WGU D265 CRITICAL THINKING: REASONING AND
EVIDENCE EXAM 2024 | OBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT AND PREASSESSMENT TESTS | 2 CURRENTLY TESTING VERSIONS
WITH A STUDY GUIDE AND KNOWLEDGE CHECK
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Which phrases contain conclusions of this argument? Choose 2 answers.
- Flying cars will relieve traffic congestion
- The research and development of such vehicles will be expensive
- The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
- Banks should help fund industry research
- The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
- Banks should help fund industry research
Dogs are bred for many different purposes. Poodles, for example, make good house pets, while
German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection. Therefore, because it
is important to select the right breed for your needs, you should carefully research dog breeds to
make the right choice.
Which statement is the conclusion of the argument?
- German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection.
- Dogs are bred for many different purposes.
- You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.
- It is important to select the right breed for your needs.
You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.
Everyone should vote ___________________.
Which phrase would form an argument when added to this sentence?
- because it is their duty
- for the most honest candidate
- in their assigned district
- before the deadline
because it is their duty
People have fought for freedom since the beginning of time.
Which descriptor best characterizes this sentence?
Proposition
Inference
Weak argument
Strong argument
Proposition
Jordan says, "I am the best student at our high school; I am the tallest and most athletic, and I
have the best car." Taylor, Jordan's best friend, totally agrees.
Which two descriptors best characterize Jordan's comments? Choose two answers.
Weak argument
Proposition
Inference
Strong argument
- Weak argument
- Inference
All dogs are cute. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger is cute.
Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?
Deductive
Invalid
Inductive
Abductive
Deductive
Usually when the audience comes out of a theater laughing, that means the film was funny. The
audience leaving the theater after this film is laughing. So the film probably is funny.
Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?
Valid
Sound
Inductive
Deductive
Inductive
All dogs can fly. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger can fly.
Which types of reasoning are illustrated in this example? Choose 2 answers.
Deductive
Valid
True
Sound
Deductive
Valid
Which sentences reflect strong critical thinking? Choose 2 answers.
- I disagree with my opponent’s position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am
curious to hear their thoughts on the matter.
- I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best
approach to a problem.
- Unlike some others, I do not jump to conclusions, nor am I biased.
- While I am open to discussion on the topic, I am committed to my position because I know it is
right.
- I disagree with my opponent's position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am
curious to hear their thoughts on the matter.
- I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best
approach to a problem.
Which sentences are propositions? Choose 2 answers.
- Hey, let’s go to lunch at noon today.
- Mangino’s has the best pizza.
- They will likely put the other restaurants out of business.
- Do you like Mangino’s pizza?
- Mangino's has the best pizza.
- They will likely put the other restaurants out of business.
Which statement is a simple proposition?
1. Because I was dressed for work, I took an umbrella and ran to my car.
2. I had a work deadline approaching, so I ate lunch at my desk and finished my work.
3. I stopped at the grocery store and bought some milk.
4. By noon, the sun was shining.
By noon, the sun was shining.
Which indicator is a premise indicator?
Hence
Because
Thus
Therefore
Because
Because flying cars will relieve traffic congestion, and since the research and development of
such vehicles will be expensive, it follows that the government should encourage industry to
develop flying cars and banks should help fund industry research.
An individual drops hundreds of objects, and each time they fall to the ground. The individual
therefore concludes that if someone drops a pencil, it will fall.
Which terms describe the argument? Choose 2 answers.
Deductive
Valid
Strong
Cogent
Strong
Cogent
If I am bald, then I am old. I am old. Therefore, I am bald.
Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy
Denying the antecedent
Affirming the consequent
Affirming the consequent
If I am a soldier, then I am brave. I am not a soldier. Therefore, I am not brave.
Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Affirming the consequent
Denying the antecedent
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy
Denying the antecedent
One should never cheat on a test, since cheating is wrong.
Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Affirming the consequent
Denying the antecedent
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy
Begging the question
My opponent argues that the earth is round because Dr. Evil shaped it that way using his satellite
mounted laser. Since Dr. Evil is a fictitious character, you must reject the argument that the earth
is round.
This is an example of which type of logic error?
Denying the antecedent
Affirming the consequent
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy
The fallacy fallacy
Which piece of information would be the most helpful to know in assessing the credibility of a
news story?
Whether the political party affiliation of the author is identified
Whether the article contains video footage
Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
Whether there is widespread agreement with the story on social media
Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
While researching a topic on the internet, a student encounters two different websites, one of that
looks more official than the other and includes tables, charts, and statistics, while the other does
not.
What is the line of reasoning this student should employ to determine which site is more
credible?
- Neither site is credible, unless one of the two is truly an official government website run by a
government agency.
- The site that looks more official with tables, charts, and statistics is more credible because it
reflects professionalism and objectivity.
- It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.
- The site that looks less official and does not include tables, charts, and statistics is more
credible because it is more straightforward and objective.
It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.
In which way should an information source be approached if it is stating that it is the only source
of real information and that other sources cannot be trusted?
- Confidently, because the source likely has exclusive information.
- Skeptically, because the source may lack credibility.
- Confidently, because the source is concerned with telling the true story.
- Skeptically, because the source reflects a formal fallacy.
Skeptically, because the source may lack credibility.
Politician A proposes new tax cuts for large corporations. Initially Politician B opposes these tax
cuts. However, instead of quickly dismissing the proposal as a mere favor to powerful interests,
Politician B first considers the strongest available evidence for the argument that Politician A's
proposal could create new jobs and stimulate the economy.
Which argumentation concept does this passage illustrate?
Confirmation bias
The principle of charity
Availability
Heuristics
The principle of charity
An individual does not believe the moon landing ever occurred. She claims there are plenty of
internet postings that agree with this idea, and while photos, documentation, witness accounts,
and physical evidence of a moon landing may exist, these are all things that can easily be
manufactured by the government, which cannot be trusted.
Which argumentation concept does this passage illustrate?
Anchoring and adjustment
Confirmation bias
Denying the antecedent
Representativeness
Confirmation bias
Which error may the principle of charity help minimize?
Representativeness
Confirmation bias
Denying the antecedent
Anchoring and adjustment
Confirmation bias
Which two errors represent cognitive biases? Choose 2 answers.
- Representativeness
- Cogency
- Validity
- Availability
- Representativeness
- Availability
Which two statements are true with respect to heuristics? Choose 2 answers.
- They are problematic because they represent formal logic fallacies.
- They are problematic because they can lead to cognitive biases.
- They are helpful because they enable fast, efficient decisions.
- They are problematic because they lack validity.
- They are problematic because they can lead to cognitive biases.
- They are helpful because they enable fast, efficient decisions.
Which action can simply be taken in many instances to gain a clearer, more accurate
understanding of a situation?
Checking social media
Affirming the consequent
Narrowing the topic
Broadening our perspective
Broadening our perspective
Critical thinkers are constantly alert for possible biases in their own thinking.
When the potential for bias is present, which two actions may strong critical thinkers take to help
minimize bias in their thinking? Choose 2 answers.
- Employ heuristics for decision-making
- Look for consensus on social media
- Broaden their sources of information
- Slow their thought process
- Broaden their sources of information
- Slow their thought process
Elliott notices that many of the news articles, blogs, social media postings, and other information
she sees on the internet support her view on a particular issue.
Based on this information, what can Elliott reasonably conclude with respect to their view on the
issue?
Most people likely agree with Elliott's view.
Elliott's view is most likely incorrect.
Elliott's view is most likely correct.
Algorithms may be linking Elliott with like-minded information.
Algorithms may be linking Elliott with like-minded information.
An anonymous survey is conducted to determine what percentage of the population of married
couples lies to their spouse, so the following survey question is formulated: "I don’t lie to my
spouse because that would be wrong," and participants are asked to select "true" or "false."
Which statement is true with respect to this study question?
- Not good, because the question may lead participants to answer in a certain way.
- Not good, because it fails to consider the participant’s motives.
- Good, because it addresses the central issue in the study.
- Good, because the study is anonymous.
Not good, because the question may lead participants to answer in a certain way.
A report concludes that people who drive red cars get more speeding tickets than people who
drive other color cars. Based on this report, an individual concludes that red cars encourage
people to drive fast.
Which concept does this conclusion illustrate?
The principle of charity
Anchoring
Selection bias
Representativeness
Selection bias
To understand how people in a county feel about a proposed increase in property taxes, a person
walks door-to-door in his neighborhood, asking people to complete a survey.
Which two statements are true with regard to this statistical sample? Choose 2 answers.
Not good because it lacks validity
Good because it is sound
Not good because it is not representative
Not good because it is not random
Not good because it is not representative
Not good because it is not random
A young person is wearing a tie-dyed shirt and driving a Volkswagen (VW) bus. Based on this,
another individual concludes that this person has liberal political views.
Which bias does this reasoning reflect?
Availability bias
Anchoring and adjustment bias
Confirmation bias
Representativeness bias
Representativeness bias
A military veteran is engaged in a heated debate about national security with a reporter who has
never served in the military.
Which response best enables the veteran to undermine the reporter's argument?
- Pointing out that the premise of the reporter's argument is flawed
- Pointing out the reporter's well-known reputation for taking faulty positions - Pointing out the
reporter's affiliation with news networks that are known to have a political slant to their coverage
- Pointing out that the reporter has never served in the military
Pointing out that the premise of the reporter's argument is flawed
n a political science debate, Student A says she supports raising the national minimum wage to
$15 an hour. Student B disagrees with Student A’s position.
Which response from Student B is a red herring fallacy?
- Student B stating her concern about international policy
- Student B stating the $15 rate would not help to lift poor families above the poverty line
- Student B stating businesses cannot offset the hourly wage increase by raising the cost of goods
and services
- Student B stating Student A does not have a background in economics
Student B stating her concern about international policy
Reese’s partner was unfaithful, and this led to the end of their relationship; Reese has decided to
avoid relationships because people cannot be trusted.
Which fallacy of weak induction is exemplified in this argument?
Slippery slope
Hasty generalization
Equivocation
Appeal to ignorance
Hasty generalization
Which two statements depict the fallacy of presumption called begging the question? Choose 2
answers.
- The universe could not have been created from nothing, so it must have been created by the big
bang.
- People who lack humility have no sense of beauty, because everyone who has a sense of beauty
also has humility.
- Real estate is the best investment because every other type of investment is inferior.
- Washington DC is the capital city of the United States of America.
- People who lack humility have no sense of beauty, because everyone who has a sense of beauty
also has humility.
- Real estate is the best investment because every other type of investment is inferior.
There is a conversation in which a woman expresses disappointment with her friend for not
picking her up at the airport. In response, the friend says, "Well, you never returned the
wheelbarrow I let you borrow."
Which response best matches this fallacy of relevance?
Red herring
False cause
Genetic fallacy
Straw figure
Red herring
"A recent study found that dairy milk is healthier than soy milk. But that finding is obviously
false because the study was conducted by the dairy industry."
Which fallacy of relevance is depicted in this example?
Post hoc ergo propter
Irrelevant appeal
Begging the question
Genetic fallacy
Genetic fallacy
Aircraft and ships have gone missing all over the planet under unknown circumstances, but a
number of these disappearances have occurred in an area of the North Atlantic Ocean known as
the Bermuda Triangle. So the claim that the Bermuda Triangle is haunted must be true.
Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this argument?
Burden of proof shifting
Slippery slope
Appeal to ignorance
Texas sharpshooter
Texas sharpshooter
Texas Sharpshooter
an informal fallacy that is committed when similarities in data are overemphasized.
"If you are not at the game rooting for our high school football team, then you must not have any
school spirit."
Which two statements accurately describe this argument? Choose 2 answers.
- The argument includes a false dichotomy.
- The argument assumes the truth of the conclusion in the premise.
- The argument contains black-and-white thinking.
- The argument mistakes causation for correlation.
- The argument includes a false dichotomy.
- The argument contains black-and-white thinking.
Which statement is the burden of proof fallacy?
- A mother tells her child it is time to go to bed, and when the child asks why, the mother
responds, "Because I said so."
- Proponents of sex education want to give kids license to have sex with no consequences.
- A hiker claims that Big Foot is real. When asked for evidence of Big Foot's existence, the hiker
replies, 'prove Big Foot is not real.
- "Since you have not been able to prove you did not steal the bicycle, I will assume you are
guilty."
A hiker claims that Big Foot is real. When asked for evidence of Big Foot's existence, the hiker
replies, 'prove Big Foot is not real.
Since I received high marks in the course, I conclude that Professor Murdock is a good teacher.
What is the unstated assumption in this argument?
- Students like and respect Mrs. Murdock.
- Mrs. Murdock’s class is lacking in educational rigor.
- Students who do homework and study for exams get good grades.
- A teacher is good if the teacher gives good grades.
A teacher is good if the teacher gives good grades.
Which sentence is a non-proposition?
- If the burglar did not go out the front door, they must have gone out a window.
- The earth is the third planet from the sun.
- Where are the keys to my car?
- Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world.
Where are the keys to my car?
Did the company really close that deal? It has had a great year. Where is the president right now?
Let's go ask whether the deal was closed.
In the above paragraph, which sentence expresses a proposition?
- Where is the president right now?
- Did the company really close that deal?
- Let's go ask whether the deal was closed.
- It has had a great year.
It has had a great year.
Propositions
Statements that can be true or false.
Non-propositions
Sentences that are not statements about matters of fact (or fiction). They do not make a claim that
can be true or false.
Which sentence expresses a complex proposition?
- Birthday parties can be really fun.
- The cat ate the food, but did not like it.
- Too many employees are used to high-stress work environments in the United States.
- Why did the monkey escape, and who is responsible?
The cat ate the food, but did not like it.
If the computer is not fixed, then the company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able
to keep up productivity.
Which of the following breaks down the complex proposition above into the simple
propositions?
- If the computer is not fixed, then the company needs to buy a new one. The company will not
be able to keep up productivity.
- The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not
be able to keep up productivity.
- The computer is not fixed. The company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to
keep up productivity.
- The company does not have enough computers.
The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be
able to keep up productivity.
Simple propositions
Simple propositions have no internal logical structure, meaning whether they are true or false
does not depend on whether part of them is true or false. They are simply true or false on their
own.
Complex propositions
Complex propositions have internal logical structure, meaning they are composed of simple
propositions. Whether they are true or false depends on whether their parts are true or false.
If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time. How many times have
we heard the manager complain about tardiness? Nobody likes a 7 a.m. start time, but it was in
the job description. We should remind the new employee how important this is.
Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph?
- The new employee wants to succeed.
- How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness?
- The employees look out for each other.
- If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time.
The new employee wants to succeed.
The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us. Many
people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they
can go to get care. What can be done to improve this? If changes are not made soon, the problem
will only get worse.
Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph?
- Many people are not sure where they can go to get care.
- The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us.
- What can be done to improve this?
- Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure
where they can go to get care.
Many people are not sure where they can go to get care.
Bad inferential structure
Every argument with the same structure as this argument is bad (invalid or weak). The premises
do not, in fact, demonstrate or maybe even support the conclusion. In other words, we can accept
the premises as true without being compelled to accept the conclusion. There is something wrong
with this argument's general structure.
False premise
This particular argument has a premise/assumption that is false. There is something wrong with
this argument's particular content.
Conclusion Indicators
Therefore, so, it follows that, hence, thus, entails that, we may conclude that, implies that,
wherefore, as a result
Premise Indicators
Because, for, given that, in that, as, since, as indicated by
"Since we cannot go out until the restaurant opens, and given that we are trying to save money,
we should just hang out here until closer to dinner."
Which statements are the premises of the following argument? Choose 2 answers.
- We cannot go out until the restaurant opens.
- We are trying to save money.
- We should just hang out here until closer to dinner.
- We can have a good time without spending money.
- We cannot go out until the restaurant opens.
- We are trying to save money.
Most students in the class scored less than 70% on the exam. This means that the exam was too
difficult to accurately assess student learning. Therefore, as exams are supposed to accurately
assess student learning, the exam must be revised and readministered.
Which statement is the conclusion of the above argument?
- The exam must be revised and readministered.
- Some students in the class scored higher than 70% on the exam.
- Exams are supposed to accurately assess student learning.
- Most students in the class scored less than 70% on the exam.
The exam must be revised and readministered.
Which sentences are arguments? Choose 2 answers.
- We know the student cheated on the exam because the instructor caught the student stealing
glances at their neighbor's test.
- The student only cheated on the exam because their financial aid depended on it.
- No one has ever been to the moon, so we do not know that it is not made of cheese.
- If you suspect you have been infected with rabies, then you should contact a medical
professional immediately.
- We know the student cheated on the exam because the instructor caught the student stealing
glances at their neighbor's test.
- No one has ever been to the moon, so we do not know that it is not made of cheese.
Which pairs of sentences are arguments? Choose 2 answers.
- Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the
available time.
- We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon
become inhospitable to human life.
- John Lennon was shot and killed. So were Bobby Kennedy and his brother John.
- One student cheated on the test. But it was only because the student felt ill prepared.
- Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the
available time.
- We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon
become inhospitable to human life.
I just heard the news about Riley's car. It was vandalized last Saturday. There is no doubt Jordan
did it. I went to the bowling alley that night. I bowled a 160! Anyway, I saw Jordan there and,
although it was barely noticeable, I definitely saw paint on Jordan's shirt. It is unlikely there
would be paint on Jordan's shirt unless Jordan had spray-painted Riley's car. It is a shame, really,
since it was such a nice shirt. It was the green one. Oh, and you know Jordan has motive. After
all, Jordan has a well-known grudge against Riley. You remember when Riley borrowed Jordan's
lawnmower and did not return it. And there was opportunity, because Jordan does not work on
the weekend and usually stays home watching television. But the lightning storm earlier last
week short-circuited Jordan's TV set. Besides, they canceled Jordan's favorite Saturday evening
show.
Which description best characterizes the above?
- A story
An argument
Kinds of Inferences
Deduction
Induction
Inference to the best explanation or abduction
Deduction
arguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion
— mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition
Induction
arguments where the premises make the conclusion probable
— analogies, authority, causal inferences, scientific reasoning, extrapolations, etc.
Inference to the best explanation or abduction
arguments where the best available explanation is chosen as the correct explanation
Truth
A true proposition accurately represents reality.
Validity
In a good deductive argument structure, true premises make the conclusion necessarily true. (If
not, it is an invalid structure.)
Soundness
The deductive argument is valid and all premises are true premises. (If not, it is an unsound
argument.)
Sound Argument
All True Premises + Valid Structure
Strength
In a strong inductive argument, true premises make the conclusion probably true.
Cogency
Strong inductive arguments with all true premises are cogent.
Consider the following argument: Smith inspected 990 jellybeans in the jar. Each of the beans
Smith inspected is red. Therefore, all 1000 of the beans in the jar are red.
Which kind of argument is this?
- A strong argument
- Deductive argument
- A weak argument
- A valid argument
A strong argument
Some arguments are such that the premises of the argument entail its conclusion, which means
that if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.
What are such arguments called?
- Inductive arguments
- Abductive arguments
- Fallacious arguments
- Valid arguments
Valid arguments
Consider the following argument: If Jones is a baseball player, then Jones is an athlete. Jones is a
baseball player. Thus, Jones is an athlete.
Which kind of argument is this?
- A conditional proposition
- A valid argument
- A strong argument
- An invalid argument
A valid argument
In deductive reasoning, what is the difference between validity and soundness?
- Validity concerns the truth of an argument's premises, but soundness requires a high degree of
probability.
- Validity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and
true premises.
- Validity concerns an argument's probability, but soundness requires clearly defined terms.
- Validity concerns the inductive strength of an argument, but soundness requires both strength
and plausible premises.
Validity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and
true premises.
Which sentences reflect strong critical thinking? Choose 2 answers.
- I disagree with my opponent's position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am
curious to hear their thoughts on the matter.
- I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best
approach to a problem.
- Unlike some others, I do not jump to conclusions, nor am I biased.
- While I am open to discussion on the topic, I am committed to my position because I know it is
right.
- I disagree with my opponent's position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am
curious to hear their thoughts on the matter.
- I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best
approach to a problem.
Which sentences are propositions? Choose 2 answers.
- Hey, let's go to lunch at noon today.
- Mangino's has the best pizza.
- They will likely put the other restaurants out of business.
- Do you like Mangino's pizza?
- Mangino's has the best pizza.
- They will likely put the other restaurants out of business.
Which statement is a simple proposition?
- Because I was dressed for work, I took an umbrella and ran to my car.
- I had a work deadline approaching, so I ate lunch at my desk and finished my work.
- I stopped at the grocery store and bought some milk.
- By noon, the sun was shining.
By noon, the sun was shining.
Which indicator is a premise indicator?
- Hence
- Because
- Thus
- Therefore
Because
Because flying cars will relieve traffic congestion, and since the research and development of
such vehicles will be expensive, it follows that the government should encourage industry to
develop flying cars and banks should help fund industry research.
Which phrases contain conclusions of this argument? Choose 2 answers.
- Flying cars will relieve traffic congestion
- The research and development of such vehicles will be expensive
- The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
- Banks should help fund industry research
- The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
- Banks should help fund industry research
Dogs are bred for many different purposes. Poodles, for example, make good house pets, while
German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection. Therefore, because it
is important to select the right breed for your needs, you should carefully research dog breeds to
make the right choice.
Which statement is the conclusion of the argument?
- German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection.
- Dogs are bred for many different purposes.
- You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.
- It is important to select the right breed for your needs.
You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.
Everyone should vote ___________________.
Which phrase would form an argument when added to this sentence?
- because it is their duty
- for the most honest candidate
- in their assigned district
- before the deadline
because it is their duty
People have fought for freedom since the beginning of time.
Which descriptor best characterizes this sentence?
- Proposition
- Inference
- Weak argument
- Strong argument
Proposition
Jordan says, "I am the best student at our high school; I am the tallest and most athletic, and I
have the best car." Taylor, Jordan's best friend, totally agrees.
Which two descriptors best characterize Jordan's comments? Choose two answers.
- Weak argument
- Proposition
- Inference
- Strong argument
- Weak argument
- Inference
All dogs are cute. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger is cute.
Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?
- Deductive
- Invalid
- Inductive
- Abductive
Deductive
Usually when the audience comes out of a theater laughing, that means the film was funny. The
audience leaving the theater after this film is laughing. So the film probably is funny.
Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?
- Valid
- Sound
- Inductive
- Deductive
Inductive
All dogs can fly. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger can fly.
Which types of reasoning are illustrated in this example? Choose 2 answers.
- Deductive
- Valid
- True
- Sound
- Deductive
- Valid
An individual drops hundreds of objects, and each time they fall to the ground. The individual
therefore concludes that if someone drops a pencil, it will fall.
Which terms describe the argument? Choose 2 answers.
- Deductive
- Valid
- Strong
- Cogent
- Strong
- Cogent
If I am bald, then I am old. I am old. Therefore, I am bald.
Which type of logic error is this an example of?
- Begging the question
- The fallacy fallacy
- Denying the antecedent
- Affirming the consequent
Affirming the consequent
If I am a soldier, then I am brave. I am not a soldier. Therefore, I am not brave.
Which type of logic error is this an example of?
- Affirming the consequent
- Denying the antecedent
- Begging the question
- The fallacy fallacy
Denying the antecedent
One should never cheat on a test, since cheating is wrong.
Which type of logic error is this an example of?
- Affirming the consequent
- Denying the antecedent
- Begging the question
- The fallacy fallacy
Begging the question
My opponent argues that the earth is round because Dr. Evil shaped it that way using his satellite
mounted laser. Since Dr. Evil is a fictitious character, you must reject the argument that the earth
is round.
This is an example of which type of logic error?
- Denying the antecedent
- Affirming the consequent
- Begging the question
- The fallacy fallacy
The fallacy fallacy
Which of the following is an accurate characterization of "fallacy" as that term is used in logic?
- A fallacy is a formal violation of a state law.
- A fallacy is a false claim.
- A fallacy is a deliberate attempt to deceive.
- A fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning.
A fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning.
Formal Fallacy
The word "formal" refers to the structure of things.
Informal Fallacy
Informal fallacies have a problem with their content.
A formal fallacy concerns _______, but an informal fallacy concerns _______.
the structure of an argument
By definition, a formal fallacy concerns the structure of an argument and an informal fallacy
concerns the information contained in the argument's structure.
A formal fallacy is a type of _______.
Bad argument structure
Formality is associated with structure.
Which questions are most appropriate for evaluating the credibility of an information source?
Choose 2 answers.
- Who funded it?
- Does it try to get you to distrust other sources?
- Does it support your beliefs and values?
- Is it free of bias?
- Who funded it?
- Does it try to get you to distrust other sources?
Which study is most likely to be corrupted by bias?
- A study by the marketing department of an oil company determining the best use of the
company's advertising dollars
- A study by a group representing organic farmers examining the health benefits of eating
organic foods
- A study by an independent research group detailing the effects of global warming
- A study by a nonpartisan polling firm showing strong support for a new tax levy
- A study by a group representing organic farmers examining the health benefits of eating
organic foods
Which questions can best help readers avoid being misled by fake news? Choose 2 answers.
- Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?
- Does the story support your political views?
- Has the subject of a negative story dismissed it as fake news?
- Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story?
- Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?
- Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story?
Which of the following are reasons for applying the principle of charity? Choose 2 answers.
- It makes debates easier to win.
- It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt.
- It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue.
- It makes one look good by making one's opponent look weak.
- It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt.
- It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue.
Which passage best demonstrates the principle of charity?
- Shae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers
on the ground even though our planet really is round.
- Morgan said, "The new tax levy to support local schools is too expensive." Morgan must think
education is unimportant.
- Reese said, "The oil industry has contributed to climate change." Reese must believe the oil
industry is responsible for every natural disaster that occurs.
- Campbell said, "People convicted of theft should not automatically receive harsh prison
sentences." Campbell must mean that people who steal should never be punished.
Shae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers
on the ground even though our planet really is round.
Smith is committed to the belief that technological advancement is always beneficial and thus
never detrimental to human life. Smith reads a carefully written and sufficiently argued essay in
which the author contends that the human adoption of any new technology involves both
advantages and disadvantages to its adopters. Since Smith is a loyal technophile, Smith accepts
the author's claims about the advantages of technology but rejects the author's claims about the
disadvantages of technology.
Which cognitive bias is Smith demonstrating?
- Dunning-Kruger effect
- Self-serving bias
- Optimism bias
- Confirmation bias
Confirmation bias
Cognitive bias
The way we naturally categorize and make sense of the world around us.
Alief
An automatic belief-like attitude that can explain how our instinctual responses can conflict with
our reasoned-out beliefs.
Heuristic
a rule of thumb, a ready strategy, or a shortcut
Which of the following is an example of the anchoring bias?
- Ortega is inclined to accept relevant evidence that supports his views about religion, but to
deny relevant evidence that counts against his views.
- Smith accepts a belief only because all of his friends accept it.
- Miller possesses a good deal of knowledge about her profession, which is banking. She
therefore concludes that she also knows a good deal about political science.
- Jones collects five pieces of evidence to support a belief, but arbitrarily emphasizes the first
piece of evidence.
Jones collects five pieces of evidence to support a belief, but arbitrarily emphasizes the first
piece of evidence.
Algorithm bubble
The curated and personalized version of online reality that a website shows you when you log
on.
Availability heuristic
A process where in the mind generalizes based on what is available to it rather than on what is
objectively true.
Which of the following is a form of cognitive bias?
The false dilemma fallacy
The Peter Principle
Begging the question
Alief
Alief
Which of the following is most likely to be most impacted by cognitive bias?
- A social media post from a nonexpert concerning a controversial topic
- A peer-reviewed academic journal
- A newspaper article about a recent baseball game
- A history textbook written by a reputable historian
A social media post from a nonexpert concerning a controversial topic
Which type of generalization is rationally acceptable?
- A generalization treated as if there were no exceptions, when in fact there is at least one
exception
- A generalization based on an adequate number of relevant cases
- A generalization based on an unfair stereotype
- A generalization based on an insufficient sample
A generalization based on an adequate number of relevant cases
Which of the following is the most relevant question to ask when seeking to identify an
unwarranted statistical generalization?
- Does the generalization follow at least one rule of deductive logic?
- Does the generalization confirm what you already believe?
- Is the generalization consistent with popular beliefs in your society?
- Is the generalization based on a sufficient number of germane samples?
Is the generalization based on a sufficient number of germane samples?
The Bright Tooth toothpaste company runs the following advertisement: "Use Bright Tooth
toothpaste. Nine out of ten dentists recommend it!" You decide to research this claim. You
discover that the Bright Tooth toothpaste company surveyed only ten carefully selected dentists,
nine of whom expressed support for Bright Tooth toothpaste. You also learn that, as of 2019,
there were 200,419 dentists in the United States alone. Which error is committed in the
advertisement?
- Selection bias
- Thinking Slow
- Selective attention
- Unfair stereotype
Selection bias
Which is the best example of System 1 thinking?
- Researching different candidates' tax plans to determine how to vote
- Automatically forming a judgment about someone based on how they are dressed
- Splitting the bill with friends at a restaurant
- Consulting multiple sources to form an investment plan
Automatically forming a judgment about someone based on how they are dressed
Which is the best example of System 2 thinking?
- Choosing the best college for one's child
- Realizing, due to a crashing sound, that something happened upstairs
- Thinking that food is rotten because it smells bad
- Solving the equation 1+3=?
Choosing the best college for one's child
System 1 Thinking
This is quick, automatic thinking
System 2 Thinking
This is deliberate thinking
When asked how likely it is for an urban cyclist to get in an accident, a survey respondent
remembered that their friend got into a cycling accident last week. This makes them conclude
that cycling accidents are fairly likely.
Which statement is correct about the source of bias in the passage and how to avoid its impact?
- This is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that
come to mind are truly representative of the world at large.
- This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by seeking out the best arguments for alternative
viewpoints.
- This is availability bias. It is best avoided by going with one's instincts and avoiding too much
deliberation.
- This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by staying fixed in one's beliefs and not allowing
outside influences to change one's views.
This is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that
come to mind are truly representative of the world at large.
Which statement about how to respond to bias is correct?
- Different forms of bias are best responded to in different ways, depending on how they impact
a person.
- Since humans are bound to be influenced by bias in everything they do, there is no point in
trying to respond to bias.
- Humans are not influenced by bias.
- All different forms of bias can be responded to in the same way: by putting extra weight on any
conclusion that does not seem immediately plausible.
Different forms of bias are best responded to in different ways, depending on how they impact a
person.
Which piece of information would be the most helpful to know in assessing the credibility of a
news story?
- Whether the political party affiliation of the author is identified
- Whether the article contains video footage
- Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
- Whether there is widespread agreement with the story on social media
Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
While researching a topic on the internet, a student encounters two different websites, one of that
looks more official than the other and includes tables, charts, and statistics, while the other does
not.
What is the line of reasoning this student should employ to determine which site is more
credible?
- Neither site is credible, unless one of the two is truly an official government website run by a
government agency.
- The site that looks more official with tables, charts, and statistics is more credible because it
reflects professionalism and objectivity.
- It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.
- The site that looks less official and does not include tables, charts, and statistics is more
credible because it is more straightforward and objective.
It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.
In which way should an information source be approached if it is stating that it is the only source
of real information and that other sources cannot be trusted?
- Confidently, because the source likely has exclusive information.
- Skeptically, because the source may lack credibility.
- Confidently, because the source is concerned with telling the true story.
- Skeptically, because the source reflects a formal fallacy.
Skeptically, because the source may lack credibility.
Two politicians are engaged in a debate about healthcare. The first politician claims that human
beings have a right to access healthcare. The second politician responds that this claim is unclear.
He asks, "What do you mean by 'right' and 'access'?" The first politician responds by claiming
that voters support accessible healthcare.
Which fallacy is the first politician committing?
- The false dilemma fallacy
- The red herring fallacy
- The equivocation fallacy
- The ad hominem fallacy
The red herring fallacy
Which of the following is a fallacy of relevance?
- The fallacy of hasty generalization
- The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
- The fallacy of anthropomorphism
- The genetic fallacy
The genetic fallacy
A pen is a writing utensil. Sometimes, animals are kept in a pen. Thus, sometimes, animals are
kept in a writing utensil.
What fallacy is found in this argument?
- The fallacy of equivocation
- The fallacy of begging the question
- The fallacy of sweeping generalization
- The appeal to popularity fallacy
The fallacy of equivocation
Ad Hominem Fallacy (Latin for "to the man")
A fallacy of logic in which a person's character or motive is attacked instead of the person's
argument
Genetic Fallacy
Condemning an argument because of where it began, how it began, or who began it.
Straw Figure Fallacy
is committed when one misrepresents another's argument then attacks the misrepresented
(weaker) argument rather than the actual (stronger) argument.
red herring fallacy
the use of irrelevant material to divert attention
appeal to authority fallacy
error of accepting a claim merely because an authority figure endorses it
appeal to force (fallacy of relevance)
when one uses a threat to compel agreement with one's claim
Appeal to Popularity Fallacy
Arguing that a claim must be true because lots of people believe it.
appeal to consequences fallacy
when one appeals to the bad (or good) consequences of accepting a claim as a reason to reject (or
accept) it as true.
Fallacy of Equivocation
when one's argument mistakenly uses the same word in two different senses.
Conner and Miller are discussing the topic of intelligent life in other solar systems. Conner asks
Miller, "Do you believe that there is intelligent life in the Alpha Centauri planetary system?"
Miller replies, "I don't know that there isn't intelligent life there. There's no proof that there isn't.
So, I believe there is intelligent life in that planetary system."
Which fallacy did Miller commit?
- The false dilemma fallacy
- The fallacy of appeal to ignorance
- The fallacy of begging the question
- The fallacy of appeal to the people
The fallacy of appeal to ignorance
Suppose Jones believes that every morning that he steps out of his house with his right foot first,
he will have a good day. Jones believes this because last Tuesday morning he stepped out of his
house with his right foot first. Later in the day, he received a raise at work, his friends took him
to lunch, and he won $500 in the lottery.
Which fallacy did Jones commit?
- The fallacy of appeal to emotion
- The fallacy of wishful thinking
- The fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc
- The false dilemma fallacy
The fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc
What fallacy occurs when a person reasons that one event is likely to lead to another event due to
a chain of intermediary events, even though the probability of that entire chain being realized is
low?
- The slippery slope fallacy
- The fallacy of ad hominem
- The fallacy of avoiding the issue
- The bandwagon fallacy
The slippery slope fallacy
Which of the following is the most pertinent question to ask when trying to identify the fallacy of
begging the question?
- Are the premises known to be true?
- Is the argument relevant to the topic of the debate?
- Are any of the premises of the argument identical to the conclusion of the argument?
- Is the conclusion known to be true?
Are any of the premises of the argument identical to the conclusion of the argument?
Suppose a person argues that one and only one of two options is true. However, there are more
than two options. In other words, the argument looks like this:
Either p is true or q is true.
Q is not true.
Therefore, p is true.
However, there is a third option, r.
Which of the following fallacies is present in this argument?
- The fallacy of cherry-picking the evidence
- The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
- The fallacy of circular reasoning
- The false dilemma fallacy
The false dilemma fallacy
Suppose that Smith asserts a claim that could be true but seems implausible. Jones recognizes
this point and asks Smith to provide evidence for his claim. Smith responds: "Why don't you try
to disprove my claim?"
Which fallacy is found in this argument?
- The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
- The fallacy of oversimplification
- The fallacy of selective attention
- The red herring fallacy
The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
In which argument do premises (1) and (2) provide conjoint support for conclusion (3)?
- (1) Broccoli is high in important nutrients like vitamin C. (2) Broccoli also has antioxidants that
prevent cell damage. (3) I told you that broccoli was healthy!
- (1) If we fix our car, we will not have enough money for a vacation. (2) I guess we just have to
fix our car, though. (3) Therefore, we will not have enough money for a vacation.
- (1) The Titanic famously capsized in 1912, even though people thought it was very safe. (2)
There have been high-profile passenger plane crashes around the world. (3) Clearly traveling is
not without some risk.
- (1) The new candidate has significant experience in the field. (2) Furthermore, they were
recommended by someone I trust. (3) I think we should hire them.
(1) If we fix our car, we will not have enough money for a vacation. (2) I guess we just have to
fix our car, though. (3) Therefore, we will not have enough money for a vacation.
Which statement correctly identifies the subpremise, the main premise, and the main conclusion
in the following argument?
(1)The elementary school should run more earthquake drills next year. (2) We have reason to
believe that the likelihood of an earthquake is increasing because (3) a federal report released last
year said that our area's earthquake danger is on the rise.
- 1 is the main premise, 2 is the subpremise, and 3 is the main conclusion.
- 1 is the main premise, 2 is the main conclusion, and 3 is the subpremise.
- 1 is the main conclusion, 2 is the main premise, and 3 is the subpremise.
- 1 is the subpremise, 2 is the main premise, and 3 is the main conclusion.
1 is the main conclusion, 2 is the main premise, and 3 is the subpremise.
Main Conclusion
Final conclusion of the argument
Main Premise
One among the set of premises that directly support the main conclusion
Sub-inference
An inference from a premise to another premise
Sub-premise
premises that are supporting one of the main premise.
A premise in a sub-inference
Sub-conclusion
A conclusion in a sub-inference
premise
an assumption; the basis for a conclusion
We should buy an electric car. Granted, they are more expensive up front than gas cars, but we
have the money, and we will save on gas in the long run. Additionally, electric cars are better for
the environment. And they are becoming more stylish!
Which is a hidden assumption of the given argument?
- If something is better for the environment, then that counts in favor of choosing it.
- Gas cars will continue to become cheaper in the future as they lose popularity.
- Electric cars' batteries do not have any negative consequences for the environment.
- We do not have enough money for an electric car because we spent all our money on a vacation
this year.
If something is better for the environment, then that counts in favor of choosing it.
Which argument would require a conjoint, hidden assumption to be paired with premise (1)
when mapped?
- (1) We can either eat out at a restaurant or stay in. (2) We should not stay in. (3) So we should
go out to a restaurant.
- (1) If it had rained last night, the sidewalk would still be wet. (2) But the sidewalk is dry. (3) So
it must not have rained last night.
- (1) Out of all the movies we could watch tonight, Movie A is the funniest. (2) Therefore, we
should watch Movie A.
- (1) If we want to support a reasonable tax plan, we should vote for Candidate A. (2) We do
want to support a reasonable tax plan. (3) So we should vote for Candidate A.
(1) Out of all the movies we could watch tonight, Movie A is the funniest. (2) Therefore, we
should watch Movie A.
Map the given argument to help you understand its structure. Then, select which is a hidden
assumption of the argument.
(1) We really should be giving more foreign aid to developing nations. (2) It is desirable for the
people of the world to have a more equal access to resources, and (3) our nation has more
resources than developing nations do. (4) Foreign aid will help give them more equal access to
resources. Additionally, (5) there will be more international trade in the future once those nations
are further developed, and (6) foreign aid will help them further develop.
- In the past, international trade was not necessarily beneficial to developed nations.
- We should give more foreign aid to developing nations.
- Generosity is a virtue.
- It would be a good thing to increase international trade.
It would be a good thing to increase international trade.
Map the given argument to help you understand its structure. Then, select which is a hidden
assumption of the argument.
(1) Over 70% of residents say that traffic congestion is a major problem in our city. (2) The
research group that conducted that survey has a great track record, by the way. (3) And other
nearby cities that have invested in transportation have seen significant economic benefits. (4)
This all shows that it would be a good idea for our city to invest in transportation.
- Other nearby cities spent significant sums to build subway systems.
- Residents' levels of concern regarding transportation are higher than their concern regarding
education, public safety, or public recreation.
- If other nearby cities benefited economically from investing in transportation, our city is likely
to benefit as well.
- The research group has a perfect track record on surveys regarding economic issues in
particular.
If other nearby cities benefited economically from investing in transportation, our city is likely to
benefit as well.
Professor Smith fell asleep during class today. So Professor Smith is probably a bad teacher.
Which missing premise best completes the above argument?
- Some former students have given Professor Smith bad reviews online.
- Experts agree that falling asleep during class is a reliable sign of being a bad teacher.
- Professor Smith always gives me low grades even though I study hard.
- Experts agree that falling asleep during class is not a good teaching strategy.
Experts agree that falling asleep during class is a reliable sign of being a bad teacher.
Quinn started eating donuts for breakfast every day. Consequently, Quinn is likely to gain
weight.
Which missing premise best completes the above argument?
- Donuts are not healthy.
- Nutritionists have found that eating donuts for breakfast causes weight gain.
- Breakfast is the most important meal of the day.
- When I started eating donuts for breakfast, I gained five pounds by the third day.
Nutritionists have found that eating donuts for breakfast causes weight gain.
Which is the most plausible counterexample to the general moral principle that one should never
lie?
- Telling a lie to save innocent lives
- Telling a lie to get out of trouble
- Telling a lie to avoid paying income tax
- Telling a lie to land a dream job
Telling a lie to save innocent lives
A military veteran is engaged in a heated debate about national security with a reporter who has
never served in the military.
Which response best enables the veteran to undermine the reporter's argument?
- Pointing out that the premise of the reporter's argument is flawed
- Pointing out the reporter's well-known reputation for taking faulty positions
- Pointing out the reporter's affiliation with news networks that are known to have a political
slant to their coverage
- Pointing out that the reporter has never served in the military
Pointing out that the premise of the reporter's argument is flawed
In a political science debate, Student A says she supports raising the national minimum wage to
$15 an hour. Student B disagrees with Student A's position.
Which response from Student B is a red herring fallacy?
- Student B stating her concern about international policy
- Student B stating the $15 rate would not help to lift poor families above the poverty line
- Student B stating businesses cannot offset the hourly wage increase by raising the cost of goods
and services
- Student B stating Student A does not have a background in economics
Student B stating her concern about international policy
Reese's partner was unfaithful, and this led to the end of their relationship; Reese has decided to
avoid relationships because people cannot be trusted.
Which fallacy of weak induction is exemplified in this argument?
- Slippery slope
- Hasty generalization
- Equivocation
- Appeal to ignorance
Hasty generalization
Which two statements depict the fallacy of presumption called begging the question? Choose 2
answers.
- The universe could not have been created from nothing, so it must have been created by the big
bang.
- People who lack humility have no sense of beauty, because everyone who has a sense of beauty
also has humility.
- Real estate is the best investment because every other type of investment is inferior.
- Washington DC is the capital city of the United States of America.
- People who lack humility have no sense of beauty, because everyone who has a sense of beauty
also has humility.
- Real estate is the best investment because every other type of investment is inferior.
There is a conversation in which a woman expresses disappointment with her friend for not
picking her up at the airport. In response, the friend says, "Well, you never returned the
wheelbarrow I let you borrow."
Which response best matches this fallacy of relevance?
- Red herring
- False cause
- Genetic fallacy
- Straw figure
Red herring
"A recent study found that dairy milk is healthier than soy milk. But that finding is obviously
false because the study was conducted by the dairy industry."
Which fallacy of relevance is depicted in this example?
- Post hoc ergo propter
- Irrelevant appeal
- Begging the question
- Genetic fallacy
Genetic fallacy
Aircraft and ships have gone missing all over the planet under unknown circumstances, but a
number of these disappearances have occurred in an area of the North Atlantic Ocean known as
the Bermuda Triangle. So the claim that the Bermuda Triangle is haunted must be true.
Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this argument?
- Burden of proof shifting
- Slippery slope
- Appeal to ignorance
- Texas sharpshooter
Texas sharpshooter
"If you are not at the game rooting for our high school football team, then you must not have any
school spirit."
Which two statements accurately describe this argument? Choose 2 answers.
- The argument includes a false dichotomy..
- The argument assumes the truth of the conclusion in the premise.
- The argument contains black-and-white thinking.
- The argument mistakes causation for correlation.
- The argument includes a false dichotomy.
- The argument contains black-and-white thinking.
Which statement is the burden of proof fallacy?
- A mother tells her child it is time to go to bed, and when the child asks why, the mother
responds, "Because I said so."
- Proponents of sex education want to give kids license to have sex with no consequences.
- A hiker claims that Big Foot is real. When asked for evidence of Big Foot's existence, the hiker
replies, 'prove Big Foot is not real.
- "Since you have not been able to prove you did not steal the bicycle, I will assume you are
guilty."
A hiker claims that Big Foot is real. When asked for evidence of Big Foot's existence, the hiker
replies, 'prove Big Foot is not real.
Since I received high marks in the course, I conclude that Professor Murdock is a good teacher.
What is the unstated assumption in this argument?
- Students like and respect Mrs. Murdock.
- Mrs. Murdock's class is lacking in educational rigor.
- Students who do homework and study for exams get good grades.
- A teacher is good if the teacher gives good grades.
A teacher is good if the teacher gives good grades.
PROPOSITIONS
Are statements that can be true or false
NON-PROPOSITONS
Are sentences that are not statements about matters of fact or fiction. They do not make a claim
that can be true or false.
SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS
Have no internal logic structure, meaning whether they are true or false does not depend on
whether a part of them is true or false. They are simply true or false on their own. (Example:
Harry Potter wears glasses. The sky is blue.)
COMPLEX PROPOSITIONS
Have internal logic structure, meaning they are composed of simple propositions. Whether they
are true or false depends on whether their parts are true or false. (Example: The sky is blue, but it
does not look blue to me right now. The cat ate the food, but he did not like it. The GDP of
Canada is either $3 trillion or $12 trillion.)
Words used to identify Independent Propositions
AND, OR, EITHER, BUT, IF, THEN.
CONCLUSION INDICATORS
THEREFORE, SO, IT FOLLOWS THAT, HENCE, THUS, ENTAILS THAT, WE MAY
CONCLUDE THAT, IMPLIES THAT, WHEREFORE, AND AS A RESULT.
PREMISE INDICATORS
BECAUSE, FOR, GIVEN THAT, AS, SINCE, AS INDICATED BY.
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
Arguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion.
-mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition.
INDUCTION ARGUMENTS
Arguments where the premises make the conclusion probable.
-analogies, authority, causal inferences, extrapolations, etc.
INFERENCE TO THE BEST EXPLANATION OR ABDUCTION
Arguments where the best available explanation is chosen as the correct explanation.
FORMAL FALLACY
Concerns the structure of an argument
INFORMAL FALLACY
Concerns the informational content of an argument
A FORMAL FALLACY IS A TYPE OF
Bad Argument Structure
Which piece of information would be the most helpful to know in assessing the credibility of a
news story?
Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
Which questions are most appropriate for evaluating the credibility of an information source?
Who funded it? & Does it try to get you to distrust other sources?
While researching a topic on the internet, a student encounters two different websites, one of that
looks more official than the other and includes tables, charts, and statistics, while the other does
not.
What is the line of reasoning this student should employ to determine which site is more
credible?
It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.
In which way should an information source be approached if it is stating that it is the only source
of real information and that other sources cannot be trusted?
Skeptically, because the source may lack credibility.
PRINCIPLE OF CHARITY
The principle of charity suggests we should try to understand ideas before criticizing them.
Which of the following are reasons for applying the principle of charity?
It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt.
It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue.
Smith is committed to the belief that technological advancement is always beneficial and thus
never detrimental to human life. Smith reads a carefully written and sufficiently argued essay in
which the author contends that the human adoption of any new technology involves both
advantages and disadvantages to its adopters. Since Smith is a loyal technophile, Smith accepts
the author's claims about the advantages of technology but rejects the author's claims about the
disadvantages of technology.
Which cognitive bias is Smith demonstrating?
Confirmation Bias
CONFIRMATION BIAS
the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories.
COGNITIVE BIAS
a systematic thought process caused by the tendency of the human brain to simplify information
processing through a filter of personal experience and preferences.
HEURISTICS
are practical rules of thumb that manifest as mental shortcuts in judgment and decision-making.
Which sentence reflects strong critical thinking?
"In any event, our purpose is to better understand the relevant issues so that we may make an
informed decision on the topic."
Since inflation is rising rapidly, and because we are approaching the point at which reversal is
not possible, it follows that we need to institute a new economic policy, and we need to act
quickly.Which two statements contain premises of the given argument?
We are approaching the point at which reversal is not possible. & Inflation is rising rapidly.
"Products manufactured in our country are the best because we make the best automobiles,"
declared Kennedy. Which two descriptors best characterize Kennedy's comments?
An inference & A weak argument & A proposition
Which two sentences are propositions?
Lending helps stimulate capital investment. & A strong economy is vital to national security.
I have grown bored since last week. Which descriptor accurately characterizes this sentence?
Proposition
People should pay their taxes since paying taxes is the right thing to do. Which type of logic
error is this an example of?
Begging the question
One should not speed because speeding is wrong.Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Begging the question
My opponent argues that kangaroos can hop because hopping is something that kangaroos are
able to do. Since my opponent has committed the fallacy of begging the question, one must infer
that their conclusion is false, and that kangaroos cannot hop. Which type of logic error is this an
example of?
The fallacy fallacy
If Bo is kind, then Bo is wealthy. Bo is wealthy. Therefore, Bo is kind. This is an example of
which type of logic error?
Affirming the consequent
Which type of logic error is the following argument an example of? "My opponents argue that all
giraffes have long necks because anyone who disagrees is a fool. Since my opponents are guilty
of the ad hominem fallacy, we must infer that their conclusion is false, and that giraffes do not
have long necks."
The fallacy fallacy
Usually when home team fans come out smiling and celebrating at the conclusion of a match,
that means the home team won. At the conclusion of the match, many home team fans came out
smiling and celebrating. I, therefore, concluded that the home team won. Which term describes
this argument?
Inductive
I have seen the sun rise every day for many years. I, therefore, conclude that the sun will rise
again tomorrow. Which term describes this argument?
Cogent
All bears are wild. Smokey is a bear. Therefore, Smokey is wild. Which term describes the
argument?
Deductive
Which statement is accurate regarding bias in information sources?
All sources have bias, but some are more credible than others.
A news outlet issues a correction and an apology for incorrect information it published. In the
absence of further information, what does this news outlet's action suggest about its credibility?
The source appears credible because it is concerned with accuracy.
Which two characterizations are most accurate regarding the credibility of information sources?
The credibility of sources spans a spectrum. & Sources may lack credibility for a variety of
reasons.
Why is identifying the author essential in determining a source's credibility?
It helps to determine if the author has relevant expertise.
What is a logical step for critical thinkers to take if they are uncertain about the reliability of a
source?
Verify the reliability of a source by cross-referencing with additional source materials.
Which statement represents a logical reaction to a source claiming to be free from bias?
"This can't be true because all sources contain bias."
How could podcasts, newscasts, and talk radio be less biased?
By featuring experts who offer contrary viewpoints
What are two ways in which the internet has complicated a critical thinking approach to finding
reliable sources?
Sources are more easily located yet not consistently credible. & Sources are more easily located
but still need to be verified.
Which factor should people focus on when evaluating internet-based information sources for
credibility?
Content
Why should people read other articles published by the same source when they locate an article
of interest on the internet?
To determine whether the source publishes sensationalized or overtly biased stories
A person encounters an internet source with a headline of "This is NOT a hoax!" Which
conclusion would be reasonable for this person to make?
The content is sensationalized.
For which two reasons do critical thinkers follow the principle of charity?
To discover the truth & To present a more convincing argument
Which two descriptions accurately characterize the nature of human beliefs?
Subject to bias & Sometimes irrational
Why can heuristics be advantageous?
They enable individuals to make quick decisions.
An individual read a report that professional athletes spend an average of thirty hours per week
exercising at the gym. Based on this report, the individual concludes that people who belong to a
gym spend an average of thirty hours per week exercising. Which concept does this conclusion
illustrate?
Selection bias & Anchoring
Quinn favors strict industry regulations. Robin disagrees because they would increase costs for
many businesses and stifle the economy. Robin does, however, understand and acknowledge that
industrial operations have environmental and social impacts and that regulatory measures may
help prevent unnecessary harm. Which argumentation concept does this passage illustrate?
The principle of charity & Heuristics
Which argumentation concept does the following passage illustrate? "Some people point to the
large number of unidentified flying object sightings and the discovery of many earth-like planets
in the universe as evidence of extraterrestrial life. I don't take this evidence seriously, though,
because I do not believe in extraterrestrial life."
Confirmation bias
A person is buying a car. The car salesperson initially quotes a base price. The buyer relies on
this initial quote to make a purchasing decision despite the subsequent addition of options that
significantly increase the final price. Which cognitive bias is the buyer exhibiting?
Anchoring and adjustment
A university student surveys incoming freshmen to understand how students at the university
feel about a proposed tuition increase. Which statements are true regarding this statistical
sample?
It is not representative. & It is not random.
Alex notices that many of the news articles, blogs, social media posts, and other information she
sees on the internet reinforce her belief that the government is conspiring against her. Based on
this information, which conclusion can Alex reasonably have regarding her view on the issue?
Her suspicion is correct. & She cannot conclude anything.
Why do strong critical thinkers monitor their own biases?
To minimize their biases & To understand how their biases influence their thinking
A person notices that many of the news articles, blogs, social media posts, and other information
he sees on the internet mirror his personal likes and dislikes. Based on this information, what can
this person reasonably conclude?
Algorithms may be linking him with like-minded information.
95% of American citizens are billionaires. Sam is an American citizen. Therefore, Sam is a
billionaire. Which set of terms classify this argument?
Valid and unsound & Strong and uncogent
A person is considering what transportation to use when visiting a friend in a different city. The
first thing that comes to mind is a recent news story about a train crash. They decide that the train
is not a safe travel option. What kind of bias are they exhibiting?
Availability bias
"Peyton is an excellent dentist, so she sings well." Which statement represents the hidden
assumption that would make this argument valid?
All excellent dentists sing well.
Which argument contains the general-specific pattern?
Dogs are a subspecies of a wolf and collie is a breed of dog, so collies are wolves.
Ren is an excellent barista, so he is a master chess player. Which statement represents the hidden
assumption that would best complete this argument?
Ren is very analytical. & Anyone who is an excellent barista must be a master chess player.
Traces of ammonia have been found in Mars' atmosphere. So there must be life on Mars.Which
statement summarizes the hidden assumption in the given argument?
Only living things produce ammonia.
"All dogs have four legs. Grover is a dog, because Grover barks like a dog. So Grover has four
legs." Which statement represents indirect support?
Grover barks like a dog.
"If magicians can pull rabbits out of hats, then magic is real. Magicians can pull rabbits out of
hats. Therefore, I know that magic is real." Which two statements represent conjoint support
when mapping this example to a body of propositions?
If magicians can pull rabbits out of hats, then magic is real. & Magicians can pull rabbits out of
hats.
Which two sentences reflect strong critical thinking?
My opponent's position is contrary to mine; my opponent, however, raises some good questions.
& I am unsure of the answer; I will need to research the issue further.
Which two statements best characterize the following argument?"Coffee has caffeine; therefore,
it has stimulating effects."
The argument includes a single premise. & The argument includes a single conclusion.
"There are not any good seafood restaurants in this city. I tried two, and they were both terrible."
Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this example?
Hasty generalization
A flight attendant accidentally spills a drink on a passenger. The passenger tells a friend that the
flight attendants for the airline are incompetent.Which fallacy of weak induction best describes
this example?
Hasty generalization
A teacher talks with a student about failing to turn in homework. The student replies by
expressing a desire to dress up as a superhero for Halloween. Which response best matches this
fallacy of relevance?
Red herring
Either everyone will devour this pecan pie, or they will choose another dessert. Which two
statements accurately describe this proposition?
The proposition mistakes causation for correlation. & The proposition contains black and white
thinking. & The proposition includes a false dichotomy.
Which fallacy of weak induction best describes the following example? "If we allow the children
to stay home from school today, they will expect to stay home every time it snows. Next they
will expect to stay home whenever it rains, when it is too cold, too hot, or even too nice outside.
Eventually the children will stay home from school every day."
Slippery slope
A soccer fan buys a jersey with his favorite player's name and number on the back. When the
player's performance decreases, the fan attributes it to the jersey he bought. Which fallacy of
weak induction best describes this argument?
Post hoc, ergo propter hoc
Equivocation Fallacy
The fallacy of equivocation occurs when a key term or phrase in an argument is used in an
ambiguous way, with one meaning in one portion of the argument and then another meaning in
another portion of the argument.
hasty generalization fallacy
The hasty generalization fallacy is sometimes called the over-generalization fallacy. It is
basically making a claim based on evidence that it just too small. Essentially, you can't make a
claim and say that something is true if you have only an example or two as evidence.
appeal to ignorance fallacy
This fallacy occurs when you argue that your conclusion must be true, because there is no
evidence against it.
Slippery slope fallacy
A slippery slope fallacy occurs when someone makes a claim about a series of events that would
lead to one major event, usually a bad event. In this fallacy, a person makes a claim that one
event leads to another event and so on until we come to some awful conclusion.
post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy
Post hoc ergo propter hoc is an informal fallacy that states: "Since event Y followed event X,
event Y must have been caused by event X." It is often shortened simply to post hoc fallacy
Shifting the burden of proof fallacy
Shifting the burden of proof, a special case of argumentum ad ignorantium, is the fallacy of
putting the burden of proof on the person who denies or questions the assertion being made. The
source of the fallacy is the assumption that something is true unless proven otherwise. EX: One
example of the burden of proof fallacy is someone who claims that ghosts exists, but doesn't
prove this, and instead shifts the burden of proof to others, by stating that anyone who disagrees
should prove ghosts don't exist.
Confirmation bias
Confirmation bias is the tendency of people to favor information that confirms their existing
beliefs or hypotheses. Confirmation bias happens when a person gives more weight to evidence
that confirms their beliefs and undervalues evidence that could disprove it.
Anchoring bias
Anchoring bias is a cognitive bias that causes us to rely too heavily on the first piece of
information we are given about a topic. When we are setting plans or making estimates about
something, we interpret newer information from the reference point of our anchor, instead of
seeing it objectively.
selection bias
Selection bias is a distortion in a measure of association (such as a risk ratio) due to a sample
selection that does not accurately reflect the target population. EX: Selection bias also occurs
when people volunteer for a study. Those who choose to join (i.e. who self-select into the study)
may share a characteristic that makes them different from non-participants from the get-go
sound argument
Soundness: An argument is sound if it meets these two criteria: (1) It is valid. (2) Its premises are
true.
valid argument
A valid argument is an argument in which the conclusion must be true whenever the hypotheses
are true. EX: "It rains only if I carry an umbrella" can be rewritten as "If it rains, then I carry an
umbrella."
"All citizens of Egypt speak Arabic." can be rewritten as "If someone is a citizen of Egypt, then
they speak Arabic."
unsound argument
An unsound argument is either an invalid argument or a valid argument with at least one false
premise. EX: All dogs are mammals. Therefore, dogs are cows. The above argument contains
true premises, but it is invalid since the conclusion doesn't logically follow from the premises.
Therefore, it is also an unsound argument.
strong argument
A strong argument is a non-deductive argument that succeeds in providing probable, but not
conclusive, logical support for its conclusion.
cogent argument
A cogent argument is an inductive argument that is both strong and all of its premises are true.
uncogent argument
An uncogent argument is an inductive argument that is either weak or has at least one false
premise.
Denying the Antecedent
also known as inverse error and fallacy of the inverse, is a logical fallacy whereby someone
fallaciously makes an inverse deduction in a conditional statement. It takes one cause as a
condition for something else to occur and then states that the latter won't occur when the
condition is observed to be untrue.
representativeness
is a logical fallacy whereby someone fallaciously makes an inverse deduction in a conditional
statement. It takes one cause as a condition for something else to occur and then states that the
latter won't occur when the condition is observed to be untrue.
Affirming the Consequent
is a logical fallacy that involves taking a true statement and assuming the converse form would
be true as well. Formally, we can represent this fallacy as follows: If X is the case, then Y is also
the case. Y is true, so X must be true as well.
anchoring and adjustment
the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by using a starting point (called an
anchor) and then making adjustments up or down (a cognitive heuristic where a person starts off
with an initial idea and adjusts their beliefs based on this starting point.)
availability
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come
readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common EX:
two girls saw a plane crash on the news and cancel their flight presuming they will meet the
same fate.
Principle of Charity
we should choose the reconstructed argument that gives the benefit of the doubt to the person
presenting the argument
the fallacy fallacy
is a logical fallacy that occurs when someone assumes that if an argument contains a logical
fallacy, then its conclusion must be false.
Inference
A conclusion one can draw from the presented details. EX: "if there is a storm, then the office is
closed." means "if the office is closed, then I don't go to work."
weak argument
a non-deductive argument that fails to provide probable support for its conclusion.
Critical Thinking: Reason and Evidence D265, D265 - WGU - Critical Thinking - Reason and
Evidence