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Unit 1
SUSTAINABLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENERGY AND PRODUCTS
CARBON FOOTPRINT
carbon footprint, amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with all the activities
of a person or other entity (e.g., building, corporation, country, etc.). It includes direct
emissions, such as those that result from fossil-fuel combustion in manufacturing, heating,
and transportation, as well as emissions required to produce the electricity associated with
goods and services consumed. In addition, the carbon footprint concept also often includes the
emissions
of
other greenhouse
gases,
such
as methane, nitrous
oxide,
or chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
The carbon footprint concept is related to and grew out of the older idea of ecological footprint,
a concept invented in the early 1990s by Canadian ecologist William Rees and Swiss-born
regional planner Mathis Wackernagel at the University of British Columbia. An ecological
footprint is the total area of land required to sustain an activity or population. It includes
environmental impacts, such as water use and the amount of land used for food production. In
contrast, a carbon footprint is usually expressed as a measure of weight, as in tons of CO2 or
CO2 equivalent per year.
Carbon footprint calculation
Carbon footprints are different from a country’s reported per capita emissions (for example,
those reported under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). Rather
than the greenhouse gas emissions associated with production, carbon footprints focus on the
greenhouse gas emissions associated with consumption. They include the emissions associated
with goods that are imported into a country but are produced elsewhere and generally take into
account emissions associated with international transport and shipping, which is not accounted
for in standard national inventories. As a result, a country’s carbon footprint can increase even
as carbon emissions within its borders decrease.
The per capita carbon footprint is highest in the United States. According to the Carbon Dioxide
Information Analysis Center and the United Nations Development Programme, in 2004 the
average resident of the United States had a per capita carbon footprint of 20.6 metric tons (22.7
short tons) of CO2 equivalent, some five to seven times the global average. Averages vary
greatly around the world, with higher footprints generally found in residents of developed
countries. For example, that same year France had a per capita carbon footprint of 6.0 metric
tons (6.6 short tons), whereas Brazil and Tanzania had carbon footprints of 1.8 metric tons
(about 2 short tons) and 0.1 metric ton (0.1 short ton) of CO2 equivalent, respectively.
In developed countries, transportation and household energy use make up the largest
component of an individual’s carbon footprint. For example, approximately 40 percent of total
emissions in the United States during the first decade of the 21st century were from those
sources. Such emissions are included as part of an individual’s “primary” carbon footprint,
representing the emissions over which an individual has direct control. The remainder of an
individual’s carbon footprint is called the “secondary” carbon footprint, representing carbon
emissions associated with the consumption of goods and services. The secondary footprint
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includes carbon emissions emitted by food production. It can be used to account for diets that
contain higher proportions of meat, which requires a greater amount of energy and nutrients to
produce than vegetables and grains, and foods that have been transported long distances. The
manufacturing and transportation of consumer goods are additional contributors to the
secondary carbon footprint. For example, the carbon footprint of a bottle of water includes the
CO2 or CO2 equivalent emitted during the manufacture of the bottle itself plus the amount
emitted during the transportation of the bottle to the consumer.
A variety of different tools exist for calculating the carbon footprints for individuals,
businesses, and other organizations. Commonly used methodologies for calculating
organizational carbon footprints include the Greenhouse Gas Protocol, from the World
Resources Institute and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, and ISO
14064, a standard developed by the International Organization for Standardization dealing
specifically with greenhouse gas emissions. Several organizations, such as the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, the Nature Conservancy, and British Petroleum, created
carbon calculators on the Internet for individuals. Such calculators allow people to compare
their own estimated carbon footprints with the national and world averages.
Carbon footprint reduction
Individuals and corporations can take a number of steps to reduce their carbon footprints and
thus contribute to global climate mitigation. They can purchase carbon offsets (broadly stated,
an investment in a carbon-reducing activity or technology) to compensate for part or all of their
carbon footprint. If they purchase enough to offset their carbon footprint, they become
effectively carbon neutral.
Carbon footprints can be reduced through improving energy efficiency and changing lifestyles
and purchasing habits. Switching one’s energy and transportation use can have an impact on
primary carbon footprints. For example, using public transportation, such as buses and trains,
reduces an individual’s carbon footprint when compared with driving. Individuals and
corporations can reduce their respective carbon footprints by installing energy-efficient
lighting, adding insulation in buildings, or using renewable energy sources to generate the
electricity they require. For example, electricity generation from wind power produces no
direct carbon emissions. Additional lifestyle choices that can lower an individual’s secondary
carbon footprint include reducing one’s consumption of meat and switching one’s purchasing
habits to products that require fewer carbon emissions to produce and transport.
SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainability, the long-term viability of a community, set of social institutions, or societal
practice. In general, sustainability is understood as a form of intergenerational ethics in which
the environmental and economic actions taken by present persons do not diminish the
opportunities of future persons to enjoy similar levels of wealth, utility, or welfare.
The idea of sustainability rose to prominence with the modern environmental movement, which
rebuked the unsustainable character of contemporary societies where patterns of resource use,
growth, and consumption threatened the integrity of ecosystems and the well-being of future
generations. Sustainability is presented as an alternative to short-term, myopic, and wasteful
behaviours. It can serve as a standard against which existing institutions are to be judged and
as an objective toward which society should move. Sustainability also implies an interrogation
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of existing modes of social organization to determine the extent to which they encourage
destructive practices as well as a conscious effort to transform the status quo so as to promote
the development of more-sustainable activities.
Forms of sustainability
Sustainability is at the core of concepts such as sustainable yield, sustainable society, and
sustainable development. The term sustainable yield refers to the harvest of a specific (selfrenewing) natural resource—for example, timber or fish. Such a yield is one that can in
principle be maintained indefinitely because it can be supported by the regenerative capacities
of the underlying natural system. A sustainable society is one that has learned to live within the
boundaries established by ecological limits. It can be maintained as a collective and ongoing
entity because practices that imposed excessive burdens upon the environment have been
reformed or abolished. Sustainable development is a process of social advancement that
accommodates the needs of current and future generations and that
successfully integrates economic, social, and environmental considerations in decision
making.
In contemporary debate, sustainability often serves as a synonym for sustainable development.
On other occasions, it is associated more exclusively with environmental constraints or
environmental performance, and the expression environmental sustainability is used to
emphasize that point. Parallel references can be found to the terms social
sustainability, economic sustainability, and cultural sustainability, which allude to threats to
long-term well-being in each of those domains. Local sustainability emphasizes the importance
of place. Corporate sustainability is another common usage, which relates both to the
survivability of the individual corporation and to the contribution that corporations can make
to the broader sustainability agenda. Central here is the notion of the so-called triple bottom
line—that businesses should pay attention to social performance and environmental
performance as well as to financial returns. The notion of corporate sustainability is also
connected to debates about reforming corporate governance, encouraging corporate
responsibility, and designing alternative (sustainable, green, or ethical) investment vehicles.
How to create a sustainable future
While numerous practices are cited as threats to sustainability, such as political corruption,
social inequality, the arms race, and profligate government expenditures, environmental issues
remain at the heart of the discussion. Of course, what is conducive to environmental
sustainability remains a matter of intense debate. Approaches range from a moderate
“greening” of current social institutions to a radical transformation of the global political and
economic
order. A gradual
adjustment
toward
sustainability
relies
on
governmental initiatives to orient production and consumption into less environmentally
destructive channels. That implies a reengineering of industrial and agricultural processes, a
transformation of land-use practices, and a shift in household consumption. Potentially
renewable resources should be managed to conserve their long-term viability; nonrenewable
resources should be extracted at rates that allow an ordered transition to alternatives; emission
of waste and toxic substances must remain within the assimilative capacities of natural systems;
and more-vigorous measures must be taken to preserve species, habitats, and ecosystems.
Managing long-term environmental issues such as climate change and the loss
of biodiversity is of critical importance to efforts to achieve sustainability.
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Governments can deploy an array of policy tools to effect such changes, including regulation,
fiscal instruments, negotiated agreements, and informational tools. Yet many problems resist
solution because the offending (unsustainable) practices are often linked to deeply entrenched
practices and constraints and supported by established definitions of values and interests.
Theorizing sustainability
Discussion of sustainability within academia has ranged across many perspectives. Economic
analysts have sometimes defined the concept in terms of nondeclining per capita income flows
over time, or long-term economic growth, with minimal environmental impacts and debated
how to maintain the capital endowments needed to sustain those income flows. Controversy
over the substitutability of natural and human-made capital has divided proponents of weak
and strong sustainability: the former argue that the two types of capital are largely
interchangeable, whereas the latter insist that natural capital is increasingly the scarcest factor
of production. In addition, ecosystem services, such as the provision of clean water or crop
pollination, are often undervalued aspects of natural capital that should be incorporated into
economic discussions of sustainability.
Ecologists and systems theorists have tended to approach sustainability in terms of physical
interdependencies, energy flows, and population dynamics. They have emphasized the design
features that suit social systems for long-term survival, including robustness,
resiliency, redundancy, and adaptability. For their part, political analysts have focused on the
ideological and normative implications of sustainability, on the character of green political
projects, and on the public policy implications.
POLLUTION
Pollution, the addition of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or any form of energy (such
as heat, sound, or radioactivity) to the environment at a rate faster than it can be dispersed,
diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless form. The major kinds of pollution,
usually classified by environment, are air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution.
Modern society is also concerned about specific types of pollutants, such as noise
pollution, light pollution, and plastic pollution. Pollution of all kinds can have negative effects
on the environment and wildlife and often impacts human health and well-being.
History of pollution
The major kinds of pollution, usually classified by environment, are air pollution, water
pollution, and land pollution. Modern society is also concerned about specific types of
pollutants, such as noise pollution, thermal pollution, light pollution, and plastic pollution.
Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events such as forest fires and
active volcanoes, use of the word pollution generally implies that the contaminants have
an anthropogenic source—that is, a source created by human activities. Pollution has
accompanied humankind ever since groups of people first congregated and remained for a long
time in any one place. Indeed, ancient human settlements are frequently recognized by their
wastes shell mounds and rubble heaps, for instance. Pollution was not a serious problem as
long as there was enough space available for each individual or group. However, with the
establishment of permanent settlements by great numbers of people, pollution became a
problem, and it has remained one ever since.
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Cities of ancient times were often noxious places, fouled by human wastes and debris.
Beginning about 1000 ce, the use of coal for fuel caused considerable air pollution, and the
conversion of coal to coke for iron smelting beginning in the 17th century exacerbated the
problem. In Europe, from the Middle Ages well into the early modern era, unsanitary urban
conditions favoured the outbreak of population-decimating epidemics of disease,
from plague to cholera and typhoid fever. Through the 19th century, water and air pollution and
the accumulation of solid wastes were largely problems of congested urban areas. But, with the
rapid spread of industrialization and the growth of the human population to unprecedented
levels, pollution became a universal problem.
By the middle of the 20th century, an awareness of the need to protect air, water, and
land environments from pollution had developed among the general public. In particular, the
publication in 1962 of Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring focused attention on environmental
damage caused by improper use of pesticides such as DDT and other persistent chemicals that
accumulate in the food chain and disrupt the natural balance of ecosystems on a wide scale. In
response, major pieces of environmental legislation, such as the Clean Air Act (1970) and
the Clean Water Act (1972; United States), were passed in many countries to control
and mitigate environmental pollution.
Giving voice to the growing conviction of most of the scientific community about the reality
of anthropogenic global warming, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was
formed in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP) to help address greenhouse gas emissions. An IPCC special
report produced in 2018 noted that human beings and human activities have been responsible
for a worldwide average temperature increase between 0.8 and 1.2 °C (1.4 and 2.2 °F) since
preindustrial times, and most of the warming over the second half of the 20th century could be
attributed to human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels.
Pollution control
The presence of environmental pollution raises the issue of pollution control. Great efforts are
made to limit the release of harmful substances into the environment through air pollution
control, wastewater treatment, solid-waste management, hazardous-waste management,
and recycling. Unfortunately, attempts at pollution control are often surpassed by the scale of
the problem, especially in less-developed countries. Noxious levels of air pollution are
common in many large cities, where particulates and gases from transportation, heating, and
manufacturing accumulate and linger. The problem of plastic pollution on land and in the
oceans has only grown as the use of single-use plastics has burgeoned worldwide. In
addition, greenhouse gas emissions, such as methane and carbon dioxide, continue to
drive global warming and pose a great threat to biodiversity and public health.
DEFORESTATION
Deforestation, the clearing or thinning of forests by humans. Deforestation represents one of
the largest issues in global land use. Estimates of deforestation traditionally are based on the
area of forest cleared for human use, including removal of the trees for wood products and for
croplands and grazing lands. In the practice of clear-cutting, all the trees are removed from the
land, which completely destroys the forest. In some cases, however, even partial logging and
accidental fires thin out the trees enough to change the forest structure dramatically.
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History
Conversion of forests to land used for other purposes has a long history. Earth’s croplands,
which cover about 49 million square km (18.9 million square miles), are mostly deforested
land. Most present-day croplands receive enough rain and are warm enough to have once
supported forests of one kind or another. Only about 1 million square km (390,000 square
miles) of cropland are in areas that would have been cool boreal forests, as in Scandinavia and
northern Canada. Much of the remainder was once moist subtropical or tropical forest or, in
eastern North America, western Europe, and eastern China, temperate forest.
The extent to which forests have become Earth’s grazing lands is much more difficult to
assess. Cattle or sheep pastures in North America or Europe are easy to identify, and they
support large numbers of animals. At least 2 million square km (772,204 square miles) of such
forests have been cleared for grazing lands. Less certain are the humid tropical forests and some
drier tropical woodlands that have been cleared for grazing. These often support only very low
numbers of domestic grazing animals, but they may still be considered grazing lands by
national authorities. Almost half the world is made up of “drylands”—areas too dry to support
large numbers of trees—and most are considered grazing lands. There, goats, sheep,
and cattle may harm what few trees are able to grow.
Although most of the areas cleared for crops and grazing represent permanent and continuing
deforestation, deforestation can be transient. About half of eastern North America lay
deforested in the 1870s, almost all of it having been deforested at least once since European
colonization in the early 1600s. Since the 1870s the region’s forest cover has increased, though
most of the trees are relatively young. Few places exist in eastern North America that retain
stands of uncut old-growth forests.
Modern deforestation
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that the annual rate of
deforestation is about 1.3 million square km per decade, though the rate has slowed in some
places in the early 21st century as a result of enhanced forest management practices and the
establishment of nature preserves. The greatest deforestation is occurring in the tropics, where
a wide variety of forests exists. They range from rainforests that are hot and wet year-round to
forests that are merely humid and moist, to those in which trees in varying proportions lose
their leaves in the dry season, and to dry open woodlands. Because boundaries between these
categories are inevitably arbitrary, estimates differ regarding how much deforestation has
occurred in the tropics.
A major contributor to tropical deforestation is the practice of slash-and-burn agriculture, or
swidden agriculture (see also shifting agriculture). Small-scale farmers clear forests by burning
them and then grow crops in the soils fertilized by the ashes. Typically, the land produces for
only a few years and then must be abandoned and new patches of forest burned. Fire is also
commonly used to clear forests in Southeast Asia, tropical Africa, and the Americas for
permanent oil palm plantations.
Additional human activities that contribute to tropical deforestation include
commercial logging and land clearing for cattle ranches and plantations of rubber trees, oil
palm, and other economically valuable trees.
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The Amazon Rainforest is the largest remaining block of humid tropical forest, and about twothirds of it is in Brazil. (The rest lies along that country’s borders to the west and to the north.)
Studies in the Amazon reveal that about 5,000 square km (1,931 square miles) are at least
partially logged each year. In addition, each year fires burn an area about half as large as the
areas that are cleared. Even when the forest is not entirely cleared, what remains is often a
patchwork of forests and fields or, in the event of more intensive deforestation, “islands” of
forest surrounded by a “sea” of deforested areas.
The commercial palm oil industry rapidly expanded in the late 20th century and led to the
deforestation of significant swaths of Indonesia and Malaysia as well as large areas in Africa.
New plantations are often formed using slash-and-burn agricultural methods, and the resulting
fragmentation of natural forests and loss of habitat threatens native plants and animals.
Bornean and Sumatran orangutans are especially iconic species threatened by the expansion of
oil palm farming in Indonesia.
Deforested lands are being replanted in some areas. Some of this replanting is done to replenish
logging areas for future exploitation, and some replanting is done as a form of ecological
restoration, with the reforested areas made into protected land. Additionally, significant areas
are planted as monotypic plantations for lumber or paper production. These are often
plantations of eucalyptus or fast-growing pines—and almost always of species that are not
native to the places where they are planted. The FAO estimates that there are approximately
1.3 million square km (500,000 square miles) of such plantations on Earth.
Many replanting and reforestation efforts are led and funded by the United Nations and
nongovernmental organizations. However, some national governments have
also undertaken ambitious replanting projects. For example, starting in 2017, the government
of New Zealand sought to plant more than 100 million trees per year within its borders, but
perhaps the most ambitious replanting project took place in India on a single day in 2017, when
citizens planted some 66 million trees.
Effects
Deforestation has important global consequences. Forests sequester carbon in the form of
wood and other biomass as the trees grow, taking up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
(see carbon cycle). When forests are burned, their carbon is returned to the atmosphere as
carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that has the potential to alter global climate (see greenhouse
effect; global warming), and the trees are no longer present to sequester more carbon.
In addition, most of the planet’s valuable biodiversity is within forests, particularly tropical
ones. Moist tropical forests such as the Amazon have the greatest concentrations of animal and
plant species of any terrestrial ecosystem; perhaps two-thirds of Earth’s species live only in
these forests. As deforestation proceeds, it has the potential to cause the extinction of increasing
numbers of these species.
On a more local scale, the effects of forest clearing, selective logging, and fires interact.
Selective logging increases the flammability of the forest because it converts a closed, wetter
forest into a more open, drier one. This leaves the forest vulnerable to the accidental movement
of fires from cleared adjacent agricultural lands and to the killing effects of natural droughts.
As wildfires, logging, and droughts continue, the forest can become progressively more open
until all the trees are lost. Additionally, the burning of tropical forests is generally a seasonal
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phenomenon and can severely impact air quality. Record-breaking levels of air pollution have
occurred in Southeast Asia as the result of burning for oil palm plantations.
In the tropics, much of the deforested land exists in the form of steep mountain hillsides. The
combination of steep slopes, high rainfall, and the lack of tree roots to bind the soil can lead to
disastrous landslides that destroy fields, homes, and human lives. With the significant
exception of the forests destroyed for the oil palm industry, many of the humid forests that have
been cleared are soon abandoned as croplands or only used for low-density grazing because
the soils are extremely poor in nutrients. (To clear forests, the vegetation that contains most of
the nutrients is often burned, and the nutrients literally “go up in smoke” or are washed away
in the next rain.)
Although forests may regrow after being cleared and then abandoned, this is not always the
case, especially if the remaining forests are highly fragmented. Such habitat fragmentation
isolates populations of plant and animal species from each other, making it difficult to
reproduce without genetic bottlenecks, and the fragments may be too small to support large or
territorial animals. Furthermore, deforested lands that are planted with commercially
important trees lack biodiversity and do not serve as habitats for native plants and animals,
many of which are endangered species.
GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming, the phenomenon of increasing average air temperatures near the surface
of Earth over the past one to two centuries. Climate scientists have since the mid-20th century
gathered
detailed
observations
of
various weather phenomena
(such
as
temperatures, precipitation, and storms) and of related influences on climate (such as ocean
currents and the atmosphere’s chemical composition). These data indicate that Earth’s climate
has changed over almost every conceivable timescale since the beginning of geologic time and
that human activities since at least the beginning of the Industrial Revolution have a growing
influence over the pace and extent of present-day climate change.
Giving voice to a growing conviction of most of the scientific community,
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was formed in 1988 by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).
The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), published in 2021, noted that the best estimate of
the increase in global average surface temperature between 1850 and 2019 was 1.07 °C (1.9
°F). An IPCC special report produced in 2018 noted that human beings and their activities have
been responsible for a worldwide average temperature increase between 0.8 and 1.2 °C (1.4
and 2.2 °F) since preindustrial times, and most of the warming over the second half of the 20th
century could be attributed to human activities.
AR6 produced a series of global climate predictions based on modeling five greenhouse gas
emission scenarios that accounted for future emissions, mitigation (severity reduction)
measures, and uncertainties in the model projections. Some of the main uncertainties include
the precise role of feedback processes and the impacts of industrial pollutants known
as aerosols, which may offset some warming. The lowest-emissions scenario, which assumed
steep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions beginning in 2015, predicted that the global mean
surface temperature would increase between 1.0 and 1.8 °C (1.8 and 3.2 °F) by 2100 relative
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to the 1850–1900 average. This range stood in stark contrast to the highest-emissions scenario,
which predicted that the mean surface temperature would rise between 3.3 and 5.7 °C (5.9 and
10.2 °F) by 2100 based on the assumption that greenhouse gas emissions would continue to
increase throughout the 21st century. The intermediate-emissions scenario, which assumed that
emissions would stabilize by 2050 before declining gradually, projected an increase of between
2.1 and 3.5 °C (3.8 and 6.3 °F) by 2100.
Many climate scientists agree that significant societal, economic, and ecological damage would
result if the global average temperature rose by more than 2 °C (3.6 °F) in such a short time.
Such damage would include increased extinction of many plant and animal species, shifts in
patterns of agriculture, and rising sea levels. By 2015 all but a few national governments had
begun the process of instituting carbon reduction plans as part of the Paris Agreement, a treaty
designed to help countries keep global warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) above preindustrial levels in
order to avoid the worst of the predicted effects. Whereas authors of the 2018 special report
noted that should carbon emissions continue at their present rate, the increase in average nearsurface air temperature would reach 1.5 °C sometime between 2030 and 2052, authors of the
AR6 report suggested that this threshold would be reached by 2041 at the latest.
Causes of global warming
The greenhouse effect
The average surface temperature of Earth is maintained by a balance of various forms of solar
and terrestrial radiation. Solar radiation is often called “shortwave” radiation because the
frequencies of the radiation are relatively high and the wavelengths relatively short—close to
the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Terrestrial radiation, on the other hand, is
often called “longwave” radiation because the frequencies are relatively low and the
wavelengths relatively long—somewhere in the infrared part of the spectrum. Downwardmoving solar energy is typically measured in watts per square metre. The energy of the total
incoming solar radiation at the top of Earth’s atmosphere (the so-called “solar constant”)
amounts roughly to 1,366 watts per square metre annually. Adjusting for the fact that only onehalf of the planet’s surface receives solar radiation at any given time, the average surface
insolation is 342 watts per square metre annually.
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The amount of solar radiation absorbed by Earth’s surface is only a small fraction of the total
solar radiation entering the atmosphere. For every 100 units of incoming solar radiation,
roughly 30 units are reflected back to space by either clouds, the atmosphere,
or reflective regions of Earth’s surface. This reflective capacity is referred to as Earth’s
planetary albedo, and it need not remain fixed over time, since the spatial extent and
distribution of reflective formations, such as clouds and ice cover, can change. The 70 units of
solar radiation that are not reflected may be absorbed by the atmosphere, clouds, or the surface.
In the absence of further complications, in order to maintain thermodynamic equilibrium,
Earth’s surface and atmosphere must radiate these same 70 units back to space. Earth’s surface
temperature (and that of the lower layer of the atmosphere essentially in contact with the
surface) is tied to the magnitude of this emission of outgoing radiation according to the StefanBoltzmann law.
Earth’s energy budget is further complicated by the greenhouse effect. Trace gases with certain
chemical
properties
the
so-called greenhouse
gases,
mainly carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O)—absorb some of the infrared
radiation produced by Earth’s surface. Because of this absorption, some fraction of the original
70 units does not directly escape to space. Because greenhouse gases emit the same amount of
radiation they absorb and because this radiation is emitted equally in all directions (that is, as
much downward as upward), the net effect of absorption by greenhouse gases is to increase the
total amount of radiation emitted downward toward Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere. To
maintain equilibrium, Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere must emit more radiation than the
original 70 units. Consequently, the surface temperature must be higher. This process is not
quite the same as that which governs a true greenhouse, but the end effect is similar. The
presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to a warming of the surface and lower
part of the atmosphere (and a cooling higher up in the atmosphere) relative to what would be
expected in the absence of greenhouse gases.
It is essential to distinguish the “natural,” or background, greenhouse effect from the
“enhanced” greenhouse effect associated with human activity. The natural greenhouse effect is
associated with surface warming properties of natural constituents of Earth’s atmosphere,
especially water vapour, carbon dioxide, and methane. The existence of this effect is accepted
by all scientists. Indeed, in its absence, Earth’s average temperature would be approximately
33 °C (59 °F) colder than today, and Earth would be a frozen and likely uninhabitable planet.
What has been subject to controversy is the so-called enhanced greenhouse effect, which is
associated with increased concentrations of greenhouse gases caused by human activity. In
particular, the burning of fossil fuels raises the concentrations of the major greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere, and these higher concentrations have the potential to warm the atmosphere
by several degrees.
Greenhouse gases
greenhouse gases warm Earth’s surface by increasing the net downward longwave radiation
reaching the surface. The relationship between atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases
and the associated positive radiative forcing of the surface is different for each gas. A
complicated relationship exists between the chemical properties of each greenhouse gas and
the relative amount of longwave radiation that each can absorb. What follows is a discussion
of the radiative behaviour of each major greenhouse gas.
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Water vapour
Water vapour is the most potent of the greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere, but its
behaviour is fundamentally different from that of the other greenhouse gases. The primary role
of water vapour is not as a direct agent of radiative forcing but rather as climate feedback—
that is, as a response within the climate system that influences the system’s continued activity
(see below Water vapour feedback). This distinction arises from the fact that the amount of
water vapour in the atmosphere cannot, in general, be directly modified by human behaviour
but is instead set by air temperatures. The warmer the surface, the greater the evaporation rate
of water from the surface. As a result, increased evaporation leads to a greater concentration of
water vapour in the lower atmosphere capable of absorbing longwave radiation and emitting it
downward.
Carbon dioxide
CO2 a colourless gas having a faint sharp odour and a sour taste. It is one of the most
important greenhouse gases linked to global warming, but it is a minor component
of Earth’s atmosphere (about 3 volumes in 10,000), formed in combustion of carboncontaining materials, in fermentation, and in respiration of animals and employed by plants in
the photosynthesis of carbohydrates. The presence of the gas in the atmosphere keeps some of
the radiant energy received by Earth from being returned to space, thus producing the socalled greenhouse effect. Industrially, it is recovered for numerous diverse applications from
flue gases, as a by-product of the preparation of hydrogen for synthesis of ammonia, from
limekilns, and from other sources.
Carbon is transported in various forms through the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and geologic
formations. One of the primary pathways for the exchange of carbon dioxide (CO2) takes place
between the atmosphere and the oceans; there a fraction of the CO2 combines with water,
forming carbonic acid (H2CO3) that subsequently loses hydrogen ions (H+) to form bicarbonate
(HCO3−) and carbonate (CO32−) ions. Mollusk shells or mineral precipitates that form by the
reaction of calcium or other metal ions with carbonate may become buried in geologic strata
and eventually release CO2 through volcanic outgassing. Carbon dioxide also exchanges
through photosynthesis in plants and through respiration in animals. Dead and decaying organic
matter may ferment and release CO2 or methane (CH4) or may be incorporated into
sedimentary rock, where it is converted to fossil fuels. Burning of hydrocarbon fuels returns
CO2 and water (H2O) to the atmosphere. The biological and anthropogenic pathways are much
faster than the geochemical pathways and, consequently, have a greater impact on the
composition and temperature of the atmosphere.
Of the greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most significant. Natural sources of
atmospheric CO2 include outgassing from volcanoes, the combustion and natural decay of
organic matter, and respiration by aerobic (oxygen-using) organisms. These sources are
balanced, on average, by a set of physical, chemical, or biological processes, called “sinks,”
that tend to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. Significant natural sinks include terrestrial
vegetation, which takes up CO2 during the process of photosynthesis.
A number of oceanic processes also act as carbon sinks. One such process, called the “solubility
pump,” involves the descent of surface seawater containing dissolved CO2. Another process,
the “biological pump,” involves the uptake of dissolved CO2 by marine vegetation
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and phytoplankton (small free-floating photosynthetic organisms) living in the upper ocean or
by other marine organisms that use CO2 to build skeletons and other structures made
of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). As these organisms expire and fall to the ocean floor,
the carbon they contain is transported downward and eventually buried at depth. A long-term
balance between these natural sources and sinks leads to the background, or natural, level of
CO2 in the atmosphere.
In contrast, human activities increase atmospheric CO2 levels primarily through the burning
of fossil fuels—principally oil and coal and secondarily natural gas, for use in
transportation, heating, and the generation of electrical power—and through the production
of cement. Other anthropogenic sources include the burning of forests and the clearing of
land. Anthropogenic emissions currently account for the annual release of about 7 gigatons (7
billion tons) of carbon into the atmosphere. Anthropogenic emissions are equal to
approximately 3 percent of the total emissions of CO2 by natural sources, and this amplified
carbon load from human activities far exceeds the offsetting capacity of natural sinks (by
perhaps as much as 2–3 gigatons per year).
The Keeling Curve, named after American climate scientist Charles David Keeling, tracks
changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in Earth's atmosphere at a research station
on Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Despite small seasonal fluctuations in CO2 concentration, the overall
trend shows that CO2 is increasing in the atmosphere.(more)
CO2 consequently accumulated in the atmosphere at an average rate of 1.4 ppm per year
between 1959 and 2006 and roughly 2.0 ppm per year between 2006 and 2018. Overall, this
rate of accumulation has been linear (that is, uniform over time). However, certain current
sinks, such as the oceans, could become sources in the future (see Carbon cycle feedbacks).
This may lead to a situation in which the concentration of atmospheric CO2 builds at an
exponential rate (that is, its rate of increase is also increasing).
The natural background level of carbon dioxide varies on timescales of millions of years
because of slow changes in outgassing through volcanic activity. For example, roughly 100
million years ago, during the Cretaceous Period (145 million to 66 million years ago),
CO2 concentrations appear to have been several times higher than they are today (perhaps close
to 2,000 ppm). Over the past 700,000 years, CO2 concentrations have varied over a far smaller
range (between roughly 180 and 300 ppm) in association with the same Earth orbital effects
linked to the coming and going of the Pleistocene ice ages (see below Natural influences on
climate). By the early 21st century CO2 levels had reached 384 ppm, which is approximately
37 percent above the natural background level of roughly 280 ppm that existed at the beginning
of the Industrial Revolution. Atmospheric CO2 levels continued to increase, and by 2022 they
had reached 419 ppm. Such levels are believed to be the highest in at least 800,000 years
according to ice core measurements and may be the highest in at least 5 million years according
to other lines of evidence.
Radiative forcing caused by carbon dioxide varies in an approximately logarithmic fashion
with the concentration of that gas in the atmosphere. The logarithmic relationship occurs as the
result of a saturation effect wherein it becomes increasingly difficult, as CO2 concentrations
increase, for additional CO2 molecules to further influence the “infrared window” (a certain
narrow band of wavelengths in the infrared region that is not absorbed by atmospheric gases).
The logarithmic relationship predicts that the surface warming potential will rise by roughly
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the same amount for each doubling of CO2 concentration. At current rates of fossil fuel use, a
doubling of CO2 concentrations over preindustrial levels is expected to take place by the middle
of the 21st century (when CO2 concentrations are projected to reach 560 ppm). A doubling of
CO2 concentrations would represent an increase of roughly 4 watts per square metre of
radiative forcing. Given typical estimates of “climate sensitivity” in the absence of
any offsetting factors, this energy increase would lead to a warming of 2 to 5 °C (3.6 to 9 °F)
over preindustrial times (see Feedback mechanisms and climate sensitivity). The total radiative
forcing by anthropogenic CO2 emissions since the beginning of the industrial age is
approximately 1.66 watts per square metre.
Methane
Methane (CH4) is the second most important greenhouse gas. CH4 is more potent than
CO2 because the radiative forcing produced per molecule is greater. In addition, the infrared
window is less saturated in the range of wavelengths of radiation absorbed by CH4, so more
molecules may fill in the region. However, CH4 exists in far lower concentrations than CO2 in
the atmosphere, and its concentrations by volume in the atmosphere are generally measured in
parts per billion (ppb) rather than ppm. CH4 also has a considerably shorter residence time in
the atmosphere than CO2 (the residence time for CH4 is roughly 10 years, compared with
hundreds of years for CO2).
Natural sources of methane include tropical and northern wetlands, methaneoxidizing bacteria that feed on organic material consumed by termites, volcanoes, seepage
vents of the seafloor in regions rich with organic sediment, and methane hydrates trapped along
the continental shelves of the oceans and in polar permafrost. The primary natural sink for
methane is the atmosphere itself, as methane reacts readily with the hydroxyl radical (∙OH)
within the troposphere to form CO2 and water vapour (H2O). When CH4 reaches
the stratosphere, it is destroyed. Another natural sink is soil, where methane is oxidized by
bacteria.
It is believed that a sudden increase in the concentration of methane in the atmosphere was
responsible for a warming event that raised average global temperatures by 4–8 °C (7.2–14.4
°F) over a few thousand years during the so-called Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, or
PETM. This episode took place roughly 55 million years ago, and the rise in CH4 appears to
have been related to a massive volcanic eruption that interacted with methane-containing flood
deposits. As a result, large amounts of gaseous CH4 were injected into the atmosphere. It is
difficult to know precisely how high these concentrations were or how long they persisted. At
very high concentrations, residence times of CH4 in the atmosphere can become much greater
than the nominal 10-year residence time that applies today. Nevertheless, it is likely that these
concentrations reached several ppm during the PETM.
Surface-level ozone and other compounds
The next most significant greenhouse gas is surface, or low-level, ozone (O3). Surface O3 is a
result of air pollution; it must be distinguished from naturally occurring stratospheric O3, which
has a very different role in the planetary radiation balance. The primary natural source of
surface O3 is the subsidence of stratospheric O3 from the upper atmosphere (see
below Stratospheric ozone depletion). In contrast, the primary anthropogenic source of surface
O3 is photochemical reactions involving the atmospheric pollutant carbon monoxide (CO).
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The best estimates of the natural concentration of surface O3 are 10 ppb, and the net radiative
forcing due to anthropogenic emissions of surface O3 is approximately 0.35 watt per square
metre. Ozone concentrations can rise above unhealthy levels (that is, conditions where
concentrations meet or exceed 70 ppb for eight hours or longer) in cities prone
to photochemical smog.
Nitrous oxides and fluorinated gases
Additional trace gases produced by industrial activity that have greenhouse properties
include nitrous oxide (N2O) and fluorinated gases (halocarbons), the latter including sulfur
hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). Nitrous oxide is
responsible for 0.16 watt per square metre radiative forcing, while fluorinated gases are
collectively responsible for 0.34 watt per square metre. Nitrous oxides have small background
concentrations due to natural biological reactions in soil and water, whereas the fluorinated
gases owe their existence almost entirely to industrial sources.
Aerosols
The production of aerosols represents an important anthropogenic radiative forcing of climate.
Collectively, aerosols block—that is, reflect and absorb—a portion of incoming solar radiation,
and this creates a negative radiative forcing. Aerosols are second only to greenhouse gases in
relative importance in their impact on near-surface air temperatures. Unlike the decade-long
residence times of the “well-mixed” greenhouse gases, such as CO2 and CH4, aerosols are
readily flushed out of the atmosphere within days, either by rain or snow (wet deposition) or
by settling out of the air (dry deposition). They must therefore be continually generated in order
to produce a steady effect on radiative forcing. Aerosols have the ability to influence climate
directly by absorbing or reflecting incoming solar radiation, but they can also produce indirect
effects on climate by modifying cloud formation or cloud properties. Most aerosols serve
as condensation nuclei (surfaces upon which water vapour can condense to form clouds);
however, darker-coloured aerosols may hinder cloud formation by absorbing sunlight and
heating up the surrounding air. Aerosols can be transported thousands of kilometres from their
sources of origin by winds and upper-level circulation in the atmosphere.
Perhaps the most important type of anthropogenic aerosol in radiative forcing is sulfate aerosol.
It is produced from sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions associated with the burning of coal and oil.
Nitrate aerosol is not as important as sulfate aerosol, but it has the potential to become a
significant source of negative forcing. One major source of nitrate aerosol is smog (the
combination of ozone with oxides of nitrogen in the lower atmosphere) released from the
incomplete burning of fuel in internal-combustion engines. Another source is ammonia (NH3),
which is often used in fertilizers or released by the burning of plants and other organic
materials. If greater amounts of atmospheric nitrogen are converted to ammonia and
agricultural ammonia emissions continue to increase as projected, the influence of nitrate
aerosols on radiative forcing is expected to grow.
Both sulfate and nitrate aerosols act primarily by reflecting incoming solar radiation, thereby
reducing the amount of sunlight reaching the surface. Most aerosols, unlike greenhouse gases,
impart a cooling rather than warming influence on Earth’s surface. One prominent exception is
carbonaceous aerosols such as carbon black or soot, which are produced by the burning of
fossil fuels and biomass. Carbon black tends to absorb rather than reflect incident solar
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radiation, and so it has a warming impact on the lower atmosphere, where it resides. Because
of its absorptive properties, carbon black is also capable of having an additional indirect effect
on climate. Through its deposition in snowfall, it can decrease the albedo of snow cover. This
reduction in the amount of solar radiation reflected back to space by snow surfaces creates a
minor positive radiative forcing.
Natural forms of aerosol include windblown mineral dust generated in arid and semiarid
regions and sea salt produced by the action of waves breaking in the ocean. Changes
to wind patterns as a result of climate modification could alter the emissions of these aerosols.
The influence of climate change on regional patterns of aridity could shift both the sources and
the destinations of dust clouds. In addition, since the concentration of sea salt aerosol, or sea
aerosol, increases with the strength of the winds near the ocean surface, changes in wind speed
due to global warming and climate change could influence the concentration of sea salt aerosol.
For example, some studies suggest that climate change might lead to stronger winds over parts
of the North Atlantic Ocean. Areas with stronger winds may experience an increase in the
concentration of sea salt aerosol.
Other natural sources of aerosols include volcanic eruptions, which produce sulfate aerosol,
and biogenic sources (e.g., phytoplankton), which produce dimethyl sulfide (DMS). Other
important biogenic aerosols, such as terpenes, are produced naturally by certain kinds
of trees or other plants. For example, the dense forests of the Blue Ridge
Mountains of Virginia in the United States emit terpenes during the summer months, which in
turn interact with the high humidity and warm temperatures to produce a natural photochemical
smog. Anthropogenic pollutants such as nitrate and ozone, both of which serve
as precursor molecules for the generation of biogenic aerosol, appear to have increased the rate
of production of these aerosols severalfold. This process appears to be responsible for some of
the increased aerosol pollution in regions undergoing rapid urbanization.
if concentrations of anthropogenic aerosols continue to decrease as they have since the 1970s,
a significant offset to the effects of greenhouse gases will be reduced, opening future climate
to further warming.
IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING ON OUR PLANET
1. Melting Polar Regions and Glaciers:
o
The Arctic is warming four times faster than the rest of the planet, leading to
reduced ice habitat and disruptions in weather patterns globally1.
2. Extreme Precipitation:
o
As the planet heats up, precipitation becomes more extreme. For every degree
of temperature rise, the air holds about seven percent more moisture1.
3. Shifts in Wildlife Habitats:
o
Rising temperatures force plants and animals to adapt or relocate, affecting
ecosystems and biodiversity.
4. Sea Level Rise:
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o
Melting ice sheets and glaciers contribute to rising sea levels, threatening
coastal communities and ecosystems2.
5. Changes in Weather Patterns:
o
The jet stream is disrupted due to Arctic warming, causing unpredictable
weather events worldwide.
METHODS TO REDUCE GLOBAL WARMING
Switch to Renewable Energy Sources:
o
Solar Power: Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity. They consist of
photovoltaic cells that generate electricity when exposed to sunlight. The
capacity of a solar panel depends on its size, efficiency, and location. On
average, a residential solar panel system in the United States has a capacity of
around 5 to 6 kilowatts (kW) per panel. However, this can vary significantly
based on factors like sunlight hours and panel efficiency.
o
Wind Power: Wind turbines harness wind energy to generate electricity. Their
capacity depends on the turbine size, wind speed, and location. Large utilityscale wind turbines can have capacities ranging from 1.5 megawatts (MW) to
over 10 MW.
Electric Vehicles (EVs):
o
EVs run on electricity and produce zero tailpipe emissions. Their capacity is
measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh) for the battery. For example, a Tesla Model
3 Long Range has a battery capacity of around 82 kWh, allowing it to travel
approximately 300 miles on a full charge.
Energy Conservation:
o
Insulation: Properly insulating homes reduces the need for heating and cooling,
saving energy. Insulation materials include fiberglass, cellulose, and foam.
o
Energy-Efficient Appliances: Look for appliances with ENERGY STAR
ratings. These consume less energy while performing the same tasks.
o
LED Lighting: LED bulbs are energy-efficient and have longer lifespans than
traditional incandescent bulbs.
Carbon Offsetting:
o
Carbon offsetting involves compensating for your carbon emissions by
supporting projects that reduce emissions elsewhere. Examples include
reforestation, renewable energy projects, and methane capture.
Support Sustainable Practices:
o
Local Food: Choose locally grown produce to reduce transportation-related
emissions.
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o
Reduce, Reuse, recycle: Minimize waste and recycle materials to conserve
resources.
o
Public Transportation: Use buses, trains, or carpools to reduce individual car
emissions.
THE INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national
standards bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is
normally carried out through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a
subject for which a technical committee has been established has the right to be represented on
that committee. International organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison
with ISO, also take part in the work. ISO collaborates closely with the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization.
Introduction
Climate change arising from anthropogenic activity has been identified as one of the greatest
challenges facing the world and will continue to affect business and citizens over future
decades.
Climate change has implications for both human and natural systems and could lead to
significant impacts on resource availability, economic activity and human wellbeing. In
response, international, regional, national and local initiatives are being developed and
implemented by public and private sectors to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations
in the Earth’s atmosphere as well as to facilitate adaptation to climate change.
There is a need for an effective and progressive response to the urgent threat of climate change
on the basis of the best available scientific knowledge. ISO produces documents that support
the transformation of scientific knowledge into tools that will help address climate change.
GHG initiatives on mitigation rely on the quantification, monitoring, reporting and verification
of GHG emissions and/or removals.
The ISO 14060 family provides clarity and consistency for quantifying, monitoring, reporting
and validating or verifying GHG emissions and removals to support sustainable development
through a low-carbon economy. It also benefits organizations, project proponents and
stakeholders worldwide by providing clarity and consistency on quantifying, monitoring,
reporting, and validating or verifying GHG emissions and removals. Specifically, the use of
the ISO 14060 family:
•
enhances the environmental integrity of GHG quantification;
•
enhances the credibility, consistency, and transparency of GHG quantification,
monitoring, reporting, validation and verification;
•
facilitates the development and implementation of GHG management strategies and
plans;
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•
facilitates the development and implementation of mitigation actions through emission
reductions or removal enhancements;
•
facilitates the ability to track performance and progress in the reduction of GHG
emissions and/or increase in GHG removals.
Applications of the ISO 14060 family include:
•
corporate decisions, such as identifying GHG emission reduction opportunities and
increasing profitability by reducing energy consumption;
•
carbon risk management, such as the identification and management of risks and
opportunities;
•
voluntary initiatives, such as participation in voluntary GHG registries or sustainability
reporting initiatives;
•
GHG markets, such as the buying and selling of GHG allowances or credits;
•
regulatory/government GHG programmes, such as credit for early action, agreements
or national and local reporting initiatives.
ISO 14064-1 details principles and requirements for designing, developing, managing and
reporting organization-level GHG inventories.
It includes requirements for determining GHG emission and removal boundaries, quantifying
an organization’s GHG emissions and removals, and identifying specific company actions or
activities aimed at improving GHG management.
It also includes requirements and guidance on inventory quality management, reporting,
internal auditing and the organization’s responsibilities in verification activities.
ISO 14064-2 details principles and requirements for determining baselines and for the
monitoring, quantifying and reporting of project emissions. It focuses on GHG projects or
project-based activities specifically designed to reduce GHG emissions and/or enhance GHG
removals. It provides the basis for GHG projects to be validated and verified.
ISO 14064-3 details requirements for verifying GHG statements related to GHG inventories,
GHG projects, and carbon footprints of products. It describes the process for validation or
verification, including validation or verification planning, assessment procedures, and the
evaluation of organizational, project and product GHG statements.
ISO 14065 defines requirements for bodies that validate and verify GHG statements. Its
requirements cover impartiality, competence, communication, validation and verification
processes, appeals, complaints, and the management system of validation and verification
bodies. It can be used as a basis for accreditation and other forms of recognition in relation to
the impartiality, competence, and consistency of validation and verification bodies.
ISO 14066 specifies competence requirements for validation teams and verification teams. It
includes principles and specifies competence requirements based on the tasks that validation
teams or verification teams must be able to perform.
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This document defines the principles, requirements and guidelines for the quantification of the
carbon footprint of products. The aim of this document is to quantify GHG emissions
associated with the life cycle stages of a product, beginning with resource extraction and raw
material sourcing and extending through the production, use and end-of-life stages of the
product.
ISO/TR 14069 assists users in the application of ISO 14064-1, providing guidelines and
examples for improving transparency in the quantification of emissions and their reporting. It
does not provide additional guidance to ISO 14064-1.
Figure 1 illustrates the relationship among the ISO 14060 family of GHG standards.
Figure 1 — Relationship among the ISO 14060 family of GHG standards
GHGs can be emitted and removed throughout the life cycle of a product which includes
acquisition of raw material, design, production, transportation/delivery, use and the end-of-life
treatment. Quantification of the carbon footprint of a product (CFP) will assist in the
understanding and action to increase GHG removals and reduce GHG emissions throughout
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the life cycle of a product. This document details principles, requirements and guidelines for
the quantification of CFPs, i.e. goods and services, based on GHG emissions and removals
over their life cycle. Requirements and guidelines for the quantification of a partial CFP are
also provided. Communication related to the CFP or the partial CFP is covered in ISO 14026.
The development of product category rules (PCR) is covered in ISO/TS 14027.
This document is based on principles, requirements and guidelines identified in existing
International Standards on life cycle assessment (LCA), ISO 14040 and ISO 14044, and aims
to set specific requirements for the quantification of a CFP and a partial CFP.
This document is expected to benefit organizations, governments, industry, service providers,
communities and other interested parties by providing clarity and consistency in quantifying
CFPs. Specifically, using LCA in accordance with this document, with climate change as the
single impact category, can offer benefits through:
•
avoiding burden-shifting from one stage of a product life cycle to another or between
product life cycles;
•
providing requirements for the quantification of the CFP;
•
facilitating CFP performance tracking in reducing GHG emissions;
•
providing a better understanding of the CFP such that potential opportunities for
increases in GHG removals and reductions of GHG emissions might be identified;
•
helping to promote a sustainable low carbon economy;
•
enhancing the credibility, consistency and transparency of the quantification and
reporting of the CFP;
•
facilitating the evaluation of alternative product design and sourcing options,
production and manufacturing methods, raw material choices, transportation, recycling
and other end-of-life processes;
•
facilitating the development and implementation of GHG management strategies and
plans across product life cycles, as well as the detection of additional efficiencies in the
supply chain;
•
preparing reliable CFP information.
Figure 2 — Relationship between this document and standards beyond the GHG
management family of standards
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CFPs prepared in accordance with this document contribute to the objectives of GHG-related
policies and/or regimes.
Limitations of CFPs based on this document are described in Annex A.
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CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT (TEST)
What is conformity assessment?
Conformity assessment refers to any activity that determines whether a product, system, service
and sometimes people fulfill the requirements and characteristics described in a standard or
specification. Such requirements can include performance, safety, efficiency, effectiveness,
reliability, durability, or environmental impacts such as pollution or noise, for example.
Verification is generally done through testing or/and inspection. This may or may not include
on-going verification.
Conformity Assessment Board
The CAB (Conformity Assessment Board) is responsible for the management and supervision
of IEC conformity assessment activities, including oversight of the IEC Conformity
Assessment Systems.
Conformity assessment and standards
Conformity assessment is the activity of verifying that a standard or technical specification was
applied in the design, manufacturing, installation, maintenance or repair of a device or system.
This activity must be carried out according to a set of well-defined rules to ensure consistent
and replicable results. In other words, conformity assessment itself needs to use a standardized
approach.
The IEC and ISO have therefore developed and published a series of international standards
specifying how conformity assessment should be carried out. The ISO/IEC 17000 standards
series, as well as a number of ISO/IEC Guides, are contained in what is familiarly called the
CASCO Toolbox, which provides a full set of tools for anyone wishing to know how to carry
out consistent and reliable conformity assessment.
Why is conformity assessment needed?
Before a product can enter a market, it generally needs to be able to demonstrate to the buyer
or regulator that it is safe and performs as promised in terms of energy efficiency, reliability,
sustainability, and many other criteria.
Conformity assessment provides the necessary proof, based on standards.
With conformity assessment:
•
Governments have it easier to verify the resilience of infrastructure and are better able
to protect their populations from unnecessary risks
•
Insurers get confirmation that risks have been properly managed and relevant safety
considerations included
•
Buyers receive proof about a product's or system's safety, performance and reliability
•
Investors are able to trust that industry-wide best-practice has been applied and their
investment is as secure as it can be
•
Users of equipment and consumers can be confident that electrical and electronic
devices are safe to use and perform to expectations
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The IEC provides a framework that supports all types of conformity assessment and allows for
testing to be transparent, predictable, comparable, and affordable. IEC International Standards
together with conformity assessment help reduce trade barriers caused by different certification
criteria in different countries. The IEC Conformity Assessment (CA) Systems also help remove
significant delays and expense for multiple testing and approval.
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ANY PRODUCT OR SYSTEM
it’s essential to address various aspects to minimize their impact. Here are some key
considerations:
1. Resource Efficiency:
o
Optimize resource usage (such as raw materials, energy, and water) during
production, operation, and disposal.
o
Reduce waste generation by promoting recycling and reuse.
2. Ecosystem Health:
o
Ensure that the product or system does not harm ecosystems or biodiversity.
o
Consider the impact on soil, water, and air quality.
3. Human Health and Safety:
o
Evaluate potential risks to human health during use, maintenance, and disposal.
o
Address exposure to hazardous substances.
4. Energy Efficiency:
o
Design products and systems to minimize energy consumption.
o
Consider energy-efficient components and technologies.
5. Lifecycle Assessment:
o
Assess the environmental impact throughout the entire lifecycle (from raw
material extraction to end-of-life).
o
Consider factors like transportation, manufacturing, and disposal.
6. Compliance with Regulations:
o
Ensure compliance with environmental regulations and standards.
o
Address emissions, noise levels, and other relevant criteria.
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3 TERMS, DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATED TERMS
3.1 Terms and definitions
3.1.1 Quantification of the carbon footprint of a product
3.1.1.1 carbon footprint of a product CFP
Sum of GHG emissions (3.1.2.5) and GHG removals (3.1.2.6) in a product system (3.1.3.2),
expressed as CO2 equivalents (3.1.2.2) and based on a life cycle assessment (3.1.4.3) using the
single impact category (3.1.4.8) of climate change
3.1.1.2 Partial carbon footprint of a product
Sum of GHG emissions (3.1.2.5) and GHG removals (3.1.2.6) of one or more
selected process(es) (3.1.3.5) in
a product
system (3.1.3.2),
expressed
as CO2
equivalents (3.1.2.2) and based on the selected stages or processes within the life
cycle (3.1.4.2)
3.1.1.3 carbon footprint of a product systematic approach
Set of procedures to facilitate the quantification of the CFP (3.1.1.6) for two or
more products (3.1.3.1) of the same organization (3.1.5.1)
3.1.1.4 Carbon footprint of a product study
All activities that are necessary to quantify and report a CFP (3.1.1.1) or a partial
CFP (3.1.1.2)
3.1.1.5 Carbon footprint of a product (CFP ) study report
Report that documents the CFP study (3.1.1.4), presents the CFP (3.1.1.1) or partial
CFP (3.1.1.2), and shows the decisions taken within the study
3.1.1.6 Quantification of the carbon footprint of a product
Activities that result in the determination of a CFP (3.1.1.1) or apartial CFP (3.1.1.2)
Note 1 to entry: Quantification of the CFP or the partial CFP is part of the CFP study (3.1.1.4).
3.1.1.7 Carbon offsetting
Mechanism for compensating for all or a part of the CFP (3.1.1.1) or the partial
CFP (3.1.1.2) through the prevention of the release of, reduction in, or removal of an amount
of GHG emissions (3.1.2.5) in a process (3.1.3.5) outside the product system (3.1.3.2) under
study
EXAMPLE:
Investment outside the relevant product system, e.g. in renewable energy technologies, energy
efficiency measures, afforestation/reforestation.
Note 1 to entry: Carbon offsetting is not allowed in the quantification of a CFP (3.1.1.6) or a
partial CFP, and communication of carbon offsetting is outside of the scope of this document
(see 6.3.4.1).
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Note 2 to entry: Footprint communication and relevant claims regarding carbon offsetting and
carbon neutrality are covered in ISO 14026 and ISO 14021.
Note 3 to entry: Adapted from the definition of “offsetting” in ISO 14021:2016, 3.1.12.
3.1.1.8 Product category
Group of products (3.1.3.1) that can fulfil equivalent functions
3.1.1.9 Product category rules (PCR)
set of specific rules, requirements and guidelines for developing Type III environmental
declarations and footprint communications for one or more product categories (3.1.1.8)
3.1.1.10 Carbon footprint of a product – product category rules (CFP–PCR)
set of specific rules, requirements and guidelines for CFP (3.1.1.1) or partial
CFP (3.1.1.2) quantification and communication for one or more product categories (3.1.1.8)
3.1.1.11 Carbon footprint of a product performance tracking
CFP performance tracking
comparing the CFP (3.1.1.1) or the partial CFP (3.1.1.2) of one specific product (3.1.3.1) of
the same organization (3.1.5.1) over time It includes calculating the change to the CFP for one
specific product, or between superseding products with the same functional
unit (3.1.3.7) or declared unit (3.1.3.8) over time.
3.1.2 Greenhouse gases
3.1.2.1Greenhouse gas (GHG)
gaseous constituent of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorbs and emits
radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of infrared radiation emitted by the
Earth’s surface, the atmosphere and clouds
3.1.2.2 Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e)
unit for comparing the radiative forcing of a GHG (3.1.2.1) to that of carbon dioxide. Mass of
a GHG is converted into CO2 equivalents by multiplying the mass of the GHG by the
corresponding GWP (3.1.2.4) or GTP (3.1.2.3) of that gas.
3.1.2.3 Global temperature change potential - GTP
index measuring the change in global mean surface temperature at a chosen point in time in
response to a GHG (3.1.2.1) emission pulse, relative to the change in temperature attributed to
carbon dioxide (CO2)
3.1.2.4 Global warming potential-GWP
index, based on radiative properties of GHGs (3.1.2.1), measuring the radiative forcing
following a pulse emission of a unit mass of a given GHG in the present-day atmosphere
integrated over a chosen time horizon, relative to that of carbon dioxide (CO2)
3.1.2.5 Greenhouse gas emission -GHG emission
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release of a GHG (3.1.2.1) into the atmosphere
3.1.2.6 Greenhouse gas removal- GHG removal
withdrawal of a GHG (3.1.2.1) from the atmosphere
3.1.2.7 greenhouse gas emission factor
coefficient relating activity data with the GHG emission (3.1.2.5)
3.1.3 Products, product systems and processes
3.1.3.1 product
goods or service
The product can be categorized as follows:
•
service (e.g. transport, implementation of events);
•
software (e.g. computer program);
•
hardware (e.g. engine mechanical part);
•
processed material (e.g. lubricant, ore, fuel);
•
unprocessed material (e.g. agricultural product).
Services have tangible and intangible elements. Provision of a service can involve, for example,
the following:
•
an activity performed on a customer-supplied tangible product (e.g. automobile to be
repaired);
•
an activity performed on a customer-supplied intangible product (e.g. the income
statement needed to prepare a tax return);
•
the delivery of an intangible product (e.g. the delivery of information in the context of
knowledge transmission);
•
the creation of ambience for the customer (e.g. in hotels and restaurants).
3.1.3.2 product system
collection of unit processes (3.1.3.6) with elementary flows (3.1.3.10) and product flows,
performing one or more defined functions and which models the life cycle (3.1.4.2) of
a product (3.1.3.1)
3.1.3.3 co-product
any of two or more products (3.1.3.1) coming from the same unit process (3.1.3.6) or product
system (3.1.3.2)
3.1.3.4 System boundary Boundary based on a set of criteria representing which unit
processes (3.1.3.6) are a part of the system under study
3.1.3.5 Process Set of interrelated or interacting activities that transforms inputs into outputs
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3.1.3.6 Unit process
Smallest element considered in the life cycle inventory analysis (3.1.4.4) for which input and
output data are quantified
3.1.3.7 Functional unit
Quantified performance of a product system (3.1.3.2) for use as a reference unit
Note 1 to entry: As the CFP (3.1.1.1) treats information on a product (3.1.3.1) basis, an
additional calculation based on a declared unit (3.1.3.8) can be presented (see also 6.3.3).
3.1.3.8 Declared unit
quantity of a product (3.1.3.1) for use as a reference unit in the quantification of a partial
CFP (3.1.1.2)
EXAMPLE:
Mass (1 kg of primary steel), volume (1 m3 of crude oil).
3.1.3.9 Reference flow
Measure of the inputs to or outputs from processes (3.1.3.5) in a given product
system (3.1.3.2) required to fulfil the function expressed by the functional unit (3.1.3.7)
3.1.3.10 Elementary flow
Material or energy entering the system being studied that has been drawn from the environment
without previous human transformation, or material or energy leaving the system being studied
that is released into the environment without subsequent human transformation
3.1.3.11 Service life
Period of time during which a product (3.1.3.1) in use meets or exceeds the performance
requirements
3.1.4 Life cycle assessment
3.1.4.1 Cut-off criteria
specification of the amount of material or energy flow or the level of significance of GHG
emissions (3.1.2.5) associated with unit processes (3.1.3.6) or the product system (3.1.3.2) to
be excluded from a CFP study (3.1.1.4)
3.1.4.2 Life cycle
consecutive and interlinked stages related to a product (3.1.3.1), from raw material acquisition
or generation from natural resources to end-of-life treatment
Stages of a life cycle related to a product include raw material acquisition, production,
distribution, use and end-of-life treatment.
[SOURCE:ISO 14044:2006, 3.1, modified ― Reference to “final disposal” has been changed
to “end-of-life treatment” and Notes 1 and 2 to entry have been added.]
3.1.4.3 Life cycle assessment (LCA)
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compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of
a product system (3.1.3.2) throughout its life cycle (3.1.4.2)
3.1.4.4 Life cycle inventory analysis (LCI)
phase of life cycle assessment (3.1.4.3) involving the compilation and quantification of inputs
and outputs for a product (3.1.3.1) throughout its life cycle (3.1.4.2)
[SOURCE:ISO 14044:2006, 3.3]
3.1.4.5 Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)
phase of life cycle assessment (3.1.4.3) aimed at understanding and evaluating the magnitude
and significance of
the potential environmental
impacts
for a product
system (3.1.3.2) throughout the life cycle (3.1.4.2) of the product (3.1.3.1)
[SOURCE:ISO 14044:2006, 3.4]
3.1.4.6 Life cycle interpretation
phase of life cycle assessment (3.1.4.3) in which the findings of either the life cycle inventory
analysis (3.1.4.4) or the life cycle impact assessment (3.1.4.5), or both, are evaluated in relation
to the defined goal and scope in order to reach conclusions and recommendations
3.1.4.7 Sensitivity analysis
systematic procedures for estimating the effects of the choices made regarding methods and
data on the outcome of a CFP study (3.1.1.4)
3.1.4.8 Impact category
class representing environmental issues of concern to which life cycle inventory
analysis (3.1.4.4) results may be assigned
3.1.4.9 waste
substances or objects that the holder intends or is required to dispose of
3.1.4.10 critical review
activity intended to ensure consistency between the CFP study (3.1.1.4) and the principles and
requirements of this document
3.1.4.11 area of concern
aspect of the natural environment, human health or resources of interest to society
EXAMPLE:
Water, climate change, biodiversity.
3.1.5 Organizations
3.1.5.1 organization
person or group of people that has its own functions with responsibilities, authorities and
relationships to achieve its objectives
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Note 1 to entry: The concept of organization includes, but is not limited to, sole-trader,
company, corporation, firm, enterprise, authority, partnership, charity or institution, or part or
combination thereof, whether incorporated or not, public or private.
3.1.5.2 supply chain
those involved, through upstream and downstream linkages, in processes (3.1.3.5) and
activities relating to the provision of products (3.1.3.1) to the user
Note 1 to entry: In practice, the expression “interlinked chain” applies from suppliers to those
involved in end-of-life processing, which may include vendors, manufacturing facilities,
logistics providers, internal distribution centres, distributors, wholesalers and other entities that
lead to the end user.
3.1.6 Data and data quality
3.1.6.1 primary data
quantified value of a process (3.1.3.5) or an activity obtained from a direct measurement or a
calculation based on direct measurements
Note 1 to entry: Primary data need not necessarily originate from the product
system (3.1.3.2) under study because primary data might relate to a different but comparable
product system to that being studied.
Note 2 to entry: Primary data can include GHG emission factors (3.1.2.7) and/or GHG activity
data (defined in ISO 14064-1:2006, 2.11).
3.1.6.2 Site-specific data
primary data obtained within the product system (3.1.3.2)
Note 1 to entry: All site-specific data are primary data (3.1.6.1) but not all primary data are
site-specific data because they may be obtained from a different product system.
Note 2 to entry: Site-specific data include GHG emissions (3.1.2.5) from GHG sources as well
as GHG removals (3.1.2.6) by GHG sinks for one specific unit process within a site.
3.1.6.3 Secondary data
Data which do not fulfil the requirements for primary data (3.1.6.1)
Secondary data can include data from databases and published literature, default emission
factors from national inventories, calculated data, estimates or other representative data,
validated by competent authorities. Secondary data can include data obtained from proxy
processes or estimates.
3.1.6.4 Uncertainty
parameter associated with the result of quantification that characterizes the dispersion of the
values that could be reasonably attributed to the quantified amount
Note 1 to entry: Uncertainty can include, for example:
•
parameter uncertainty, e.g. GHG emission factors (3.1.2.7), activity data;
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scenario uncertainty, e.g. use stage scenario, end-of-life stage scenario;
•
model uncertainty.
Note 2 to entry: Uncertainty information typically specifies quantitative estimates of the likely
dispersion of values and a qualitative description of the likely causes of the dispersion.
3.1.7 Biogenic material and land use
3.1.7.1 biomass
material of biological origin, excluding material embedded in geological formations and
material transformed to fossilized material
Note 1 to entry: Biomass includes organic material (both living and dead), e.g. trees, crops,
grasses, tree litter, algae, animals, manure and waste (3.1.4.9) of biological origin.
Note 2 to entry: In this document, biomass excludes peat.
3.1.7.2 biogenic carbon
carbon derived from biomass (3.1.7.1)
3.1.7.3 fossil carbon
carbon that is contained in fossilized material
Note 1 to entry: Examples of fossilized material are coal, oil and natural gas and peat.
3.1.7.4land use LU
human use or management of land within the relevant boundary
Note 1 to entry: In this document, the relevant boundary is the boundary of the system under
study
Note 2 to entry: Land use is often referred to as “land occupation” in life cycle assessment
(LCA).
3.1.7.5 direct land use change – (dLUC)
change in the human use of land within the relevant boundary
Land use change happens when there is a change in the land-use category as defined by the
IPCC (e.g. from forest land to cropland).
3.1.7.6 indirect land use change (iLUC)
change in the use of land which is a consequence of direct land use change (3.1.7.5), but which
occurs outside the relevant boundary
EXAMPLE:
If land use on a particular parcel of land changes from food production to biofuel production,
land use change might occur elsewhere to meet the demand for food. This land use change
elsewhere is indirect land use change.