grade 10 students were treated as clusters, and then two groups were selected from these clusters
through simple random sampling. This method allowed the researcher to efficiently and fairly select
participants for the experimental and control groups while working within the organizational structure of
the school.
The Data-Gathering Procedures
This section presents sample data-gathering procedures statements of published articles.
Below each sample are discussions on what to write and how to write the data-gathering procedures
section in your chapter 3.
Example 1:
Presented below is a sample Research Instrument section from the study of _______ (2023):
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Visayas State University - Isabel
For inquiries, contact:
Esperanza Sumalinog PhD
head.name@vsu.edu.ph • dept@vsu.edu.ph
+63 53 565 0600 Local 1234
Use this code when referring to this material:
TP-IMD-02 v0 07-15-20 • No. _________
Visca, Baybay City, Leyte
Philippines 6521
information@vsu.edu.ph
+63 53 565 0600
Vision:
Mission:
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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