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A History of the
Humanities in the
Modern University
A Productive Crisis
Sverre Raffnsøe
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A History of the Humanities in the Modern
University
“This book is a call to all who believe in the transformative power of the humanities. Raffnsøe challenges the prevailing dichotomy of the human and the nonhuman, which was established as crucial for the organization of knowledge with
the foundation of the modern university. His analysis is not just a defense but also
a welcome reinvigoration of the humanities, urging a reconnection with their radical potential to address the challenges of our times. The book stands as a significant and thorough contribution to the ongoing debate about the role of the
humanities in higher education and is an essential text for understanding their
enduring importance in the institutional development of the contemporary university. Raffnsøe’s work is a must-read for educators, students, and anyone invested
in the future of the humanities.”
—Rasmus Johnsen, Associate Professor, Vice Dean for Lifelong
Learning, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark
“In this tour de force, Raffnsøe boldly counters bleak mainstream predictions to
claim that, far from inexorably withering, the humanities will remain vibrant and
vital. Beyond dialectical inversion of received opinion, Raffnsøe’s History restores
this epistemological discipline to its irrevocable centrality. A science in the organic
sense, the humanities render knowledge rational while relentlessly challenging
truth-values—including that of science itself. As such, as long as the species to
which we belong endures, the human sciences must and will ensure that survival.
In that sense, Raffnsøe’s History is a history of the future.”
—Robert Harvey, Distinguished Professor Emeritus, State University
of New York at Stony Brook, USA
“That the humanities in the university are in crisis is not news, but a sadly familiar
complaint. That continuing crisis has been an essential, productive part of its history is an interesting hypothesis that calls for study and could provide both light
and hope for today’s predicament. This book explores that history and hypothesis
with scholarship, patience, and insight.”
—Richard Shusterman, Dorothy F. Schmidt Eminent Scholar
in the Humanities, Florida Atlantic University, USA
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“This is a profoundly generous scholarly work that adds a masterful touch to
Raffnsøe’s cutting-edge contributions to key debates in the field of the contemporary humanities and brings the discussion to another dimension. One of the striking aspects of this remarkable volume is the diversity of European languages, as
well as philosophical traditions it draws from. This very rigorous and learned, but
also accessible, approach sharpens the overall focus of this study, and increases its
agenda-setting force and relevance.”
—Rosi Braidotti, Distinguished University Professor Emerita, Utrecht University
“This book’s career will be great fun to follow and possibly contribute to. It slays
any number of holy cows, first and foremost the humanities scholars’ inherent
claim to the right of wailing about the decline of their disciplines. Also, it performs
what it describes—i.e. the epistemological expertise which characterizes the
humanities as the foundation of a new understanding of knowledge far beyond
disciplinary boundaries. And most importantly, it does not close off its topic as
now being investigated and classified once and for all; instead, it opens up many
new avenues of investigation. Fabulous stuff!”
—Professor, Dr. Ulrike Landfester and Professor, Dr. Jörg Metelmann,
University of St. Gallen
“Erudite and brilliant, Raffnsøe’s genealogy of the humanities in the Western
academy offers a perspective that is both timely and courageous. Refusing the
strategy of justifying the humanities by defending ideas about its noble and ancient
inheritances, Raffnsøe recounts how the emergence of new faculties, disciplines,
and fields of studies over the last two hundred years have always called the humanities into crisis and challenged it constantly to redefine and reorganize itself in relation—and not simply in opposition—to these emergences. The present ‘crisis’ of
the humanities is no exception. This remarkable book is at once an acute diagnosis
of our times and a fresh charter of hope and possibilities for humanists.”
—Dipesh Chakrabarty, Lawrence A. Kimpton Distinguished Service
Professor of History, South Asian Languages and Civilizations,
and the College, University of Chicago, USA
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Sverre Raffnsøe
A History of the
Humanities in the
Modern University
A Productive Crisis
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Preface: Scope, Claims and Ambition
of the Book
This study provides a general overview of the crucial and critical stages in
the history, organization and production of knowledge in Western societies since the establishment of the modern university around 1800.
A recurring subject of examination, forming a guiding and unifying
theme, is the momentous influence of the human sciences as well as their
decisive, yet also unstable and shifting role and position within this context. The study claims that the position and decisive role of the human
sciences within the larger edifice have often been neglected or played
down due to their dynamicism, the very instability and fluctuation of their
status and influence, making it hard to grasp and describe them.
This decisive role and productive influence is often overlooked, or at
least decisively misrepresented and downplayed, in current discussions of
the human sciences that examine their character, contribution and future
prospects. Here it has become habitual not only to emphasize that the
human sciences are presently experiencing a severe crisis and recession but
also to stress how this calamity is the logical outcome of a prolonged process of recession, decay and decline.
To counter this misapprehension and compensate for the oversights and
omissions of both present and historical contributions, there is thus no alternative than to form a comprehensive and relatively detailed overview of the
ongoing development of human sciences within the historical landscape—
while also paying close attention to the shifting positions and the development of the human sciences within their broader context. In order to achieve
this, the study aims to write a new and relatively detailed alternative history
of the human sciences from the point where they assumed their distinctive
v
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vi
Preface: Scope, Claims and Ambition of the Book
modern shape and became recognizable as what can today be perceived as
the humanities. A closer, more attentive and thorough investigation of not
only the present but also, and in particular, this past is required. Countering
received ideas of the humanities and the human sciences as a superfluous
pursuit, the account of the human sciences and their historical development
given here seeks to accord due recognition to their ongoing significant and
decisive influence over more than 200 years.
In the introduction, the book starts out by surveying the main historical stages of the alternative history of the human sciences in the modern
university that this study is going to outline. Concomitantly, this section
of the book also provides an indication of the main characteristics of and
the relationship between these main historical stages.
Subsequently, Chap. 1 provides a fairly elaborate articulation of the
primary analytical, methodological, epistemological or ontological tenets
that the book’s approach builds upon. In this manner, this section of the
book aims to give an account of the necessary presuppositions that underlie this study of the development of the human sciences and their impact
on the modern university and its wider knowledge horizon, thereby
enabling the drafting of an alternative history.
In keeping with the ambition to write a new history that highlights their
productive character and influence, the study follows the traces of agendasetting major events within and contributions to the human sciences. In
continuation hereof, the study understands the epistemic tradition of the
human sciences as established through an ongoing and open-ended series of
prescriptive and normative events permeated by a virtuality that constantly
gives rise to dispositions that did not previously exist. The approach applied
also implies that the study perceives and articulates cognation and knowledge as activities having decisive normative and performative effects. As
articulated in this study, the ongoing productive crisis of the human sciences
is to be perceived as an enduring and unending transcending and normsetting undertaking resulting in the establishment of new irreducible modes
of science and conceptions of scientificity that continuously create and vindicate new conditions of assertability for knowledge.
To follow this continuing establishment of new modes of science and
scientificity, the study takes the form of a transversal investigation that
aims to trace the transcending and norm-setting activity as it moves across
borders, where the baton is picked up from previous inventive activity and
passed on to the next generation. The study of cognition and knowledge
as normating activities presented here differs decisively from more
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Preface: Scope, Claims and Ambition of the Book
vii
traditional and well-established accounts of the history and contributions
of the human sciences, in particular those that portray them either as containing an inherited value in themselves or as a primarily problem-solving
cognitive activity. In this manner, the study portrays the tradition of the
human sciences as a valuable dynamic heritage that is in need of constant
reinterpretation.
To be able to follow and cover the normative, unveiling and agenda-­
setting movement fraught with consequences in its full breadth and complexity, the study adheres to a wide and inclusive understanding of the
human sciences as the sciences that distinguish themselves by researching
and producing knowledge concerning human affairs taken in a very broad
sense. By contrast, the study also uses the nomination ‘humanities’ to designate a demarcation that is more exclusive and narrower in scope in so far
as it refers to the parts of the human sciences that claim to be devoted to
studying and cultivating the particularly, specifically and emphatically human.
Whereas A History of the Human Sciences in the Modern University would,
therefore, have been the more correct title of the book by suggesting the
expanded scope and the driving ambition of this study, the title History of the
Humanities in the Modern University has been retained to avoid alienating
readers that take an interest in the human sciences but are not familiar with
the above distinction and the syntagma ‘the human sciences’.
Following the described opening in the preface, the introduction, and
Chap. 1, Chap. 2 then further clarifies and elaborates the starting point for
the ensuing historical elaboration given in the following four main chapters of the book (Chaps. 3, 4, 5, and 6). Chapter 2 does this by turning
towards the present to address the question relatively briefly of what can
be regarded as an adequate diagnostics and characteristic of the role of the
human sciences in the present moment.
Most champions of the traditional humanities who defend what they
regard as the worth of their inherited values seem to agree with the detractors of the humanities who accuse them of having outlived their role and
become incapable of making significant contributions, at least in so far as
both parties converge in a common diagnostic of the present situation. Both
parties detect severe symptoms that the humanities today are confronted
with in an acute, critical situation or a relatively unambiguous, negative crisis
and deterioration, thereby forcing them to face the possibility of becoming
an extinct, or at least a very rare, species in the near future. This more or less
explicitly formulated diagnostic of the present state of the health of the
humanities, which could perhaps more aptly be described as a pathology
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viii
Preface: Scope, Claims and Ambition of the Book
that seeks to determine the character of an already presumed disease, seems
to form the backcloth for the ensuing strife between both sides or the framework within which they contend with one another.
The common assumption that the defenders of the human sciences share
with their opponents can also be described as an eschatological and apocalyptic experience and decoding of the symptoms that the contemporary
humanities exhibit. This perception and understanding occasions an
impending sense that the end (eschaton) is near and that the world as it has
been known throughout most of the history in which the humanities have
thrived is nearing its closure and final day. At the end of times, where the
hitherto known world is completed and closed off to such an extent that
judgement may be passed upon it, the veil may nevertheless also be seen to
begin to lift and reveal or partly hint at a new secret (apokalyptô) of what
seems to lie in store.
While both main opposing parties in the present debate concerning the
character and fate of the humanities seem to agree not only that the latter
are undergoing a severe, acute and decisive crisis but also that the midwinter is the final result of a longstanding and still ongoing process of decay
and decline, leading to the end times, the study presented here begs to
differ. Instead, the study argues that if one looks more closely at the history of the human sciences more broadly in the time that has passed since
the foundation of the modern university, a different history and present
appears. As the disciplines originating at the faculty of arts in the modern
university have continually given rise to new branches of science and new
knowledge during this entire historical period, the human sciences have
continuously managed to reformulate and reassert themselves.
Consequently, it would be fair to expect no less of the human sciences
today; and a closer look at the most recent developments suggest that such
great expectations are indeed justified. Even today, the sciences that distinguish themselves by researching and producing knowledge concerning
human affairs in ways that contribute to improving them continue to
develop and morph in interesting and productive ways. Continuing to rise
and respond to new challenges, the human sciences are presently experiencing the symptoms of a productive crisis in which they are managing to
continuously reassert themselves and develop new modes of science and
kinds of scientificity.
In this manner, the present book provides a counter-history to the
received history and diagnosis of the humanities. This counter-history
takes the form of a genealogy of the human sciences that highlights the
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Preface: Scope, Claims and Ambition of the Book
ix
ongoing, unstoppable productivity of the human sciences and thus avoids
harbouring bitter resentment and giving cause to defeatism. Rather, it is a
genealogy that engenders enthusiasm. As will become clear, this genealogy also permits a differing diagnostics as well as a different assessment of
the past, present and future position of the human sciences.
Having at this point given a very first outline of the scope, claims, ambition and analytical presuppositions of the book, as well as an indication of
the contents of the discussion in the preface of the book, the book now
moves on. The introduction to the book gives an overview of the four
main historical stages in the history of the human sciences since the establishment of the modern university around the turn of the nineteenth century as they will be described in Chaps. 3, 4, 5, and 6 of the book.
Readers who take a particular interest in the historical development of
the human sciences and the university since the turn of the eighteenth
century are most welcome to skip the analytical, methodological, epistemological and ontological considerations in Chap. 1 as well as the discussion on an alleged crisis of the humanities in Chap. 2 and to move directly
to the bulk of the book describing an ongoing historical development in
Chaps. 3–6 after having read the survey of the historical development in
the following introduction. The bulk of the book consists of the four main
chapters surveyed by the following introduction. In this way, these readers
will be able to skip what may to some seem to be more abstruse issues in
Chap. 1, as well as the more intricate discussions of the virtues and vices
of the present human sciences discussed in Chap. 2; and they will consequently be able to start by following the development of the human sciences as it unfolds logically over time since the foundation of the modern
university.
Likewise, readers particularly interested in a specific stage or aspect of
the historical journey of the human sciences, as described in the following
introduction, should feel free to move directly to the part of the book that
seems most relevant to them.
Finally, Chap. 7 ends the book by reflecting on crucial implications of
the systematic and historical investigation carried out in Chaps. 1 to 6.
What appears in the monograph is an enduring productive crisis that has
spurred not only an ongoing recovery and repossession of the human sciences but also self-affirmation and fertile self-transgression. The genealogy
of the human sciences articulated in the book permits a more complex and
favourable, diagnosis, symptomatology and assessment of the present
predicament.
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Also by Sverre Raffnsøe
Philosophy of the Anthropocene: The Human Turn, Palgrave Macmillan
Michel Foucault: A Research Companion (with Marius Gudmand-­
Høyer and Morten Thaning Sørensen), Palgrave Macmillan
Foucault: Studienhandbuch (with Marius Gudmand-Høyer and
Morten Thaning Sørensen), Wilhelm Fink Verlag
Nietzsches ‘Genealogie Der Moral’, Wilhelm Fink Verlag
Sameksistens uden common sense. Volume I-III, Akademisk Forlag
Aestheticizing Society: A Philosophical History of Sensory Experience and
Art, Bloomsbury (forthcoming)
The Human Turn in Management Thought, Oxford University Press
(forthcoming)
Planetary Conversations on the Anthropocene (with Dorthe Staunæs),
Aarhus Universitetsforlag (forthcoming)
History, Diagnostics and Metaphysics in Nietzsche’s ‘On the Genealogy of
Morality’ (with Stuart Pethick), Palgrave Macmillan (forthcoming)
xi
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Exerga
Alternd im Kinde sich nicht wiederzusehen, ist der Tod.
Friedrich Hölderlin: Der Wanderer
Il signor Palomar vede spuntare un’onda in lontananza, crescere,
avvicinarsi, cambiare di forma e di colore, avvolgersi su se stessa,
rompersi, svanire, rifluire. A questo punto potrebbe convincersi
d’aver portato a termine l’operazione che s’era proposto e andarsene.
Però isolare un’onda separandola dall'onda che immediatamente la
segue e pare la sospinga e talora la raggiunge e travolge, è molto difficile; cosí come separarla dall’onda che la precede e che sembra
trascinarsela dietro verso la riva, salvo poi magari voltarglisi contro
come per fermarla.
Italo Calvino:
Palomar
Alle Übergänge sind Krisen.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe:
Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre
Was heisst erkennen. – Non ridere, non lugere, neque destari, sed
intelligere! Sagt Spinoza, so schlicht und erhaben, wie es seine Art
ist. Indessen: was ist diess intelligere im letzten Grunde anderes, als
die Form, in der uns eben jene Drei auf Einmal fühlbar warden? Ein
Resultat aus den verschiedenen und sich widerstrebenden Trieben
des Verlachen-, Beklagen-, Verwünschen-wollens?
xiii
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xiv
EXERGA
Friedrich Nietzsche:
Die fröhliche Wissenschaft § 333
Gewiss, wir brauchen die Historie aber wir brauchen sie anders, als
sie der verwöhnte Müssiggänger im Garten des Wissens braucht,
mag derselbe auch vornehm auf unsere derben und anmuthlosen
Bedürfnisse und Nöthe herabsehen. Das heisst, wir brauchen sie
zum Leben und zur That, nicht zur bequemen Abkehr vom Leben
und von der That oder gar zur Beschönigung des selbstsüchtigen
Lebens und der feigen und schlechten That. Nur soweit die Historie
dem Leben dient, wollen wir ihr dienen.
Friedrich Nietzsche:
Unzeigemässe Betrachtungen. Zweites Stück: Vom Nutzen und
Nachtheil der Historie für das Leben. Vorwort
La typologie commence par une topologie. Penser dépend de certains coordonées. Nous avons les vérités que nous méritons d’après
le lieux où nous portons nôtre existence, l’heure où nous veillons,
l’élément que nous fréquentons. L’idée que la verité sorte du puîts,
il n’y a pas de plus fausse idée. Nous ne trouvons les vérités que là où
elles sont, à leur heure et dans leur élément. Toute vérité est vérité
d’un élément, d’une heure et d’un lieu. Le minotaure ne sort pas du
labyrinthe.
Gilles Deleuze:
Nietzsche et la philosophie
I want to question the self-presentation of the Humanities as an
ongoing, integral, integrated exercise.
Stuart Hall:
‘The Emergence of Cultural Studies and the Crisis of the
Humanities’
The question is: since what the humanities and the human sciences
provide are perspectives from which to debate the issues of our
times, can they overcome their hallowed and deeply set human-centrism and learn to look at the human world also from nonhuman
points of view?
Dipesh Chakrabarty:
‘Humanities in the Anthropocene: The Crisis of an Enduring
Kantian Fable’
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EXERGA
xv
Ja, die Frühlinge brauchten dich wohl. Es muteten manche
Sterne dir zu, dass du sie spürest. Es hob
sich eine Woge heran im Vergangenen, oder
da du vorüberkamst am geöffneten Fenster,
gabe eine Geige sich hin. Das alles war Auftrag,
Aber bewältigest du’s? [...]
denk: es erhält sich der Held, selbst der Untergang war ihm
nur ein Vorwand, zu sein: seine letzte Geburt.
[...] Ist es nicht Zeit, dass wir liebend
uns vom Geliebten befrein, und es bebend bestehn:
wie der Pfeil die Sehne besteht, um gesammelt im Absprung
mehr zu sein als er selbst. Den bleiben ist nirgends.
Rainer Maria Rilke:
Duineser Elegien
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Contents
1 An Agenda-Setting History 1
1.1The Level of Prescription and Normation 4
1.2The Level of the Virtual 7
1.3The Prescriptive Effects of Dispositional Arrangements 9
1.4The Dispositional Influence of Performative Effects 10
1.5Cognation as Normation 12
1.6The Normative Effects of an Ongoing Productive Crisis 16
1.7A Transversal Investigation 18
1.8Different Conceptions of the Human Sciences and Their
Contributions 20
1.9 The Sciences of the Human 25
References 29
2 An
Alleged Crisis of the Humanities 35
2.1A Defence of the Humanities in Dire Times 36
2.2An Inadequate Defence 38
2.3The Historical Heritage of the Humanities 39
2.4A Decisive Turning Point 40
References 45
3 The
Historic Constitution of the Modern University and
the Heritage of the Humanities 47
3.1The Reorganization and Reconstitution of the University
and the Organization of Knowledge Around the Turn of
the Nineteenth Century 48
xix
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xx
Contents
3.2An Acute Crisis for the Traditional University of the
Middle Ages and Renaissance 48
3.2.1The Reorganization of the University 50
3.2.2The Faculty of Philosophy as an Independent
Centre of the University 51
3.3The Study of the Particularly and Emphatically Human as
a Precondition for Science 53
3.3.1The Role of the Human Sciences 54
3.3.2The Human Subject 55
References 56
4 The
Division Between the Different Sciences on the
Singularly and Emphatically Human and New Branches of
Science 59
4.1An Overview of the Development of Knowledge
Organization from the Beginning of the Nineteenth
Century to the Mid-Twentieth Century 60
4.2The Faculty of Philosophy as a Hotbed for the Development
of New Kinds of Professional, Specialized and Useful
Knowledge in Demand 61
4.3The Declaration of Independence of Natural Philosophy
and Natural History 62
4.4The Rise of Biology and the Health Sciences 63
4.5The Expansion and Inclusion of the Technical Sciences 65
4.6The Fostering of a Diversified Culture of Social Sciences 67
4.6.1Sociology and the Understanding of Social
Human Conduct 67
4.6.2The Constitution of an Independent Faculty of
Social Sciences 69
4.6.3A Proliferation of New Scientific Cultures 70
4.7A Decisive Addition to the Culture of the Social Sciences:
The Constitution of Economics as an Independent and
Self-dependent Scientific Field 71
4.7.1From Political Economy to Economy as a
Specialized and Professionalized Scientific
Discipline 73
4.7.2A Scientific Revolution 74
4.7.3From Costs of Production and the Labour Theory
of Value to Conditions of Consumption and
Marginal Utility 77
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Contents xxi
4.7.4Marginal Utility as a Decisive and Irreducible
Analytical and Methodological Advance for
Economy According to Jevons 79
4.7.5The Generalization of the Neoclassical Approach
to Economics: Market Equilibrium According to
Walras 81
4.7.6A Major Turning Point 83
4.7.7Economics as a Science of Human Behaviour and
Interaction 85
4.7.8The Limits and Impotence of Politics: A New
Relationship Between Politics and Science 90
4.8The Establishment of the Science of Business Economics and
Administration 96
4.8.1The Adaption of the German Model of the
University in the United States and the
Professionalization of American Society 99
4.8.2Educating and Professionalizing the Manager102
4.8.3A Mutually Benefitting Arrangement107
4.8.4The Constitution of the Modern University-Based
Business School and the Establishment of Business
Studies108
4.8.5The Conception of the Human in Management
Science111
4.9New Fundamental Distinctions and Internal Relations123
4.9.1The Natural History of Human and Animal
Species123
4.9.2A Clear-cut Distinction Between Letters and
Science124
4.9.3From Moral Science of Man to Social Science and
Geisteswissenschaft124
4.9.4Clefts, Clashes and Competition Between Cultures126
4.10 Scientific Investigations of the Human128
4.10.1Academic Diversification as a Shift in Relation to
the Historical Heritage of the Human Sciences130
4.10.2The Human and Its Modes of Being as a Decisive
Addition and Perpetual Interstitial Point130
References137
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xxii
Contents
5 New
Overlaps and Reciprocities Between the Faculties147
5.1The Development of New Transversal and
Interdisciplinary Fields of Knowledge in the Period
Following the Second War148
5.2Knowledge Resituated148
5.2.1Knowledge Leaving the Ivory Tower149
5.2.2Knowledge as Performativity150
5.3New, Transversally Situated Forms of Science152
5.3.1The Emergence of Area Studies153
5.3.2The Appearance of Grand-Scale Problem-Solving
and Mission-Oriented Research154
5.3.3Triple-Helix Relations Between Academia-­
Industry-­Governmental Institutions154
5.3.4The Emergence of a Situated, Transversal Human
Science: Cultural Studies155
5.4Inter- and Transdisciplinarity158
5.5Trans- and Post-disciplinarity159
References162
6 The Contemporary Turn165
6.1The Contemporary Turn in the Organization of
Knowledge and Studies166
6.2A Problematization of the Division and Polarity Between
Faculties168
6.3A Problematization of the Modern Division Between the
Humane and the Inhumane172
6.4A Turn Beyond the Dichotomy of the Human and the
Inhuman174
6.5Scientific Humanities178
6.6A Human Turn in the History of Knowledge182
6.6.1The Reformation of the Humanities183
6.6.2A Productive Crisis185
References188
7 Whither
Goest Thou? The Present Predicament191
7.1A Genealogy of the Human Sciences192
7.2A Genealogically Based Diagnosis of the Present193
7.3
Establishing, Evaluating and Responding to a
Symptomatology196
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Contents xxiii
7.4The Will to Know as Play of Forces199
7.5The Will to Know as a Will to Power201
7.6The Will to Know as a Determinate Will to Power or
Self-Empowerment209
7.7The Hour of Human Beings?216
References223
References227
Index of Names and Places249
Index of Subjects and Concepts253
Index of Titles257
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List of Illustrations
Illustration 3.1
Illustration 3.2
The university of the Middle Ages. In artes liberales
(marked in red), human skills are taught as propaedeutic
or as a pre-schooling to the education in the subsequently
lucrative subjects and professions: medicine, law and
theology. As such, studia humanitatis played a
fundamental but still minor role as a means to other,
higher ends. This kind of organization of the relationship
between the forms of knowledge at the different faculties
can be found from the thirteenth century up until the
end of the eighteenth century. (Drawing by Sigrún
Gudbrandsdóttir)51
The Humboldtian university. The human sciences are
established as basic research. The previous hierarchy
between the faculties is turned on its head in so far as the
disciplines at the philosophy-humanities faculty are
determined as the sciences that especially incarnate
independent basic research. This independent research is
now seen as an activity that constitutes the unifying
element at the university. The specifically human abilities
to sense, cognize, reason and pass judgement, which
comprise a central and unifying prerequisite for the
possibility of science, are placed centrally, examined and
cultivated in the humanities at the faculty of philosophy.
The human takes on an overarching, fundamental and
unifying role for the university at the same time as the
humanities are given their modern form as the sciences in
which the human being seeks knowledge of itself. As
xxv
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xxvi
List of Illustrations
Illustration 4.1
Illustration 4.2
Illustration 4.3
Illustration 4.4
Illustration 5.1
human beings begin to play a crucial part, the humanities
take on a crucial position for the university and its
organization of knowledge. (Drawing by Sigrún
Gudbrandsdóttir)53
Scientific management. Human beings and the human
resource are conceived as external restraints on
productivity, the effect of which is to be minimized by
management. (Drawing by Hannah Heilmann)
117
Motivation theory. Understood as the primary source
of value creation, the human resource and human beings
are conceived as the decisive field of intervention and
the condition of possibility of management. (Drawing
by Hannah Heilmann)
122
The late 1800s. Throughout the 1800s, a number of
faculties are distilled from and marked themselves in
relation to the humanities and the human. Studia
humanitatis is no longer situated as a pre-study or
foundation of the other scientific areas. Rather, the
humanities receive the status of a peculiar knowledge
reserve that can be distinguished from, but also enter
into a competitive relation or an exchange with
other forms of knowledge. (Drawing by Sigrún
Gudbrandsdóttir)127
The human being of anthropology. The designation of
the universally human no longer constitutes the obvious
point of departure in the anthropological realm of
knowledge. Instead, anthropology is increasingly turned
towards and seeks knowledge about the human as it
appears and ‘asserts itself’ in relation to the surrounding
world—of and to which the former comprises a (or the)
decisive addition. (Drawing by Hannah Heilmann)
135
Development since the 1950s. While a number of new
independent disciplines and faculties of science were
established in the period ranging until the end of the
Second World War, university-based and -related science
continues to draw on these developments but
concurrently enters a new phase from the 1950s onwards.
Newly situated but also interdisciplinary and transversal
forms of knowledge and new overlaps between
the faculties are formed. (Drawing by Sigrún
Gudbrandsdóttir)160
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Illustration 6.1
List of Illustrations xxvii
The contemporary turn. With the contemporary turn,
human beings re-emerge as existentially diverse fields of
investigation. The study of these fields of investigation
may elucidate how human beings are affected by, relate
to and re-create various parts of the landscape. (Drawing
by Hannah Heilmann)
188
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Introduction: Survey of the main stages in
the history of the human sciences in the
modern university
Following the the methodological, epistemological and ontological examination in Chap. 1 and the discussion of the alleged crisis of the humanities
in Chap. 2, the ensuing investigation of the history of the human sciences
in the modern university since the turn of the nineteenth century in Chaps.
3, 4, 5, and 6 falls into four main parts.
The first main historical part of this study, ‘Chap. 3: The Historic
Constitution of the Modern University and Heritage of the Humanities’,
describes the decisive development towards the end of the eighteenth century and at the beginning of the nineteenth century. While the second
historical phase, described in the second historical part, ‘Chap. 4: The
Division Between the Different Sciences on the Uniquely Human and
New Branches of Science’, begins towards the end of the eighteenth century and ends towards the end of the nineteenth century, the third phase,
described in the third historical part, ‘Chap. 5: New Overlaps Between the
Faculties’, starts at this point and lasts until the interwar period. Starting
around the time of the Second World War, the fourth historical phase,
described in the fourth historical part, ‘Chap. 6: The Contemporary
Turn’, leads into the present. The following last part, ‘Chap. 7: Whither
goest thou? The Present Predicament’, discusses contemporary implications and conjectures that follow from the preceding investigation. In
addition, this chapter examines a new context for the reassertion of the
human sciences that has been established with the recognition that the
existence and effects of human beings have acquired a paramount importance for life on Earth.
xxix
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xxx
INTRODUCTION: SURVEY OF THE MAIN STAGES IN THE HISTORY…
Since the succeeding stages do not erase the preceding phases but add
to and graft upon what earlier came to pass, all stages continue to make
themselves felt today and to exert a decisive influence on the ways in which
knowledge is produced and understood, perceived and organized.
The historical examination in the first main historical part, ‘Chap. 3:
The Historic Constitution of the Modern University and Heritage of the
Humanities’, sets out by describing the major re-establishment and reorganization of Western knowledge institutions and disciplines that laid the
foundations of the modern university roughly 200 years ago. With the
establishment of the Humboldtian university at the turn of the nineteenth
century, the human sciences, for the first time in history, assume their
modern shape and become recognizable as what is conceived as humanities today. Concomitantly, the retrieval of knowledge concerning the
human and its development, a core and defining issue for the disciplines
located at the philosophical faculty or the faculty of arts, is granted a central and unifying role for the university in general, as well as the understanding and organization of knowledge it incorporates. Within this
organization, the philosophical faculty and the study and cultivation of the
distinctively human is given a decisive and unifying role for science and for
the knowledge production of the university as a whole.
From this outset, the remaining parts of the study articulate the development of the organization of knowledge and its central disciplines up to
the present. Focusing on the development of the human sciences and the
establishment of knowledge of the human, the study describes the decisive
changes and major phases in the history of the humanities following their
modern constitution.
Since the point in time where the acquisition of knowledge concerning
the essentially human, as well as the latter’s refinement and cultivation,
acquired an over-arching role and assumed a crucial position for the organization of the modern university, a decisive and dynamic development of
the university has taken place. While being most productive, this development has also decisively questioned the initial organization of the university and the classical heritage of the humanities.
The second part, ‘Chap. 4: The Division Between the Different Sciences
on the Uniquely Human and New Branches of Science’, examines how
the Humboldtian university model and the decisive role of the humanities
permitted an ongoing and growing establishment of new specialized disciplines and subject areas which continually challenged the initial organization. During the course of the nineteenth century, a number of new
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INTRODUCTION: SURVEY OF THE MAIN STAGES IN THE HISTORY…
xxxi
disciplines and faculties, such as the natural sciences, the life and health
sciences, the social sciences and the sciences of business economy and
administration, began to establish themselves and assert their independence from the faculty of arts, also frequently denominated the philosophy faculty. Often originating in the faculty of arts but also establishing
alternative faculties, these disciplines began to offer all sorts of specific
empirical and pragmatic forms of knowledge and know-how.
In so far as they investigate human behaviour and the modes of being
of human beings, these emerging disciplines also offer empirical and pragmatic knowledge that add to and may begin to compete with the knowledge and mapping of the human provided by the traditional humanities.
A result of this development is the establishment of a new, clear-cut distinction between letters and science and the conception of the humanities
as a distinct activity in the shape of ‘Geisteswissenschaft’. The separation
and increasing disconnection between forms of knowledge that concern
themselves with nature and culture leads to not only subsequent interaction and competition but also confrontation and clashes between scientific
cultures and may thus also spur science wars. If the humanities are to
assert themselves in this competitive environment, however, they can
hardly remain self-centred and ignore and dismiss these ‘new-fangled’,
important corpora of knowledge and their implications but are rather
forced to study, relate to and interact with them. Relating to this cleft and
measuring up to the challenge presented by the corpora of knowledge
established by the alternative disciplines has remained a challenge for the
humanities since then.
As a result of this development from the mid-nineteenth century to the
mid-twentieth century, a relatively clear and widely accepted division
between faculties and differing types of knowledge is established. Since the
Second World War, however, these divisions have been decisively questioned, as described in the third part, ‘Chap. 5: New Overlaps and
Reciprocities Between the Faculties’. While the university institution and
the forms of knowledge connected to it expand drastically, the conception
of knowledge is concurrently altered. To an increasing extent, knowledge
is produced and perceived as a form of know-how of considerable relevance for the surrounding society. Whereas the withdrawal to the purely
and emphatically human space of the ivory tower, where human cognition
could be intensively developed in isolation from the rest of the (social and
lucrative) world, was still highly appreciated and positively connotated in
Humboldt’s time, the expression ‘ivory tower’ gains a predominantly
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xxxii
INTRODUCTION: SURVEY OF THE MAIN STAGES IN THE HISTORY…
pejorative connotation during the twentieth century. Concomitantly,
knowledge is increasingly understood and evaluated in terms of performativity as know-how that enables to do or to produce something new.
Coincidentally with this development, new forms of transversal, situated and interdisciplinary scholarly knowledge are established. Among
these emerging transversal disciplines of science are area studies. With cultural studies, however, newly situated and interdisciplinary forms of science equally emerge within the human sciences themselves. Questioning
and traversing the divisions between the faculties of science, these new
forms of scientific knowledge and a number of similar fields at the same
time affirm the fact that they are situated within specific larger contexts
and assert themselves as contributions to their environment. In the time
that has passed since the Second World War, thus, a number of scientific
disciplines emerge that establish and build up a decisively different relationship between not only the scientific faculties but also science and its
objects, as well as between human earthlings and their surroundings.
Making use of the analysis of the historical backdrop established in the
four preceding main parts, the fourth historical part, ‘Chap. 6: The
Contemporary Turn’, examines the contemporary organization of knowledge. The fourth part also specifies how all the historical layers previously
described do not belong in the distant past but are very much present and
still exert a significant influence.
At the same time, a new remarkable turn makes itself felt today. Drawing
on discussions in contemporary science studies, in particular outlined by
Bruno Latour, Chap. 6 describes how the unbridgeable gulf between the
human and the non-human, man and nature, established in modernity
and acknowledged as crucial for the organization of knowledge with the
foundation of the modern university, has become increasingly questioned.
In parallel, the divisions between scientific faculties and disciplines are
being increasingly questioned. This questioning of the divisions that have
so far been taken for granted does not entail a disappearance or dissolution
of the human and the human sciences; but neither does it entail that the
study of human existence has become irrelevant, a pastime or even a waste
of time. Quite the contrary. It leads to the emergence of types of scientific
knowledge studying and mapping different forms of situated human existence, even as it leads to the redistribution of the humanities and situated
forms of human existence of decisive importance.
Reflecting on the outcome of the genealogical and methodological
investigation of the history of the human sciences in the modern university
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INTRODUCTION: SURVEY OF THE MAIN STAGES IN THE HISTORY…
xxxiii
presented in the monograph, ‘Chap. 7: Whither Goest Thou? The Present
Predicament’ articulates important implications of the examination. In
addition, the part draws the outline of a decisively new setting for the
assertion and reassertion of the human sciences that has been established
with the widespread recognition that the existence of human beings and
the effects of human existence have acquired a vital importance not only
for human beings but for life on Earth in general. The turn towards human
beings is a decisive factor on Earth and sets a new agenda, not only for
humans but also for the sciences in general and for the human sciences in
particular. More specifically, this setting implies that the traditional field of
investigation for the human sciences has become crucially important. The
human sciences investigate a field that has become a major factor for the
world at large.
Considered in its contemporary setting and in prolongation of the
long-standing historical development that will be described in this study,
the presently experienced and emphasized crisis of the humanities is to be
considered a decisive turning point. Contrary to common perception,
however, it is not to be conceived as a critical and acute experience, as if
the humanities and the human sciences have become superfluous and are
threatened with extinction. Quite the opposite. The presently experienced
predicament is to a large extent the logical outcome of a longstanding and
productive crisis that has lasted for more than 200 years and has been
continuously unfolding since the modern university was established and
the human sciences were constituted in a form still recognizable today. It
is an ongoing process of adaption and innovation in which the humanities
and the human sciences have played a vital and most productive part.
Accordingly, it is reasonable to expect that they will be able to play an
active part and make significant contributions as they are presently forced
to face and contend with new turning points of vital importance while
they are being drawn into an unknown future and helping co-constitute a
time that is still to come.
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CHAPTER 1
An Agenda-Setting History
Abstract Following the survey of the book and the main historical stages of
the history of the human sciences in the modern university outlined in the
preface and the introduction, the chapter articulates the main analytical,
methodological, epistemological or ontological tenets that this alternative
history builds upon. In keeping with the driving ambition to write a new
history that highlights their productive character and influence, the study
follows the trace of agenda-setting major contributions to the human sciences. In continuation hereof, the study understands the epistemic tradition
of the human sciences as established through an ongoing and open-ended
series of prescriptive and normative events permeated by a virtuality that
constantly gives rise to dispositions that previously did not exist. The
approach applied also implies that the study understands and articulates
cognation and knowledge as activities that have decisive normative and performative effects. As articulated in this study, the ongoing productive crisis
of the human sciences is to be perceived as an enduring and unending transcending and norm-setting undertaking resulting in the establishment of
new, irreducible modes of science and conceptions of scientificity that continuously create and vindicate new conditions of assertability for knowledge.
To depict this continuing establishment of new modes of science and
scientificity, the study takes the form of a transversal investigation that
aims to trace the transcending and norm-setting cognitive activity as it
moves across borders, where the baton is picked up from previous
Switzerland AG 2024
S. Raffnsøe, A History of the Humanities in the Modern University,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46533-8_1
1
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2
S. RAFFNSØE
inventive activity and passed on to the next generation. The study of cognition and knowledge as normating activities presented here differs decisively from more traditional and well-established accounts of the history
and contributions of the human sciences, in particular those that portray
them either as containing an inherited value in themselves or as a primarily
problem-solving cognitive activity. In this manner, the study depicts the
tradition of the human sciences as a precious heritage that is not preceded
by any kind of testament and is thus in need of constant reinterpretation.
To be able to follow and cover the normative, unveiling and agendasetting movement fraught with consequences in its full breadth and complexity, the study adheres to a wide and inclusive understanding of the
human sciences as the sciences that distinguish themselves by researching
and producing knowledge concerning human affairs. By contrast, the
study also uses the nomination ‘humanities’ to designate a demarcation
that is more exclusive and narrow in scope in so far as it refers to the parts
of the human sciences that are devoted to studying and cultivating the
particularly, specifically and emphatically human.
Keywords Human sciences • Humanities • University • Crisis
• Prescription • Normation • The virtual • Dispositions • Performative
agency • Heritage • Truth • Cognition • Science • Arendt • Aristotle
• Bod • Butler • Char • Clark • Deleuze • Derrida • Descartes
• Foucault • Heidegger • Humboldt • Kant • Kuhn • Latour
• Leibniz • Massumi • Nietzsche • Nussbaum • Plato
In consequence of the driving ambition to write a new and alternative history of the human sciences from the time they assume their modern shape
that highlights their productive and agenda-setting character, as well as
their profound significance for the university broadly speaking and
momentous influence within the larger landscape of the sciences, the present study goes beyond a detailed complete and mere empirical and factual
examination of the evolution of a particular branch of the sciences located
and confined within a given particular historical and geographical setting.
While remaining committed to the investigation and rendering of historical and empirical developments and their implications, this study is something of a reverse kind that differs from those that claim to give an in-depth,
full and adequate representation of a limited segment of reality.
The present study is a history that follows the lead of a specific kind of
tradition: the tradition of agenda-setting behaviour originating within a
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1
AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
3
specific context and responding to limiting conditions while also transcending these in normating and agenda-setting ways. The kind of agenda-­
setting behaviour examined here is not understood and examined as
constituting events that form outstanding exceptions from custom practice. Rather, agenda-setting and normative behaviour is transmitted or
handed over as it, in turn, is followed by similar transcending and agenda-­
setting behaviour.
Taking as its starting point a seminal event in history where the university is refounded and the modern university is established in a form that
assigns the role of the centrepiece to the human sciences, the monograph
aims to search out and articulate similarly decisive events in the history of
the university and the sciences that stand out in so far as they pick up,
explore and articulate the heritage of this initial decisive event yet add new
crucial twists and turns that are fraught with consequences for the role,
position and the practice of the human sciences henceforward.
In and through this ongoing agenda-setting behaviour, new forms and
conceptions of science emerge in response to certain specific contexts in
such a manner that they transcend these specific contexts and set the
agenda for subsequent scientific interaction and discussions of scientific
rationality. In turn, scientific interaction responds actively to these new
conditions in new normative ways.
Consequently, the focal point of the study is not the rendering or exposition of a reality in the usual sense of the word. The study does not primarily concern itself with what has actually happened at a particular time
and with we have actually done, because its object of orientation is quite
another. It is not primarily interested in a certain reality but in a far more
meaningful and important antecedent level of investigation. In and
through an examination of what has happened, the objective is to delineate the coming into being of—or the emergence and the evolution of—a
level that always seems already to have had an effect upon, and to have
formed, a reality before it has emerged.1
1
In keeping with the overall focus on agenda-setting and norm-setting contributions, references in this study will generally be to path-breaking works in the language in which they
were originally published. This will also permit the recording and recognition of the time,
place and setting of the initial normative and agenda-setting event. For a number of important publications not originally published in the English language, however, English translations and references will also be provided. This will indicate the works and translations that
have become standard. The established translations will be emended in the cases where this
seems justified in so far as the translation has a significant bearing on the understanding of
the text and the overall bearing of the argument.
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S. RAFFNSØE
1.1 The Level of Prescription and Normation
The study is concerned with and follows the emergence of a level of prescription or normation.2 It articulates a level upon which guidelines are
established for how one can emerge, become and inscribe indelible traces,
or leave a mark. This prescriptive level is here given precedence over the
real, in so far as the real is just understood as that which is simply the case.
The prescriptive level is important because it has had and still has a determining effect not only on what exists but also on what one can imagine as
possible and, therefore, equally on what may come into being and exist;
that is, on being in the broadest sense. Not only is the prescriptive here
given precedence over the actual; it is seen as more important than the
existing. The prescriptive has already played a guiding or piloting role as
soon as the real can be known as an object of knowledge, as soon as one
can imagine the possible as something that might happen, as soon as one
can point out the potentially realizable as something one can hope for or
act in order to bring about, and even—perhaps—as soon as one postulates
a way of being for the being (a certain ontology), beyond the known, the
projected and the initiated. At the same time, it has a prescriptive effect on
how it is that all that is to come into being subsequently will have to
emerge.3
In the context of the approach and analysis practised in this book, the
refoundation of the university around 1800, and the establishment of the
modern university in a form that assigns the role of the centrepiece to the
human sciences, is consequently not only to be perceived as a simple and
actual historical fact. Instead, it takes the form of a decisive historical and
prescriptive event. This decisive prescriptive event is not only historical in
the sense that it is an incident or a deed that initiates a break with the past
and clears new ground by creating a new opening regrounding historical
existence and making it enter a new state.4 Picking up and reinterpreting
2
Cf. Raffnsøe (2002/2020): Sameksistens uden common sense. En elliptisk arabesk. Volume
I–III, and of this in particular the part published independently in English as Raffnsøe
(2002): ‘English Summary’.
3
Raffnsøe (2002/2020): Sameksistens uden common sense. En elliptisk arabesk. Volume
I-III. A full English translation of the dissertation originally defended in 2002 is forthcoming in 2023–24 under the title Co-existence without Common Sense. An elliptical Arabesque.
Cf. also Raffnsøe (2003): ‘The Rise of the Network Society’, pp. 8–9.
4
Cf. also Heidegger (1980): ‘Der Ursprung des Kunstwerkes’ on the normative event
(‘Ereignis’) as an unveilment and effectuation of truth, pp. 48, 70–71.
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1
AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
5
already existing traces, this decisive event spins the threads left behind by
anterior incidents and weaves them into a new fabric.5 In this manner, the
event that will subsequently unfurl lays down normative guidelines for
what will subsequently seem feasible and possible. Re-establishing the university and its fabric, this refounding act not only exerts a determining
normative influence on what can consequently actually happen at the reorganized university; it equally exerts a far-reaching effect on what can be
thought of, imagined and suggested.
Even though the level of prescription examined in its emergence in this
study does exert a decisive influence, it does not, however, determine subsequent developments completely or entirely. If this were the case, subsequent incidents and advancements would be reducible to and become
explicable as mere expressions of an initial and original event. That this
does not apply will become more evident as the reader works his or her
way through the ensuing chapters describing subsequent historical phases.
While the emergence of forms of scientific rationalities that are subsequently developed are evidently conditioned and decisively affected by
what has happened before, they remain irreducible offspring that are
grafted upon the previously existing in such a manner that they add new
previously unforeseeable twists and turns.
In the present study, the development of the human sciences and the
university is consequently not understood as an unfolding that recognizes
and clarifies what has been previously established. Whereas the subsequent
events in the wider history of the human sciences can be said to articulate
a plot that was to some extent already hatched in the preceding events,
subsequent events are to be perceived as repetitions that reiterate and
duplicate earlier events, but precisely by taking and reinterpreting them in
certain ways, by taking them to the next irreducible level.
As Deleuze stresses in Difference and Repetition, even to repeat is not
only to behave or to conduct oneself in such a manner that what has happened occurs again. When doing the same thing again, one equally establishes a relation to something singular or unique which has no equal or
According to Plato’s Statesman, a basic political act is performed by the statesman when
he proves capable of weaving a coherent fabric out of the complexity of already existing
threads and wool, raw material provided by, in particular, shepherds, the practitioners of a
kindred but distinct art, shepherding. This kind of politico-historical act seems particularly
required and agenda-setting in a context marked by diversity and strife. Cf. Plato (1995):
Statesman, 277d-287b & Brondell (2017): ‘The Politics of Weaving in Plato’s Statesman’.
5
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S. RAFFNSØE
equivalent while concomitantly altering or modifying it. As an external
conduct or reperformance, repetition does not echo the preceding event
as such. Instead, the former reflects an already existing vibration or internal repetition which animates the latter. To press home this point, Deleuze
indicates that it is the apparent paradox of festivals that they repeat what is
impossible to begin and do again [‘irrecommençable’], what is unrepeatable and what can only be repeated with a difference. Accordingly, the
following celebrations do not just add a second or a third time to the first
but rather take the first level to the next levels or ‘carry the first time to the
“nth” power’.6 If one follows this lead, this study of the history of the
human sciences and the university could also be characterized as the story
of an ongoing festival or an organized series of celebrations. During the
festival, the participants commemorate and celebrate the historical and
prescriptive event that founded the festival and what animated this event,
as well as similar decisive subsequent events; but they do so precisely by
constantly taking these earlier events to the next new irreducible normative level. If one follows this ongoing repetitive festival closely, it becomes
evident that repetition ‘is against the similar form and content of the law’,
that it ‘expresses […] an eternity against permanence’, that in every
respect, the repetition is transgression’.7 In this sense, the history of the
human sciences in the new university is also the story of a reiterated new
normative beginning, a recommencement that repeats the previously
occurring significant events in new ways. This celebration commemorates
initial and initiating events as they proved significant.
Thus, the history of the human sciences in its wider context is to be
understood and analysed as an ongoing and open-ended series of reiterated normative events. It is a history marked by the historicity of an enduring normation or a persistent prescriptive eventalization. This enduring
normating eventalization is also to be perceived as an ongoing prescriptive
self-affirmation that is also untimely in the sense that it is oriented against
6
Deleuze (1981): Différence et répétition, p. 8/Deleuze (1994): Difference and
Repetition, p. 1.
7
Deleuze (1981): Différence et répétition, p. 9/Deleuze (1994): Difference and Repetition,
pp. 2–3.
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AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
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the time in which it partakes and acting for the benefit of a time that is yet
still to come.8
Thus, the history articulated in this account of the development of the
human sciences in the modern university is a history consisting of definite
normative ‘somewhens’ bringing about sea changes into something rich
and strange. Even when faced with the sling and arrows of outrageous
fortune and taking arms against a sea of troubles, the human sciences
prove capable to oppose and end them by transcending them and taking
them and the human to a new, previously inexistent and unpredictable
normative level of existence and cognition, still out of joint with itself as it
reaches not only backward towards what has been left behind but also
forward towards what is arriving.
1.2 The Level of the Virtual
When focusing on, following and articulating the emergence of new-­
fangled binding prescription, the study consequently devotes itself to and
focuses on a very real aspect of the world: the virtual.9 The virtual as it is
understood by Deleuze and others does not present itself in the form of a
certain Heideggerian ‘whatness’10 or exist in a Derridian intimate pure
present.11 Instead, ‘the virtual’ refers to that which makes itself felt as
something that acts in and through the present considered as a
Vorhandenheit, as something at hand.12 Affecting the present at hand in
such a manner that it effects a change and a transformation constituting a
8
In the preface to his second untimely meditation, Nietzsche argues the point that if ‘the
classical philosophy of his time’ and he as a classical philologist were to have a sense, it would
be necessary to work against contemporary conceptions of philology as cognition towering
above time and thus precisely work against his time and be untimely. Only in this way, philology and the philologist would be able to act on, have an impact on and effect, and act ‘let us
hope, for the benefit of a time to come—’. For Nietzsche, classical philology would only have
a sense in his time to the extent that it were ‘untimely [unzeitgemäss]’. Only by ‘working
against time [gegen die Zeit] and in this way in and on time [auf die Zeit]’ could classical
philology ‘hope to work for a time to come [zu Gunsten einer kommenden Zeit]’ (Nietzsche
(1876/1999): Unzeitgemässe Betrachtungen. Zweites Stück: Vom Nutzen und Nachtheil der
Historie für das Leben, p. 247).
9
Deleuze (1991): Bergsonism, pp. 42–43, 81 & Deleuze (1996): ‘L’actuel et le virtuel’.
10
Heidegger (1947): Platons Lehre von der Wahrheit & Heidegger (1980): ‘Die Zeit des
Weltbildes’.
11
Derrida (1967): De la grammatologie & Derrida (1972): ‘Ousia et Grammè’.
12
Heidegger (1927/1979): Sein und Zeit, §43c.
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S. RAFFNSØE
new state, the virtual ‘is more apparitional than empirical’13 as it exceeds
what was previously established and forces a new binding level to
materialize.
The virtual is not to be conceived of as the possible, but as that which
effects and is felt through its effects. The virtual is developed through, and
works in, the present as a substance or as a being and a force [virtus] that
is operative within it.14 The virtual is a ‘coming into being, registering as
becoming’.15 This force constitutes the genetic condition of real experience as it continually modifies the given and forces it to reshape.16 Giving
impetus to the present, the virtual not only sets it in motion; the virtual
causes the given to unfold itself to the effect that it transcends itself, further developing in certain determinate directions. As an ‘outside coming
in’17 the virtual makes itself felt when certain trends are coming into force.
The virtual acts and makes itself felt as a normative influence that predisposes social reality to further develop in certain directions.
In the history articulated in this study, each event taking the previous
to a new normative level is thus also to be understood as the effect of a
virtual coming in affecting the previously existing in such a manner that it
effects a change, transforms it and makes it reappear at an unpredictable
and irreducible normative and prescriptive level that previously did not
exist. Most plainly, with the refounding of the modern university more
than 200 years ago, the effects of an irreducible and non-controllable outside coming in appeared and made themselves felt as they took historical
development to a new normative level. Yet, the effects of arduous working
of the virtual equally appear not only at every major twist and turn of the
history described here but also in the continuous deferral in the time
in-between.18
In this book, the continuously present dynamical and apparitional
mode of the virtual is considered as constitutional for reality at hand that
Massumi (2002): Parables for the virtual, p. 135.
Leibniz (1969): Vernunftprinzipien der Natur und der Gnade: Monadologie, pp. 26–27.
15
Massumi (2002): Parables for the virtual, p. 135.
16
Deleuze (1991): Bergsonism.
17
Massumi (2002): Parables for the virtual, p. 135.
18
Concerning an articulation of a continuous but not totally undetermined deferral, please
also confer Derrida (1967): De la grammatologie and Derrida (1972): ‘La différance’. On a
related ‘essential parasitizing which opens every system to its outside and divides the unity of
the line [trait] which purports to mark its edges [qui pretend le border]’ and contain it, cf.
Derrida (1972): La vérité en peinture, p. 10.
13
14
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AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
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only serves as the starting point of the investigation. Without the existence
and the ongoing influence of the virtual, an actual present would not be
present and develop. Consequently, it would not be understandable and
possible to examine. In this sense, the level of the virtual and its ongoing
workings can be said to form a crucial level of investigation of the book.
At the same time, however, the continuous workings of the virtual are
examined to determine how they effect new levels of dispositions.
1.3 The Prescriptive Effects
of Dispositional Arrangements
The prescriptive level appearing in and through the actualization of the
virtual is important because it establishes dispositions; that is, propensities
for doing something or tendencies or liabilities for something to happen.19
The agenda-setting activities examined here generate a level of prescription that has come into being through a series of individual prescriptive
actions and occurrences. Subsequently, these prescriptive actions and
occurrences establish patterns of conduct that exert a determining influence, yet these orders and regulate conduct without determining it
completely.20
Dispositional arrangements exert a structuring that works by virtue of
the fact that they have effects on the ways in which one relates to others
and oneself. The level of dispositions is not a causally and exhaustively
determining plane. Rather, the level of dispositions merely points to a
general tendency or trend. Still, the agenda-setting activity that establishes
the level of the dispositional has a critical influence in that it outlines the
way of relating to that which has been implemented in the concrete
Raffnsøe (2013): ‘Beyond Rule; Trust and Power as Capacities’, pp. 248–249.
Whereas the force and the crucial role of dispositions tend to be overlooked, it is at closer
inspection not exceptional to enter, be and operate on the plane of dispositions. When trying
to enact and understand interaction, one in fact implicitly resorts to this level of perception
and articulation far more than commonly realized. For example, Gilbert Ryle draws attention
to the fact that ‘a number of the words that we commonly used to describe and explain
people’s behaviour signify dispositions and not episodes’ (Ryle (1966): The Concept of Mind,
p. 112). According to Ryle, to say that a person knows something is not to say that he is in
a particular state, but that he is able to perform certain things, if need be. Moreover, Ryle
argues that we use such terms for characterizing a wide range of objects from atoms and matter to animals and human beings, as we are ‘constantly wanting to talk about what can be
relied on to happen as well as to talk about what is actually happening’ (Ryle (1966): The
Concept of Mind, p. 112).
19
20
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S. RAFFNSØE
historical situation; that is, the way the situation has been dealt with, coped
with, or assimilated by its being related to prescriptively; and the conduct
conducts conduct in the sense that the ways of behaving that have proved
possible set an example for how one can conduct oneself in the future. It
makes a certain range of not fully predefined outcomes more likely than
others.21
With the historic constitution of the modern university a new set of
dispositions are established that exert a normative influence not only on
what can receive consideration as valid knowledge but also on the relationship between the faculties and various kinds of knowledge at the university. The same goes for each subsequent major transition as they are
described in this study. By and through the number of individual actions
that collectively end up constituting the modern university a new dispositional arrangement is established that exerts a decisive influence on subsequent acts, developments and arrangements, yet without determining
them completely. In and through the number of subsequent actions something new and partially deviant is grafted upon the earlier construction
that articulates a previously unarticulated virtuality and makes the dispositional arrangement develop in new directions.
1.4 The Dispositional Influence
of Performative Effects
Since the agenda-setting activities examined here generate a level of
prescription that is established through a series of individual prescriptive
actions and subsequently has a determining dispositional influence that
orders without determining completely, these activities have performative
effects in the form highlighted by Judith Butler in the context of her
analysis of performative agency and performative effects.22 To the extent
that agency and action have performative effects, they make certain things
21
Cf. also the elucidation of dispositional analysis as an examination of normative influence
coming into being as actors act upon the action of others, as an investigation of the exercise
of power analysed as a mode of action upon actions (‘power through’ rather than ‘power
over’), and as an exploration of the conduct of conduct in Raffnsøe et al. (2016): ‘Foucault’s
dispositive: The perspicacity of dispositive analytics in organizational research’. Concerning
the conception of power as ‘power to’ and ‘power through’, and in contradistinction to
‘power over’ and control, cf. also Raffnsøe (2013): ‘Beyond Rule; Trust and Power as
Capacities’, as well as Raffnsøe et al. (2019): ‘The Foucault Effect in Organization Studies’.
22
Butler (2010): ‘Performative Agency’, p. 152.
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AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
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happen beyond their initial scope. The fact that something or somebody
manages to do or perform something with what they do does not imply
that performativity actually ‘works’ in the sense that actions and agency
fully achieve their effects or that they in and by themselves actually manage
to efficiently construct reality.
In so far as performative agency and the possibility of having performative effects depend on an irreducible external reality, the ‘assumption of
the ‘sovereign’ speaker is lost’ and ‘agency itself is dispersed’.23 The possibility of disruption, failure and even breakdown of the initial intention,
act or construction is constitutive to all performative or reperformative
events since their very performativity depends on the way in which they
affect consecutive occurrences, while they only have a chance of succeeding if they are consecutively taken up in not necessarily foreseeable ways.
As a consequence, performative effects are only produced on the condition that the earlier operation of performativity may fail in so far as it never
fully achieves its effect and is thus inefficacious. Since performativity never
fully achieves a direct effect due to this inefficacy and deviation in the
transference of bodily acts and speech acts,24 a reiteration of performative
effects is constantly necessitated. The performative agency of the prescriptive activity analysed here is not one where the initial actors remain in
control, but one in which agency is dispersed. This agency only achieves
an effect if its performative agency is constantly established anew through
an active reiteration, which also entails the possibility of a constant
­deviation. An unavoidable condition for performative agency and producing an effect is thus the surplus and irreducibility of performative effects.25
As this book articulates, the heritage of the human sciences that has
unfolded since the beginning of the nineteenth century is established in
and through an ongoing normating activity in which agenda-setting
events continually appear and graft themselves onto preceding already-­
existing events in such a manner that these are refracted and new unforeseen effects appear. Due to the interplay between the agenda-setting
events, they lead above and beyond the intentions of the individual contributors and establish new dispositional arrangements that in turn have a
Butler (2010): ‘Performative Agency’, p. 151.
Butler (2004): Undoing Gender, pp. 198–99.
25
Concerning the ideas of ‘performative agency’, ‘immanent causes’ and ‘performative
effects’, as well as the conception of effects as waves, cf. also Raffnsøe et al. (2019): ‘The
Foucault Effect in Organization Studies’, in particular pp. 157–158.
23
24
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S. RAFFNSØE
determining influence on what can subsequently be suggested as possible
knowledge. In retrospect, these seem to articulate and make explicit what
can, in the first instance, only be said to be virtually rather than actually
present. In and through a continuous reinterpretation of the foregoing
development, new and irreducible forms of scientificity appear that can
then distend and spread as waves over a wider surface.26
1.5 Cognation as Normation
In prolongation hereof, the present study can also be said to examine the
history of knowledge to find that there is also something altogether different behind its products of cognition, its perceptions and representations,
viz. a historicity of knowledge behind its metaphysics that precedes and
acts in and through the latter. This historicity of knowledge is so loaded,
foreign, opaque and irreducible to the metaphysics and the result of the
production of knowledge that knowledge must be understood as the
result of a complex operation of performative agency. As an outcome of
performative agency, knowledge appears, is vindicated and accepted in an
interplay where something different from cognition and knowledge in a
limited intellectual sense is also decisively involved.27
When in §333 of The Gay Science Nietzsche seeks to examine the question concerning what it means to know or cognate,28 he initially takes refuge
in Spinoza’s adage ‘non ridere, non lugere, neque detestari, sed intelligere
(not to mock, lament, or execrate, but to understand)!’ While at once
appreciatingly and teasingly commenting here that Spinoza is expressing
himself ‘as simply and sublimely as is his wont’, Nietzsche also immediately
counters: ‘What else is this intelligere in the last analysis than the form in
which we come to feel the other three at once?’, or ‘a certain relation of these
impulses to one another [ein gewisses Verhalten der Triebe zu einander]’ in
which they ‘struggle with one another’ and ‘understand rightly how to
make themselves felt by one another’. In consequence, Nietzsche suggests
that when we seek to understand, know or cognate, there is ‘perhaps in our
26
Cf. Raffnsøe et al. (2019): ‘The Foucault Effect in Organization Studies’, in particular p. 157.
27
Foucault (2013): Lectures on the Will to Know. Lectures at the College de France
1970–1971, p. 203. Concerning further articulation of this kind of history, see also Foucault
(1977): ‘Nietzsche, genealogy, history’, and Raffnsøe (2007): Nietzsches ‘Genealogie
der Moral’.
28
The headline of the paragraph is ‘Was heisst erkennen’ (Nietzsche 1882–1887/1999):
Die fröhliche Wissenschaft, p. 558 (§333).
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AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
13
struggling interior’ much concealed heroism but certainly nothing divine, or
eternally-reposing-in-itself, as Spinoza supposed’.29
In accordance with this comprehensive understanding of knowledge, the
account of the development of the sciences and the human sciences since
the establishment of the modern university given here runs counter to an
understanding of knowledge and cognition that has played a major and even
dominating role in occidental civilization since classical Greco-­
Roman
Antiquity. This is a conception of cognition as an intuition or a beholding of
what is the case. The outcome of an unconditioned curiosity or desire to
know in itself, this cognition is supposed to be unrelated to and take us over
and above the level of action and interaction, sometimes to the extent that
the state of knowledge may even run counter to and inhibit action.
The conception of knowledge is markedly present in Aristotle, a philosopher whose work not only had a decisive influence in Antiquity but also,
from the Middle Ages, Renaissance and onwards, played a leading role in
Western civilization. An early and agenda-setting instantiation of this conception of knowledge is the opening paragraph of Aristotle’s book on metaphysics. Here, the writer who already during the European Middle Ages
came to be characterized as ‘the philosopher’ asserts that ‘all men according
to their nature [physis] have a desire to know. An indication of this is our
esteem for the senses; for apart from their use, we esteem them for their own
sake, and most of all the sense of sight. Not only with a view to action, but
even when no action is contemplated, we prefer sight, generally speaking, to
all the other senses. The reason of this is that of all the senses sights best
helps us to know things, and reveals many distinctions.’30 In On
Interpretation, Aristotle seems to subscribe to a conception of knowledge
and understanding as an intuition of representation or likeness in so far as he
claims that ‘the mental affections themselves, of which […] words are primarily signs, are the same for the whole of mankind, as are also the objects
[pragmata] of which those affections are ‘representations or likenesses
[homoiomata], images, copies’.31 Aristotle himself has also been regarded as
the founder of modern philosophy and knowledge production. In Leçons
sur La volonté de savoir. Cours au Collège de France. 1970–1971, Foucault
underlines how this seemingly liminal passage in Aristotle’s text came
to form a ‘philosophical operator’ occupying a crucial and performative
29
Nietzsche (1882–1887/1999): Die fröhliche Wissenschaft, pp. 558–559 (§333) (italicization in Nietsche’s original text).
30
Aristotle (1933): Metaphysics. Books I–IX, 980 a 22, p. 3 (translation modified by me).
31
Aristotle (2002): On Interpretation, 16a3, pp. 114–115.
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S. RAFFNSØE
position for an entire ensuing system. Forming the point of origin for an
entire system of philosophical and epistemological discourse in the Western
societies, Aristotle’s text concerns the possibility and justification for the
entire ensuing system of cognition. According to Foucault, the passage
forms a central episode ‘of a certain will to know peculiar to our civilization’.32
This conception of knowledge still plays an overriding role in Descartes’
thought, of course, in so far as the idea of knowledge as evidence and intuition that should be given to conscience without any reasonable doubt here
exerts a determining and overarching normative influence. In an early, posthumously published, treatise on scientific method, Descartes subscribes to
the conception of knowledge as intuition when he states that ‘truth or falsity
in the true sense of the terms can only be given in the intellect [veritatem
proprie vel falsifitatem non nisi in solo intellectu esse posse]’.33 However, the
conversion to knowledge in this form is already detectable in Plato’s work.34
32
Foucault (2011): Leçons sur la volonté de savoir, pp. 5–6/Foucault (2013): Lectures on the
Will to Know. Lectures at the Collège de France 1970–1971 and Oedipal Knowledge, p. 4.
33
Descartes (1637/1976): Discours de la méthode & Descartes (1647/1979): Méditations
métaphysiques. Descartes (1628/1966): Regulae ad directionem ingenii, p. 396 (Regula VIII).
The dominating influence of the idea of cognition as intuition and self-evidence, the establishment of a theoretical relationship to the world as constitutive for the modern subject and
the idea of philosophy and knowledge as a primary intellectual activity aiming at the discovery of propositional and systematic knowledge are further developed in Raffnsøe et al.
(2018): ‘Philosophical Practice as Self-modification: An Essay on Michel Foucault’s Critical
Engagement with Philosophy’, in particular pp. 42–43. However, in so far as this theoretical
conception of knowledge competes and interacts with an idea of knowledge as meditation
and self-modification, it is far from hegemonic in Descartes’ text, as I also make sure to stress
elsewhere in the article.
34
In Heidegger (1947/1976): Platons Lehre von der Wahrkeit, the German philosopher
detects a decisive ‘turn [Wendung] in the determination of the essence or mode of being of
truth [Bestimmung des Wesens der Wahrheit]’ (p. 5) that conditions what will subsequently be
regarded as scientific and propositional knowledge. Even though it, according to Heidegger,
remains unsaid in what Plato’s thought directly says, this turn or transition can be clarified
through an interpretation of his ‘allegory of the cave’ (Plato (2013): Republic, 514a–520a).
While truth in accordance with the etymology of the Greek word for truth ‘aletheia’ is at
first conceived as ‘unhiddenness’ and ‘unveilment’, and truth in this manner is thus as understood as a fundamental trait of beings in themselves in the sense that they can shine forth and
unveil themselves while also partly hide themselves and affect human beings in this capacity,
the nature and conception increasingly changes during the journey of formation and education [paidaia or Bildung] described in the allegory of the cave. As human beings are invited
to raise and turned around in order for them to be lead beyond the initial perception of mere
shadows and appearances in the cave and towards the contemplation of ideas in pure daylight, truth comes to be understood as the correct observation or intuition of something
already present, as adequate representation or rendering homoiosis (Heidegger (1947/1976):
Platons Lehre von der Wahrheit, pp. 43–44).
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While the conception of knowledge as adequate representation of
what is the case has remained influential to this day, it is also present and
detectable in the conception of the beginning and end of thought and
cognition. This idea links the start of cognition and thought to an elimination of all kinds of presuppositions that would permit one to arrive at
what everyone should, in conclusion, be able to agree upon and could
not deny; and this to such an extent that it ends up appearing as if everyone should have known it from the very beginning.35 As will become
clear in the following part of the present chapter ‘Different Conceptions
of the Human Sciences and Their Contributions’ and ‘Chap. 2: An
Alleged Crisis of the Humanities’, this idea of a pure and unmediated
will or desire to know, as well as the connected idea of knowledge as a
primary intellectual activity aiming at the discovery and intuition of
undeniable propositional and systematic knowledge, are still present and
dominating to such an extent that they determine how the historical
development of the university and its knowledge production is commonly perceived and understood.
Establishing a ‘factual’ and representational relationship between truth
and falsity, on the one hand, and what is or proves to be the case, on the
other hand, this inherited and limiting conception of the will to know as a
will committed directly to knowledge for the sake of knowing eschews the
notion of truth and truth-telling as existential ventures and irreducible
life-changing events. According to this different notion of truth, the
search for and utterance of truth is to be understood as an essentially risky
and dramatic venture to which the truth-teller binds him/herself and in
which she/he invests him/herself to such an extent that the very character, role and being of the truth-teller, including his/her authenticity and
35
According to Deleuze, this image of thought and cognition gives them a strong and
natural affinity with the truth in so far as they want, possess and express the truth. Yet, it is
also a moral image, in so far as the affinity with truth is established ‘under the double aspect
of a good will on the part of the thinker [bonne volonté du penseur] and an upright nature on
the part of thought [nature droite de la pensée] (Deleuze (1981): Différence et répétition,
p. 171/Deleuze (1994): Difference and Repetition, p. 131; italicized in Deleuze’s original text).
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S. RAFFNSØE
responsibility, as well as his/her politico-cosmological world is at stake.36
In this vein, the present study articulates a history of the production of
knowledge as an ongoing series of normating events in and through which
the world is unveiled and transformed in irreducible ways.37
1.6 The Normative Effects of an Ongoing
Productive Crisis
To properly understand the dynamic and continuously critical tradition of
the human sciences and its contribution to the understanding of the
human, it will thus not suffice to focus on the intellectual products or
results in isolation. Rather, this heritage must be understood as an ongoing productive crisis in which contributors seeking understanding and
knowledge of the human laugh and mock, weep, cry and lament, detest
and curse, but also doubt, deny, disintegrate, collect and assemble,38 as
well as fear, hate and hope, recognize and correct, add, appropriate and
augment, compromise, collaborate and compete for resources, distinction
36
In addition to outlining this kind of alternative notion of truth in his initial lecture series at
the Collège de France Leçons sur La volonté de savoir. Cours au College de France. 1970–1971,
as it was indicated above, Foucault further elaborates the alternative conception of the notion
of truth and truth-telling in his lectures at the Collège de France towards the end of his life.
Under the general headline of The Government of the Self and Others, Foucault not only devotes
his lectures in 1983 and 1984, as well as the contemporaneous lectures at Berkeley and
Grenoble, to highlighting how ‘in posing the question of the government of the self and others’, the ‘obligation and the possibility of telling the truth in procedures of government’ permits to illuminate how ‘the individual constitutes itself as a subject in its relationship to itself
and to others’ (Foucault (2008): Le gouvernement de soi et des autres. Cours au Collège de
France. 1982–1983, p. 42/Foucault (2010): The Government of the Self and Others. Lectures at
the Collège de France 1982–1983, p. 42). Other crucial contributions to the lecture series on
truth and truth-telling are: Foucault (2001): L’hermenéutique du sujet. Cours au Collège de
France. 1981–1982/Foucault (2005): The Hermeneutics of the Subject. Lectures at the Collège de
France 1981–1982; Foucault (2009): Le courage de la vérité. Le gouvernement de soi et des autres.
Cours au Collège de France. 1984/Foucault (2011): The Courage of Truth. The Government of
the Self and Others II. Lectures at the Collège de France 1983–1984.
37
Concerning the notions of truth and truth-telling as life-changing events, confer equally
Raffnsøe et al. (2018): ‘Philosophical Practice as Self-modification: An Essay on Michel
Foucault’s Critical Engagement with Philosophy’, in particular p. 20ff.
38
Nietzsche (1882–1887/1999): Die fröhliche Wissenschaft, pp. 473–474 (§133).
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AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
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and recognition.39 Knowledge and understanding of the human appears in
a field where cognition in a narrow sense does not rule, and where it is not
all about cognition since all these drives, incitements and motivations here
come together on a stage to battle and blend with one another to such an
extent that it results in an ongoing, revived critical agenda-setting undertaking taken to ever new levels.
In a similar vein, Latour emphasizes that if one wants to think about
and understand not only technologies but also scientific humanities, it is
necessary to follow the lead of Darwin when he decisively changed and
turned around the perception and understanding of a series of living
beings or species in comparison with how it was conceived in earlier natural history. When one visits a museum of natural history to contemplate a
series of horses, one has, after the Darwinian biological turn to natural
selection, become keenly aware that one should not focus on and stay with
any particular exhibit of the successive species put on display, since their
‘very essence if I may speak so freely [leur veritable essence, si j’ose dire]’
is conveyed in ‘their gemmiparous line of predecessors and successors’ that
‘establishes a vertiginous discontinuity’ ‘between every being and its successor’ and that ‘presupposes a unique and singular invention’ ‘in every
generation’.40 Correspondingly, if one seeks to shed light on the establishment of what Latour terms ‘scientific humanities [les humanités scientifiques], he recommends that you ‘learn to transform what usually serves as
explanation into that which must be explained’, and in this manner permit
yourself to follow the ‘continuous discontinuities of a practice’ that ‘find
itself concealed below a continuity that only exists in thought (or should
I say in imagined world of ideas of a thought itself rendered artificially
continuous)’.41 More generally, this has been Latour’s approach to
the examination of scientificity since his early examination of Pasteur’s
39
Nietzsche (1881–1887/1999): Morgenröthe. Gedanken über die Moralischen Vorurteile,
pp.102–103 (§113). Clark (2006): Academic Charisma and the Origins of the Research
University examines how academic products and academics are exposed to and make use of
increasing market-oriented commodification in the period after 1800 marked by the appearance of the German research university (cf. especially pp. 373–397). This is not to say that
the auricular, fama, Ruhm and Gerücht, rumour, gossip, reputation and credit did not play
an essential role before the nineteenth century (Clark (2006): Academic Charisma and the
Origins of the Research University, pp. 367–368).
40
Latour (2010): Cogitamus. Six lettres sur les humanités scientifiques, pp. 55, 197–198;
italicization in Latour’s original text.
41
Latour (2010): Cogitamus. Six lettres sur les humanités scientifiques, pp. 205, 35, 17.
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S. RAFFNSØE
scientific breakthrough.42 As also stressed consistently by Latour, also in
the reissue of the book, this approach does not lead to reductionism but
to irreductionism.
An essential outcome of science as a transcending and norm-setting
undertaking is the establishment of new modes of science and conceptions
of scientificity that not only differentiate themselves from one another and
vindicate new conditions of assertability for knowledge, but also supplement, interact and compete with one another to form a complex rendering and manifestation of the human.43
1.7 A Transversal Investigation
The described approach entails that the present study must assume the
shape of a transversal investigation moving across the confines of specific
settings as it aims to track and monitor an equally transverse normating
and agenda-setting movement that displaces itself across borders.
While the examination starts out with a focus on the articulation of the
crucial role allotted to the human sciences in the reorganized and refounded
German university at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the study
does not remain here. Acknowledging how the German research university
and its organization came to serve as an admired, envied and copied model
not only in central, eastern, and northern Europe, but also in a number of
other countries and regions, such as Russia, Greece and, to some extent
also, France and even Britain,44 the study subsequently follows the succeeding development in Germanic lands while also expanding the scope of its
survey to include later developments in the wider European area, where the
model is adopted and productively modulated in ways that lead to the establishment of new agenda-setting forms of knowledge and monitor the ongoing productiveness of the human sciences.
42
Latour (2001): Pasteur: Guerre et paix des microbes/Latour (1988): The Pasteurization
of France. Originally published in 1984 as Latour (1984): Les microbes: guerre et paix.
43
In this manner, the history of the history of science depicted here also corroborates
Arendt’s assertion that ‘in this world which we enter, appearing from nowhere, and from
which we disappear into nowhere, Being and Appearing coincide’ to such an extent ‘that I
can flee appearance only into appearance’, and that ‘not what something is but how it
“appears” is the research problem’ (Arendt, 1971/1978): The Life of the Mind, pp. 19, 23,
28; italicization in Arendt’s original text.
44
Clark (2006): Academic Charisma and the Origins of the Research University, p. 435.
Cf. also Rüegg (2004): ‘Themes’, in particular pp. 4–13.
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AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
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In the last half and increasingly in the last quarter of the nineteenth
century, the new institution of the American research university is founded
in a form that is largely inspired by and modelled on the European and, in
particular, German research university.45 Consequently, the study follows
track and pays a visit to North America; yet without entirely emigrating
and leaving the old continent behind. In so far as the baton is increasingly
passed on to and held by the American research university, it becomes
indispensable to include decisive new developments here that enter into
the picture and become of consequence; so much the more since the
American university in turn increasingly gains a decisive influence on the
production of knowledge and at times even becomes a model that some
feel warranted to speak of as an ‘Americanization of academia, even in
Germany’.46
Tracking an agenda-setting movement as it transverses borders is, of
course, not identical to articulating an effort located totally out of place
and out of time but rather of an event that is agenda-setting for a time and
a space. The presented study of the productive development of the human
sciences in their larger context is at first a German- and subsequently
45
Khurana (2007): From Higher Aims to Hired Hands. The Social Transformation of
American Business Schools and the Unfulfilled Promise of Management as a Profession, p. 75.
Shils and John (2004): ‘The Diffusion of European Models Outside Europe’, pp. 167–175.
46
Clark (2006): Academic Charisma and the Origins of the Research University, p. 435. As
the following citations make clear, the transformation is complex: ‘At the end of the nineteenth century and in the inter-war period, when the German model was being copied
throughout the whole of Europe and beyond, it entered into a crisis in Germany, which
brought to light some of the problems neglected by those who framed the original concept.
These related to the difficulty of integrating modern technology into the university and the
tendency of the teaching body to form a hierarchy. The crisis affected not only the growth
but also the aims of the universities’ (Charle (2004): ‘Patterns’, p. 57). ‘By 1914, the attendance of America students for study in Germany had waned. Graduate studies were by then
well established in the leading private and state universities and there was no longer such a
widespread and shared belief among American university teachers and graduate students that
German universities had much to offer which could not be obtained in the United States.
[…] The profound and distinctive imprint of the German university model on graduate studies in American universities did not fade, but after the First World War, American universities
drew their inspiration almost wholly from traditions already assimilated. German influences
had become so much a part of American tradition that they had ceased to be German and
had become American, and the driving forces were now the intellectual aspirations and
motives of American scientists and scholars. Nonetheless, direct influence of German universities on American universities by no means disappeared’ (Shils and Roberts (2004): ‘The
diffusion of European models’, p. 174).
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20
S. RAFFNSØE
Euro-centred examination and only later enlarges its scope to include
North America and become a story that describes the development of the
human sciences and their agenda-setting character in the Western world.
Obviously, this initial Eurocentrism is not a principled one but rather
occasioned by the fact that the study takes its outset in a reinception and a
reconception of the university and the role of the human sciences within
the university that happened to occur at a certain point in history in
Europe. This is not to say that non-European states of affairs and knowledge production do not come into play and affect this reinception and
reconception.47 Neither is this to say that the effects of the norm-­
establishing and -setting development of the human sciences within the
larger scientific field developed here are simply confined within and to the
scope of the examined field, as the adoption and modulation of university
models and scientific disciplines described in this book in other part of the
world makes clear, even though they may not be included in the picture or
at least remain outside the focus of this study.48
1.8 Different Conceptions of the Human Sciences
and Their Contributions
Since the study follows and emphasizes a continuing and irreducible addition of new disciplines and fields of knowledge leading to the accretion of
new knowledge as well as to an ongoing interaction between those disciplines and fields of knowledge, it differs from a range of approaches that
seek to defend and legitimize the humanities by reaching back in time to
resuscitate crucial values and core contributions that are threatened with
oblivion or obliteration. Whereas these kinds of approaches take great
47
While Shils and Roberts (2004): ‘The Diffusion of European Models Outside Europe’
underlines that ‘the world’s idea of the university as it was shaped in the nineteenth century
is […] a European one’, the authors also describe how this model of a university spreads
other continents around the world where universities ‘were formed in accordance with an
image of the European university in the midst of their founders, at first or second remove’
(p. 164).
48
While the study cannot possibly, of course, in detail even cover the various dislocations
across the primary areas outlined above and does not, for example, discuss developments in
Spain or Russia, it would an even more onerous and too formidable task also to discuss the
spread and adoptions, the impact and the modulations of the models within other areas of
the world, for example, Japan. Cf. Shils and Roberts (2004): ‘The Diffusion of European
Models Outside Europe’, pp. 223–226.
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AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
21
pains to polish handed down silver heirlooms to make the heritage shine
brightly, as it will be demonstrated in the following chapter of the book in
a discussion with a central and outstanding representative of this approach,
the American philosopher and classical scholar Martha Nussbaum,49 the
examination of the history of the human sciences pursued in this study
instead accentuates how the scientificity of the human sciences are characterized by an irreducible and indelibly differentiating forward movement
in and through which the present stand aloof from and distances itself
from the past.
The approach pursued in this monograph distinguishes itself from
another different but equally conspicuous defence of the humanities and
its associated conceptualization of the history of the humanities. When
attempting to develop ‘the first history of the humanities from Antiquity
to the present’ in a situation where he believes that ‘the humanities are
under pressure all over the world’,50 Rens Bod urges the reader to acknowledge what both critics and defendants of the humanities tend to overlook,
namely that ‘a quick glance at the history of the humanities shows’ that
‘not only did humanistic insights change the world, many of these insights
dealt with concrete problems and resulted in applications in entirely unexpected fields’.51 Bod’s ambition to write a comparative and continuous
history demonstrating the contribution of the humanities is not just a
personal endeavour but has been turned into an impressive and honourable collective project.52
This trait is most clearly instantiated in Nussbaum (2003): Cultivating Humanity.
Bod (2013): A New History of the Humanities. The Search for Principles and Patterns
from Antiquity to the Present, pp. I & XIII.
51
Bod (2013): A New History of the Humanities. The Search for Principles and Patterns
from Antiquity to the Present, p. XIII.
52
The collective ambition is evidenced in a series of conferences starting in 2008 and in
volumes forthcoming since 2010. Cf. the series of edited volumes originating in the conferences and repeatedly referring back to the formative character of the conferences: Bod, Maat,
Weststeijn (eds.) (2010): The Making of the Humanities. Volume I: Early Modern Europe;
Bod, Maat, Weststeijn (eds.) (2014): The Making of the Humanities. Volume II: From Early
Modern to Modern Disciplines; Bod, Maat, Weststeijn (eds.) (2013): The Making of the
Humanities. Volume III: The Modern Humanities. Every individual author contributing to
this project aiming to highlight the significance of the humanities does not necessarily, of
course, share Bod’s basic assumptions and conception of the core contribution of the
humanities. Cf. in this regard, for example, Daston (2013): ‘Objectivity and Impartiality:
Epistemic Virtues in the Humanities, in Bod, Maat, Weststeijn (eds.) (2013): The Making of
the Humanities. Volume III: The Modern Humanities, pp. 27–43.
49
50
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S. RAFFNSØE
When Bod seeks to determine the core continuous contribution of the
humanities more specifically, he finds ‘the apparently unbroken strand in
the humanities that can be identified as the quest for patterns in humanistic
material on the basis of methodological principles’; and, accordingly, he
resorts to a history that is basically a simple enumeration of ‘the methodological principles that have been developed and the patterns that have been
found in the study of material (texts, languages, literature, music, art theatre and the past) with these principles’ in order to render and make graphic
the specific and lasting contribution of the humanities.53
In this manner, Bod reduces the contribution of the humanities and the
essential outcome of their history a constructive ‘problem-solving capacity’ and the solutions it produces. According to Bod, this capacity and its
outcome is a success that has been blatantly disregarded. The capacity is
depicted as a naturalized and universal ability to respond to problems that
are taken as primitively given in or with the material of investigation and
stretch across time and space, conceived as a uniformly neutral backdrop.
In the final analysis, the historicity of the humanities is thus reduced to a
series of systematic cognitive happenings.54
The author himself underlines how the ‘concept of problem-solving
capacity as a yardstick for the success of a theory’ is inspired by and borrowed from the notion of progress in cognition in normal science as it is
described in Thomas Kuhn’s The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.55 Yet,
the problem is that according to Kuhn it is only possible to speak of a
problem-solving as a progressive and systematic puzzle-solving from
within an established and specific scientific discipline; and it is thus only
possible to do so after the presentation of a paradigm and the constitution
of a disciplinary matrix has permitted to establish and designate the kinds
53
Bod (2013): A New History of the Humanities. The Search for Principles and Patterns
from Antiquity to the Present, pp. 7, 9 (italicizations in Bod’s original text). Allegedly, this is
so since ‘seeking and finding patterns is timeless and ubiquitous, not only when observing
nature but also when examining texts, art, poetry, theatre, languages, and music’ (Bod
(2013): A New History of the Humanities, p. 11). In this manner, Bod is able overall to assert
‘a continuous humanistic tradition from Antiquity to the present day that focuses on the
quest for patterns and rules’ (p. 348).
54
Bod (2013): A New History of the Humanities, p. 244.
55
Bod (2013): A New History of the Humanities, p. 244.
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AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
23
of problems that are to be solved.56 In his eagerness to rehabilitate the
humanities and seek out inspiration for categories that permit him to do
so, Bod ends up drawing on Kuhn in order to resort to a pre-Kuhnian
conception of scientificity and uniform or general scientific progress across
the disciplines.
In the last chapter of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, entitled
‘Progress Through Revolutions’, Kuhn makes it clear that his overall
notion of progress in the sciences is a lot more complex than Bod seems
to be aware of. Here Kuhn speaks of progress as a ‘selection by conflict
within the scientific community of the fittest way to practice future science’ that is seen as ‘the net result of a sequence of […] revolutionary
selections, separated by periods of normal research’.57 With his reconception of scientific progress, Kuhn can thus be said to suggest a Darwinian
turn within the theory of science. Obliterating the ongoing and complex
discontinuous gemmation of scientific rationalities in the history of science, Bod can, by contrast, be said to confess to and profess allegiance to
a pre-Darwinian concept of progress in science. In this manner, Bod
comes to write a simplified natural history of the human sciences.
Whether one seeks to rehabilitate the humanities by harking back to
their lost heritage to be resuscitated or by drawing a picture of an ongoing
systematic problem-solving activity presenting solutions that are ubiquitously usable, a genuine sense for true historical difference seems to be
lacking. Time and place and space seem to recede into the background to
56
Kuhn (1962/2012): The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, p. 24. Consistently, Kuhn in
the introduction of his book highlights that his aim in the book is to give a ‘sketch of the
quite different concept of science that can emerge from the historical record of the research
activity itself’, which is opposed to the ‘unhistorical stereotype drawn from science texts’
according to which ‘scientific development becomes the piecemeal process by which these
items have been added, singly and in combination, to the ever growing stockpile that constitutes scientific technique and knowledge’, and according to which ‘history of science
becomes the discipline that chronicles both these successive increments and the obstacles
that have inhibited their accumulation’. After highlighting how ‘historians of science have
been finding it more and more difficult to fulfil the functions that the concept of development-­
by-­accumulation assigns to them’, Kuhn suggests that ‘perhaps science does not develop by
the accumulation of individual discoveries and inventions’ (Kuhn (1962/2012): The
Structure of Scientific Revolutions, pp. 1–2). Cf. also Kuhn (1957/1987): The Copernican
Revolution. Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought for further description of the anatomy of scientific revolution and its ground-breaking character of conversion
for science as well as general cosmology.
57
Kuhn (1962/2012): The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, p. 171.
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S. RAFFNSØE
become a neutral, unimportant backdrop for continuity, lost and/or
found. In this monograph, by contrast, time, place and space have a constitutive role and play an active part in so far as the study presents a multistringed, gemmiparous irreversibility in history entirely different from
what ideas of the resurrection of the past or unified and unequivocal progress allow us to conceive of.
Due to their stress on relatively timeless continuity in the tradition of
the humanities, whether it is conceived as already and unproblematically
existing or to be rehabilitated and re-established, the described approaches
firstly come to disregard the decisiveness in the reorientation around the
beginning of the nineteenth century; and, secondly, they also tend to
underplay the following ongoing irreducible productivity, also highlighted
in this study, that manifests itself in the establishment of ever-new disciplines and faculties that establish new kinds of research and knowledge to
such an extent that new-fangled forms of exchange or interplay result
between the established disciplines and faculties.
Borrowing an aphorism by the French poet René Char, one can voice
the heritage of the human sciences that is articulated in this monograph as
a ‘heritage’ that ‘is not preceded by any kind of testament’.58 For anyone
who would aim to make a claim and put him or herself forward as a legitimate heir59 of the human sciences, either in general or within any particular
field of study, it is evident that she or he would concomitantly need to pick
up the gauntlet thrown by the tradition to overtly face the predicament
that ‘our heritage was left to us without a testament’, as Hannah Arendt
more freely renders the aphorism.60 In so far as a testament, according to
Arendt, not only indicates ‘where the treasures are and what their worth is’,
but also by ‘telling the heir what will rightfully be his, wills past possessions
for a future’, the circumstance that the inheritance is unwilled implies that
‘there seems to be no willed continuity in time’, appointing and entitling
the rightful heir and commanding and securing an orderly succession.61
In so far as the dynamic tradition described in this monograph has left
no simple will and testament to be implemented and to ensure an orderly
58
‘Notre héritage n’est précédé d’aucun testament’ (Char (1962): Fureur et mystère,
p. 106). Cf. also Veyne (1990): René Char en ses poèmes, pp. 208–19.
59
Cf. also Lear (2011): A Case for Irony, p. 10, for a discussion of what it implies to pretend to be, or to put oneself up as, the legitimate heir of a dynasty or a tradition.
60
Arendt (1990): On Revolution. Arendt (1968): Between Past and Future. Eight Exercises
in Political Thought.
61
Arendt (1968): Between Past and Future. Eight Exercises in Political Thought, p. 5.
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AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
25
succession, the idea of receiving and claiming a crucial authentic heritage
is rejected. The initial treasure may thus seem to be lost to such an extent
that is left to be found and reclaimed by future generations. The fact that
there is no original protocol of succession and no patrimonial estate that
can be settled creates an open space for reappropriation and prolific dissemination of the heritage.62
The lack of an original protocol of submission or testament, settling the
transferal of a patrimonial estate, does not imply that the heritage can be
reclaimed by anyone to be spent and used at will for any purpose one
might wish. The conclusions to be drawn are not simply that any use will
do, that anything goes, or that any effect is equally good or efficient.
Rather, the fact that one is thus left a specific gift in the form of a particular
kind of legacy forces one to ponder how one can face and live up to the
particularly accentuated predicament that a tradition ‘left without a testament’ raises.
1.9 The Sciences of the Human
Tracking and monitoring a transverse agenda-setting movement that
displaces itself across borders and hands down a heritage without a testament, the investigation traverses and encounters designations of the
field of human sciences that differ from area to area and from language
to language. In addition to the English ‘human sciences’ and ‘humanities’ so far used here, as well as the singular ‘human science’, one
comes across German designations such as ‘Humanwissenschaften’ and
‘Geisteswissenschaften’, and French, Spanish and Italian terms such as ‘sciences humaines’, ‘humanidades’ and ‘scienze umanistische’. In the Dutch
and Flemish language, the terms ‘geesteswetenschappen’, ‘studia humanitatis’, ‘letteren’ and ‘alfawetenschappen’ all exist,63 while designations
such as ‘humaniora’, ‘humanvidenskaber’ and ‘menneskevidenskaber’ are
62
Please also confer the anterior section ‘The level of prescription and normation’, and in
particular the discussion of difference and repetition, for a first development of the heritage
and the historicity of the human sciences.
63
The latter in distinction to ‘bètawetenschappen’ (also termed ‘exacte wetenschappen’)
and gammawetenschappen (also characterized as the sciences that deal with society and
behaviour), and ‘geneeskunde’ (health sciences) (cf., among others, Hoiveling, 2021): ‘Wat
hebben de letteren nog te betekenen?’ https://www.feico-houweling.nl/wat-hebben-de-­
letteren-nog-te-betekenen/Bos, Jap (2021) (ed.) ‘Wetenschapsfilosofie’. Available at:
https://www.uu.nl/wetfilos/bijsluiter/alphabetagamma.html
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S. RAFFNSØE
used in Danish, just to mention the considerable number of terms in a few
‘minor’ northern-European languages. Equally, related designations such
as ‘liberal arts’ and ‘studium generale’ are common in English as well as in
a number of other languages. As is to be expected from the kind of history
outlined in this monograph, these designations differ decisively from one
another in signification and denotation, sense and reference.64
The designations vary with regard to the number and the sort of disciplines that they would include in the scope of the denotation or reference
of the human sciences. Whereas, for example, disciplines such as psychology, anthropology and theology in some regions would be considered as
belonging to the human sciences and would accordingly be situated at the
faculty of arts or humanities, this would certainly not be the case in a number of other countries and at a number of other universities.
The terms also differ decisively regarding the traits or distinguishing
characteristics that disciplines would have to exhibit in order to be included
in the different terms referring to human sciences; and they would therefore also diverge with regards to sense and meaning of the terms, or with
regards to what the terms would highlight as essential distinguishing features of the human sciences. What is more, different ideas concerning the
ambition and the raison d’être of the human sciences would commonly be
associated with different terms. In addition, the relationship between the
faculty of the humanities and the neighbouring (and at times partly overlapping) scientific faculties, such as the social sciences, business studies,
education and technical sciences, would also be understood differently
from one national tradition to another by users of the cited terms. Finally,
differences like the ones just mentioned would even make themselves felt
regarding the same term when used by different speakers within different
areas and contexts.
When moving through this complex and changing semantic and institutional landscape, the study makes use of and adheres to a preliminary
definition of the human sciences as a point of reference in order to find its
64
Since I take the liberty to draw upon and make use of Frege’s distinction between ‘Sinn’
and ‘Bedeutung’ and Dummett’s related differentiation between the ‘meaning’, ‘sense’ and
‘reference’ of a term or an expression, primarily for pragmatically clarifying reasons in the
context of the present discussion, I do not want to enter into the intricate and longstanding
discussion concerning the relationship between Frege’s position in Frege (1892/2019):
Über Sinn und Bedeutung and Dummett’s interpretation in Dummett (1973): Frege.
Philosophy of Language. However, I would like to subscribe to Dummett’s general assertion
that meaning is use and that terms and expressions only have reference in a sentence.
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AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
27
bearings. This is an understanding of the designation of the human sciences as referring to the sciences that distinguish themselves by researching and producing knowledge concerning a particular field, that is, human
affairs. The human sciences are the sciences that make a contribution to
what is known by studying and cultivating the human as it appears in
human beings, their being and modes of being, including their existence
and subsistence, utterances and expressions, languages, arts, culture and
civilization, lifestyle and relations, intentional and non-intentional creations, volitional and non-volitional patterns, their governance of themselves and others, their development, evolution, education, decline and
devolution. In and through this self-revisional, reflexive and sometimes
self-critical examination of the human, the human sciences also contribute
to forming, cultivating, educating and humanizing the human as well as
the human power of judgement and assessment: making the human more
than merely human or rather emphatically human.
The human sciences founded in their modern form as humanities with
the refoundation of the university around 1800 may at first glance seem to
perpetuate and conserve the ancestral and venerable tradition of the studia
humanitatis and the artes liberales if one considers some of the fields of
study investigated by various disciplines before and after the turn of the
century. Yet, the break and the rupture is far more predominant and prevailing when one looks more closely at the role, self-perception and self-­
articulation of the humanities after 1800. Whereas the artes liberales were
traditionally largely understood as a ‘pre-school’ that handed over established knowledge and skills that permitted students to pass on to the study
of higher matters and had the status of a programme of preliminary studies
serving as ancillae theologicae or domestic servants not only of, at first in
particular, theology, but also of other higher matters of academic study
such as law and medicine, within a larger, predominantly stable theo-­
ontological framework, the sciences of the human in their modern form as
humanities were ‘emancipated’65 and understood as an end in themselves
65
Around the same time, a similar, and similarly decisive, reconception of the arts and
aesthetic experience took place. The implications of the declaration of independence of the
arts and aesthetic experienced is described in Raffnsøe (2019): ‘The Aesthetic Turn: The
Cultivation and Propagation of Aesthetic Experience after its Declaration of Independence’
and Raffnsøe (2024): Aestheticizing Society: A Philosophical History of Sensory Experience and
Art, forthcoming.
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28
S. RAFFNSØE
for the first time as they came to be conceived as research into the singularly and emphatically human.66
However, since the unification of the universitas literarum in and
through independent research in its modern form at the beginning of the
nineteenth century ascribed a central role to the humanities, this reorganization has been continuously challenged by the establishment of new and
different forms of science.67 In so far as a predominant part of this range
of new branches, primarily originating in but also to some extent incorporated within the university, procure knowledge concerning the human,
they can also be regarded as human sciences in a wider sense. The incessant appearance of a range of new disciplines providing knowledge concerning and mapping the human has implied that existing demarcations of
the sciences of the human have constantly been challenged.68
While I have so far used and will continue to use the nomination
‘humanities’ to designate a demarcation of the human sciences that is
more exclusive and narrow in scope, I will more generally use the syntagm
‘the human sciences’ to designate the much broader definition that
includes all sciences that examine, shed light on and contribute to the
understanding and development of human affairs. Whereas the traditional
aim and contribution of the humanities has been to study and cultivate the
human, the development described in this book show that they are now
challenged to assume responsibility for this historical legacy within the
wider context of the human sciences, a wider framework whose establishment will be outlined in this book.
In and through a turn that came to have its full impact and form a
modern constitution around the end of the eighteenth and the beginning
66
Centred around the rendering and cultivation of the singularly, particularly and emphatically human, the sciences of the human in their early modern form tended to focus on and
prioritize man, and in practice even tended to put white male masculinity at the centre.
Anthropocentrism is thus an essential part of the heritage of the human sciences as it has
been handed down to the heirs without a testament. Consequently, it is also a heritage that
the heirs must constantly be prepared to face.
67
This development unfolding during the nineteenth century will be described in detail in
Chap. 4: ‘The Division Between the Sciences of the Emphatically Human and New Branches
of Science’.
68
Despite their outset in Anthropocentric thought with a focus on a conception of a common and supposedly disinterested and non-situated humanity, and with the aim of providing
for the latter’s cultivation, the historic trajectory also shows how the human sciences have
managed to problematize Anthropocentrism and pave the way for a conception of humans
as situated beings, as it will become clear in the following exposition.
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1
AN AGENDA-SETTING HISTORY
29
of the nineteenth century, human beings and the humanities began to
appear in a manner that let them occupy centre stage. Yet, as the ensuing
story will make clear: As humans and the human sciences took up this
position at the centre, human beings at the same time in an emphatic sense
became beings that had to find themselves on the verge of themselves and
with regards to something else. The human has continuously appeared as
a relationship that relates to the non-human and transcends its present
existence to such an extent that, as Nietzsche highlights in On the Genealogy
of Morality, ‘we are unknown to ourselves, we knowing ones’ and that ‘we
are always on the way to’ ‘the beehives of our knowledge’ where ‘our
treasure’ lies and ‘our heart’ is—and this to such an extent that we, ‘like
someone divinely distracted in himself’ who has just had ‘his ears rung by
the full force of the bells twelve strokes of noon, suddenly wakes up’ and
must ask ‘quite disconcerted’: Who are we really?’69 Since the human sciences, understood very broadly, have for two centuries continuously asked
and provided answers to this open-ended, pertinent but also embarrassing
question in new fruitful ways, it would be fair to expect them to continue
to do so. It also requires them to assume new forms in order to be on a par
with the human as it reappears in a wider landscape.
According to some of the most outstanding contemporary proponents
of the cause of the humanities, however, the human sciences may in the
process run the risk of losing core human values and leave an essential part
of their proud shared heritage behind.
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