INTRODUCTION TO MODERN BIOLOGY
Biology
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“Bios” – life
“Logos” – study
the science of life and living organism
Organisms
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a living en ty consis ng of one cell e.g. bacteria, or
several cells e.g. animals, plants and fungi.
Main Concepts
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the cell is the basic unit of life.
genes (consisting of DNA or RNA) are the basic unit
of heredity.
• evolution on accounts for the unity and diversity
seen among living organisms.
• all organisms survive by consuming and
transforming energy.
Three Main Divisions
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Botany
o Study of the plants.
Zoology
o Study of the animals.
Microbiology
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Study of the microorganisms.
Different Branches
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Morphology
o deals with the study of form and structures of
living organisms like shape, color, etc.
Anatomy
o the study of internal structures, like bones
and organs.
Histology
o study of tissues with the help of microscope.
Cell Biology
o the study of the structures and functions of
cells o also deals with the study of cell
division
Physiology
o Deals with the study of the functions of with
the study of the functions of different parts of
living organisms.
Molecular Biology
o Deals with a study of the molecules of me for
example water proteins lipids and nucleic
acids.
Genetics
o the study of genes and their roles in
inheritance
o Inheritance – the transmission of characters
from one generation to the other.
o Gene structure and function, variation, and
distribution are studied within the context of
the cell, the organism (e.g. dominance), and
within the context of a popula on.
Embryology
o the study of the development of an embryo to
new individual.
Taxonomy
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the study of the naming and classification of
organisms into groups and subgroups.
• Paleontology
o Study of fossils which are the remains of
organisms.
• Environmental Biology
o the study of the interactions between
organisms and their environment.
• Sociobiology
o this branch deals with the study of social
behavior of the animals to make society.
• Parasitology
o Deals with the study of parasites.
o Parasites – the organisms that take food and
shelter from living hosts and in return harm
them.
• Biotechnology
o deals with the practical application of living
organisms to make substances for the welfare
of mankind.
o utilizes biological systems, living organisms
or parts of this to develop or create different
products.
• Immunology
o study of the immune system of animals
which defends the against invading microbes.
• Entomology
o study of insects.
• Pharmacology
o study of drugs and their effects on human
body.
Microbiology
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the study of all living organisms that are too small to
be visible with the naked eye.
includes bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, prions,
protozoa and algae, collectively known as 'microbes'.
Biochemistry
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the branch of science that explores the chemical
processes within and related to living organisms.
a laboratory-based science that brings together
biology and chemistry.
Bioethics
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the study of the ethical issues emerging from
advances in biology and medicine.
It is also moral discernment as it relates to medical
policy and practice.
concerned with the ethical ques ons that arise in the
relationships among life sciences, biotechnology,
medicine, and medical ethics, politics, law, theology,
and philosophy.
includes the study of values relating to primary care
and other branches of medicine ("the ethics of the
ordinary").
Science
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a process for learning about the natural world.
Products: o Chemotherapy
o Genetics
o Treatment response
Scientific Method
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7.
a process used when conducting experiments and
exploring observations.
Ask a question
o will include one of the key starters, which
are how, what when, why, where, who or
which.
o should also be measurable and answerable
through experimentation.
o often something that can be measured with a
numerical result, although behavioral results
are part of the scientific method as well.
Perform Research
o conduct preliminary background research to
prepare yourself for the experiment.
Establish your hypothesis
o A hypothesis is an educated guess that seeks
to answer a question that can be
systematically tested.
Test your hypothesis by conducting an experiment
o test your hypothesis by conducting an
experiment.
Make an observation
o Assess your scientific process and make sure
that the conditions remain the same
throughout all testing measures.
Analyze the results and draw a conclusion
o You can now take your experiment findings
and analyze them to determine if they
support your hypothesis.
Present the findings
MICROBIOLOGY
Classification Of Microorganism
• Viruses
• Bacteria
• Archaea
• Protozoa
• Certain types of algae and fungi
Microbes
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Acellular Infectious Agents
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Phototropism is a plant’s response to
stimuli (turning toward the light).
Non-cellular objects that contaminate & affect living
cells.
PRIONS - An abnormal form of a normally harmless
protein found in the brain that is responsible for a
variety of fatal neurodegenerative diseases of
animals, including humans, called transmissible
spongiform encephalopathies.
VIRUS - Infectious agents of small size and simple
composition that can multiply only in animals,
plants, or bacteria living cells. The name is from a
Latin word meaning “slimy liquid” or “poison.”
Viruses cannot reproduce outside a host cell and
cannot metabolize on their own. Viruses often infect
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells causing diseases.
Cellular Microorganism
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Characteristics of Life
1. Adaptation through evolution
o All forms of life evolve adapt to the external
environment, change their heritable traits, and
prepare future generations for more efficient
life processes.
2. Cellular organization
o The general structures move along a line
from cell to tissue to organ to being, which
gives us the word “organism,” a living
thing with organ systems.
3. Growth and development
o Organisms reproduce with immature and
small copies of themselves to conserve
resources.
4. Heredity
o Life transfers characteristics to offspring
via deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA); these are the
building blocks of life.
5. Homeostasis
o Maintaining a stable internal environment.
6. Metabolism
o Chemical reactions inside cells, tissues,
organs, and living beings perform various
actions that keep the organism alive.
7. Reproduction
o Successful organisms reproduce.
8. Response to stimuli
an organism of microscopic size, which may exist in
its single-celled form or as a colony of cells.
organisms whose bodies are composed of cells.
Cellular organisms are further categorized into
unicellular and multicellular.
o Unicellular Organisms – organisms that
consist of one single cell.
o Multicellular organisms – composed of
many cells.
Prokaryotes
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A microscopic single-celled organism that has
neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other
specialized organelles.
ARCHAEA - prokaryotes with unique characteristics
that differentiate them from other forms of life.
o METHANOGENS - produce methane gas
as a metabolic byproduct.
o HALOPHILES - Thrive in high-salt
environments.
o THERMOPHILES - Adapted to extremely
high-temperature environments.
o ACIDOPHILES - Can survive and thrive in
acidic environments.
BACTERIA
o prokaryotic organisms, lacking a true
nucleus.
o ESCHERICHIA COLI - commonly found in
the intestines of humans and animals.
o STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS - Known
for causing skin infections, pneumonia, and
food poisoning, often found on the skin and
in the nose of healthy individuals.
o MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS responsible for tuberculosis, a serious
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infectious disease that primarily affects the
lungs.
LACTOBACILLUS - group of beneficial
bacteria found in the gut and used in the
fermentation of foods like yogurt and
pickles.
Types of Viruses
Eukaryotes
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An organism consisting of a cell or cells in which the
genetic material is DNA in the form of chromosomes
contained within a distinct nucleus.
EUKARYOTES ALGAE
o Photosynthetic organisms that lack true
roots, stems, and leaves. They can be
unicellular or multicellular, forming
colonies, and are found in aqua c and
terrestrial environments. Algae play as a
producer, contributing oxygen production
and serving as a food source.
o Chlorella, Sargassum, Spirogyra, Caulerpa
EUKARYOTES FUNGI
o Fungi are a kingdom of usually multicellular
eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophs,
meaning they cannot produce their own
food. They play essential roles in nutrient
cycling in ecosystems and can reproduce
both sexually and asexually.
o Agaricus Bisporus, Pleurotus Ostreatus,
Saccharomyces, Ustilago Maydis, Rhizopus
Stolonifer
EUKARYOTIC: PROTOZOA
o Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotic
microorganisms that belong to the kingdom
Protista. Plays essential roles in various
ecosystems and can be found in aquatic and
terrestrial habitats.
o Amoeba, Plasmodium, Trypanosoma,
Pramacium, Giardia Lamblia
BACTERIA
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microscopic living organisms that have only one cell.
Harmful bacteria examples include:
o Streptococcus: Bacteria that cause strep
throat.
o Staphylococcus: Bacteria that cause staph
infections.
o Escherichia coli: Bacteria that cause E. coli
infections.
Examples of Pathogenic Bacteria:
o Aerococcus urinae: Bacteria in urine that
cause urinary tract infections.
o Chlamydia trachoma s: Bacteria that cause a
sexually transmitted infection (STI) called
chlamydia.
o Bordetella pertussis: Bacteria that cause
whooping cough.
ANTIBIOTICS
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Can treat most types of bacterial infections.
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WATER
WIND
OBJECT
FOOD
ANIMALS
VIRAL DISEASES OF HUMAN
1. INFLUENZA
• caused by three different orthomyxoviruses:
types A, B, and C.
• best prevented with yearly vaccination,
although new antiviral drugs can shorten the
duration of symptoms.
2. SARS
• represents a newly emerging viral disease
caused by a coronavirus.
• spread by person-to-person contact.
• Include fever, headache, feeling of
discomfort, and body aches.
3. HERPES SIMPLEX
• a wide spectrum of viral diseases commonly
found in the environment.
• cause cold sores (HSV-1) and genital herpes
(primarily HSV-2).
• Neonatal herpes is a possible lifethreatening disease transmitted from a herpes
simplex-infected mother during childbirth.
4. CHICKENPOX
• Another member of the herpes viruses is
varicella-zoster.
• one of the most highly contagious diseases.
• same virus causes shingles in adults, which
can be a painfully debilitating disease.
• Acyclovir has been successful at lessening
the symptoms.
Protozoa
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VIRUS
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TRANSMISSION THROUGH DIFFERENT VECTORS
Not living things.
It needs host to be able to survive.
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microscopic unicellular eukaryotes that have
a relatively complex internal structure and
carry out complex metabolic activities.
often spread through contaminated water.
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Some protozoa are parasites, which means
that they need to live on or in another
organism (like an animal or plant) to survive.
Different classifications of Protozoa
1. Mastigophora or Flagellated protozoans
2. Sarcodina or Amoeboids
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3. Sporozoa or Sporozoans
4. Ciliophora or Ciliated protozoans
Immune System
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A large network of organs, white blood cells,
proteins, and chemicals.
Immunity
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Protection against harmful substances is what
immunity does.
a type of defense that protects the body from
infections caused by microorganisms like bacteria,
viruses, and other toxic agents.
Its main purpose is to win over poten al threats to our
bodies.
Types of Immunity
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Innate Immunity
o triggered by small cuts and is a nonspecific
defense mechanism.
o It provides immediate protection against
pathogens.
Four (4) Components or Barriers of Innate
Immunity:
 Physical or Anatomical Barriers They stop the entry of pathogens and
foreign bodies into the body.
 Physiological Barriers - functional
secretions that inhibit the growth of
microorganisms that are capable of
passing through physical barriers.
 Cellular or Phagocytic Barriers bactericidal or microbial barriers.
They destroy these organisms by
phagocytosis. Immune cells of the
body.
 Inflammatory Barriers - Provide a
barrier against infec on from
spreading further outwards.
Acquired Immunity
o Involves immune cells that recognize and
remember specific invaders, such as the
immune system in the flu vaccine.
o The acquired immune system is made up of:
 T cells (also called T lymphocytes)
are made in bone marrow.
 B cells (also in the tissue between
the body's cells). (B lymphocytes)
are made in the bone marrow, where
they mature into specialized immune
system cells.
 Anti bodies in the blood and other
bodily fluids. They travel around the
body in the bloodstream. They are
made by the immune system to fight
germs and foreign substances.
o Two (2) Types of Acquired Immunity:
 Active Immunity
• Occurs when the body produces
its immune response to a
pathogen or an antigen.
• Categorized in Two (2) Types:
o Naturally Acquired Active
Immunity - is acquired
from exposure to the disease
organism through infection
with the actual disease.
o Artificially Acquired
Active Immunity - any
immunization with an
antigen.
• Two (2) Distinct Forms of
Acquired Active Immune
Response:
o Cell-mediated immunity/
response - Involves T cells
directly attacking infected or
abnormal cells.
o Humoral immunity/
response - Produces
antigen-specific antibodies
and is primarily driven by B
cells, which circulate in the
blood and other bodily
fluids, targe ng pathogens
and toxins.
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Passive Immunity
• Provided by antibodies or
immune cells from another
source, provides immediate but
temporary protection.
• Categorized in Two (2) Types:
o Naturally Acquired
Passive Immunity - Occurs
during pregnancy, in which
certain antibodies are passed
from the maternal blood into
the fetal bloodstream in the
form of IgG.
o Artificially Acquired
Passive Immunity - Results
when antibodies or
lymphocytes produced
outside the host are
introduced into a host.
Vaccination
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a medical intervention used to protect individuals
from infectious diseases.
involves the administration of a vaccine, which is a
substance designed to stimulate the body's immune
system to recognize and fight pathogens such as
bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms.
HISTORY OF VACCINATION
Early Practices: Variolation
1. Ancient China and India (10th Century)
– Variolation: One of the earliest methods to
prevent smallpox. Dried smallpox scabs
were inhaled or scratched into the skin,
inducing a mild form of the disease and
providing immunity.
– Practices Spread: This method spread to
other parts of Asia, Africa, and the Middle
East over the centuries.
The Birth of Modern Vaccina on: Edward Jenner
2. Edward Jenner (1796)
– Smallpox Vaccine: The English physician
Edward Jenner is
– often credited with developing the first true
vaccine. He noticed that milkmaids who
contracted cowpox, a milder disease, did not
get smallpox. In 1796, Jenner inoculated a
boy named James Phipps with cowpox pus
and later exposed him to smallpox. The boy
did not develop smallpox, demonstrating
immunity.
– "Vaccination": The term comes from
“vacca,” the Latin word for cow, in honor of
Jenner's work with cowpox.
19th Century: Expansion and Development
3. Louis Pasteur (1880s)
– Rabies Vaccine: Louis Pasteur, a French
microbiologist, developed the first
laboratory-created vaccine for rabies by
attenuating (weakening) the virus. His
successful use of the vaccine on a boy bitten
by a rabid dog in 1885 was a landmark
event.
– Cholera and Anthrax Vaccines: Pasteur also
developed vaccines for chicken cholera and
anthrax.
Early 20th Century: Vaccines for Major Diseases
4. Development of Vaccines for Diphtheria, Tetanus,
and Pertussis (DTP)
– 1920s-1940s: Vaccines for diphtheria,
tetanus, and pertussis (whooping cough)
were developed and became widely used.
– Combination Vaccine (1940s): The DTP
combined vaccine was introduced, protecting
against all three diseases in one shot.
5. Polio Vaccine
– Jonas Salk (1955): Developed the first
effective polio vaccine using inactivated
(killed) virus. It was administered by
injection.
– Albert Sabin (1961): Developed an oral polio
vaccine using a live attenuated virus, which
became widely used due to its ease of
administration and strong immunity.
Late 20th Century: Advances and Eradication
6. Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) Vaccine
(1971)
– Combined Vaccine: The MMR vaccine
combined vaccines for measles, mumps, and
rubella into a single shot, making vaccina on
more convenient and widespread.
7. Eradication of Smallpox (1980)
– Global Effort: The World Health
Organization (WHO) led a global vaccina on
campaign that resulted in the eradication of
smallpox, declared in 1980, marking a
significant triumph in public health.
21st Century: Modern Vaccines and Technology
8. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine (2006)
– Cervical Cancer Prevention: The HPV
vaccine was introduced to prevent cervical
and other cancers caused by human
papillomavirus.
9. mRNA Vaccines (2020)
– COVID-19 Vaccines: The COVID-19
pandemic accelerated the development and
deployment of mRNA vaccines by PfizerBioNTech and Moderna.
Ongoing Developments
10. Research and Innovation
– New Vaccines: Continued research is leading
to new vaccines for diseases such as malaria,
HIV, and various cancers.
– Improved Delivery Methods: Advances in
vaccine delivery methods, including nasal
sprays, patches, and oral vaccines, aim to
make vaccina on more accessible and
effective.
How Vaccines Work
1. Introduction of Antigens
2. Immune System Activation
3. Memory Cell Formation
Types of Vaccines
1. Inactivated (Killed) Vaccines
2. Live Attenuated Vaccines
3. Subunit, Recombinant, Polysaccharide, and
Conjugate Vaccines
4. mRNA Vaccines
5. Vector Vaccines
Benefits of Vaccination
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Prevention of Disease
Herd Immunity
Reduction of Disease Severity
Eradication of Diseases
Safety and Efficacy
– Clinical Trials: Vaccines undergo rigorous testing in
multiple phases of clinical trials to ensure they are
safe and effective.
– Monitoring: After approval, vaccines continue to be
monitored for safety and effectiveness through
surveillance systems and studies.
Common Misconceptions
1. Vaccines Cause Severe Side Effects
2. Vaccines Cause the Disease They Are Meant to
Prevent
3. Natural Immunity is Better
BIOCHEMISTRY
– study of the chemical processes in living organisms.
– Deals with the structure and function of cellular
components such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acid.
– Become the foundation for understanding all
biological processes.
– Seeks to unravel the complex chemical reactions.
Biochemistry Involves the Study of:
1. Chemical constituents of living matter.
2. Chemical changes occur in the organism during
digestion, absorption, and excretion.
3. Chemical changes occur during the growth and
multiplication of the organism.
4. Transformation of one form of chemical constituent
to the other.
5. Energy changes are involved in such transformation.
MACROMOLECULES (Biomolecules)
– a very large molecule important to biological
processes, such as a protein or nucleic acid.
– composed of thousands of covalently bonded atoms.
– Monomers - Many macromolecules are polymers of
smaller molecules (include Carbohydrates, Lipids,
Proteins, and Nucleic acids)
Micromolecules (Acid Soluble)
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The acid soluble pool contains chemicals with a
small molecular mass of 18 to 800 Daltons
approximately (include sugars, amino acids, water,
minerals, and nucleotides)
Carbohydrates
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“Hydrates of carbon"
biological molecule consisting of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms.
– Functions:
o Provides energy.
o Stored energy.
o Water insoluble carbohydrates are major
components of the cell wall in plant cells and
cell membrane in animal cells.
o lubricants in skeletal joints and help the cells
to stick with each other and remain in place.
o Fibers promotes good digestive health by
reducing constipation and lowering the risk
of digestive tract diseases.
– also referred to as sugars or saccharides (derived
from the Greek sákkharon, meaning “sugar”)
– SUGAR
o a type of carbohydrate, which is a
biomolecule consisting of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms. o
categorized based on the number of
saccharide units they contain.
Classes of Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharide
o simplest form of sugar, consisting of a single
saccharide unit. (include glucose, fructose,
and galactose)
o Monosaccharides are the building blocks of
more complex sugars.
• Disaccharide
o Composed of two monosaccharide units
linked together by a glycosidic bond.
o Examples include sucrose (table sugar, made
of glucose and fructose), lactose (milk sugar,
made of glucose and galactose), and maltose
(malt sugar, made of two glucose units).
• Oligo (a few) saccharide
o any carbohydrate of from three to six units of
simple sugars (monosaccharides).
o Most of the few naturally occurring
oligosaccharides are found in plants.
• Poly(many)saccharide
o sugar polymers containing more than 20 or
so monosaccharide units, and some have
hundreds or thousands of units.
Proteins
• large, complex molecules essential for body function.
• Made up of amino acids in long chains.
• consist of 20 different amino acids.
• Sequence of amino acids determines protein
structure and function.
• DNA nucleotides code for amino acids.
The Four Levels of Protein Structure
• Primary Structure
o Unique sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide chain.
o Determined by the gene's nucleotide
sequence.
o For example, Insulin has two polypeptide
chains, A and B.
• Secondary Structure
o A Regular structure formed by interactions
between nearby amino acids.
o Includes α-helices and β-pleated sheets.
o Stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
• Tertiary Structure
o An Overall 3D shape of the polypeptide.
o Formed by interactions among R groups
(polar, nonpolar, acidic, basic).
o Hydrophobic R groups inside, hydrophilic R
groups outside.
o Disulfide linkages between cysteine
residues.
• Quaternary Structure
• Arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains.
• Stabilized by weak interactions and sometimes
enzymes.
• Only applies to multi-subunit proteins.
Protein Folding
• Unique amino acid sequence dictates protein shape.
• Shape determines protein function.
Changing the Shape of a Protein (Denaturation)
• Temperature, pH, and chemicals can alter protein
shape.
• Denatured proteins lose function.
• For example, Pepsin works at low pH in the stomach.
Reversing Denaturation
• Possible if primary structure is intact.
• For the same example, Pepsin in the stomach.
• Extreme cases like cooking can cause irreversible
denaturation.
Enzymes and Homeostasis
• Enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions within
narrow temperature and pH ranges.
• Homeostatic mechanisms maintain optimal
conditions for enzyme function.
Chaperone Proteins
• Chaperonins assist in protein folding,
• Prevent aggregation of polypeptide chains, and
• Disassociate once the protein is correctly folded.
AMINO ACIDS
• serve as the fundamental components of proteins
• The body utilizes amino acids to synthesize proteins.
• play numerous crucial roles in your body. Amino
acids help.
AMINO ACID GROUPS
1. Hydrophobic or Nonpolar Groups: These side chains
do not interact well with water.
2. Hydrophilic or Polar Groups: These side chains
interact well with water.
3. Acidic or Negatively Charged Groups: These side
chains have a negative charge.
4. Basic or Positively Charged Groups: These side
chains have a positive charge.
Lipids
• a diverse group of organic compounds that are
essential components of living cells.
•
characterized by their insolubility in water but
solubility in nonpolar solvents like chloroform or
ether.
• Functions:
o Energy storage
o Cellular structure
o Hormone Production
o Insulation o Signaling Molecules
o Vitamin Absorption
Types of Lipids
• Triglycerides
o Composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.
o The fatty acids are attached to the glycerol
through ester bonds.
• Phospholipids
o have a glycerol backbone, two fatty acids, a
phosphate group, and polar head group.
o have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic
tail.
• Steroids
o Steroids are lipids with a structure consisting
of four-fused hydrocarbon rings (steroidal
backbone).
• Waxes
o are esters of long chain fatty acids and long
chain alcohols.
Fatty Acids
• composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• arranged as a variable-length linear carbon chain
skeleton with an even number of atoms at one end.
• with 2 to 30 carbon atoms or more, but the most
common and important ones have 12 to 22 carbon
atoms
• found in many different animal and plant fats
• provides energy
• serve as building blocks for various lipid molecules
• building blocks of fat in our bodies and the food we
consume
• joined in groups of three to form a molecule known
as a “triglyceride”
Classification of Fatty Acids
• classified into three types based on their degree of
saturation/unsaturation in the carbon chain:
o If there is no double bond, the fatty acid is
saturated.
o If there is one double bond, the fatty acid is
monounsaturated,
o If there are two or more double bonds, the
fatty acid is polyunsaturated.
Glycerol (C3H8O3)
• also known as glycerin
• non-toxic, viscous, colourless, and simple triol
compound
• mostly used in dermatological treatments and in the
food industry as a preservative and sweetener
• has 3 carbon atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms, and 3 oxygen
atoms
• soluble in water and is hygroscopic
• its backbone is found in all lipids known as
• “triglycerides”
• Its use ranges from pharmaceuticals to the food
industry and in cosmetics (like soaps)
NUCLEIC ACID
• biomolecules that contain the blueprints for making
proteins. Nucleic acids also transmit genetic info to
the next generation.
• organic molecules composed of a nitrogenous base, a
pentose sugar and a phosphate.
• They serve as monomeric units of the nucleic acid
polymers.
• it contains “CHONP”
•
o
carbon
o
hydrogen
o
oxygen nitrogen
o
phosphorus
Metabolic Pathway
•
It is a biopolymer made up of monomers called
nucleotides.
o
Monomer: Nucleotides
o
Polymer: Nucleic Acid
o
Examples: DNA, RNA
TWO TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACID
DNA
(deoxyribonucleic
acid)
DNA replicates
and stores genetic
information.
FUNCTIONS
STRUCTURE
It is the blueprint
for all genetic
information
contained within
an organism.
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RNA
(ribonucleic
acid)
RNA converts
the genetic
information
contained within
DNA to a format
used to build
proteins.
It consists of two
strands, arranged
in a double helix
made up of
subunits called
nucleotides.
It has one strand
and is also made
up of
nucleotides.
Much longer
polymer than
RNA.
It is variable in
length but much
shorter than long
DNA polymers.
LENGTH
Several cm in
length if
unraveled.
SUGAR
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Enzymes
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Deoxyribose
Ribose
DNA is found in
nucleus, with
small amount of
DNA also present
in mitochondria.
RNA forms in
the nucleolus,
then moves to
specialized
regions of
cytoplasm.
Adenine,
Thymine,
Cytosine and
Guanine
Adenine, Uracil,
Cytosine and
Guanine
Series of interactions between molecules in a cell
that lead to assembly of new molecules in a cell, turn
genes on and off, maintain and control the flow of
information, energy and biochemical compounds are
called biological pathways.
Enzymes control metabolic pathways. The enzymes
change the substrate at each step in the metabolic
pathway in order to get the final product at the end.
Metabolic pathways can be reversible or irreversible.
Almost all pathways are reversible.
CATABOLIC PATHWAY
o Catabolic reactions involve the breaking of
bonds; whenever chemical bonds are broken,
energy is released.
o This type of pathway releases energy and is
used to break down large molecules into
smaller ones (degradation).
o example of a catabolic reaction is the process
of food digestion
ANABOLIC PATHWAY
o Anabolic reactions involve the creation of
bonds, which require energy.
o This type of pathway requires energy and is
used to build up large molecules from
smaller ones (biosynthesis).
o example of an anabolic reaction is
photosynthesis.
•
vital proteins involved in metabolic pathways. Some
enzymes can be found embedded within the cell
membrane.
Other proteins found embedded within the
membrane act as pumps (e.g. the sodium potassium
pump that pumps sodium out of the cell and
potassium into the cell) and pores (which allow ions
of a particular size to pass through the membrane and
pores)
How is sugar converted into energy
LOCATION
BASE
•
The conversion of sugar into energy primarily
involves a series of metabolic pathways that break
down glucose, a simple sugar, to produce ATP
(adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the
cell.
EXAMPLE OF METABOLIC PATHWAYS
Cellular Respiration
•
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
o Complete catabolism of glucose.

o
•
Occurs in three phases, each of which is a
biochemical pathway:
 Glycolysis (Anaerobic)
• “Glycolytic Pathway”
• Nine-step biochemical pathway
involving nine separate
biochemical reactions, each of
which requires a specific
enzyme.
• Can take place either in the
presence of oxygen or in the
absence of oxygen. Produces
very little energy ---- a net yield
of only two molecules of ATP.
• Takes place in the cytoplasm of
both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells.
 Krebs cycle
• The citric acid cycle—also
known as the Krebs cycle,
Szent–Györgyi–Krebs cycle or
the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic
acid cycle)—is a series of
biochemical reactions to release
the energy stored in nutrients
through the oxidation of acetylCoA derived from
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
 The Electron Transportation
• Also called the “electron
transport system” or “respiratory
chain.”
• Consists of a series of oxidationreduction reactions.
• Many different enzymes are
involved in the electron
transport chain, including
cytochrome oxidase.
o Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide +
Water + Energy
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
o Glucose → Alcohol + Carbon dioxide +
Energy
o Glucose → Lactic acid + Energy
o Fermentation
 Alcoholic Fermentation
• The process by which glucose
and fructose, two sugars, are
converted anaerobically into
carbon dioxide and ethanol.
 Lactic Acid Fermentation
• A form of anaerobic respiration
that occurs in yogurt bacteria
(Lactobacillus and other
species). It is also produced
during extreme exercise.
o Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
 A redox reaction, also known as an
oxidation-reduction reaction, is a
chemical reaction in which electrons
are transferred between chemical
species, such as atoms, ions, or
molecules.
o Biosynthesis of Organic Compounds
o
o
Energy is required to produce
organic compounds. This process
can occur through photosynthesis,
which uses light energy for
biosynthesis, or through
chemosynthesis, which uses
chemical energy for biosynthesis.
Photosynthesis
 The process by which green plants
and some other organisms convert
light energy into chemical energy is
known as photosynthesis. In green
plants, light energy is absorbed
during photosynthesis and used to
transform water, carbon dioxide, and
minerals into organic compounds
that are high in energy and oxygen.
Chemosynthesis
 The process by which bacteria or
other organisms use chemicals as an
energy source to produce food,
typically in the absence of sunlight.
Minerals
•
In biology, minerals refer to essential nutrients that
organisms need in small amounts to maintain health
and perform vital functions. These minerals include
elements like calcium, iron, and zinc, which are
important for bone strength, oxygen transport, and
enzyme activity in the body.
TYPE OF ESSENTIAL MINERALS
•
Macrominerals (macroelements)
o Macro minerals are essential nutrients
required by the body in relatively larger
amounts to maintain proper health and
function.
o K, Na, Cl, Ca, P, Mg, S
•
Microminerals (microelements) “trace elements"
o Micro minerals are essential nutrients needed
by the body in trace amounts for various
physiological functions.
o Fe, Zn, I, Se, Cu, Mn, F, Cr, Mo
•
The body tightly regulates mineral levels through
hormonal control, storage in tissues, and excretion to
ensure balance and proper physiological functioning.
Mineral Deficiencies
•
Minerals are crucial for bodily functions, and
insufficient intake or absorption can lead to
significant health problems such as iron-deficiency
anemia and calcium-deficiency osteoporosis.
IMPORTANCE OF SOLUBILITY
•
FUNCTIONS OR ROLES IN METABOLIC PATHWAYS
•
•
•
•
Energy Metabolism
o Energy metabolism refers to the processes by
which cells convert nutrients into energy that
can be used to perform various biological
functions. (Example: Essential minerals
support ATP synthesis and electron transport
chain for cellular energy.)
Enzyme Activation
o Enzyme activation refers to the process of
preparing enzymes to catalyze chemical
reactions by altering their structure or
environment so they can perform their
specific roles effectively. (Example:
Minerals are enzyme cofactors.)
Structural Support
o Structural support refers to the role of
substances or materials that provide strength,
stability, and form to biological structures
such as bones, tissues, or cell membranes.
(Example: Bone & teeth support,
protein/enzyme structure)
Electrolyte Balance
o Electrolyte balance refers to the maintenance
of proper levels of ions such as sodium,
potassium, calcium, and magnesium in
bodily fluids, crucial for various
physiological functions including nerve
signaling and muscle contraction. (Example:
Cellular Balance)
MINERAL ABSORPTION, REGULATIONS, AND
DEFICIENCIES
Mineral Absorption
•
Mineral absorption involves the uptake of minerals
from food, influenced by dietary intake,
bioavailability, and individual health.
Mineral Regulation
The solubility of minerals determines their
bioavailability, meaning how readily they can be
absorbed by living organisms. Acid-soluble minerals
generally dissolve more easily in water or digestive
juices, making the contained mineral ions more
readily available for uptake and utilization in
metabolic pathways.