eBook What is Psychology Foundations, Applications, and Integration 5e By Ellen E. Pastorino, Susann M Doyle-Portillo
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Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com FIFth Edition What Is Psychology? Foundations, Applications & Integration Ellen Pastorino | Valencia College Susann Doyle-Portillo | University of North Georgia Australia ● Brazil ● Canada ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the eBook version. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com What Is Psychology? Foundations, Applications, and Integration, Fifth Edition Ellen Pastorino and Susann Doyle-Portillo © 2022, 2019 Cengage Learning, Inc. WCN: 02-300 Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage. SVP, Higher Education & Skills Product: Erin Joyner ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be VP, Higher Education & Skills Product: Thais Alencar reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, except as permitted by U.S. Product Director: Laura Ross copyright law, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Product Manager: Colin Grover Product Assistant: Jessica Witzak For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 or Learning Designer: Natasha Allen support.cengage.com. Content Manager: Tangelique Williams-Grayer For permission to use material from this text or product, Digital Delivery Lead: Allison Marion submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions. Director, Marketing: Neena Bali Marketing Manager: Tricia Salata IP Analyst: Deanna Ettinger IP Project Manager: Kelli Besse Production Service: MPS Limited Library of Congress Control Number: 2020924185 ISBN: 978-0-357-37396-5 Art Director: Chris Doughman, Bethany Bourgeois Cengage Cover Image Source: © Getty Images/BlackJack3D 200 Pier 4 Boulevard Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative at www.cengage.com. To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, register or access your online learning solution, or purchase materials for your course, visit www.cengage.com. Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2021 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com For Luca James Dream big, be bold, and know that you are loved – deeply and always. —Nona For my husband, Eulalio Ortiz Portillo. Eres mi mundo y mi vida. —Susann Doyle-Portillo Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com About the Authors Ellen E. Pastorino (Ph.D., Florida State University, 1990) is a developmental psychologist who established her teaching career at Gainesville State College in Georgia. As a tenured professor, she created and developed the college’s Teaching and Learning Center, working with faculty to promote student learning. For the past 22 years, she has been teaching at Valencia College in Orlando, Florida. Here, too, she has worked with faculty in designing learning-centered classroom practices. Ellen has won numerous teaching awards, including the University of Georgia Board of Regents Distinguished Professor, the NISOD Excellence in Teaching Award, and Valencia’s Teaching and Learning Excellence Award. Ellen has published articles in the Journal of Adolescent Research and Adolescence and has participated in many regional and national teaching conferences. However, her main passion has always been to get students excited about the field of psychology. Ellen is a member of the Association for Psychological Science (APS) and she served for 10 years as the Discipline Coordinator of Psychological Sciences at Valencia’s Osceola campus. She has authored test banks, instructor manuals, and student study guides. While working as a consultant for IBM Corporation, she developed numerous educational materials for teachers and students. Her current interests include reaching underprepared students and educating psychology undergraduate majors about potential job and career prospects. Ellen strives to balance her professional responsibilities with her love of physical fitness and family life. Susann M. Doyle-Portillo (Ph.D. in Social Cognition, University of Oklahoma, 1994) is Department Head and Professor of Psychological Science at the University of North Georgia where she has taught for the past 26 years. She holds bachelor’s degrees in engineering and psychology, and is a member of several professional organizations, including the Association for Psychological Science (APS) and the Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP). She has published articles in journals such as Social Cognition, Contemporary Social Psychology, the American Journal of Health Education, and Personality & Individual Differences, but the main focus of her career is teaching. During her career, Susann has twice been listed in Who’s Who Among America’s Teachers. In addition to her teaching and research activities, she has mentored many undergraduate researchers and authored several test banks, instructor manuals, and student study guides. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Brief Contents 1 The Science of Psychology 3 Part 1 ▶ Foundations in Biological Psychology 41 2 Neuroscience 45 3 Sensation and Perception 87 4 Consciousness 133 5 Motivation and Emotion 177 Part 2 ▶ Foundations in Cognitive Psychology 6 Learning 7 Memory 281 8 Cognition, Language, and Intelligence 229 233 325 Part 3 ▶ Foundations in Developmental and Social Psychology 373 9 Human Development 377 10 Social Psychology 435 11 Personality 489 Part 4 ▶ Foundations in Physical and Mental Health 12 Health, Stress, and Positive Psychology 13 Mental Health Disorders 569 14 Mental Health Therapies 615 A Statistics in Psychology 657 B Applying Psychology in the Workplace 523 527 671 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Contents 1 The Science of Psychology 1.1 What Is Psychology? 3 4 Correcting Common Misconceptions About the Field of Psychology Psychology Will Teach You About Critical Thinking 1.2 5 7 The Science of Psychology: Goals, Hypotheses, and Methods 8 Psychologists Are Scientists: The Scientific Method 9 Psychologists Ask Questions: Hypotheses 1.3 11 Psychologists Strategize: Sampling and Research Methods 11 Ethical Principles of Psychological Research 21 Ethical Guidelines for Participants 21 Ethical Guidelines for Nonhuman Research 23 1.4 Psychology in the Modern World: Foundations and Growth Psychology’s Roots and Modern Perspectives Specialty Areas in Psychology 29 31 Gender, Ethnicity, and the Field of Psychology Psychology Applies to Your World Training to Be a Psychologist 1.5 23 24 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 32 34 Studying the Chapter 35 Are You Getting the Big Picture? The Science of Psychology 38 Part 1 ▶ Foundations in Biological Psychology 41 2 Neuroscience 2.1 Billions of Neurons: Communication in the Brain The Anatomy of the Neuron 45 46 47 Psychology Applies to Your World Can Exposure to Wi-Fi Hotspots Affect Myelin in the Brain? 48 Signals in the Brain: How Neurons Fire Up 50 Jumping the Synapse: Synaptic Transmission 52 Cleaning Up the Synapse: Reuptake 53 2.2 Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators: Chemical Messengers in the Brain 54 Acetylcholine: Memory and Memory Loss 54 Dopamine, Serotonin, and Norepinephrine: Deepening Our Understanding of Mental Health Disorders GABA and Glutamate: Regulating Brain Activity 55 56 Endorphins: Pain and Pleasure in the Brain 56 vii Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. viii Contents 2.3 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com The Structure of the Nervous System 58 Sensing and Reacting: The Peripheral Nervous System 58 Voluntary Action: The Somatic Nervous System 60 Involuntary Actions: The Autonomic Nervous System 2.4 60 The Brain and Spinal Cord: The Central Nervous System The Hindbrain 62 62 The Midbrain 63 The Forebrain 64 The Cortex 69 The Specialization of Function in the Lobes of the Cortex 73 2.5 Technologies for Studying the Brain 2.6 The Endocrine System: Hormones and Behavior 2.7 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 76 78 80 Studying the Chapter 80 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Neuroscience 84 3 Sensation and Perception 3.1 Measuring Sensation and Perception: Psychophysics 87 The Limits of Sensation: Absolute Thresholds 88 88 The Just Noticeable Difference and Weber’s Law 88 Processing Without Awareness: Subliminal Stimulation of the Senses 89 Extrasensory Perception: Can Perception Occur Without Our Five Senses? 3.2 Vision: Seeing the World 90 91 How Vision Works: Light Waves and Energy 91 The Anatomy of the Outer Eye 93 The Retina: Light Energy to Neural Messages Adapting to Light and Darkness How We See Color 97 The Visual Pathways of the Brain 3.3 94 97 100 Hearing: Listening to the World 102 Environmental Noise and Hearing Loss 103 The Anatomy and Function of the Ear 103 The Auditory Pathways of the Brain 104 3.4 The Other Senses: Taste, Smell, Touch, and the Body Senses 106 Taste: Information from the Tongue 106 Psychology Applies to Your World Why Don’t We All Like the Same Foods? 108 Smell: Aromas, Odors, and a Warning System Touch: The Skin Sense 109 113 The Body Senses: Experiencing the Physical Body in Space 3.5 Perception: Interpreting Your World 114 115 Using What We Know: Top-Down Perceptual Processing 115 Building a Perception “from Scratch”: Bottom-Up Perceptual Processing 116 Understanding What We Sense: Perceiving Size, Shape, and Brightness 117 Depth Perception: Sensing Our 3-D World with 2-D Eyes 118 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Perceiving Form: The Gestalt Approach 120 Perceiving Form: Feature Detection Theory 3.6The Accuracy of Perception Contents 122 122 Errors Due to Top-Down Processing: Seeing What We Expect to See 123 Errors Due to Perceptual Constancy: Tricks of the Brain 123 Cultural Factors in Perception 124 3.7 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 126 Studying the Chapter 126 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Sensation and Perception 4 Consciousness 133 4.1 Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythm 130 134 Functions of Sleep: Why Do We Sleep, and What If We Don’t? 134 Variations in How Much Sleep We Need 136 Circadian Rhythm and Its Application to Our Lives 138 Stages of Sleep: What Research Tells Us 140 Dreaming: The Night’s Work 143 Sleep Disorders: Tossing and Turning—and More 144 4.2 Gender, Ethnic, and Cultural Variations in Sleep 148 Hypnosis, Meditation, & Mindfulness 149 The Experience of Hypnosis 149 Variations in Hypnotic Susceptibility 150 Explaining Hypnosis: Applying Neodissociation and Response Set Theories 150 Evaluating the Research: What Hypnosis Can and Cannot Do 151 Research on Meditation & Mindfulness 4.3 Psychoactive Drugs Variations in Drug Use 153 154 154 Drug Tolerance and Substance Use Disorder 154 How Drugs Work: Biology, Expectations, and Culture Alcohol and Other Depressants 155 156 Opiates (Narcotics): The Painkillers 162 Psychology Applies to Your World The Opioid Epidemic 163 4.4 Stimulants: Legal and Otherwise 163 Hallucinogens: Distorting Reality 167 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 171 Studying the Chapter 171 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Consciousness 5 Motivation and Emotion 177 5.1 Theories of Motivation Motivation as Instinct 178 Motivation as a Drive 178 Arousal Theories of Motivation 174 178 180 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. ix x Contents Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Self-Determination Theory of Motivation 181 Psychology Applies to Your World Mindsets and Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 5.2 182 184 Hunger and Eating 186 The Origins of Hunger 186 The Obesity Epidemic 192 The Battle of the Bulge: Why Is Losing Weight So Hard? Culture and Weight-Based Prejudice 195 197 Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa, Anorexia Nervosa, and Binge Eating Disorder 198 5.3 Sexual Motivation 203 Sexual Desire: A Mixture of Chemicals, Thoughts, and Culture 203 The Sexual Response Cycle 205 Variations in Sexuality: Generational, Age, Gender, and Sexual Orientation Differences 5.4 207 209 Whom Do We Desire? Sexual Orientation Theories and Expression of Emotion 213 The James-Lange Theory of Emotion 214 The Facial Feedback Hypothesis 216 The Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion 217 Lazarus’s Cognitive-Mediational Theory of Emotion 218 Communicating Emotions: Culture, Gender, and Facial Expressions 5.5 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 219 222 Studying the Chapter 222 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Motivation and Emotion 226 Part 2 ▶ Foundations in Cognitive Psychology 229 6 Learning 6.1 Learning from the First Days of Life: Habituation 233 234 Paying Attention and Learning to Ignore: Orienting Reflexes and Habituation Possible Benefits of Habituation: Protecting the Brain 234 235 Dishabituation 236 Practical Applications of Habituation 6.2 236 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through the Association of Stimuli 237 The Elements of Classical Conditioning 238 Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning 241 Real-World Applications of Classical Conditioning 242 Psychology Applies to Your World Can Classical Conditioning Help Us Understand How Our Bodies Respond to Drugs? 246 Removal of Classically Conditioned Responses: Extinction and Counterconditioning 6.3 248 Operant Conditioning: Learning from the Consequences of Our Actions 250 E. L. Thorndike’s Law of Effect 251 B. F. Skinner and the Experimental Study of Operant Conditioning Acquisition and Extinction 253 256 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Schedules of Reinforcement 257 Discrimination and Generalization Shaping New Behaviors 261 261 Decisions That Must Be Made When Using Operant Conditioning The Role of Cognition in Learning 6.4 263 269 Observational Learning or Modeling: Learning by Watching Others 271 Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll Experiments Observational Learning and Cognition 6.5 271 273 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 275 Studying the Chapter 275 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Learning 278 7 Memory 7.1 The Functions of Memory: Encoding, Storing, and Retrieving 281 Explicit and Implicit Memory 7.2 Contents 282 The Development of New Memories 284 The Traditional Three-Stages Model of Memory 284 The Capacity of Short-Term Memory: Seven (Plus or Minus Two) The Duration of Short-Term Memory: It’s Yours for 30 Seconds Elaborative Rehearsal: Making Memories Stick Levels of Processing 282 287 287 289 290 The Serial-Position Curve and Age-Related Changes in Memory 291 The Working Memory Model: Parallel Memory 293 7.3 Long-Term Memory: Permanent Storage 297 The Capacity of Long-Term Memory 297 Encoding in Long-Term Memory 298 Organization in Long-Term Memory 298 Declarative and Procedural Long-Term Memories 299 Amnesia: What Forgetting Can Teach Us About Memory 7.4 303 Retrieval and Forgetting in Long-Term Memory Recognition and Recall 305 305 Forgetting: Why Can’t I Remember That? 306 Psychology Applies to Your World Tips for Improving Your Memory 7.5 The Accuracy of Memory 308 312 Memory Is Not Like a Video Camera 313 Eyewitness Memory 313 7.6 The Biology of Memory 7.7 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 315 Studying the Chapter 319 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Memory 318 322 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xi xii Contents Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 8 Cognition, Language, and Intelligence 8.1 Thinking: How We Use What We Know 326 Visual Images: How Good Is the Mental Picture? 326 Concepts: How We Organize What We Know 8.2 325 328 Problem Solving: Putting Our Thinking to Good Use 333 Well-Structured and Ill-Structured Problems 334 Creativity: Overcoming Obstacles to Problem Solving 8.3 Reasoning, Decision Making, and Judgment Deductive and Inductive Reasoning 337 Dialectical Reasoning or Thinking 338 Decision Making: Outcomes and Probabilities 337 339 Judgments: Estimating the Likelihood of Events 8.4 335 339 Language: Communication, Thought, and Culture 342 How Humans Acquire Language 343 Psychology Applies to Your World Are Humans the Only Animals to Use Language? The Function of Language in Culture and Perception 8.5 Defining and Measuring Intelligence 344 348 350 Measuring Intelligence by Abilities and IQs 350 The Nature of Intelligence: The Search Continues 355 Nature, Nurture, and IQ: Are We Born Intelligent, or Do We Learn to Be? 359 8.6 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 366 Studying the Chapter 367 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Cognition, Language and Intelligence 370 Part 3 ▶ Foundations in Developmental and Social Psychology 373 9 Human Development 9.1 Human Development: How Does It All Begin? 377 378 Nature-Nurture Revisited: How Biology and Culture Lead to Diversity Prenatal Development 9.2 378 379 Application: The Importance of a Positive Prenatal Environment 380 Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood 382 Brain Development 382 Reflexes and Motor Development 9.3 383 Cognitive Development in Infancy and Childhood 385 Perceptual Development: Gathering Information from the Environment Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 385 387 Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development: Culture and Thinking Moral Reasoning: How We Think About Right and Wrong 393 395 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 9.4 Psychosocial Development in Infancy and Childhood Temperament: The Influence of Biology 397 397 Attachment: Learning About Relationships Variations in Parenting Styles Contents 398 400 Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: The Influence of Culture 401 Gender-Role Development 403 9.5 Physical Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood Puberty: Big Changes, Rapid Growth, and Impact on Behavior 406 407 Brain Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood 408 Physical Changes from Early to Later Adulthood 409 Gender and Reproductive Capacity 9.6 410 ognitive Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood 411 C Formal Operations Revisited: Applying Cognition to Adolescent Behavior 411 Postformal Thought: Developing Adult Reasoning Changes in Mental Abilities 9.7 413 413 Psychosocial Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood 415 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Adolescence and Adulthood 415 Emerging Adulthood 417 Variations in Social Relations in Adolescence and Adulthood 418 Parenting 421 Psychology Applies to Your World Career Development 424 9.8 9.9 Death and Dying 425 Emotional Reactions to Death: Kübler-Ross’s Stages 425 Bereavement and Grief: How We Respond to Death 426 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 428 Studying the Chapter 429 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Human Development 10 Social Psychology 10.1 Evaluating the World: Attitudes 435 Acquiring Attitudes Through Learning Attitude-Behavior Consistency 436 436 438 Cognitive Consistency and Attitude Change Persuasion and Attitude Change 10.2 443 443 Heuristics and Biases in Attribution 10.3 439 440 Forming Impressions of Others The Attribution Process 432 444 Prejudice: Why Can’t We All Just Get Along? 447 Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination 448 Stereotype Threat: Prejudice Can Be a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 449 Psychology Applies to Your World The Modern Face of Racism Learning to Be Prejudiced 450 452 Intergroup Dynamics and Prejudice 454 Reducing Prejudice in the Real World 456 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xiii xiv Contents 10.4 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Being Drawn to Others: The Nature of Attraction 458 Proximity and Exposure: Attraction to Those Who Are Nearby Similarity: Having Things in Common The Importance of Physical Attractiveness 459 461 The “Chemistry” of Sex Drive, Love, and Romance 10.5 Group Influence 462 Social Forces Within Groups: Norms and Cohesiveness Conformity Within a Group 462 462 Is Working in a Group Better Than Working Alone? 10.6 458 458 465 Requests and Demands: Compliance and Obedience Compliance Techniques: Getting People to Say “Yes” 467 468 Obedience: Doing What We Are Told to Do 470 10.7 Aggression: Hurting Others Biological Theories of Aggression 475 475 Learning Theories of Aggression 477 Situations That Promote Aggressive Behavior 10.8 Choosing to Help Others: Prosocial Behavior The Murder of Kitty Genovese The Bystander Effect Choosing to Help 10.9 478 479 480 480 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 482 Studying the Chapter 483 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Social Psychology 11 479 486 Personality 489 11.1 The Psychoanalytic Approach: Sigmund Freud and the Neo-Freudians Freud’s Levels of Awareness 490 490 Freud’s Structure of Personality 491 Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development 492 Neo-Freudian Theories Explaining Variations in Personality: Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney 494 Contributions and Criticisms of the Psychoanalytic Approach 496 11.2 The Trait Approach: Consistency and Stability in Personality 497 Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory 498 Psychology Applies to Your World Are You a Sensation Seeker? 498 Raymond Cattell’s Factor Analytic Trait Theory 500 Hans Eysenck Narrows the Traits: The PEN Model The Five Factor Trait Theory 500 502 Genetic Contributions to Personality 503 Stability and Change in Personality 504 Contributions and Criticisms of the Trait Approach 11.3 505 The Social Cognitive Approach: The Environment and Patterns of Thought 506 Reciprocal Determinism: Albert Bandura’s Interacting Forces 507 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Julian Rotter’s Locus of Control: Internal and External Expectations Contributions and Criticisms of the Social Cognitive Approach 11.4 Contents 508 508 The Humanistic Approach: Free Will and Self-Actualization 509 Abraham Maslow and the Hierarchy of Needs Theory 509 Carl Rogers and Self Theory 510 Contributions and Criticisms of the Humanistic Approach 11.5 Scientifically Measuring Personality 511 512 Personality Inventories: Mark Which One Best Describes You 513 Projective Tests: Tell Me What You See 514 Rating Scales and Direct Observation 515 Clinical Interviews 11.6 516 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 516 Studying the Chapter 517 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Personality 520 Part 4 ▶ Foundations in Physical and Mental Health 12 Health, Stress, and Positive Psychology 12.1 What Is Stress? Stress and Stressors 523 527 528 Life Events: Change Is Stressful 528 Catastrophes & Trauma 532 Daily Hassles: Little Things Add Up! 533 Conflict: Approach and Avoidance 535 12.2 The Stress Response 537 Cognitive Appraisal: Assessing Stress 537 Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome: The Body’s Response to Stress 538 Gender and the Stress Response 540 Stress and the Immune System: Resistance to Disease 541 12.3 Coping with Stress 543 Problem-Focused Coping: Change the Situation 543 E motion-Focused Coping: Change Your Reaction 544 Managing Stress: Applying the Research 12.4 546 Personality, Health, and Well-Being 550 Type A Personality: Ambition, Drive, and Competitiveness Learned Helplessness: I Can’t Do It 550 552 The Hardy Personality: Control, Commitment, and Challenge 553 12.5 Lifestyle, Health, and Well-Being Health-Defeating Behaviors Psychology Applies to Your World Health and Well-Being 556 Health-Promoting Behaviors Happiness and Well-Being 554 554 Technology’s Influence on 560 561 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xv xvi Contents 12.6 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 562 Studying the Chapter 563 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Health, Stress, and Positive Psychology 13 Mental Health Disorders 13.1 What Is a Mental Health Disorder? 566 569 570 Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders 570 Explaining Mental Health Disorders: Perspectives Revisited 13.2 571 The DSM Model for Classifying Abnormal Behavior 573 The Structure of the DSM 574 How Good Is the DSM Model? 576 13.3 nxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive, and Trauma-Related Disorders: A It’s Not Just “Nerves” 577 Components of Excessive Anxiety 578 Types of Excessive Anxiety Disorders 578 Research Explaining Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive, and Trauma-Related Disorders 13.4 582 Dissociative and Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders: Other Forms of Anxiety? 585 Dissociative Disorders: Loss of Self or Awareness 586 Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders: “Doctor, I’m Sure I’m Sick” 587 13.5 Depressive and Bipolar Disorders: A Change in Mood Depressive Disorders: A Change to Sadness 588 589 Psychology Applies to Your World Suicide Facts and Misconceptions 590 Bipolar-Related Disorders: The Presence of Mania 592 Research Explaining Depressive and Bipolar Disorders 593 Gender and Depression 596 13.6 Schizophrenia: Disintegration 598 Individual Variations: Onset, Gender, Ethnicity, Social Class, and Prognosis 599 Symptoms of Schizophrenia 600 Research Explaining Schizophrenia: Genetics, the Brain, and the Environment 601 13.7 Personality Disorders: Maladaptive Patterns of Behavior 604 Antisocial Personality Disorder: Impulsive and Dangerous 605 Borderline Personality Disorder: Living on Your Fault Line 13.8 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 606 608 Studying the Chapter 609 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Mental Health Disorders 14 Mental Health Therapies 14.1 Providing Psychological Assistance Psychotherapy versus Biomedical Therapy Who Is Qualified to Give Therapy? 612 615 616 616 616 Ethical Standards for Psychotherapists 617 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Psychology Applies to Your World When Does One Need to Consider Therapy? Seeking Therapy 14.2 Contents 619 620 Psychoanalytic Therapies: Uncovering Unconscious Conflicts Traditional Psychoanalysis 620 621 Modern Psychoanalysis 622 14.3 Humanistic Therapy: Facilitating Self-Actualization 622 The Aim of Humanistic Therapy Approaches 622 Client-Centered Therapy: Three Key Ingredients 14.4 623 Behavior Therapies: Learning Healthier Behaviors 625 Applying Classical Conditioning Techniques in Therapy: Exposure and Aversion 14.5 Applying Operant Conditioning Techniques in Therapy 629 Cognitive Therapies: Changing Thoughts 631 E llis’s Rational-Emotive Therapy: Reinterpret One’s Viewpoint Beck’s Cognitive Therapy: Replace Negative Thoughts 14.6 Group Therapy: Strength in Numbers 625 631 632 635 The Benefits of Group Therapy 635 The Nature and Types of Group Therapy 14.7 635 Effective Psychotherapy: Do Treatments Work? Conducting Research on Therapy’s Effectiveness Eclectic Therapy: CBT, MBCT, and EMDR 638 638 639 Factors That Contribute to Effective Psychotherapy 640 The Effectiveness and Ethics of Technology in the Delivery of Psychotherapy 14.8 Biomedical Therapies: Applying Neuroscience 642 Drug Therapies: Chemically Altering the Brain 642 Noninvasive Brain Stimulation Procedures: TMS and ECT 648 Cutting-Edge Biomedical Treatments: Emerging Alternatives 14.9 641 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture 649 651 Studying the Chapter 651 Are You Getting the Big Picture? Mental Health Therapies 654 Appendix A: Statistics in Psychology 657 Appendix B: Applying Psychology in the Workplace 671 Glossary 689 References 713 Name Index 787 Subject Index 822 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xvii Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Preface Together, we have nearly 60 years of experience teaching Introductory Psychology. We have each spent the bulk of our careers teaching multiple sections of Introductory Psychology each semester—it is our bread and butter, so to speak. So, it’s a good thing that Introductory Psychology is also our favorite course. Contrary to what many may think of professors teaching the same course over and over, it never grows old for us. Teaching Introductory Psychology allows us to touch on many different aspects of our fascinating field and to work with diverse students from all walks of life, such that no two classes are ever alike. The uniqueness of each class is just one of the challenges that keeps us excited about teaching this course. There are others. Introductory Psychology classes are often full of students who are just beginning their college careers—some are fresh from high school; others are returning, nontraditional students who’ve been out of the classroom for several years. They come to us with the desire to learn about psychology, but often they face serious obstacles. Some are overworked in their personal lives. Some have lingering academic challenges. And most expect learning to be easier than we know it to be. A big part of our mission is to help students overcome these obstacles and obtain success. Our Mission: Motivating Students to Read Getting students to read their textbook in preparation for classes and exams is one of the biggest problems we face as instructors. Like many professors, our experience has been that few students read assigned chapters prior to class, and some even fail to read the chapters by the time they take exams. For years, we have tried various methods of motivating students to read—pop quizzes, reading quizzes, test questions from material in the book but not covered in class, and so on. None of these methods seemed to have much of an impact on students. Students’ free time is in short supply, and when they do have free time, reading a textbook doesn’t always seem like an attractive option. Students often find their texts difficult to read, boring, and full of content that is far removed from the concerns of their daily lives. If we want students to read their textbooks, we will have to give them books that they will want to read, and that means giving them a book that they can understand and one that they find relevant enough to be worth the time it takes to read. Motivating students to read is our primary mission, and we wrote What Is Psychology? Foundations, Applications and Integration to give students a textbook that they would find interesting to read, easy to read, and memorable. Our Mission: Giving Students an Integrated View of Psychology that Aligns with APA Guidelines Another important goal is providing students with a comprehensive and integrated view of the field of psychology. We have long advocated for a “Big Picture” approach to the teaching of psychology, and our previous editions of What Is Psychology? emphasized the integrated nature of psychology as a field. Through the use of case studies that were woven throughout the chapters and through continually referring to material in other chapters, What Is Psychology? encouraged students to see psychology as a whole rather than as a sum of many parts. The need to provide Introductory Psychology students with an integrated view of psychology has also been recognized by the American Psychological Association (APA, 2014) in their guidelines for strengthening the Common Core in the Introductory Psychology course. A prominent theme in these guidelines is that all Introductory Psychology courses should present students with a “big picture” view of psychology that integrates the different perspectives that psychologists take in examining mental processes and behavior. Furthermore, in presenting this integrated view of psychology, Introductory Psychology courses should highlight the common themes that tie the different perspectives or areas of psychology together—themes that include the scientific method of research, diversity and variations seen in human behavior, the applicability of psychology to real life, and the ethics that guide psychological research and practice. This call for a Common Core in introductory courses places the Introductory Psychology course in line with the broader APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major Version 2.0 (APA, 2013). These guidelines for the major contain the learning goals that students should attain xix Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xx Preface Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com by the time they complete an undergraduate degree in psychology. Each of these goals is broken down into a series of specific learning outcomes that are divided into two levels. The first level defines goals that students should attain during their first three or four “foundational” psychology courses, while the second level defines goals for what students should achieve by the completion of their degree program. Introductory psychology is clearly often the first foundation course taken by students who may take just a few psychology classes or decide to major in the field. These goals are numerically indexed; for example, the first learning outcome under Goal 1 is Learning Outcome 1.1. 3.3 Adopt values that build community at local, national, and global levels Goal 4: Communication Learning Outcomes 4.1–4.3 pertain to students’ demonstration of effective writing, presentation, and interpersonal communication skills. 4.1 Demonstrate effective writing for different purposes 4.2 Exhibit effective presentation skills for different purposes 4.3 Interact effectively with others Goal 5: Professional Development A Summary of the Current APA Learning Goals Goal 1: Knowledge Base in Psychology Learning Outcomes 1.1–1.3 pertain to students’ acquisition of the key concepts, domains, and applications of psychology. Learning Outcomes 5.1–5.5 pertain to students’ demonstration of the skills and knowledge necessary to meet their career goals in psychology, including self-management skills, project management skills, and the applicability of psychology to various professional pursuits. 1.1 Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology 1.2 Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains 1.3 Describe applications of psychology 5.1 Apply psychological content and skills to career goals 5.2 Exhibit self-efficacy and self-regulation 5.3 Refine project-management skills 5.4 Enhance teamwork capacity 5.5 Develop meaningful professional direction for life after graduation Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking As professors who also teach advanced courses in psychology, we firmly agree with the APA that students should be taught to see psychology as a unified whole rather than as a series of discrete areas of study. When students enter advanced courses with a unified understanding of Introductory Psychology, they are much more likely to be successful. And students who continue to build this big picture understanding of psychology throughout their coursework are the most successful in attaining their career goals at graduation. For this reason, we are very excited to introduce this new fifth edition of What Is Psychology? Foundations, Applications, and Integration. This edition retains the best features from our previous texts that have motivated thousands of students to actually read and learn psychology. Just as the fourth edition focused on strengthening the three themes represented in the subtitle: foundations, applications, and integration, this fifth edition is structured around the guidelines set forth in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major Version 2.0, and the recommendations made by the APA’s Board of Educational Affairs (BEA) Working Group to Strengthen the Common Core. While the APA 2.0 guidelines suggest learning outcomes for college psychology courses, the Common Core proposes an optimal course structure to provide the best introduction to the field of psychology (APA, 2014). Learning Outcomes 2.1–2.5 pertain to students’ understanding and use of the scientific method, information literacy, integrative thinking, and use of sociocultural factors in scientific inquiry. 2.1 Use scientific reasoning to interpret psychological phenomena 2.2 Demonstrate psychology information literacy 2.3 Engage in innovative and integrative thinking and problem solving 2.4 Interpret, design, and conduct basic psychological research 2.5 Incorporate sociocultural factors in scientific inquiry Goal 3: Ethical and Social Responsibility in a Diverse World Learning Outcomes 3.1–3.3 pertain to students’ understanding and use of ethical standards to build interpersonal relationships and communities. 3.1 Apply ethical standards to evaluate psychological science and practice 3.2 Build and enhance interpersonal relationships Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com What Is Psychology? Foundations, Applications, and Integration What Is Psychology? Foundations, Applications, and Integration, 5e retains all the pedagogical features of our previous edition, as well as, new features designed to further strengthen students’ mastery of the scientific methods that form the ultimate foundation of our field and help students of all majors see how psychology is relevant to their career development. Foundations: Content Organized Around the Foundational Areas of Psychological Research What Is Psychology? Foundations, Applications, and Integration, 5e is organized around the foundational areas of psychology emphasized by the APA in the Common Core discussions. The text opens with the ultimate foundation of psychology, the scientific research methods that inform all study of mental processes and behavior. An understanding of the research methods that psychologists use is essential to building a comprehensive understanding of psychology. Unfortunately, all too often, students tend to forget the research methods they learn in the first chapter as they are reading and studying subsequent chapters. A common complaint in upper-division courses is that students don’t seem to recall basic concepts such as independent and dependent variables, causation vs. correlation, and so on. This edition includes a couple of features that are designed to make the science of psychology salient for students as they read each of the subsequent chapters of the text and give students practice in applying their knowledge of research methods. The scientific reasoning questions introduced in the fourth edition have been retained. These questions can be found periodically both in the quizzes that follow each section and in the end-of-chapter quizzes, where they are marked with this special icon . These questions are written using concepts relevant to the topics of the chapter, and they give the student the opportunity to review the research methods learned in Chapter 1. For example, a scientific reasoning question from Chapter 4 reads: Preface New to the fifth edition is the inclusion of a Critical Thinking about the Science of Psychology feature. At the end of each chapter, students are referred back to a study that was discussed in that chapter and asked to answer questions about the research methods used in that study. An example question from Chapter 6 reads: Recall the Bobo doll student conducted by Albert Bandura (1965) that you read about in Section 6.4.1. In particular, think about the first phase of the study, in which the children watched one of the films and were then simply left alone in the room with the Bobo doll. Then, see if you can answer these questions. 1. What type of research method did Bandura use in this study? 2. What was the independent variable in this study? 3. What was the dependent variable in this study? 4. How did Bandura control for confounding variables in his study? 5. Are there any potential ethical concerns with Bandura’s study? By continually reinforcing the content and application of research methods in psychology, these features help students to better understand the science of psychology and to better retain this knowledge as they move forward along their educational pathways. In addition to understanding the scientific foundations of psychology, students must also master the schools of thought and content areas of psychology that have emerged in our field. Accordingly, the remaining chapters of the text are organized around four foundational content areas: the biological, cognitive, developmental and social, and physical and mental health areas of psychology. Content is divided to follow these topical sections of psychology while creating manageable chunks of related material, allowing professors to easily align their content with testing during the semester or quarter: Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology The suprachiasmatic nucleus increases the release of melatonin as it gets darker outside. This represents a correlation between amount of melatonin and amount of daylight. Part 1: Foundations in Biological Psychology Chapter 2: Neuroscience Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception Chapter 4: Consciousness Chapter 5: Motivation and Emotion a. b. c. d. Part 2: Foundations in Cognitive Psychology Chapter 6: Learning Chapter 7: Memory Chapter 8: Cognition, Language, and Intelligence negative positive zero perfect xxi Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xxii Preface Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com art 3: Foundations in Developmental and Social Psychology P Chapter 9: Human Development Chapter 10: Social Psychology Chapter 11: Personality chapter(s). Through Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture, students begin to see that all of the material fits together— what has been learned informs what is yet to be learned. Part 4: Foundations in Physical and Mental Health Chapter 12: Health, Stress, and Positive Psychology Chapter 13: Mental Health Disorders Chapter 14: Mental Health Therapies Numerical Indexing Allows for Easy Cross-Referencing Applications: Integrating Psychology Through the Use of Case Studies One of the best ways to motivate students to read is to capture their curiosity from the very beginning. If psychology is interesting for students, they will read. Each of our previous texts drew rave reviews from students for the use of attention-grabbing case studies at the opening of each chapter or part. In Foundations, Applications, and Integration, 5e, we continue this tradition. Each of the four foundational parts of the text opens with a case study that illustrates how the content covered in the chapters of that part helps us understand the behavior and mental processes of a real-life person. The case studies are compelling stories of people who have faced life’s challenges with courage and grace. For example, the biological part opens with the case study of Jean-Dominique Bauby, a man who wrote a moving book that was later turned into a movie, The Diving Bell and the Butterfly, while in a state of locked-in syndrome that left him completely paralyzed save the ability to blink his left eye. The developmental and social psychology part begins with the story of Hongyong Baek, a woman who survived many challenges, including the Korean War and devastating personal losses, but still managed many triumphs in her lifetime. Each of the case studies is woven throughout all of the chapters of that part of the book, providing students with a view of the content that is both integrated and applied to real life. By using one case study to tie all of the related chapters together, students are encouraged to see the material as a whole rather than as a series of disparate parts; and in doing so, they begin forming an integrated “big picture” of psychology. Integration: The Big Picture To further facilitate the development of an integrated, “big picture” view of psychology in students, each chapter closes with a section called Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture. In this section, we revisit the part case study and use it as a vehicle for both reviewing the content of the chapter(s) of the section and previewing the content of the coming Throughout the text, numeric indexing is used to help students quickly locate relevant information. All primary and secondary heads for the chapter are also numerically indexed with a sequential code. For example, here is the indexing for a portion of Chapter 2 content: 2.1 Billions of Neurons: Communication in the Brain 2.1.1 The Anatomy of the Neuron 2.1.2 Signals in the Brain: How Neurons Fire Up 2.1.3 Jumping the Synapse: Synaptic Transmission This numeric coding scheme allows for relevant material to be indexed back to the applicable section of the text, tying content to each section heading. Through numbering, the learning objectives, quizzes, review summaries, and visual summaries at the ends of each chapter are easy to reference to a specific location within the text. Numeric coding also makes it easy for instructors to assign specific portions of chapters, and for students to find that material across media, creating a smoother experience when moving around in the physical text or between the text and digital formats. Through the use of these numeric codes, students can quickly tie content from a variety of sources back to specific sections of the text. Learning Objectives that Are Aligned with the APA Learning Goals and Outcomes Each chapter opens with the Learning Objectives, which are numerically indexed to the appropriate Learning Goal and Learning Outcome in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major Version 2.0 (APA, 2013). Learning Objectives are also numerically indexed to the section heading of the chapter in which the relevant material is covered. This allows both the instructor and the student to quickly assess which objectives are covered in each discrete section of the text, and which APA program outcomes are being addressed in that section. For example, here is a sample of the learning objectives for Chapter 8. The index numbers on the left refer to the relevant sections of the chapter. The codes on the right relate the learning objectives to the specific APA Learning Outcomes. 8.1 Describe how we represent knowledge in our memory. (APA 1.1, 1.2, 1.3) 8.1 Describe how we organize knowledge in our memory. (APA 1.1, 1.2, 1.3) Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 8.2 Describe the different types of problems we face in life and the ways in which we may try to solve them. (APA 1.1, 1.2, 1.3) 8.2 Describe common obstacles to problem solving. (APA 1.1, 1.2, 1.3) Diversity: Making Psychology Relevant for All People There is little doubt that students learn best when they become personally invested in the material they are reading and studying. However, for this to occur, students must actually find the material to be applicable to their lives. Given that today’s college students are a diverse group of people, writing a text that is relevant to today’s students means writing a text that embraces their diversity. Diversity and variations in human behavior are also themes that are emphasized in the APA Common Core guidelines and the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major. Understanding psychology means understanding the behavior and mental processes of all people. Appropriately, we wrote our book with inclusion in mind. Throughout the text we use examples of real people (such as those whose stories open each foundational section) who reflect the diversity seen in our classrooms. Where applicable, we have cited and highlighted research that reflects many aspects of diversity, including gender, racial diversity, sexual orientation, cultural diversity, age and generational differences, socioeconomic levels, and physical and/or mental health challenges. In all, we reference people from well over 120 countries and/or cultural groups. An Engaging Narrative Writing Style Makes Difficult Material Easier to Understand Motivating a student to read the text is, of course, a primary concern of professors. But reading the text does no good if the student does not understand what they have read. A major goal of this text is to bring psychology to the student by making it understandable, and to do so without sacrificing content. We believe that it is not necessary to condescend to students to get them to understand. Rather, you just have to explain difficult concepts thoroughly and clearly. Throughout the text, we have adopted an engaging narrative writing style that will not intimidate students. Difficult concepts (such as neural transmission and classical conditioning) are given extended description, and many real-life examples are used to illustrate and clarify our points. The language we use in the text strongly reflects the way we speak to our students during class. We also include a pronunciation glossary so students will know how to correctly pronounce the more difficult, unfamiliar terms. Preface xxiii We attempted to use our prose to tell students the story of psychology, as opposed to a mere litany of theories and research findings. Throughout the text, we directly address students as “you” and refer to ourselves as “we” to help draw students into a conversation about psychology. And through that conversation, we provide students with an accessible and engaging story. Throughout the process of writing this text, many faculty reviewers and students have consistently praised our writing style for its clarity and accessibility. One reviewer commented that it was obvious that this text was written by authors who have spent much time in the classroom in front of students. Enhancing Motivation and Learning by Making Psychology Practical and Personal A key point in getting students to read a text and retain what they’ve read is making the material applicable to their lives. When information is associated with the self, it becomes more easily retrieved from memory. So, when students can see how psychology relates to their personal lives, they are much more likely to find it interesting and a lot less likely to forget it. Throughout the text, we have made a concerted effort to use practical, everyday examples to illustrate the concepts. What Is Psychology? Foundations, Applications, and Integration 5th edition includes Psychology Applies to Your World, a feature that emphasizes the personal relevance of psychology by showing students that an understanding of psychology can help them to better understand their world. Topics for this feature include the opioid epidemic (Chapter 4), mindsets and motivation (Chapter 5), the modern face of racism (Chapter 10), and the role classical conditioning plays in our body’s response to drugs (Chapter 6). Personal relevance of the material also extends to students’ career pathways. At many institutions, introductory psychology is a general education course, as well as, a major course. As such, many of our students are not psychology majors. Unsurprisingly, students often question the value and relevance of psychology to their chosen career pathways. To help students see the value in studying psychology, we have included a new Psychology Works! feature in the fifth edition. In each chapter, this boxed feature presents a photo and description of a career that utilizes psychological knowledge. These careers were specifically chosen to be for the most part outside of mainstream psychology and primarily require undergraduate degrees. Some of the Psychology Works! topics included are physical therapist assistants (Chapter 2), law enforcement personnel (Chapter 4), and advertising and marketing personnel (Chapter 10). Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xxiv Preface Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Enhancing Student Learning by Encouraging Active Learning and Self-Assessment Many of our students learn best when they engage in active rather than passive learning. We have made a concerted effort to get students involved with the material as they read. By remaining engaged, students will be more motivated to read, and they will likely retain the information in memory much better. Several features aimed at encouraging active learning include: Engage Yourself! The Engage Yourself! active learning feature asks students to do hands-on activities to illustrate important chapter concepts. Active learning not only encourages students to see the personal relevance of the material, it also helps students elaborate the material in memory by connecting it to personal experience. Examples of Engage Yourself! activities include having students examine their attributional biases when making judgments about celebrities (Chapter 10), finding their own blindspot (Chapter 3), and an activity that demonstrates the brain’s predisposition to perceive faces (Chapter 9). Quiz Yourself Another feature, Quiz Yourself, appears after each major section of the chapter. Quiz Yourself allows students to actively assess their learning by asking them to apply the material of the preceding section to answer several multiple choice questions. Most of the Quiz Yourself questions are application questions that apply the material to practical situations. For example, in Chapter 13, we use the following question to test the student’s ability to apply the criteria for determining whether or not behavior is atypical: Susan will only eat soup with a fork. By which criteria can Susan’s behavior be considered atypical? a. b. c. d. Danger to others Violates social norms Distress All of the above To answer this question, the student must not only understand the different criteria for judging behavior, but they must also be able to think analytically in applying these concepts to a behavioral scenario. Scientific reasoning questions can also be found sprinkled throughout the Quiz Yourself quizzes, serving to further help students integrate scientific reasoning into the big picture of psychology. These questions are marked with a circle for easy identification. You Review Each chapter features at least one You Review table that summarizes key points of a particular topic. For example, in Chapter 12, the transmission modes, symptoms, and treatments of sexually transmitted infections are summarized. In Chapter 8, the various theories of intelligence are summarized in this feature. What Do You Know? Assess Your Understanding In addition to the Quiz Yourself questions at the end of each major section of the chapter, we have included a more extensive self-assessment for students at the end of each chapter. This assessment, What Do You Know? Assess Your Understanding, includes a 20-question multiple choice practice test (with the answers provided) that allows students to evaluate their retention and understanding of the entire chapter. In most cases, these quizzes also contain scientific reasoning questions. By self-assessing, students can better judge which concepts and/or sections of the chapter they should target for further study. Use It or Lose It: Applying Psychology Questions In addition to the multiple choice section and the Critical Thinking about the Science of Psychology questions discussed previously, the end-of-chapter assessments also include Use It or Lose It: Applying Psychology, a series of essay or short-answer questions that require students to further elaborate and integrate their knowledge by applying what they have learned to a real-world problem or question. An example question from Chapter 2 reads: 1. Jean-Dominique Bauby was still able to think, feel, and remember the events of his life after a stroke left him in a permanent state of locked-in syndrome. Now that you know something about the brain, can you explain why he retained these abilities? Are You Getting the Big Picture? A visual summary of the chapter, entitled “Are You Getting the Big Picture?” is also included in the end-of-chapter material to allow students to grasp the big picture of the chapter. All of the major concepts and theories of the chapter are brought together in a graphical format in the visual summary that also uses thumbnail images as reminders. This tool will be especially helpful to students who prefer to learn through visual means. Chapter-by-Chapter Changes to Content As psychologists know, our field is dynamic and everchanging. To stay abreast of current knowledge and offer our students the most accurate understanding of psychology possible, the research cited in What Is Psychology? Foundations, Applications, and Integration, 5e has been Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com thoroughly updated. In addition, the new edition also includes key updates to some of the pedagogical features of the text. Here is a chapter-by-chapter summary of some of the important changes in this new text. Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology added confirmation bias as a key term emphasized the importance of replication and addressed Psychology’s replication crisis ●● defined and added meta-analyses as a key term ●● included operational definition in the discussion of forming a hypothesis ●● mentioned the use of crowdsourcing platforms to recruit participants ●● included survey results on Generation Z in discussion of generational differences ●● added importance of not coercing possible participants to the ethics discussion ●● identified review board for non-human subjects (IACUC) ●● updated information on undergraduate degrees in psychology ●● updated earning inequities for women and minorities in the field of psychology ●● included discussion of licensed professional counselors (LPC) and applied behavioral analysis in discussion on careers in psychology ●● included a discussion of COVID-19 pandemic and behavior ●● ●● Chapter 2: Neuroscience added coverage of the opioid epidemic better integrated the Jean-Dominique Bauby case study into the chapter content ●● terminology aligned with the APA dictionary of psychology ●● added coverage of mindfulness and the hippocampus ●● updated the research on the effects of Wifi exposure on the brain ●● ●● Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception extended coverage of subliminal perception to include subliminal perception of faces in the processing of social cues of emotion ●● added one new Engage Yourself! demonstration on finding your blindspot ●● updated coverage of gender differences in color preference ●● added coverage of signal detection theory ●● updated coverage of theories of pitch perception to make the text more current and more precise ●● Preface xxv updated coverage of taste to make the text more precise updated coverage on olfaction and included coverage of gender differences in sensory thresholds for smell ●● added the key term of a perceptual set ●● ●● Chapter 4: Consciousness all graphs and statistics updated with the most recent data ●● included research on meditation and mindfulnessbased practices ●● discussed the influence of sleep deprivation on emotions ●● explained why REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep ●● included memory theory and continuity hypothesis of dreams as key terms ●● discussed the difference between light and deep hypnosis ●● New Psychology Applies to Your World box on the opioid epidemic ●● prescription opiate drugs included in table on psychoactive drugs ●● electronic nicotine delivery systems (vaping) included in nicotine discussion ●● distinguished between CBD (cannabidiol) and THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) ●● discussed COVID-19 syndrome and the benefit of sleep ●● discussed vaping and increased risk of COVID-19 outbreak ●● described EVALI respiratory disease and its association with vaping ●● Chapter 5: Motivation and Emotion added a new Psychology Applies to Your World box on mindsets and motivation ●● updated coverage of self-determination theory of motivation ●● added additional coverage of ghrelin and weight loss surgery ●● increased coverage of sleep deprivation and weight ●● updated statistics on the obesity epidemic ●● updated information on prevalence of eating disorders ●● updated information on basic emotions and facial feedback of emotion ●● Chapter 6: Learning added behavior modification, counterconditioning, instinctive drift, and delay of gratification as new key terms ●● added a discussion of the purposiveness of behavior ●● better explained the positive learning that can occur through videogame play ●● Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xxvi Preface Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com updated the coverage on the Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children ●● updated research on the effects of viewing television and screen time in children ●● added a new Psychology Applies to Your World box on the classical conditioning of compensatory responses to drugs ●● Chapter 7: Memory added a new Engage Yourself! box on the serial position curve ●● added additional coverage on attention and multitasking ●● added a new Engage Yourself! box on priming. ●● extended the coverage on whether or not episodic and semantic memory are separate systems ●● reworked our coverage of concussions and added coverage of chronic traumatic encephalopathy in professional football players ●● added coverage of the SOAR method of learning, the purported benefit of handwritten notes, and self-testing to the tips for improving memory in the Psychology Applies to Your World box ●● Chapter 8: Cognition, Language, and Intelligence reworked and expanded the discussion of group differences in IQ to focus less on the specific differences seen and focus more on research examining the environmental influences on intelligence ●● added discussion of the Raven’s Progressive Matrices test of intelligence to the discussion of cultural bias in testing ●● removed the discussion of gender differences in cognitive abilities from this chapter ●● added discussion of biolinguistics and usage-based theories of language development ●● added additional examples of possible language use in animals ●● added neuroimaging evidence of visual images in memory ●● added additional coverage on personality and creativity ●● better connected heuristic processing with stereotyping and prejudice ●● added coverage of interacting with the problem during problem solving included meta-analytic results on parenting styles and association with externalizing problems in children ●● updated research on gender and education, and gender and the media ●● added research on gender depictions in the video game industry ●● updated dating and singlehood, cohabitation, and marriage statistical trends for heterosexual and same-sex couples ●● included updated research on gender and marital satisfaction in different-sex and same-sex relationships ●● added results from studies on blog posts of terminally ill and last words of death row inmates ●● Chapter 10: Social Psychology added a new Engage Yourself! demonstration on attitude similarity to close others ●● reworked the Psychology Applies to Your World box on prejudice to include a discussion of police violence against people of color and the #Black Lives Matter movement ●● included discussion of social psychological principles, such as conformity, and their relevance to the COVID-19 pandemic ●● Chapter 11: Personality ●● Chapter 9: Human Development distinguished between fetal alcohol spectrum disorder and fetal alcohol syndrome ●● included research on infant processing of other-race faces ●● ●● thorough update of the literature Chapter 12: Health, Stress, and Positive Psychology chapter retitled to include positive psychology as much of the chapter’s content focuses as much on happiness and well-being as physical health ●● expanded definition of stress ●● expanded discussion of trauma ●● included additional research on key factors in resilience ●● modified Figure 12.3 on stress response to more accurately reflect biological pathway ●● expanded discussion on mindfulness and meditation ●● explained difference between hardiness and resilience ●● vaping included in discussion of health-defeating behaviors ●● expanded discussion of influence of social media on well-being in Psychology Applies to Your World box ●● included cultural differences in value of happiness ●● included how the appraisal process is influenced by culture ●● included discussion on COVID-19 stress syndrome ●● Chapter 13: Mental Health Disorders ●● moved away from term “abnormal”; all conditions referred to as mental health disorders Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com included discussion of stigma and social stigma expanded discussion of gender differences in the prevalence of mental health disorders ●● included influence of COVID-19 on mental health ●● clarified the difference between normal and excessive anxiety ●● included research on the cingulate cortex and anxiety ●● added research on variables that put soldiers at risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) ●● specified criteria for a manic episode ●● ●● Chapter 14: Mental Health Therapies added learning objective for emerging biomedical therapy techniques ●● updated statistics on characteristics of people with mental health disorders who seek therapy ●● expanded discussion of CBT ●● included the key terms of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) and neurosurgery for mental disorder (NMD) ●● added a new section on eclectic therapy types ●● added a new section on cutting-edge biomedical treatments ●● added a table on emerging biomedical therapy techniques ●● SNRIs added to discussion of antidepressant medications ●● MindTap: Empower Your Students MindTap is a platform that propels students from memorization to mastery. It gives you complete control of your course, so you can provide engaging content, challenge every learner, and build student confidence. Customize interactive syllabi to emphasize priority topics, then add your own material or notes to the eBook as desired. This outcomes-driven application gives you the tools needed to empower students and boost both understanding and performance. Access Everything You Need in One Place Cut down on prep with the preloaded and organized MindTap course materials. Teach more efficiently with activities, assignments, quizzes, and more. Give your students the power to read, listen, and study on their phones, so they can learn on their terms. Empower Students to Reach their Potential Twelve distinct metrics give you actionable insights into student engagement. Identify topics troubling your entire class and instantly communicate with those struggling. Students can track their scores to stay motivated towards their goals. Together, you can be unstoppable. Preface xxvii Control Your Course—and Your Content Get the flexibility to reorder textbook chapters, add your own notes, and embed a variety of content including Open Educational Resources (OER). Personalize course content to your students’ needs. They can even read your notes, add their own, and highlight key text to aid their learning. Get a Dedicated Team, Whenever You Need Them MindTap isn’t just a tool, it’s backed by a personalized team eager to support you. We can help set up your course and tailor it to your specific objectives, so you’ll be ready to make an impact from day one. Know we’ll be standing by to help you and your students until the final day of the term. Instructor Resources Additional instructor resources for this product are available online. Instructor assets include an Instructor’s Manual, Educator’s Guide, PowerPoint® slides, and a test bank powered by Cognero®. Sign up or sign in at www.cengage .com to search for and access this product and its online resources. Acknowledgments Writing a college textbook has been an exhausting yet rewarding experience. We are ordinary college professors who teach three to six classes every semester, so we are often writing in whatever free time we have—weekends, nights, and holidays. We are valued for our contributions to student learning and service to our institutions. And we have grown so much as educators and psychologists in tackling this project. This would not have been possible without the support of many people who deserve our acknowledgment. We would like to thank Chris Jespersen at the University of North Georgia for his administrative support. Our deepest gratitude and thanks also go out to the great people who have helped with the development of What Is Psychology? throughout all of its previous editions: Jaime Perkins, Kristin Makarewycz, Shannon LeMay-Finn, Kim Russell, Liz Rhoden, Nicole Lee Petel, Mary Noel, Christy Frame, Vernon Boes, Paige Leeds, Jessica Alderman, Roman Barnes, Shelli Newhart, Jill Traut, Clayton Austin, Priya Subbrayal, Jennifer Levanduski, Andrew Ginsberg, and everyone else at Cengage and MPS Limited who helped make these texts the best possible learning tools for students everywhere. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xxviii Preface Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com For this new edition we are grateful for the invaluable contributions made by Colin Grover, Tangelique Williams-Grayer, Tricia Salata, Jennifer Bowes, Shelley Ryan, and Nisha Banu Beegum. We also would like to thank the reviewers for their insightful comments and expert guidance in developing this text. We would also like to thank our friends and colleagues at the University of North Georgia and Valencia College for their support and latitude over the past 20 years. We would also like to thank the thousands of students we have worked with over the years. In your own way, each of you has helped us to become better teachers and better people. Our hope is that this book will touch many other students and foster an interest in and passion for psychology. Finally, we would like to thank our families. Susann would like to thank her husband Eddie for his endless love and support. Ellen would like to thank her husband Dave for his technical assistance, his tireless rereading of material, and his patience and support through another edition. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com What Is Psychology? Foundations, Applications & Integration Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Learning Objectives 1.1 Define psychology. (APA 1.1) 1.3 1.1 Identify common misconceptions about the field of psychology. (APA 2.1) Describe the main ethical principles that guide psychologists as they conduct research. (APA 3.1) 1.4 Distinguish among the seven modern perspectives of psychology and the eclectic approach and identify the major historical figures that influenced psychology’s development. (APA 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.5, 5.1) 1.4 Describe the training of a psychologist and compare and contrast the different specialty areas of the profession. (APA 1.3, 5.1, 5.5) 1.4 Describe how women and minorities have contributed to the field of psychology. (APA 1.2, 3.3) 1.2 Identify the four goals of psychological research. (APA 1.1, 2.1) 1.2 Outline the steps of the scientific method and distinguish between predictive and causal hypotheses. (APA 2.1, 2.4) 1.2 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of observational, survey, correlational, and experimental research methods and the types of conclusions that can be drawn about behavior from each method. (APA 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5, 5.1) Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1 The Science of Psychology I t was the first day of the semester. Parking, as usual, was a challenge. Christian finally found a spot, parked his car, and headed toward campus. While grabbing a coffee at the college café, he ran into his friend Andrew. “Hey, man, what’s up?” he asked. “Not much,” Andrew replied. “Just getting coffee before I head to class.” “What are you taking?” Christian asked. “Well, I’ve got math and music appreciation tomorrow. Today, I’ve got oceanography and general psychology. I’m heading to the psych class now.” Christian smiled and said, “Cool, I’ve got that psych class now, too.” The two students grabbed their coffees and headed toward the psychology building, continuing their conversation. “What do you Chapter Outline 1.1 What Is Psychology? / 4 1.2 The Science of Psychology: Goals, Hypotheses, and Methods / 8 1.3 Ethical Principles of Psychological Research / 21 1.4 Psychology in the Modern World: Foundations and Growth / 23 feel about things. Ought to be an easy A—like being with a therapist all semester,” Christian joked. Andrew laughed. “Yeah, I guess we’ll see how screwed up we are and get a lot of therapy.” “Speak for yourself,” Christian kidded. “I figure it’s just commonsense stuff, things your parents have been telling you since you were a kid. Shouldn’t be too hard.” Andrew nodded in agreement as they arrived at the classroom. “Let’s take a seat in the back so we don’t have to share our feelings too much,” Christian whispered. The two found a seat in the back and waited for class to begin. ■ ▲ Greg Hinsdale/Corbis think the course will be about?” Andrew asked. “Probably how you Many students hold misconceptions about the field of psychology. Psychology Applies to Your World Training to Be a Psychologist / 32 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture / 34 © Ellen Pastorino 1.5 3 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 4 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology 1.1 What Is Psychology? Welcome to the world of psychology, the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. But what exactly does that include? Behavior includes actions, feelings, and biological states such as sleeping. Mental processes include problem solving, intelligence, and memory, to name just a few. Psychology is a science because psychologists conduct research in accord with the scientific method—a systematic process used to test ideas about behavior. Psychologists analyze the behavior of humans as well as other species. Psychology is probably one of the few disciplines in which students come to the first class believing they already know much about the topic. We see psychologists and psychiatrists on talk shows and listen to them on the radio. We frequently see them depicted on television and in the movies. Many of these portrayals are quite entertaining, but they do not always represent psychology accurately. As a result, the public image of the discipline tends to be distorted. The purpose of this textbook is to help you develop a deeper understanding of psychology as a science and how the results of psychological research apply to the real world and to your life. In this chapter, we explain what psychologists do, how they think, and where they work. It is a general overview of the field of psychology, an introduction to the more specific areas of psychology discussed in subsequent chapters. We describe how psychology is a science, the goals of psychological research, how psychologists study behavior, and what the field is like today. Consider, for example, that in December 2019 a new coronavirus emerged causing COVID-19, an acute respiratory disease that quickly spread across the world creating a global pandemic. There was no vaccine or known therapies to treat or reduce its symptoms. As such, all the world could do was make significant shifts in behavior. New health norms emerged such as no longer shaking hands, hugging or kissing upon greeting, frequent handwashing and the use of face coverings in public to reduce transmission of the virus from person to person. People were encouraged to socially distance, shelter-in-place, or self-isolate, behaviors counter to humans’ need to connect. So, people changed the nature of their social interactions by connecting online, through social media and video conferencing, or by drive-by car parades. Unemployment sky-rocketed. Others now worked from home. Students and teachers acclimated to online or distance learning. These shifts in work and school required family routines to readjust. Intimate relationships were tested as we were forced in close proximity to loved ones for an extended period of time. Mental health was challenged as health fears, self-isolation, and economic hardships increased anxiety, loneliness, and feelings of depression. The enormity of these stressors challenged all of us. Yet, these are all topics and behaviors that psychologists research and study. Psychological science can help us understand these behavioral changes and discuss possible solutions to deal with these changes. This textbook follows the recommendations and guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2014) by emphasizing a common core structure of contemporary psychology. The chapters are arranged ▲▲Social-distancing became a new behavior in the wake of the COVID-19 into four main parts representing foundational pandemic. JOHANNES EISELE/Getty Images psychology the scientific study of behavior and mental processes scientific method a systematic process used by psychologists for testing hypotheses about behavior Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com What Is Psychology? 5 areas in the field of psychology: biological, cognitive, developmental and social psychology, and physical and mental health. Each part begins with a real-life story of a person whose life and experiences illustrate the concepts of the chapters that follow. Each chapter ends with an Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture section that ties together the person’s story, the contents of the chapter, and the broader core of psychology. We hope that by reading these real-life stories, you will find psychological topics easier to understand and will be better able to apply psychological principles, concepts, and research to your own life. We also hope you will come to appreciate that understanding the mind and behavior is not a simple process but requires the integration of a multitude of perspectives to more fully comprehend humans’ experiences and challenges. 1.1.1 Correcting Common Misconceptions About the Field of Psychology You are probably reading this book because you have enrolled in a general psychology course. Your expectations of what you will learn have been influenced by your general impressions of psychology. Much of the psychological information presented in the media focuses on practitioners, therapy, and helping others, and you—like the students in the opening section—may have the impression that psychology is all about how you feel and how you can feel better. Although a large proportion of psychologists counsel or otherwise treat clients, most of these professionals hold a doctorate degree in psychology, which required that they study scientific methodology and complete a considerable amount of research (Wicherski, Michalski, & Kohout, 2009). Psychology is rooted in scientific research. The information in this book is research based. Every idea put forward in the field is subject to scientific study. You will notice that many statements in this text are followed by names and years in parentheses, for example (Pastorino, 2020). These text citations refer to the scientific studies on which the stated conclusions are based, with the researchers' name(s) and date of the study. The complete research citations can be found in the References section at the end of this book. An example of a complete research citation is shown in ● FIGURE 1.1. A psychologist’s explanation of a particular behavior is generally presented as theory an explanation of why and how a a theory. A theory is an explanation of why and how a behavior occurs. It does not behavior occurs explain a particular behavior for all people, but it provides general guidelines that confirmation bias a tendency to interpret summarize facts and help us organize research on a particular subject. people’s behavior in a way that supports We all, at times, fancy ourselves as psychologists. We interact with people all our expectations the time, we observe others’ behaviors, and we have our own personal experiences. Therefore, we might naturally think that we already know a lot about psychology. APA Style: People often behave the way we think Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article: they will behave, so psychology seems as though it is just common sense. We are Subtitle of article. Title of Periodical or Journal, Vol # (Issue #), pages. doi: likely to interpret people’s behavior in a way that confirms our expectations—a tenExample: dency referred to as the confirmation bias. Whitton, S. W., & Whisman, M. A. (2010). Relationship satisfaction instability However, we often overlook the examples of behavior or fail to seek out other sources and depression. Journal of Family Psychotherapy, 24 (6), 791–794. doi: 10.1037/a0021734 of information that don’t confirm our expectations or support our preexisting be- Figure 1.1 liefs. Psychologists systematically test their Reference Citations in Psychology ideas about behavior using the prescribed The References section at the end of this book lists the complete source for each methods and procedures we will describe citation. Here is the APA style format for psychological references. The citation for this particular reference would appear in the text as (Whitton & Whisman, 2010). in the next section of this chapter. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 6 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology Take a look at ● TABLE 1.1 and answer the questions about behavior. How many of the items did you mark as true? All the statements are false, yet many students have such misconceptions or believe such myths about human behavior despite unsupported or even contradictory psychological research. Psychological findings do not always confirm our everyday observations about behavior. Only by objectively measuring and testing our ideas and observations about behavior can we determine which ideas are more likely to stand up to scientific scrutiny. Behavior is much more complex than the simple statements as Table 1.1 suggest. (The chapter designation following each statement indicates where in the text each myth is addressed.) Engage Yourself! TABLE 1.1 How Much Do You Know About Behavior? Indicate whether you believe each statement is true (T) or false (F). 1. We are either left-brain or right-brain thinkers. (Ch. 2) T F 2. We have only five senses. (Ch. 3) T F 3. During sleep, the brain rests. (Ch. 4) T F 4. Dieting is an effective way to lose weight. (Ch. 5) T F 5. Punishment is more effective than reinforcement in producing behavior change. (Ch. 6) T F 6. Our memory works like a video recorder. (Ch. 7) T F 7. Intelligence is primarily encoded in our genes. (Ch. 8) T F 8. Most adults experience a midlife crisis in their 40s or 50s. (Ch. 9) T F 9. Opposites attract. That is, we are most attracted to people who differ from us. (Ch. 10) T F T F T F T F T F 10. Personality is set by our teenage years. (Ch. 11) 11. Stress is caused by bad things that happen to you. (Ch. 12) 12. Schizophrenia means you have multiple personalities. (Ch. 13) 13. In order for therapy to be effective, you must confront issues from your childhood. (Ch. 14) Most students entering a general psychology class, like Christian and Andrew, expect to focus on diagnosing and treating mental health disorders. Although some psychologists specialize in mental health, many others work in academic settings, in the business world, in education, or in government agencies. Psychology is an extremely diverse field, and new specialties are appearing every year. Psychologists are interested in numerous topics, including neuroscience, learning, memory, aging, development, gender, motivation, emotion, sports, criminal behavior, and many other subjects. We cannot cover every area of psychology in this textbook, but we will give you an overview of the main areas of psychological research. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com What Is Psychology? 7 1.1.2 Psychology Will Teach You About Critical Thinking Because behavior is so complex, psychological theories generally don’t definitively explain the behavior of all people. To think like a psychologist, you must think critically, analyzing and evaluating information. You must be able to distinguish true psychological information from pseudopsychology. Pseudopsychological findings sound persuasive, but they are not necessarily based on scientific procedures. Their conclusions may go far beyond the scope of their actual data. For example, have you ever heard that people use only 10% of their brains? Many college students believe this false statement despite evidence that shows it is not true (Higbee & Clay, 1998; Lilienfeld, Lynn, Ruscio, & Beyerstein, 2011). To think like a psychologist, you must be skeptical rather than accepting about explanations of behavior. Critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating information and applying it to other situations. Critical thinking also makes you an intelligent consumer of information. You will be encouraged to practice this skill throughout the book as you read the chapter and test your mastery of the material in the Quiz Yourself sections at the end of each main topic and in the What Do You Know? Assess Your Understanding questions at the end of each chapter. In the end-of-chapter material, we have also included Use It or Lose It questions. These short-answer questions ask you to apply your knowledge of psychological research to solve a problem or situation. Immediately following are Critical Thinking about the Science of Psychology questions that require you to analyze a research study to develop and enhance your ability to understand the research methods, concepts, and science underlying psychology. Because we all engage in behavior, much of the information in this text will apply to your life. We all dream, remember, like or dislike others, are motivated, have high or low self-esteem, experience sadness, behave aggressively, help others, learn, perceive, and use our senses. Consequently, we recommend that you apply the material in this text to your own behavior as much as possible. This connection will increase your interest in the text, and you will study more effectively. 1.1 pseudopsychology psychological information or conclusions that sound scientific but have not been systematically tested using the scientific method critical thinking thought processes used to evaluate and analyze information and apply it to other situations Quiz Yourself 1. Which of the following statements is true? a. Psychology is just common sense. b. Psychologists study only mental health disorders. c. Psychologists know why people behave the way that they do. d. Psychologists test ideas about behavior according to the scientific method. 2. Which of the following topics would a psychologist most likely study? a. Weather patterns in Africa b. Memory changes in adults c. Causes of the Vietnam War d. All of the above 3. Which of the following statements is not a pseudopsychology claim? a. Transplant organs carry personality traits that are always transferred from donors to receivers. b. Walking on hot coals without burning one’s feet requires paranormal abilities. c. You can make a blood clot in your brain disappear by humming. d. Several studies show a relationship between academic achievement and self-esteem. Answers 1. d; 2. b; 3. d Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 8 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology 1.2 The Science of Psychology: Goals, Hypotheses, and Methods Though psychologists study and emphasize different aspects of behavior, they all share similar goals. The main goals of psychology and psychological research are as follows: To describe behavior To predict behavior ●● To explain behavior ●● To control or change behavior Description involves observing events and describing them. Typically, description is used to understand how events are related to one another. For example, you may notice that your fitness club or gym tends to get more crowded in the months of January, February, and March. It seems you have to wait longer to use the weight machines or there are more people in the fitness classes. This Describe Behavior observation describes an event. If you observe that two events occur together rather reliably Observe events and behaviors, then look at how events might be related. or with a general frequency or regularity, you can make predictions about events or anticipate what events may occur. From your Example: The researcher observes that the health club is more crowded in January, February, and March. observations, you may predict that the fitness club will be more crowded in January. You may arrive earlier to make sure you get a parking spot or a place in the yoga class. Although it may be known that two events regularly occur toPredict Behavior gether, that doesn’t tell us what caused a particular behavior to occur. Winter months do not cause fitness clubs to become crowded. Predict what events or behaviors may occur, based on their relationship. These two events are related, but one event does not cause the other. Therefore, an additional goal of psychology is to explain or underExample: Colder months predict higher health club attendance. stand the causes of behavior. As stated previously, psychologists usually put forth explanations of behavior in the form of theories. A theory is an explanation of why and how a particular behavior occurs. We will detail seven types of explanations, or perspecExplain Behavior tives, later in the chapter. For example, how do we explain higher Suggest and test an explanation (in the form of a hypothesis). fitness-club attendance in the winter months? Is it a behavior that is influenced by the environment? Perhaps fitness clubs are more Examples: The health club is full because the weather makes outdoor crowded because the weather makes outdoor exercise more diffiexercise more difficult. cult. Perhaps it is more influenced by motivation as many people at The health club is full because many people make New Year’s resolutions to be physically fit, but give up by the end of March. the start of a new year resolve to work out more. As these ideas are tested, more and more causes and predictors of behavior are discovered. Some of these explanations or theories will be modified, some will be discarded, and new ones will be developed. Control or Change Behavior The purpose behind explaining and understanding the causes of behavior is the final goal of psychology, controlling or By explaining and understanding the causes of behavior, psychologists can create programs or treatments to control changing behavior. It relates to the goal of explanation because or change the behaviors. one needs to understand what is causing a behavior in order to change or modify it. For example, let’s say that the weather Example: If people give up on fitness after three months, develop incentives to offer during March to remain physically active. If the is a factor in fitness-club attendance. Fitness clubs could offer weather is a factor, sponsor outdoor fitness activities beginning in outdoor activities beginning in mid-March to prevent declining mid-March. enrollment. Many psychologists go into the field in the hope of improving society. They may want to improve child care, create Figure 1.2 healthier work environments, or reduce discrimination in society. Such sentiments reflect the goal of control and underscore Goals of Psychology the potential impact of good research. ● FIGURE 1.2 summaPsychologists attempt to describe, predict, explain, and ultimately control or change behavior. rizes the goals of psychology. ●● ●● Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com The Science of Psychology: Goals, Hypotheses, and Methods 1.2.1 Psychologists Are Scientists: The Scientific Method The purpose of psychological research is to test ideas about behavior. As previously stated, researchers use the scientific method when testing ideas about behavior. The scientific method is a set of rules for gathering and analyzing information that enables you to test an idea or hypothesis. All scientists adhere to these same steps even though they may use different techniques within each step. The decisions that scientists make at each step of the scientific method will ultimately affect the types of conclusions they can draw about behavior. How can the scientific method be used to meet the goals of psychology? Let’s say that you have an interest in understanding beer drinking among college students. You want to make some predictions (a goal of psychology) about beer drinking. You use the scientific method to test this idea, as outlined in ● FIGURE 1.3. 1. Define and describe the issue to be studied. You might hypothesize that college students who buy pitchers of beer tend to drink more than college students who purchase bottles of beer (a prediction). You study previous research in scientific journals on alcohol consumption and college students. prediction an expected outcome of how variables will relate Issue to Be Studied You make predictions about beer drinking. You form a hypothesis: Students who buy pitchers of beer tend to drink more than students who buy beer in bottles. You choose a research method and conduct a study that measures how much beer college students who buy pitchers consume versus how much beer college students who buy bottles consume. If the results do not support your hypothesis, you can revise the hypothesis or pose a new one. You collect and analyze your data: do the data support or reject your prediction? Results support your hypothesis. You can replicate your study or make additional predictions and test them. Figure 1.3 The Scientific Method The scientific method enables researchers to test ideas about behavior. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 9 10 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology hypothesis an educated guess 2. Form a testable research hypothesis that states the relationship between the variables. Students who buy pitchers of beer tend to drink more than students who buy beer in bottles. Your hypothesis operationally defines or specifies how your variables are being objectively measured—that is, in such a way that another person can test the same hypothesis to verify or replicate your results. In this example, we have operationally defined the method of purchase—bottles versus pitchers, and the second variable being the amount of beer consumed. 3. Choose an appropriate research strategy. You choose a group of people to observe (college students) and a research method that allows you to measure objectively how much beer students who buy pitchers drink versus how much beer students who buy bottles drink. You decide where your study will be conducted. Will it be in the environment where the behavior naturally occurs (such as the local college bar) or in a laboratory (a more controlled setting)? You decide who you will use as participants. Will you use animals or humans? If humans, how will they be selected? If animals, what species will you use? 4. Conduct the study to test your hypothesis. Run the study and collect the data based on the decisions in steps 1–3. 5. Analyze the data to support or reject your hypothesis. Researchers usually analyze their data using statistics (see Appendix A). If the results do not support your hypothesis, you can revise the hypothesis or pose a new one. If the results do support your hypothesis, you or another team of researchers should replicate your study (do the same one again) to increase one’s confidence that the findings support the hypothesis or make additional predictions and test them. Geller, Russ, and Altomari (1986) actually included this prediction in a larger study on beer drinking among college students and found support for the hypothesis that buying pitchers was associated with consuming larger amounts of beer. No matter which goal of psychology you are addressing, the process is the same. The goal merely influences the decisions you make when testing an idea through the scientific method. If your goal is description or prediction, your hypothesis will state what you expect to observe or what relationships you expect to find. Your research strategy will then be designed to measure observations or relationships, and your analysis of the data will employ statistics that enable you to support or reject your hypothesis. It is in this way that the scientific method allows us to test the ideas of psychology. Findings from one study are rarely adequate, which is why replicating or repeating a research study is important to ensure the reliability or consistency of the findings across time, situations, and cultures. Modern psychology is facing a “replication crisis” in that many studies have replicated less often than expected, with only one-third to a half of psychological studies producing similar results in large-scale replication projects (e.g., Klein, Vianello, Hasselman et al., 2018; Laws, 2016). There are many reasons why studies may not replicate, from questionable research practices to a researcher’s confirmation bias of finding what they hypothesize. Differences between the original study’s sample of participants or the setting in which the study takes place and those of the replication’s sample and setting may also account for a failure to replicate findings. Yet, there are also easy solutions such as sharing data for other researchers to analyze; funding, sharing, and publishing replication studies; and using larger samples that can be implemented. One scientific tool that has been particularly Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com The Science of Psychology: Goals, Hypotheses, and Methods helpful to psychologists is the use of meta-analyses (Maxwell, Lau & Howard, 2015). Meta-analyses combine the findings from multiple scientific studies on the same question or topic to establish the reliability of the findings, observe any overall trends, and to resolve any discrepancies among the research studies. Both successful and nonsuccessful replications inform our knowledge about behavior and mental processes and are an integral step of the scientific process. 1.2.2 Psychologists Ask Questions: Hypotheses As you have seen, one of the first steps of the scientific method is to formulate a question or hypothesis about behavior. These hypotheses generally fall into one of two categories: predictive hypotheses and causal hypotheses. A predictive hypothesis makes a specific prediction or set of predictions about the relationships among variables. Such hypotheses are used to address two goals of psychology: description and prediction. The previous example on beer drinking among college students illustrated a predictive hypothesis: The study predicted that students who buy pitchers of beer tend to drink more than students who buy beer in bottles. Predictive hypotheses are made when the researcher measures the variables of interest but does not manipulate or control the variables in the study. Because the researcher does not control the variables, conclusions of research studies that test predictive hypotheses are limited. The conclusions can only state what was observed or which variables appear to be related to one another. They cannot be used to draw cause-and-effect conclusions; that is, one cannot conclude that buying pitchers of beer causes a person to drink more beer. To determine the cause, you must form and test a causal hypothesis. A causal hypothesis specifically states how one variable will influence another variable. Causal hypotheses can be tested only when the researcher is able to control or manipulate the main variables in a study. The researcher sets up different conditions in a study and then observes whether there is a change in behavior because of the different conditions. For example, suppose a researcher has developed a new strategy to teach children how to read. The researcher hypothesizes that this program will cause greater gains in reading than the standard method for teaching reading. This is a causal hypothesis. Some students are assigned to the new reading program, and others are assigned to the standard program. The researcher then measures the children’s gains in reading at the end of the year to see whether there is a difference. As you will soon see, causal hypotheses can only be tested by means of an experiment. To test a causal hypothesis, a researcher must be able to conclude how one variable affects or causes a change in another variable. 11 meta-analyses research procedures that combine the findings from a number of scientific studies on the same question or topic to establish the reliability of the findings, observe any overall trends, and to resolve any discrepancies among the research studies predictive hypothesis an educated guess about the relationships among variables causal hypothesis an educated guess about how one variable will influence another variable 1.2.3 Psychologists Strategize: Sampling and Research Methods Once you have stated a hypothesis, the next step in the research process is to decide on a research strategy and a way of selecting participants. The type of hypothesis you make (predictive or causal) typically determines which research methods you can use. You are more likely to use some research methods to test predictive hypotheses and other methods to test causal hypotheses. Naturalistic observations, case studies, surveys, and correlational research are used to test predictive hypotheses. All of these methods are used when the researcher cannot control or manipulate the main variables in the study. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, which we will discuss in a moment. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 12 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology Selecting Participants population of interest the entire universe of animals or people that could be studied sample the portion of the population of interest that is selected for a study naturalistic observations research studies conducted in the environment in which the behavior typically occurs In a perfect world, researchers would include every person they are interested in studying. This is termed the population of interest. For example, for a psychologist who studies infant development, all infants would be the population of interest. It is impossible to test everyone, however, so researchers select a portion, or subset, of the population of interest called a sample. Because the sample will be used to make inferences or judgments about the entire population, the sample should reflect the whole population as much as possible; that is, it should be a representative sample. Random sampling of participants helps ensure a representative sample. In a random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study; this avoids introducing sampling bias into the research. The more representative the sample is, the more the results will generalize (or apply) to the population of interest. But random sampling is not always possible. Instead, psychological research often uses samples of convenience, or groups of people who are easily accessible to the researcher. The students in your psychology course are a sample of convenience. In fact, much psychological research relies on using college students as the sample of convenience! According to Current Population Survey results from the U.S. Census Bureau (2018) around 35% of people in the United States over the age of 25 have a college degree or higher, so samples of college students probably do not represent all types of people and groups. As such, these nonrepresentative samples limit a researcher’s ability to generalize their findings to the population (Levenson, 2017). In addition, online psychology labs at well-known universities across the United States as well as online crowdsourcing platforms, such as Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk) and TurkPrime, are now much more common ways to recruit participants. On the plus side, researchers conducting online research have the distinct advantage of soliciting a larger and more diverse sample at a fraction of the cost, with improved efficiency and data storage (Gosling & Johnson, 2010; Litman, Robinson, & Abberbock, 2017). Thousands to millions of participants from all over the world may be gathered over the Internet as opposed to a few hundred that can be collected on-site. Several classic findings in psychology have been successfully replicated online, while other replications found a discrepancy between laboratory results and online results (Crump, McDonnell, & Gureckis, 2013; Miller, Crowe, Weiss, Maples-Keller, & Lynam, 2017). Recall that the people you get to participate in your study are very important to the conclusions of your study. However, Internet research does not ensure a representative sample. Some people do not have access to a computer or may not know how to use the Internet. Participants might be distracted or watching a movie while clicking answers on a survey. People who complete online research may be different in some way from people who are less willing to complete online research that presents an alternative explanation for one’s results. Moreover, researchers may not be able to ensure that participants are who they say they are (Dance, 2015; Gosling & Mason, 2015; Ophir et al., 2020). People can more easily falsify their identity on the Internet than they can in person, calling into question the “true” characteristics of the sample that is generated. Naturalistic Observations Naturalistic observations are research studies that are conducted in the environment in which the behavior typically occurs. For example, Campos, Graesch, Repetti, and others (2009) wanted to investigate when and in what manner dual-earner families interact after work. The researchers measured interaction by observing Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com The Science of Psychology: Goals, Hypotheses, and Methods 13 Jonathan Goldberg/Alamy stock photo and video-recording dual-earner couples and their children in their homes throughout two weekday afternoons and evenings. The researcher in a naturalistic study is a recorder or observer of behavior who then describes or makes predictions about behavior based on what they have observed. Because the researcher does not control events in a naturalistic study, it is not possible to pinpoint the causes of behavior. Therefore, naturalistic studies are predominately used to achieve the goals of description and prediction. In their observational study, Campos et al. found that although both mothers and fathers were likely to be greeted with positive behavior from family members, mothers spent more time with children, whereas fathers spent more time alone. While naturalistic observation can provide ▲▲A school playground could be an environment for naturally observing a picture of behavior as it normally occurs, children’s behaviors researchers need to consider the influence of reactivity. Suppose you want to study childhood aggression by observing students on a school playground. What might happen if you were to simply enter the playground, sit down, and start writing about what you saw? The children might behave differently because of your presence and/ or their awareness that they are being observed; as a result, your observations of aggression might not be reliable or true. When conducting a naturalistic observation, researchers attempt to minimize reactivity to ensure that they are observing the true behavior of their participants. Collecting unobtrusive (not noticeable) and objective records of naturalistic behavior can also be achieved through smarthome devices and mobile-sensing devices such as smartphones, smart watches, and fitness trackers (Nelson & Allen, 2018). Case Studies A case study is an in-depth observation of one or a few participants or settings. The participant may be a person, an animal, or even a setting, such as a business or a school. As with naturalistic observation, in case studies researchers do not control any variables but merely record or relate their observations. Case studies provide in-depth information on rare and unusual conditions that we might not otherwise be able to study. However, the main disadvantage of the case study method is its limited applicability to other situations. It is very difficult to take one case, especially a rare case, and say that it applies to everyone. In other words, case studies lack generalizability; therefore, the conclusions that are drawn from case studies are limited to the participant being studied. Surveys Often, psychologists want to study a whole group of people but in less depth. Surveys can accomplish this task by asking a large group of people about their attitudes, beliefs, and/or behaviors. A large group of people can quickly respond to questions or statements in their homes, online, over the phone, or out in public. Survey data are used to make predictions and test predictive hypotheses. For example, knowing which people are more likely to buy a product enables a company to market its products more effectively and perhaps devise new strategies to case study an in-depth observation of one or a few participants or settings generalizability [jen-er-uh-lies-uh-BILLuh-tee] how well a researcher’s findings apply to other individuals and situations surveys research methods that ask a large group of people about their attitudes, beliefs, and/or behaviors Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 14 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology target individuals who are not buying them. Similarly, knowing which behaviors are related to a higher frequency of illness enables a psychologist to predict who is more at risk for physical illness or a mental health disorder. However, who you ask to complete a survey and how you ask them are critical elements in distinguishing good survey research from biased research. Recall that a random sampling of participants minimizes sampling bias. The more representative the sample is, the more the results will generalize to the population of interest. A second critical element of the survey method is how the questions are worded. A respondent has to be able to understand the question and interpret it in the way the researcher intended. It is important to make questions clear and precise to obtain accurate estimates of people’s feelings, beliefs, and behavior. For example, differences in survey question wording have been found to have an influence on rape estimates (Fisher, 2009), pornography use (Regnerus, Gordon, & Price, 2016), and estimates of adolescent sexual behaviors (Santelli et al., 2000). In summary, surveys are advantageous in that they allow psychologists to ask a lot of questions to a large sample of people. Accurate information can be gathered in a relatively short period of time. Yet the survey’s wording, the representativeness of the sample, and whether people choose to answer the questions honestly can bias the results. For example, the Pew Research Center (2014) set out to compare the values, attitudes, and behaviors of Millennials (adults born between 1981 and 1996) with those of older adults by using the survey method, with a nationally representative sample of 1,821 adults. Not surprisingly, they reported differences among the groups in behaviors associated with the use of technology. For example, 55% of Millennials reported having posted a “selfie” on a social media site, compared to 24% of Generation Xers (those born between 1965 and 1980), 9% of Baby Boomers (those born between 1946 and 1964), and 4% of the Silent generation (those born before 1946). Eighty-one percent of Millennials had created a profile on a social media account. Surveys on Generation Z or Gen Z (those born between 1997 and 2010) show similar attitudes to the Millennials with both generations more likely to support same-sex marriage and interracial marriage than older generations. However, Gen Zers are more likely than Millennials and older generations to report that they know someone who prefers gender-neutral pronouns (Pew Research Center, 2018). Gen Zers also are less likely to binge drink alcohol, date, or have had sex than Millennials did at that age. Yet, socially, Gen Zers spend less time interacting with their peers face-to-face and more time alone than any previous generation (Twenge, 2017). What accounts for these reported differences? Survey research cannot explain the differences; it can be used only to describe and predict behavior. However, we can generate multiple hypotheses as to why these generational differences may occur. They could be due to the unique historical circumstances or social movements experienced by each generation, such as wars or technological advances. They could be due to changing social roles, longer life expectancies, varying economic factors, or to some combination of these factors. Also keep in mind that there are as many differences within generations as there are among them. Yet, from this survey research, we get a glimpse of the attitudes, values, and behaviors of the varying generations. Correlational Studies correlation [cor-ruh-LAY-shun] the relationship between two or more variables Correlational studies test the relationship, or correlation, between two or more variables—television watching and violent behavior, or depression and gender, for example. The researcher does not control variables but rather measures them Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com The Science of Psychology: Goals, Hypotheses, and Methods to see whether any reliable relationship exists between them. For example, if we were to measure your weight (one variable), what other variable might show a relationship to your weight? Your height? Your calorie consumption? The amount of exercise you engage in? Your age? Your life expectancy? If you were to measure all these variables, you might find that all of them vary in relation to weight. These relationships are correlations. The strength of a correlation is measured in terms of a correlation coefficient— a statistic that tells us how strong the relationship between two factors is. Correlation coefficients range from −1.00 to +1.00. The closer the correlation coefficient is to −1.00 or +1.00, the stronger the correlation, or the more related the two variables are. A −1.00 or a +1.00 is a perfect correlation; the value of one variable always exactly predicts the value of the other variable. For example, every time people get angry, they hit something. The closer the correlation coefficient is to 0, the weaker the correlation—that is, one variable does not reliably predict the other. A zero correlation coefficient means that there is no linear relationship between the two variables—for example, how many movies you watch in a month and the color that your walls are painted. To illustrate correlation, let’s look at a study by Hays and Roberts (2008) on eating behaviors and weight gain in older women. They found a +.25 correlation between weight gain and overeating in response to daily life circumstances. The correlation between weight gain and overeating in response to emotional states, such as anxiety and depression, was +.17. The higher correlation between weight gain and daily overeating opportunities suggests that ordinary environmental food cues such as television commercials, billboards, or available sweets are a better predictor of weight gain in older women than is “emotional eating.” Generally, the stronger the correlation between two variables, the more accurate our predictions are, but perfect (+1.00 or −1.00) correlations rarely happen in psychology. Human behavior is too complex for such perfect relationships to occur. The sign before the correlation coefficient tells us how the variables relate to one another (● FIGURE 1.4). A positive correlation means that as one variable increases, the other variable also tends to increase; or as one variable decreases, the other variable tends to decrease. In both cases, the variables are changing in the High 100 80 60 40 20 0 Low 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 High Similar attitudes (variable 1) (a) Positive correlation 80 60 40 20 0 Low positive correlation a relationship in which increases in one variable correspond to increases in the other variable High 100 Amount of attraction (variable 2) Relationship satisfaction (variable 2) Amount of attraction (variable 2) High 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Degree of depression High (variable 1) (b) Negative correlation 80 60 40 20 0 Low 15 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 High Shoe size (variable 1) (c) No correlation Figure 1.4 Correlation Correlation, a research method used for description and prediction, shows how two variables are related. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 16 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology same direction. An example of a positive correlation is perceived stress and blood could cause Academic Self-esteem pressure. As perceived stress increases, so achievement does one’s blood pressure. In a negative correlation, as one variable increases, the other variable tends to could cause decrease in what is referred to as an inverse Academic Self-esteem achievement relationship. Notice that the variables are changing in opposite directions. An example of a negative correlation is video game could cause could cause playing and school competence. The more Academic Genetics Self-esteem time children spend playing video games, achievement the poorer their competence is at school (Hastings et al., 2009). Or consider the negFigure 1.5 ative correlation between relationship satCorrelation Does Not Mean Causation isfaction and depression. As relationship When two variables are correlated or related, it does not mean that we know why they satisfaction increases, feelings of depresare related. It is possible that a third variable, not measured in the study, is the real sion decrease (Whitton & Whisman, 2010). cause of the relationship between the two measured variables. Correlation can only Correlational studies enable researchbe used for making predictions, not for making cause-and-effect statements. ers to make predictions about behavior, but they do not allow us to draw cause-and-ef● fect conclusions ( FIGURE 1.5). For example, there is a positive correlation between negative correlation a relationship in which increases in one variable correspond to academic achievement and self-esteem. Students who have high academic achievedecreases in the other variable ment also tend to have high self-esteem. Similarly, students who have low academic experiment a research method that is used achievement tend to have low self-esteem. High academic achievement may cause to test causal hypotheses an increase in self-esteem. However, it is just as likely that having high self-esteem independent variable the variable in an causes one to do better academically. There may be a third variable, such as the parexperiment that is manipulated ents’ educational level or genetics, which actually causes the relationship between academic achievement and self-esteem. A correlational study does not tell us which of these explanations is correct. The only research method that may permit us to draw cause-and-effect conclusions is the experiment. Academic achievement and self-esteem are correlated. Experiments Picture Partners/Alamy stock photo Although several types of research methods are used to test predictive hypotheses, only one research method can test a causal hypothesis: the experiment. We will discuss several features of the experiment, including its advantages and disadvantages. ▲▲By studying behavior in a lab environment, researchers are better able to control the variables in an experiment. Necessary Conditions for an Experiment Two main features characterize an experiment. First, the variables in the study are controlled or manipulated. Second, participants are randomly assigned to the conditions of the study. When these two conditions have been met, causal conclusions may be drawn. Let’s first turn our attention to the issue of experimenter control. The point of the experiment is to manipulate one variable and see what effect this manipulation has on another variable (● FIGURE 1.6). These variables are termed the independent and dependent variables, respectively. The independent variable is the variable that the experimenter manipulates; it is the cause in the experiment, what the researcher is testing. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com The Science of Psychology: Goals, Hypotheses, and Methods 17 Elements of an Experiment Experiment participants Randomly assign to groups Control group gets 8 hours of sleep Independent variable (Cause) Experimental group gets 4 hours of sleep Daily activities and testing conditions are the same Same conditions to control confounding variables Daily activities and testing conditions are the same Memory test scores Dependent variable (Effect) Memory test scores Figure 1.6 Elements of an Experiment The two main ingredients of an experiment are (1) that the variables in the study are controlled or manipulated and (2) that participants are randomly assigned to the conditions of the study. When these two conditions have been met, causal conclusions may be drawn. It is independent of or not being affected by the other variables in the study. The dependent variable measures any result of manipulating the independent variable; it is the effect in the experiment. It is dependent on or influenced by the other variables in the study. The typical experiment divides participants into two types of groups: the experimental group and the control group. The experimental group includes those participants who receive the manipulation that is being tested. The control group includes those participants who do not receive the manipulation that is being tested; they serve as a baseline comparison for the experimental group. Both groups are then measured on the dependent variable to see whether there is a difference between the groups. In some experiments, the control group receives a placebo, or inactive substance such as a sugar pill, rather than being given nothing. This procedure is to control for the placebo effect. The placebo effect occurs when participants show changes simply because they believe or expect a treatment to have certain effects. In double-blind studies, neither experimenters nor participants know who is receiving a placebo and who is receiving the actual treatment; they are blind to which group (experimental or control) a person has been assigned. In this way, neither the participant’s nor the experimenter’s expectations will bias the results. Suppose, for example, that we want to study the effects of sleep deprivation. Specifically, we hypothesize that sleep deprivation causes deficits in memory. This is a causal hypothesis that can be tested with an experiment. We decide to dependent variable the variable in an experiment that measures any effect of the manipulation experimental group the group of participants who receive the manipulation that is being tested control group the group of participants who do not receive the manipulation that is being tested placebo effect a measurable change in participants’ behavior due to the expectation or belief that a treatment will have certain effects double-blind studies experiments in which neither the experimenters nor the participants know to which group (experimental or control) participants have been assigned Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 18 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology confounding variables factors other than the independent variable that affect the dependent measure random assignment a method of assigning participants in which they have an equal chance of being placed in any group or condition of the study manipulate the amount of sleep participants receive to see whether it has any effect on memory. In this experiment, we are interested in one’s amount of sleep. Other variables do not influence the amount of sleep because we are going to control the amount of sleep to see whether one’s memory depends on how much sleep one receives. Therefore, memory is “dependent” and sleep is “independent” for the purposes of this experiment. Some participants (the control group) will be allowed to sleep 8 hours per night for the week of our study. Others (the experimental group) will be allowed to sleep only 4 hours each night. The experimenter has set, or controlled, the amount of sleep (the independent variable) at two levels: 8 hours and 4 hours. Each day of our study, we measure the participants’ memory (the dependent variable) by having them complete several memory tasks. At the end of the study, we compare the memory scores of those participants who received 8 hours of sleep (the control group) with those who received only 4 hours of sleep (the experimental group). To be sure that it is the amount of sleep affecting memory and not something else, we need to be sure that we have controlled any variables (other than the independent variable) that may influence this relationship. These potentially problematic variables are called confounding variables. What confounding variables might we need to control? Maybe age influences one’s memory or how one handles sleep deprivation. If either of these is true, we would want to control the age of our participants. We also would want to make sure that participants had not used any substances known to affect memory or the sleep cycle prior to their participation in the experiment. Consequently, we would control for this variable, too. Whereas independent variables are controlled by manipulating them to vary with at least two values, confounding variables are controlled by trying to hold them at a constant value so the outcomes of the study cannot be attributed to them. Both groups must be treated the same except for the amount of sleep they receive, so the researcher sets the conditions of the experiment to be the same for both groups. For example, every participant should complete the memory tasks at the same time of day, and every participant should complete the same memory tasks. The criteria for scoring the memory tasks must be the same as well. The instructions for completing the tasks must be the same. The lighting, temperature, and other physical features of the room in which the participants sleep and complete the memory tasks should be the same for all participants. Our purpose is to design a study in which we manipulate the independent variable to see its effect on the dependent variable. If we control any potentially confounding variables that might influence this relationship and we find a difference between our groups on the dependent variable, that difference is most likely due to the independent variable, and we have established a cause-and-effect relationship. If the experimenter does not control a confounding variable, we now have more than one variable that could be responsible for the change in the dependent variable: the independent variable and the confounding variable. When this occurs, the researcher is left with an alternative explanation for the results. The change in the dependent variable could have been caused by the independent variable, but it also could have been caused by the confounding variable. Consequently, causal conclusions are limited. Let’s not forget the second condition necessary for an experiment—how participants are assigned to the conditions of the independent variable. We must be sure that there are no differences in the composition of our groups of participants. Psychologists eliminate this problem through random assignment of participants to the conditions of the study. In our example on sleep and memory, assigning all Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com The Science of Psychology: Goals, Hypotheses, and Methods the males in the sample to the 4-hour sleep condition and all the females to the 8-hour sleep condition would create a confounding variable. Gender differences might have an effect on memory scores. It may be that gender (the confounding variable) rather than sleep deprivation (the independent variable) is the cause of a difference in memory. To eliminate the influence of such confounding variables, experimenters randomly assign participants to conditions. Each participant has an equal chance of being placed in either condition. Male participants are just as likely to be assigned to the 4-hour condition as they are to the 8-hour condition, and the same is true for female participants. In this way, any participant variable that has the potential to influence the research results is just as likely to affect one group as it is the other. Without random assignment, confounding variables could affect the dependent variable. This is typically what occurs in quasi-experiments. A quasi-experiment is in some ways like an experiment. The researcher manipulates the independent variable and sets the other conditions to be the same for both groups. However, the second requirement for an experiment—randomly assigning participants to conditions—has not been met. Quasi-experiments use existing groups of people who differ on some variable. For example, suppose you want to see if vaping during pregnancy causes lower-birth-weight babies. For ethical reasons, you cannot assign some pregnant women to vape and prevent others from vaping. Instead, for your vaping condition, you must select pregnant women who already vape. These women may differ on other variables when compared to pregnant women who do not vape. For example, their eating habits may differ. As a result, a confounding variable (the diet of the mothers) rather than vaping could cause a difference in the dependent variable (the birth weight of the offspring). Because quasi-experiments do not meet the conditions necessary for a “true” experiment, causal conclusions based on these designs should be made cautiously (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002; West, 2009). 19 quasi-experiment a research study that is not a true experiment because participants are not randomly assigned to the different conditions Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Experiments Experiments have several advantages. First, it is only through experimentation that we can approach two of the goals of psychology: explaining and changing behavior. An experiment is the only research method that enables us to determine cause-and-effect relationships. This advantage makes interpreting research results less ambiguous. In an experiment, we attempt to eliminate any confounding variables through experimenter control and random assignment of participants to groups. These techniques enable us to draw clearer conclusions from research results. Experiments also have disadvantages. First, experiments do not address the first two goals of psychology: describing and predicting behavior. These are often the first steps in understanding behavior, and naturalistic observation, surveys, and correlational studies are quite useful for doing this. Second, in an attempt to control confounding variables, experiments conducted in laboratory settings may create an artificial atmosphere. It is then difficult to know whether the same result would occur in a more natural setting or whether the findings from a lab environment generalize to the real world. This may be another reason to conduct naturalistic observations or correlational studies. Third, sometimes employing the experimental method is simply not possible for ethical or practical reasons. As we mentioned in the case of quasi-experimental designs, we cannot force people to be randomly assigned to a condition that could harm them (such as vaping) or that does not pertain to them (such as having high blood pressure). Psychologists must follow certain ethical guidelines and practices when conducting research. We turn our attention to this topic next. You Review: Scientific Research Methods summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of the various research methods. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 20 CHAPTER 1 You Review The Science of Psychology Scientific Research Methods Method Strengths Weaknesses Naturalistic Observation Observing behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs Describes behavior as it typically occurs in the real world. May test predictive hypotheses. Little control of variables. Reactivity can influence results. Cannot show cause and effect. Case Study In-depth observation of one or a few participants or settings Detailed information on one person or setting. May describe people or settings with special or rare abilities, qualities, or characteristics. May not generalize to other people or settings. Cannot show cause and effect. Difficult to replicate. Survey Asks a large group of people about their attitudes, beliefs, and/or behavior Efficient collection of data with large samples. Can ask a lot of questions at once. Can test predictive hypotheses. Participants may not answer truthfully. Question wording can bias results. Cannot show cause and effect. Correlation Measures the relationship between two or more variables Can measure the strength and direction of relationships between variables. Can test predictive hypotheses. Does not randomly assign participants to conditions. Cannot show cause and effect. Quasi-experiment Compare participants who are not randomly assigned on the manipulation of an independent variable Allows comparisons of treatments. Can control some conditions of study. May test causal hypotheses. Does not randomly assign participants to conditions. Causal conclusions are difficult to make. Experiment Manipulate an independent variable to see changes in a dependent measure under controlled conditions Allows random assignment of participants to conditions. May eliminate confounding variables. Can show cause and effect. For ethical and practical reasons, may not be able to test some variables. Results may not apply to real-world settings. 1.2 Quiz Yourself 1. When we know that two events regularly occur together, which goal of psychology can be met? a. Predicting behavior b. Changing behavior c. Understanding behavior d. Explaining behavior 2. Dr. Hincapie wants to test the hypothesis that stress increases one’s blood pressure. What type of hypothesis is Dr. Hincapie interested in testing? a. Predictive b. Causal c. Correlational d. Biological 3. In an experiment on attitudes, participants are given either positive or negative information about a speaker and then asked to evaluate the effectiveness of the speaker. In this experiment, which is the independent variable? a. The effectiveness of the speaker b. The type of information the participant is given c. Attitude change d. The speaker 4. The more hours that students work, the less successful they are academically. This is an example of what type of correlation? a. zero b. positive c. perfect d. negative 5. Dr. Duarte is studying bullying behavior in children. Every day, Dr. Duarte goes to the local playground at 3 p.m., sits on the sidelines, and records the number of times one child bullies another, the sex of the children involved in the bullying, and the duration of the bullying. Dr. Duarte is using which research method in this study? a. An experiment b. A case study c. A naturalistic observation d. A quasi-experiment Answers 1. a; 2. b; 3. b; 4. d; 5. c Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Ethical Principles of Psychological Research 21 1.3 Ethical Principles of Psychological Research Generally, psychologists associated with universities and colleges in the United States cannot conduct research unless their research proposal has passed review by an Institutional Review Board (IRB) (or human research ethics committees [HRECs] in other countries). The function of the IRB or HREC is to ensure that the research study being proposed conforms to a set of ethical standards or guidelines. 1.3.1 Ethical Guidelines for Participants The American Psychological Association (APA), one of the main professional organizations for psychologists, has taken the lead in establishing ethical guidelines, or professional behaviors that psychologists must follow. These guidelines, the “Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct” (APA, 2002), address a variety of issues, including general professional responsibility, clinical practice, psychological testing, and research. Here, we look at the guidelines psychologists must follow when conducting research with humans and animals. The ethical duties of psychologists who treat clients are discussed in Chapter 14. One of the main concerns of the IRB is to ensure that the proposed research has met the ethical guideline of respect and concern for the dignity and welfare of the people who participate (APA, 2002). Researchers must protect participants from any potential harm, risk, or danger as a result of their participation in a psychological study. If such effects occur, the researcher has the responsibility to remove or correct these effects. Another fundamental principle of ethical practice in research is informed consent. Researchers inform potential participants of any risks during the informed consent process, wherein the researcher establishes a clear and fair agreement with research participants prior to their participation in the research study (APA, 2002). This agreement clarifies the obligations and responsibilities of the participants and the researchers and includes the following information: Institutional Review Board (IRB) a committee that reviews research proposals to ensure that ethical standards have been met informed consent the ethical principle that research participants be told about various aspects of the study, including any risks, before agreeing to participate confidentiality the ethical principle that researchers do not reveal which data were collected from which participant The general purpose of the research study, including the experimental nature of any treatment ●● Services that will or will not be available to the control group ●● The method by which participants will be assigned to experimental and control groups ●● Any aspect of the research that may influence a person’s willingness to participate in the research ●● Compensation for or monetary costs of participating ●● Any risks or side effects that may be experienced as a result of participation in the study ●● Potential participants cannot be coerced or forced to take part in a study. Possible participants are also informed that they may withdraw from participation in the study at any time, and they are informed of any available treatment alternatives. In addition, the researcher agrees to maintain confidentiality. Personal information about participants obtained by the researcher during the course of the investigation cannot be shared with others unless explicitly agreed to in advance by the participant or as required by law or court order. It is also a good idea to obtain participants’ consent for sharing data with other researchers, institutions, or other entities (Meyer, 2018). Online research and data collection from mobile-sensing devices presents unique ethical challenges (Eynon, Schroeder, & Fry, 2009; Harari et al., 2016; Solberg, 2010). Psychologists have a duty to maintain the confidentiality and privacy of participants’ data and personal information. When researchers collect information about users without their active participation (such as from social media profiles or smartphones), Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 22 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology ©Renewed 1993 by Alexandra Milgram users must be adequately informed and give consent. Researchers may or may not consider security as part of their data collection plan or may not have the necessary training to implement electronic security. In such cases, researchers may need to consult technical experts to ensure the security of online information. Even with the best security, databases may still be compromised. Many universities and professional organizations have developed policies and procedures to address these issues. It is not always possible to fully inform participants of the details of the research, as it may change their behavior. For this reason, psychologists sometimes use deception in their research. For example, suppose we wanted to research student cheating. If we tell participants we are studying cheating behavior, it will likely influence their behavior. If we tell participants we are investigating student-teacher behavior, we can measure student cheating more objectively. However, the use of deception must be justified by the potential value of the research results. Moreover, deception can be used only when alternative procedures that do not use deception are unavailable. If participants have been deceived in any way during the course of a study, the researcher is obligated to debrief participants after the experiment ends. debriefing the ethical principle that Debriefing consists of full disclosure by the researcher to inform participants of participants be fully informed of the nature the true purpose of the research. Any misconceptions that the participant may of the study after participating in research hold about the nature of the research must be removed at this time. involving deception Consider the following classic research study. In the 1960s, Stanley Milgram (1963) set out to determine whether the average person could be induced to hurt others in response to orders from an authority figure. (You will read more about Milgram’s research in Chapter 10.) Participants were deceived into believing that they were participating in a research study on learning rather than on obedience. Participants were told that they would be playing the role of a “teacher” in the experiment. Participants were introduced to a “learner” who was then led to a separate room. The teacher’s job was to administer electric shocks to the learner every time the learner made a mistake in an effort to help the learner better retain a list of words. In reality, the participant was not actually shocking the learner. The learner’s responses were prerecorded on a tape, but the participants did not know this and believed that they were, indeed, shocking the learner. Despite the fact that participants believed the learner to be ill or worse, most of them continued to follow the experimenter’s orders. A full 65% of the participants shocked the learner all the way up to the highest shock level! During the procedure, Milgram’s participants exhibited emotional distress. Although Milgram debriefed the participants after the study, he still violated the ethical principle of psychological harm. He was criticized for exposing participants to the trauma of the procedure itself and for not leaving the participants in at least as good a condition as they were prior to the experiment (Baumrind, 1964). Because of these ethical problems, a study such as this would not be approved today. We should also note that for years the primary focus in research was on White males. Women and minorities were not only ▲▲ Although Stanley Milgram debriefed his participants, he still caused them discouraged from becoming professionals in psychological harm. Such a study would violate current ethical standards of psychological research. psychology but also were largely ignored or Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Psychology in the Modern World: Foundations and Growth 23 neglected when studying psychological issues. Many minority and female, as well as male, psychologists have contributed to the field of psychology by addressing these shortcomings and designing research that looks specifically at the behaviors of minorities and women. 1.3.2 Ethical Guidelines for Nonhuman Research Animal studies have advanced our understanding of many psychological issues, including the importance of prenatal nutrition, our treatment of brain injuries, and our understanding of mental health disorders (Domjan & Purdy, 1995). Psychologists must meet certain standards and follow ethical guidelines when conducting research with nonhuman subjects. Whereas IRBs evaluate the ethics of research using human participants, psychological research using nonhuman subjects must also be approved by a review board called an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). Animals must be treated humanely and in accord with all federal, state, and local laws and regulations. Researchers are responsible for the daily comfort, housing, cleaning, feeding, and health of nonhuman subjects. Discomfort, illness, and pain must be kept at a minimum, and such procedures can only be used if alternative procedures are not available. Moreover, harmful or painful procedures used on animals must be justified in terms of the knowledge that is expected to be gained from the study. Researchers must also promote the psychological well-being of some animals that are used in research, most notably primates (APA, 2002). 1.3 Quiz Yourself 1. What is the rule for deceiving participants in a psychological research study? a. Deception is never allowed in psychological research. It is against the law in every state. b. Deception is allowed only when using nonhuman subjects. c. Deception is allowed when alternative procedures are unavailable and when participants are debriefed at the end of the study. d. Deception can be used under any circumstances. 2. Dr. Kwan is performing case study research. Dr. Kwan should be most concerned with which of the following ethical principles? a. b. c. d. Deception Physical harm Debriefing Confidentiality 3. Which of the following is not an ethical guideline that psychologists must follow when conducting research? a. Paying participants for their participation b. Informed consent c. Freedom from harm d. Confidentiality Answers 1. c; 2. d; 3. a 1.4 Psychology in the Modern World: Foundations and Growth Psychology has been described as having “a long past but only a short history” (Ebbinghaus, 1910, p. 9). Traditionally, psychology’s birth is linked with the first psychology laboratory, which was established by Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) in 1879 at the University of Leipzig, in Germany. Wundt wanted to know what conscious thought processes enable us to experience the external world. In particular, Wundt attempted to detail the structure of our mental experiences. Wundt’s view that mental experiences were created by different elements is referred to as structuralism, a term coined not by Wundt but by his student Edward Titchener (1867–1927). structuralism an early psychological perspective concerned with identifying the basic elements of experience Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology History and Art Collection/Alamy Stock Photo 24 ▲▲ The first woman to be awarded a doctorate in psychology was Margaret Washburn. To identify the structure of thought, British psychologist Titchener used a process known as introspection, a self-observation technique. Trained observers were presented with an event and asked to describe their mental processes. The observations were repeated many times. From these introspections, Titchener identified three basic elements of all conscious experiences: sensations, images, and feelings. Wundt’s and Titchener’s research went beyond introspection and structuralism to encompass a very broad view of psychology. They also conducted detailed studies on color vision, visual illusions, attention, and feelings, and influenced the field of psychology through their students, many of whom went on to establish psychology departments and laboratories in the United States. For example, Titchener’s first graduate student, American Margaret Washburn (1871–1939), became the first woman to earn a doctorate in psychology. Washburn did not share Titchener’s emphasis on structuralism, but she instead investigated the connection between motor movement and the mind and conducted extensive research on animal behavior. 1.4.1 Psychology’s Roots and Modern Perspectives introspection observing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or sensations biological perspective an approach that focuses on physical causes of behavior neuroscience a field of science that investigates the relationships between the nervous system and behavior/mental processes Like Washburn, other psychologists soon reacted against the limited view of the mind that structuralism presented. Such disagreement gave rise to other ways to explain behavior, which resulted in a very broad profession. Here we discuss seven perspectives or views on behavior and the historical figures that influenced their development (● FIGURE 1.7): biological, evolutionary, psychodynamic, behavioral, sociocultural, humanistic, and cognitive. We will also look at a combined perspective referred to as an eclectic approach. The Influence of Medicine Biological perspective Evolutionary perspective Humanistic perspective Sociocultural perspective PSYCHOLOGY Behavioral perspective Cognitive perspective Psychodynamic perspective Figure 1.7 Psychological Perspectives Just as a photograph or a piece of art can be examined from many different angles, so too, can mental processes and behavior. We call these angles perspectives. Each offers a somewhat different picture of why people behave as they do. Taken as a whole, these perspectives underscore the complex nature of behavior. Because of the mind’s association with the body, much of what we consider psychology today was at times part of the field of medicine. Hippocrates (460–377 bce), the father of medicine, believed that personality was in part a reflection of the mix of chemicals in the body, and abnormal behavior was typically treated with medical procedures. The ancient Indian texts of knowledge, The Vedas (2000–600 bce), describe chakras or energy processing centers within the body that govern physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health. Today, psychologists who adopt a biological perspective look for a physical cause for a particular behavior. Such psychologists examine genetic, biochemical, and nervous system (brain functioning) relationships to behavior and mental processes. The biological perspective is also a branch of science referred to as neuroscience. (We discuss the physical processes of the nervous system in Chapter 2.) For example, electroencephalographs (EEGs) and other brain imaging and computer technology have enabled neuroscientists to measure how a person’s body movements cause nerve cells in the brain to fire. They can then use this information to design neuromotor prosthetic devices, such as robotic arms, that work in much the same way. These appliances can help replace or restore lost motor Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Psychology in the Modern World: Foundations and Growth 25 functioning in people with spinal cord injuries, stroke, and other severe motor deficits (Athanasiou et al., 2017). An Emphasis on the Unconscious Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) is probably the best-known historical figure in psychology, and his ideas can be found throughout Western culture in music, media, advertising, art, and humor—a testament to his influence and importance. Before creating theories of psychology, however, Freud studied medicine, focusing on neurology and disorders of the nervous system. He began studying people with all kinds of “nervous” disorders, such as an intense fear of horses or heights or the sudden paralysis of an arm. He began asking patients to express any and every thought that occurred to them, no matter how trivial or unpleasant. Freud theorized that encouraging patients to say whatever came to mind allowed them to recall forgotten memories that seemed to underlie their problems. This process, known today as free association, is one element of psychoanalysis, a therapy that Freud developed. From these experiences, Freud came to believe that the unconscious plays a crucial role in human behavior. For Freud, the unconscious was that part of the mind that includes impulses, behaviors, and desires that we are unaware of but that influence our behavior. Until this time, much of psychology had focused on conscious mental processes. Freud’s focus on the unconscious was unique and led to his formulation of psychoanalytic theory. According to this theory, humans are similar to animals in that they possess basic sexual and aggressive instincts that motivate behavior. However, unlike animals, humans can reason and think, especially as they mature. In childhood we learn to use these conscious reasoning abilities to deal with and to suppress our basic sexual and aggressive desires so ▲▲By studying biological processes, neuroscientists can design neuromotor prosthetic devices such as robotic arms to help restore lost motor functioning. Bettmann/Contributor/Getty Images American psychologist and philosopher William James (1842–1910) had visited Wundt’s laboratory in Germany but did not share Wundt’s focus on breaking down mental events into their smallest elements. Rather, James proposed a focus on the wholeness of an event and the impact of the environment on behavior. He emphasized how a mental process operates as opposed to the structure of a mental process. He came to believe that consciousness and thought evolved through the process of natural selection, to help the organism adapt to its environment (Nielsen & Day, 1999). Evolution and natural selection were ideas that were quite new at the time. Evolution refers to the development of a species—the process by which, through a series of changes over time, humans have acquired behaviors and characteristics that distinguish them from other species. Natural selection refers to how only the organisms best suited to their environment tend to survive and reproduce. James wanted to know how a particular behavior helps an organism adapt to its environment and thereby increases its chances of surviving and reproducing. James’s perspective on psychology became known as functionalism. According to James, if human behavior is naturally selected, it is important for psychologists to understand the function, or survival value, of a behavior. Today, psychologists may adopt an evolutionary perspective. The evolutionary perspective proposes that natural selection is the process that explains behaviors. Behaviors that increase your chances of surviving are favored or selected over behaviors that decrease your chances of surviving. Like James’s functionalism, this approach analyzes whether a particular behavior increases a person’s ability to adapt to the environment, thus increasing the chances of surviving, reproducing, and passing one’s genes on to future generations (Buss, 2009). The Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago (RIC) From Functionalism to Evolution ▲▲William James is associated with functionalism. functionalism an early psychological perspective concerned with how behavior helps people adapt to their environment evolutionary perspective an approach that focuses on how evolution and natural selection influence behavior psychoanalytic theory Sigmund Freud’s view that emphasizes the influence of unconscious desires and conflicts on behavior Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology Topham/The Image Works 26 ▲▲Sigmund Freud’s focus on the unconscious was unique and led to his formulation of psychoanalytic theory. A Focus on the Environment Archives of the History of American Psychology, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio psychodynamic perspective an approach that focuses on internal unconscious mental processes, motives, and desires that may explain behavior behaviorism a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of observable stimuli, responses, and consequences stimulus any object or event that is perceived by our senses response an organism’s reaction to a stimulus ▲▲John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner showed how stimuli and responses could be studied in their experiment on Little Albert. that we can be viewed approvingly by others. For Freud, the conflict between the conscious reasoning part of the mind and the unconscious instinctual one was key to understanding human behavior. Today, psychologists may adopt a psychodynamic perspective, a collective term that refers to those assumptions about behavior originally conceived by Freud, which have been modified by his followers. The psychodynamic view focuses on internal, often unconscious mental processes, motives, and desires or childhood conflicts to explain behavior. For example, many children lie to or manipulate parents to get what they want. The psychodynamic view might suggest that such behavior is an unconscious expression of feelings of powerlessness and lack of control that all children face from time to time. In the 1920s, in the United States, a growing number of psychologists believed that in order for psychology to be taken seriously as a “true” science, it must focus on observable behavior and not on the mind, a school of thought referred to as behaviorism. You can’t see the mind or what a person thinks; you can only see what a person does. Behaviorists believed that only overt, observable behaviors could truly be measured consistently from person to person. One of the most vocal proponents of this school of thought was American psychologist John B. Watson (1878–1958). Watson was influenced by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov’s studies of digestion in dogs. While measuring and analyzing the first process of digestion (salivation), Pavlov (1849–1936) noticed that his dogs started to salivate before he gave them meat powder. When the experiments first started, the salivation had occurred only after the dogs were given the meat powder. To further study this curious change in response, Pavlov performed experiments to train the dogs to salivate to nonfood stimuli. (You will learn more about Pavlov’s classic experiments in Chapter 6.) Pavlov’s experiments were important to Watson as examples of how behavior is the product of stimuli and responses. A stimulus is any object or event that is perceived by our senses. A response is an organism’s reaction to a stimulus. To further his point, Watson and his associate, Rosalie Rayner, performed an experiment on a 9-month-old infant named Albert. Watson first presented “Little Albert” with the stimulus of a white rat. Albert played with the white rat and showed no fear of it (response). Knowing that infants fear loud noises, Watson paired the two stimuli, first presenting the rat to Albert and then presenting a loud gong sound behind Albert’s head. Little Albert reacted to the loud noise with the startle, or fear, response. Over and over again, Watson repeated the procedure of pairing the two stimuli—presenting the rat followed by the loud gong. Then, when Watson presented the rat to Albert with no gong, the infant responded with the startle response. Watson had conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, a rat that Albert had played with earlier without fear. This demonstrated for Watson that observable stimuli and responses should be the focus of psychology. Unfortunately for Watson, a personal scandal resulted in his dismissal as the chair of the psychology department at Johns Hopkins University (Buckley, 1989). Although Watson was no longer operating within mainstream psychology, behaviorism remained strong in the United States, partially due to the work of B. F. Skinner (1904–1990). Skinner, like Watson, believed that psychology should focus on observable behavior. But Skinner added a dimension to Watson’s framework: consequences. Skinner believed that psychologists should look not only at the stimuli in the environment that cause a particular response but also at what happens to a person or animal after the response—what Skinner called the consequences Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com of a behavior. To illustrate consequences, let’s look at Little Albert’s behavior from Skinner’s perspective. Once Albert was afraid of the rat, how would he act when he saw it? If Albert moved away from the rat, his behavior effectively reduced his fear. Feeling less fear or anxiety is a good (positive) consequence, or outcome. Whenever Albert saw the rat again, he probably moved away even faster. Skinner asserted that positive consequences, such as the reduction of Albert’s anxiety, would lead him to engage in the same behavior again. Negative consequences, or outcomes that are not liked, would lessen Albert’s desire to engage in the behavior again. We know these processes as reinforcement and punishment, topics that are explored further in Chapter 6. Today, psychologists may adopt a behavioral perspective that focuses on external causes of behavior. It looks at how stimuli in our environment and/or the rewards and punishments we receive influence our behavior and mental processes. This approach suggests that behavior is learned and is influenced by other people and events. For example, if a student studies and then aces an exam, that reward may encourage them to study again the next time. If the student only gets an average score, merely passing the test may not be rewarding enough to encourage the student to study for future exams. The sociocultural perspective adopts a wider view of the impact of the environment on behavior and mental processes. It suggests that your society or culture influences your actions. Like the behavioral perspective, it assumes that much of behavior is learned. However, it goes further to state that one cannot fully explain people’s behavior without understanding their culture, gender identity, ethnic identity, and other important cultural factors. Consider, for example, that from 2008 to 2016 the United States teen birth rate has been steadily decreasing. However, it still remains one of the highest among developed countries (Mathews & Hamilton, 2018; Sedgh et al., 2015). The sociocultural perspective would attribute this phenomenon to aspects of society that may differ among these countries, such as sexual values, contraceptive availability and use, and exposure to sex education. Sociocultural views will be evident throughout this textbook when differences due to culture, age, income level, race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation are highlighted. Beyond Behaviorism: Humanism, Cognitive Psychology, and the Birth of Positive Psychology Behaviorism was a dominant force in American psychology until the 1960s. By that time, it became evident that this one theory could not account for all responses. For example, feelings and thoughts could not easily be reduced to stimuli and responses. This criticism, combined with the social climate of the time, led to a growing interest in an approach toward treatment called humanism. Many psychologists did not accept the behaviorists’ view that humans were governed by stimuli and responses, with no will of their own to change their behavior. In the 1960s, societal values were rapidly changing, and the civil rights movement and the Vietnam War sparked widespread civil disobedience. Many young Americans were endorsing women’s rights, free love, and free will. Psychology was changing too, and humanists emphasized that everyone possesses inner resources for personal growth and development. The goal of humanistic therapy, therefore, would be to help people use these inner resources to make healthier choices and thus lead better lives. Humanism stressed the free will of individuals to choose their own patterns of behavior. Two well-known humanists are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. 27 Wilfried Krecichwost/The Image Bank/Getty Images Psychology in the Modern World: Foundations and Growth ▲▲The sociocultural perspective suggests that one’s culture influences behavior. behavioral perspective an approach that focuses on external, environmental influences on behavior sociocultural perspective an approach that focuses on societal and cultural factors that may influence behavior humanism a psychological perspective that emphasizes the personal growth and potential of humans Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology humanistic perspective an approach that focuses on how peoples' view of themselves and the world influence behavior cognition mental processes such as reasoning and problem solving cognitive perspective an approach that focuses on how mental processes influence behavior positive psychology the study of factors that contribute to happiness, positive emotions, and well-being ▲ Positive psychology investigates those factors that contribute to happiness, positive emotions, and well-being. Today, psychologists who adopt a humanistic perspective explain behavior as stemming from your choices and free will. These choices are influenced by your self-concept (how you think of yourself) and by your self-esteem (how you feel about yourself). This view of the self and these feelings toward the self will lead you to choose certain behaviors over others. For example, if you see yourself as a low achiever in school, you may be less likely to take challenging courses or to apply yourself in the courses that you do take. Humanistic views of behavior are explored in Chapters 5, 11, and 14. While humanism was changing how psychologists were treating clients, changes were also occurring in research psychology. Some researchers were becoming disappointed with the limits of testing stimuli, responses, and consequences in the laboratory, and there was renewed interest in the study of mental processes. Research expanded to subjects such as memory, problem solving, and decision making. However, unlike the earlier functionalism and structuralism, this new study of mental processes was based on more objective experimental methods. Acknowledging that mental processes are not directly observable to the eye, scientists believed that reasonable inferences about mental processes could be made from performance data. For example, in studying memory processes in children, a researcher can ask children what strategies or techniques they use to remember a list of items. If children using a particular strategy (Strategy A) remember more compared to children using a different strategy (Strategy B), then one can infer that there must be something about Strategy A that facilitates memory. This conclusion is reasonable even though we can’t directly see the children use the techniques. Such reasoning led to much experimental research on mental processes, or cognition. Today a cognitive perspective explains behavior with an emphasis on thoughts and interpretations based on memory, expectations, beliefs, problem solving, or decision making. A cognitive view focuses on how people process information and on how that process may influence behavior. For example, in explaining the mental health disorder of depression, a cognitive approach focuses on how people who are diagnosed with depression think and perceive the world differently from people who are not diagnosed with depression. You will learn more about cognitive processes in Chapters 7 and 8, when we discuss such topics as memory, problem solving, thinking, decision making, intelligence, and language. Focusing on how we think, particularly whether our thoughts are pessimistic or optimistic in nature, soon led to a growing emphasis on human strengths and on how humans attain happiness, called positive psychology. Led by American psychologists Martin Seligman (b. 1942) and Ed Diener (b. 1946), positive psychology has produced an explosion of research over the past two decades investigating the factors that contribute to happiness, positive emotions, and well-being. By scientifically studying positive aspects of human behavior, the goal of positive psychology is to enable individuals, families, and communities to thrive (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Anne Ackermann/The Image Bank/Getty Images 28 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Psychology in the Modern World: Foundations and Growth You Review Explaining Anxiety Using the Modern Perspectives Perspective Explanation Biological Anxiety is related to chemicals in the body and/or brain, or to genetics (heredity). Evolutionary Anxiety is an adaptive response that prepares one to respond to potential threats in the environment. This response helps humans survive, because it warns them of danger and thereby helps them avoid situations or people that may harm them. However, in modern times, these threats tend to be ongoing: traffic jams, crowding, and the hectic pace of consumerism. Psychodynamic Anxiety is the product of unresolved feelings of hostility, guilt, anger, or sexual attraction experienced in childhood. Behavioral Anxiety is a learned behavior much like Albert’s fear of the white rat. It is a response that is associated with a specific stimulus or a response that has been rewarded. Sociocultural Anxiety is a product of a person’s culture. In the United States, more females than males report being anxious and fearful, and this gender difference results from different socialization experiences. Males in the United States are raised to believe that they must not be afraid, so they are less likely to acknowledge or report anxiety. Females do not experience this pressure to hide their fears, so they are more likely to tell others that they are anxious and to seek treatment. Humanistic Anxiety is rooted in people’s dissatisfaction with their real self (how they perceive themselves) as compared to their ideal self (how they want to be). Cognitive People who are anxious think differently than people who are not anxious. People who are anxious may engage in more pessimistic thinking or worry that everything will go wrong. Eclectic Anxiety stems from various sources depending on the individual. One person may be prone to anxiety because many people in their family are anxious and they have learned to be anxious from several experiences. Another person may be anxious because they are dissatisfied with themselves and believe that everything always goes wrong in their life. Today, most psychologists do not rigidly adhere to just one of these perspectives but are likely to take what is referred to as an eclectic approach when explaining behavior. An eclectic approach integrates or combines several perspectives to provide a more complete and complex picture of behavior. You Review: Explaining Anxiety Using the Modern Perspectives illustrates these approaches and shows how a combined approach provides a more expansive understanding of behavior than any single approach could, using anxiety as an example. eclectic [ee-KLECK-tic] approach an approach that integrates and combines several perspectives when explaining behavior 1.4.2 Specialty Areas in Psychology In addition to the various approaches or perspectives psychologists take, they also study different aspects of behavior, which correspond to specialty areas of psychology. A number of these specialty areas are depicted in ● TABLE 1.2, but keep in mind that there are many more. This diversity stems from the complexity of behavior and the interrelatedness of different areas. What a developmental psychologist studies, for example, is connected to and may have an impact on the work of social, clinical, and educational psychologists. If you are interested in becoming a psychologist, the Psychology Applies to Your World: Training to Be a Psychologist box details the educational requirements and potential career opportunities in the profession. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 29 30 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology TABLE 1.2 Specialty Areas in Psychology Specialty Area Topics of Interest Biopsychology/Neuroscience Researches the biological processes that underlie behavior, including genetic, biochemical, and nervous system functioning. Clinical psychology Researches, assesses, and treats children, adolescents, and adults who are experiencing difficulty in functioning or who have a serious mental health disorder such as schizophrenia. Cognitive psychology Studies mental processes such as decision making, problem solving, language, and memory. Community psychology Seeks to understand and enhance the quality of life for individuals, communities, and society. Focuses on early intervention in and prevention of individual and community problems. Counseling psychology Researches, assesses, and treats children, adolescents, and adults who are experiencing adjustment difficulties. Cross-cultural psychology Investigates cultural similarities and differences in traits and behaviors and examines the cultural goals, values, and practices that underlie them. Developmental psychology Researches how we develop physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally over the life span. Educational psychology Researches how people learn and how variables in an educational environment influence learning. May develop materials and strategies to enhance learning. Environmental psychology Examines the relationship between environments and human behavior. Focuses on designing, managing, protecting, and/or restoring the environment to enhance behavior. Also studies environmental attitudes, perceptions, and values to promote environmentally appropriate behavior. Experimental psychology Conducts research on sensation, perception, learning, motivation, and emotion. Forensic psychology Works with mental health issues within the context of the legal system. May study a certain type of criminal behavior such as rape or murder, or may be asked to determine a person’s competence to stand trial. Health psychology Researches ways to promote health and prevent illness. May be concerned with issues such as diet and nutrition, exercise, and lifestyle choices that influence health. Human factors psychology Researches human capabilities as they apply to the design, operation, and maintenance of machines, systems, and environments to achieve optimal performance (e.g., designing the most effective configuration of control knobs in airplane cockpits for pilots). Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology Examines the relationship between people and their work environments. May study issues such as increasing job satisfaction or decreasing employee absenteeism, or focus on understanding the dynamics of workplace behavior, such as leadership styles or gender differences in management styles. Personality psychology Researches how people differ in their individual traits, how people develop personality, whether personality traits can be changed, and how these qualities can be measured. Positive psychology Seeks to discover and promote those factors that contribute to happiness, positive emotions, and well-being. School psychology Assesses students’ psychoeducational abilities (academic achievement, intelligence, cognitive processing) and shares test results with teachers and parents to help them make decisions regarding the best educational placement for students. Social psychology Researches how our beliefs, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others, whether in the classroom, on an elevator, on the beach, on a jury, or at a football game. Sports psychology Investigates the mental and emotional aspects of physical performance. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Psychology in the Modern World: Foundations and Growth 31 MIND AND I/Shutterstock.com Psychology Works! Knowledge of psychological research and concepts is important to many college majors and career fields. For example, psychological research on the nature of motivation, reinforcement, and attention is critical to designing console-based and mobile video games that engage and excite players. Video game designers want to motivate people to keep playing their games rather than give up. They build rewards (reinforcement) and punishers into their games such as earning or losing a life, and need to understand how visual attention operates as many games require a player to simultaneously attend to a number of objects at one time. So, in addition to strong computer programming skills, understanding psychological concepts can help video game designers be successful in their field. In the early development of psychology, women and minorities were not allowed in many instances to receive graduate degrees, despite completing all the requirements for such degrees. In spite of these constraints and many other societal hurdles, several women and minority individuals contributed significantly to the field. As previously mentioned, Margaret Washburn became the first woman to be awarded a doctorate in psychology in 1894 (Furumoto, 1989). Mary Calkins (1863–1930) became the first female president of the American Psychological Association in 1905. She studied at Harvard University with William James and performed several studies on the nature of memory. Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847–1930) studied color vision in the early 1900s. Karen Horney (1885–1952) focused on environmental and cultural factors that influence personality development (see Chapter 11). Few degrees were awarded to minority students in the early 1900s. Gilbert Haven Jones (1881–1966) was the first African American to earn a doctorate in psychology—in Germany in 1909. Francis Sumner (1895–1954) was the first African American to receive a doctorate in psychology from a university in the United States (in 1920) and is known as the father of Archives of the History of American Psychology, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 1.4.3 Gender, Ethnicity, and the Field of Psychology ▲▲ Known as the father of African-American psychology, Francis Sumner, helped establish the psychology department at Howard University. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 32 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology Psychology Applies to Your World Training to Be a Psychologist The majority of psychologists hold a doctorate in psychology—usually a Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy) or a Psy.D. (Doctor of Psychology). A Ph.D. program focuses more on research, whereas the Psy.D. focuses more on clinical training. To obtain either doctorate, psychologists must first complete a bachelor’s and a master’s degree. The road to a doctoral degree is long, usually 4–7 years after the undergraduate degree. Most doctoral programs require extensive study of research methods and statistics, and most require that students do some form of research. Those who study psychology to the point of a bachelor’s or master’s degree aren’t excluded from the profession. As you can see in ● FIGURE 1.8, psychology is a popular degree among undergraduate students. Those who graduate with a bachelor’s degree in psychology can look forward to entry-level jobs in a variety of fields from business to social services to healthcare to government. In one study (American Psychological Association, 2016), nearly 62% of former psychology majors reported that their work was directly or somewhat related to psychology. The graduate may assist psychologists in mental Business Health professions Social sciences and history Psychology Biological and biomedical sciences Engineering Communications, journalism, and related programs Visual and performing arts Education Computer and information sciences 0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 400,000 Number of bachelor’s degrees awarded Figure 1.8 Undergraduate Degrees in Psychology Psychology is a popular undergraduate degree. It ranked fourth following business, health professions, and social sciences and history in number of degrees awarded in 2016–2017. Source: Data from U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2018. African American psychology for his many contributions to the education of Black people. His research focused on equality between Blacks and Whites, disproving the idea that African Americans were inferior. He also helped establish an independent psychology department at Howard University, a historically Black college. Two of Sumner’s students, Kenneth Clark (1914–2005) and Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983), conducted research on the self-perceptions of Black children. The Clarks’ experiments (Clark, 1950; Clark & Clark, 1950) found that Black children often preferred to play with white dolls over black dolls and attributed positive descriptors such as good and pretty to the color white and negative descriptors such as bad and ugly to the color black. The Clarks’ findings were noted in the landmark 1954 case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, in which the Supreme Court ruled that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Psychology in the Modern World: Foundations and Growth health, rehabilitation, or correctional centers; conduct market research analysis; or work in healthcare or management. Jobs in the business sector present the greatest earning opportunities, while jobs in nonprofit and social service sectors are going to be on the lower end of the compensation scale. Median starting and mid-career salaries for people with just a bachelor’s degree are below average when compared to other liberal arts majors (Rajecki, 2012; Rajecki & Borden, 2011). A master’s degree typically requires 2–3 years of graduate work. Master’s-level psychologists may administer tests, conduct research, or counsel patients under the supervision of a doctoral-level psychologist. In a few states, they may be able to practice independently. They may teach in high schools or community colleges, work in corporate human resource departments, or work as school psychologists or career counselors. Licensed professional counselors or LPCs are master’s- or doctoral-level mental health and substance abuse service providers that are required to hold a graduate degree in counseling or a related field and must pass a licensing exam. Those interested in working with individuals on the autism spectrum or those with developmental disabilities may pursue a master’s degree in applied behavior analysis found in psychology, special education, or social work departments. A large percentage of psychologists affiliated with colleges and universities teach and do research, but not just in psychology departments. Psychological scientists can be found across disciplines such as computer science, law, hotel management, zoology, urban research, political science, and others (Association for Psychological Science [APS], 2016). Psychologists also work in school systems, hospitals, business, government, and other human services settings (Michalski et al., 2011; ● FIGURE 1.9). Psychologists perform many functions in many different roles at varying institutions. Their job descriptions may include conducting research, counseling clients, and teaching college courses. Other educational institutions 8% Business/ government/ other 21% 33 Colleges and universities 32% Human service sector 37% Figure 1.9 Work Settings of Psychologists A large percentage of psychologists affiliated with colleges and universities teach and do research. Psychologists also work in school systems, business, and government, or are employed in health-related or other human services settings. Source: 2009 Doctorate Employment Survey, APA Center for Workforce Studies. A related profession is psychiatry. A psychiatrist holds a medical degree (M.D.) and then specializes in mental health. A psychiatrist’s graduate work includes a medical internship and residency, followed by training in the treatment of mental health disorders. As medical practitioners, psychiatrists have extensive training in the use of therapeutic drugs; they may dispense or prescribe medication and order medical procedures such as brain scans. Inez Prosser (1897–1934) was the first African-American woman to be awarded a doctorate in psychology, in 1933 (Benjamin, Henry, & McMahon, 2005). Her doctoral dissertation (Prosser, 1933) studied the self-perceptions of Black children. She compared the self-esteem of Black children attending a segregated school to that of Black children attending an integrated school. She found that the Black children at the segregated school fared better. The Black children at the integrated school were more likely to feel inferior and report less satisfactory school relations. Given the probable prejudicial attitudes of White people at the integrated school, it is not surprising that the Black children at the integrated school did not have positive experiences. Have times changed for women and minorities in psychology? Women have indeed made great progress in the field of psychology. From 1920 to 1974, 23% of Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 34 CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology doctorates in psychology went to women (APA, 2000). Today, far more women than men earn graduate psychology degrees, with nearly 79% of master’s degrees and 73% of doctorate degrees in psychology awarded to women (National Science Board [NSB], 2016). Educational gains have to some extent been followed by progress in the careers of women in the psychology workforce as the percentage of female psychologists in the workplace has also increased relative to male psychologists (APA Center for Workforce Studies, 2015; National Science Foundation, 2020). However, female psychologists still earn less than male psychologists do, after controlling for age, race, hours, and education (Goldin, 2014; National Science Foundation [NSF], 2015). Thus, although psychology has become more fully open to both men and women at the educational and professional levels, inequities in earnings still exist. Likewise, progress has also been made in the numbers of racial and ethnic minorities in psychology. While minorities make up approximately 39% of the U.S. population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017), a little over 26% of students in graduate schools in psychology are minorities (NSB, 2016). Between 1976 and 1993, about 8% of all doctorates in psychology were awarded to minorities (APA, 1997); whereas now that number has increased to almost 20% (NSB, 2016). Despite the increase in the number of advanced degrees awarded to minorities, they are still underrepresented in the psychology work force, accounting for approximately 16% of active psychologists (APA Center for Workforce Studies, 2015) and tend to earn less than White psychologists (NSF, 2015). To address this lack of minority representation, the APA has established several programs to attract more minorities to the field of psychology. 1.4 Quiz Yourself 1. Javier wants to know how aggression helps a person adapt to the environment. Which historical approach is Javier emphasizing? a. Structuralism b. Psychoanalysis c. Functionalism d. Humanism 2. Which of the following persons would be least likely to emphasize the influence of stimuli and responses on behavior? a. John Watson b. Carl Rogers c. Rosalie Rayner d. B. F. Skinner 3. Which modern psychological perspective emphasizes the importance of thought processes for understanding behavior? a. b. c. d. Behavioral Humanistic Sociocultural Cognitive 4. Which of the following professionals is most likely to prescribe medication for a mental health disorder? a. A clinical psychologist b. A psychiatrist c. A biopsychologist d. An experimental psychologist 5. A psychologist who studies individual differences in shyness is probably from which specialty area? a. Cognitive b. Human factors c. Developmental d. Personality Answers 1. c; 2. b; 3. d; 4. b; 5. d 1.5 Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture In the chapters that follow, we will describe in greater detail research in the main areas of psychology. The material has been divided into four roughly equal parts, covering the Common Core recommended by the American Psychological Association (2014). The first section, foundations in biological psychology, details Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Studying the Chapter the basic biological processes that underlie behavior. It includes chapters on neuroscience, sensation and perception, consciousness, and motivation and emotion. The second part, foundations in cognitive psychology, contains research on the mental processes that influence behavior. It includes chapters on learning, memory, and cognition. The third part, foundations in developmental and social psychology, examines how behavior varies across the life span, individuals, and social contexts. It includes chapters on human development, social psychology, and personality. The last part, foundations in physical and mental health, emphasizes those factors that influence our success or failure at achieving healthy behavior. It includes chapters on stress and health, mental health disorders, and mental health therapies. Each chapter will prepare you for mastering the concepts of the next chapter, and we frequently remind you of concepts presented in earlier chapters to help you connect and integrate the information. Two features to help you study and master the material conclude each chapter: a 20-item quiz called “What Do You Know? Assess Your Understanding” and a visual summary, entitled “Are You Getting the Big Picture?” The former will help you assess your mastery and application of the material, and the latter will help you remember the topics and concepts that have been introduced and further your understanding of how these concepts relate to one another. Psychology is an integrated field. It is important not only to master the basic concepts of each chapter but also to understand how the information from the chapters ties together and applies to your life. It is in this way that a comprehensive explanation of behavior can be realized and that psychological knowledge can be used in practical ways to improve your daily life. Studying the Chapter Key Terms behavioral perspective (27) behaviorism (26) biological perspective (24) case study (13) causal hypothesis (11) cognition (28) cognitive perspective (28) confidentiality (21) confirmation bias (5) confounding variables (18) control group (17) correlation (14) critical thinking (7) debriefing (22) dependent variable (17) double-blind studies (17) eclectic approach (29) evolutionary perspective (25) positive correlation (15) experiment (16) positive psychology (28) experimental group (17) prediction (9) functionalism (25) predictive hypothesis (11) generalizability (13) pseudopsychology (7) humanism (27) psychoanalytic theory (25) humanistic perspective (28) psychodynamic perspective (26) hypothesis (10) psychology (4) independent variable (16) quasi-experiment (19) informed consent (21) random assignment (18) Institutional Review Board (IRB) (21) response (26) introspection (24) sample (12) meta-analyses (11) scientific method (4) naturalistic observations (12) sociocultural perspective (27) negative correlation (16) stimulus (26) neuroscience (24) structuralism (23) placebo effect (17) surveys (13) population of interest (12) theory (5) Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 35 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 36 CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology What Do You Know? Assess Your Understanding Test your retention and understanding of the material by answering the following questions. 1. Which of the following is not true about psychology? a. b. c. d. Psychology is just common sense. Psychology is just the study of mental health disorders. Psychology has no connection with everyday life. All of the above are not true. 2. Which of the following topics would a psychologist have the least interest in? a. b. c. d. Learning Sexuality Employment trends Color perception 3. Which of the following is not a goal of psychology? a. b. c. d. To describe behavior To change behavior To explain behavior To practice behavior 4. Which of the following best defines the nature of a theory? a. b. c. d. An explanation of why a behavior occurs A statement of fact An untestable assumption A personal opinion 5. The hypothesis that the number of rapes will increase during the summer months is an example of a(n) hypothesis. a. b. c. d. causal predictive untestable nonscientific 6. Dr. Vaz conducted an experiment in which participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions. In the first condition, the participants were shown visual images of common objects and then 1 hour later asked to recall as many of the objects as they could remember. In the second condition, the participants heard the names of the same objects and then 1 hour later were asked to recall as many of the objects as they could. Dr. Vaz then compared the number of items recalled for these two groups of participants. In this experiment, the independent variable is . a. b. c. d. the number of items recalled whether the participants saw or heard the objects the sex of the participants the room in which the participants were tested 7. Dr. Pi wants to test the hypothesis that smoking marijuana impairs one’s ability to remember information. What type of hypothesis is Dr. Pi interested in testing? a. b. c. d. Predictive Causal Correlational Biological 8. Dr. Ling is studying helping behavior in children. Every day, Dr. Ling goes to the local playground at 3 p.m., sits on the sidelines, and records the number of times one child helps another, the sex of the child who helps, and the sex of the child who is helped. Dr. Ling is using which research method in this study? a. b. c. d. An experiment A case study A naturalistic observation A quasi-experiment 9. A confounding variable a. b. c. d. . measures the effect of the independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter has no effect on the dependent variable is any factor other than the independent variable that affects the dependent variable 10. The longer the commute for a student to a college campus, the less likely they are to complete a degree. This is an example of a . a. b. c. d. positive correlation negative correlation zero correlation case study 11. Dr. Eden tells potential participants of any risks they may experience prior to their participation in a research study. Dr. Eden is following the ethical guideline of . a. b. c. d. deception confidentiality informed consent debriefing 12. The perspective in psychology stresses the importance of looking at the influence of unconscious drives and motives on behavior and mental processes. a. b. c. d. functionalism cognitive psychodynamic behavioral Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Studying the Chapter 13. Dr. Babar is a psychologist who studies how people’s eating habits help them adapt to and survive in their environments. Dr. Babar is emphasizing which psychological perspective? a. b. c. d. a. b. c. d. 20. Today, who earns most of the doctorates in psychology? a. b. c. d. Evolutionary Biological Humanistic Behavioral 14. Many modern psychologists follow the approach to psychology, in that they do not adhere strictly to any one psychological perspective. pragmatic functional commonsense eclectic Doctorate degree Master’s degree Bachelor’s degree Associate’s degree Use It or Lose It: Applying Psychology 1. Explain how you can apply the scientific method to decide on a college major or a career choice. Could this method also be used as part of your decisionmaking process when purchasing a large item such as a car or a house? Explain how it could be used for these major purchases. 2. Design a research study to test the idea that listening to rock music while studying facilitates learning. What type of hypothesis would you make? Could this idea be tested by naturalistic observation? Could you set up a correlational study to test this idea? Could an experiment be designed to address this issue? What types of conclusions could you reach from these different research methods? What ethical considerations would you follow when conducting this study? 3. Suppose William James, Sigmund Freud, and John Watson had the opportunity to sit down and discuss the causes of behavior. What might this conversation sound like? On what issues might they agree? On what issues might they disagree? 4. Explain depression from each of the modern perspectives and using the eclectic approach. Use You Review: Explaining Anxiety Using the Modern Perspectives as a guide if you need help. 16. Dr. Warren is a psychologist who studies chemicals in the brain. Dr. Warren is approaching psychology from the perspective. a. b. c. d. cognitive eclectic biological sociocultural 17. Dr. Barrios is a psychologist who studies how people change over time. Dr. Barrios is most likely a psychologist. a. b. c. d. cognitive biological social developmental 18. Dr. Grogan studies how psychological principles can be applied in the workplace. Dr. Grogan is most psychologist. likely a(n) a. b. c. d. industrial/organizational clinical social health 19. The first African American to earn a doctorate in psychology was . a. b. c. d. Karen Horney Mary Calkins Gilbert Haven Jones Sidney Beckham Men Women African Americans Asian Americans Answers: 1. d; 2. c; 3. d; 4. a; 5. b; 6. b; 7. b; 8. c; 9. d; 10. b; 11. c; 12. c; 13. a; 14. d; 15. a; 16. c; 17. d; 18. a; 19. c; 20. b 15. Which of the following is the most likely educational attainment of the majority of psychologists? a. b. c. d. 37 Critical Thinking About the Science of Psychology We detailed in Section 1.3 of this chapter Stanley Milgram’s classic study on obedience. Review the information given on his research and answer the following questions: 1. What was Milgram’s hypothesis? 2. What research method did he use? 3. What was the dependent variable in his study? 4. Which ethical principles did Milgram follow and which ones did he not? Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Are You Getting the Big Picture? 1.1 What Is Psychology? To think like a psychologist, you must be skeptical about explanations of behavior, rather than accepting of them. ●● NOT simply giving advice ●● NOT just “common sense” ●● NOT limited to studying mental health disorders Greg Hinsdale/Corbis Psychology is 1.2 The Science of Psychology: Goals, Hypotheses, and Methods ●● ●● ●● ●● The goals of psychological research are to: ●● describe behavior ●● predict behavior ●● explain behavior ●● control or change behavior Psychologists form predictive and causal hypotheses and then conduct research using the scientific method. Predictive hypotheses are tested by naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys, and correlational studies. Causal hypotheses are tested by experiments in which variables are controlled and care is taken to test a random sample of a population of interest. The experimental group is compared to the control group on the dependent variable to see whether the independent variable had an effect. In a quasi-experiment, participants are not randomly assigned to the different conditions, so causal conclusions should be made cautiously. Picture Partners/Alamy Stock Photo ●● 1.3 Ethical Principles of Psychological ●● ●● To ensure humane conduct of experiments, the American Psychological Association has established a set of strict ethical guidelines that must be followed when researchers study animals and humans. Key ethical guidelines for humans include informed consent, confidentiality, protecting the participant from harm, and debriefing to explain any deceptions used in research. ©Renewed 1993 by Alexandra Milgram Research 38 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1.4 Psychology in the Modern World: Biological perspective Foundations and Growth ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● Psychology became a distinct field of scientific study when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory, in Germany, in 1879. Evolutionary perspective Humanistic perspective A biological or neuroscience perspective, stemming from the field of medicine, examines the physiological contributions to behavior. Sociocultural perspective William James’s focus was on how particular behaviors helped people adapt to their environment (functionalism). Today, an evolutionary perspective looks at how behaviors may be genetically programmed to help us adapt better for survival. Cognitive perspective PSYCHOLOGY Behavioral perspective Psychodynamic perspective Sigmund Freud, one of the most famous people to influence psychology, believed the key to understanding behavior was uncovering unconscious motivations (psychoanalytic theory). Today, the psychodynamic perspective focuses on internal, often unconscious, mental processes, motives, and desires or childhood conflicts to explain behavior. John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner emphasized the need to study observable behavior and the influence of the environment on behavior. Their research led to the behavioral perspective, which focuses on external causes of behavior, such as how stimuli in the environment and/or rewards and punishments influence our responses. ●● The sociocultural perspective researches behaviors across societal groups and cultures (such as ethnicity, social class, or gender). ●● The humanistic perspective explains behavior as stemming from choices and free will. ●● ●● The cognitive perspective focuses on how people process information and on how that process may influence behavior. Focusing on how we think led to the birth of positive psychology, which describes the factors that contribute to happiness, positive emotions, and well-being. Psychologists today embrace an eclectic approach, which integrates several perspectives when studying and explaining behavior. Careers in Psychology Business ●● ●● Psychologists typically have a doctorate in Health professions psychology, which usually involves 4–7 years Social sciences and history of postgraduate study and research beyond Psychology the undergraduate (bachelor’s) degree. Biological and biomedical Psychology has numerous specialty areas, including these: ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● Developmental psychology (which studies child and adult development) Social psychology (which examines ways in which we are influenced by others) Industrial/organizational psychology (which looks at behavior in the workplace) sciences Engineering Communications, journalism, and related programs Visual and performing arts Education Computer and information sciences 0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 400,000 Number of bachelor’s degrees awarded Experimental psychology (which performs research on sensation, perception, and learning) Clinical or counseling psychology (which researches and treats people who are experiencing difficulty in functioning or who have a serious mental health disorder) Although the numbers of women and ethnic minorities in psychology have increased, inequities in the profession still exist. 39 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 40 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Part 1 Foundations in Biological Psychology C hapter 1 focused on the scientific method like without them. In the case study for this part, we that forms the foundation of all areas of see what life was like for Jean-Dominique Bauby when psychology. In this next part, we will discuss he suddenly lost certain aspects of his brain function. the biological foundations of psychology—the After reading his story, you might just find yourself with nervous and endocrine system functions (Chapter 2), increased respect for your own brain and the abilities that sensation and perceptual processes (Chapter 3), states it provides you. of consciousness (Chapter 4), and motivational and emotional functions (Chapter 5) that influence our mental processes and behavior. The fields of psychology and biology are intimately intertwined. Biology focuses on the The Big Picture The Importance Of A Healthy Brain body, its structures, and physiological When Jean-Dominique Bauby began his day on December 8, 1995, his life was the essence of success. At age 43 he was editor-in-chief of the French fashion magazine Elle, the father of two loving children, a world traveler—a man who seemed to have everything. functions. Our knowledge about the body helps inform But all of this was about to change. As Bauby was driving psychology’s study of mental processes and behavior. that afternoon, he suddenly began to experience unusual Without biological functioning, there would be no neurological problems. As he drove along, Bauby began to mental processes or behavior for psychologists to study. feel as if he were moving in slow motion. His vision began And changes in biological functioning, through taking to blur and double, and familiar landmarks along the road drugs, injury, or illness, have the potential to affect our seemed only vaguely recognizable. Realizing that he was thoughts and behavior. in trouble, Bauby pulled off the road and attempted to get Despite its importance in our lives, we often pay little attention to our biological functioning. For example, when out of the car, only to find that he was unable to walk. He collapsed and was rushed to a nearby hospital where he did you last stop to wonder how your brain works? For most of us, the answer to that question is probably never! Most of us lead our lives without giving our brain much thought. Every day we go about our business, taking for granted our ability to move, speak, feel, and breathe. We seldom, if ever, stop to think about the amazing internal systems that allow us to accomplish these tasks. Sometimes the best way to gain an appreciation for things we take for granted is to see what life would be In this Part: Chapter 2 Neuroscience Chapter 3 Sensation and Perception Chapter 4 Consciousness Chapter 5 Motivation and Emotion 41 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com lapsed into a coma that lasted nearly 3 weeks. As you may have guessed, Bauby experienced a stroke on that December afternoon. Blood flow to the brainstem was disrupted, leaving Bauby with what physicians call “locked-in syndrome.” People with locked-in syndrome remain conscious but are Paul Cooper/Shutterstock.com almost completely unable to move or speak. They are essentially trapped or “locked” inside their bodies, aware of the outside world, but unable to communicate with those ▲ Jean-Dominique Bauby around them in a typical fashion. Because people with 1995 there was little technology to help Bauby let others locked-in syndrome have profound paralysis, locked-in know he was aware of his surroundings. syndrome is sometimes difficult to distinguish from a Yet, Bauby was not ready to give up, and there was persistent vegetative state, a state in which consciousness to be more to Bauby’s life than tragedy. The world would is disrupted. In fact, on average it takes over 2.5 months soon see the remarkable triumph of an intelligent and for others to realize that people with locked-in syndrome resourceful man. From his hospital bed, Bauby gradually have emerged from a coma and are aware of their learned to communicate with others by doing the only surroundings (Laureys et al., 2005). Researchers are thing he could—blinking his left eye. Using an ingenious currently working on ways to use brain imaging techniques system, an assistant would read off the letters of the to distinguish locked-in syndrome from other states that alphabet one at a time. When the assistant read the involve disrupted consciousness, in hopes of producing appropriate letter, Bauby would blink and the assistant faster, more accurate diagnoses (Roquet et al., 2016). would gradually compile the words and phrases that When Bauby awoke from his coma, he was aware of Bauby spelled out. Although it was painstaking, this his surroundings but unable to move any part of his body system allowed Bauby to communicate with those who except for his left eyelid. He was also completely mute were patient enough to go through the process. Through and half deaf; and because he was unable to blink his blinking, Bauby was able to free himself to a small but right eye, it had to be sewn shut to protect his cornea. meaningful degree from the prison of locked-in syndrome. For the remaining 15 months of his life, Bauby lived in Not only did Bauby communicate with his family and this locked-in state, unable to move or speak but very friends, he also dictated a best-selling book that was later aware of his surroundings and able to think, feel pain, made into a major motion picture in 2007. It is estimated and experience normal emotions and desires. Today, that Bauby had to blink his eye more than 200,000 researchers are working on computer–brain interface times to dictate the manuscript (MacIntyre, 1998). The technologies to help people with locked-in syndrome Diving Bell and the Butterfly (Bauby, 1997), published communicate with others (Bernat, 2018). However, in in France just days after his death on March 9, 1997, 42 PART 1 Foundations in Biological Psychology Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com recounts Bauby’s struggle to cope with the infirmities he suffered as a result of his devastating stroke, as well as his musings on the life he lost that December day. It also serves as a testament to the awesome complexity and power of the human brain. Although it took a life-changing illness to make Bauby aware of his amazing biology, the same does not have to be true for us. In the chapters of this part, you will learn about the biological processes of the nervous and endocrine systems that underlie your thoughts and behavior (Chapter 2), the way you sense and perceive the world (Chapter 3), your awareness during altered states of consciousness (Chapter 4), and the motivations AF archive/Alamy stock photo and emotions that guide your behavior (Chapter 5). As you read these chapters, we hope that you will begin to recognize the amazing intricacy and precision with which the systems within our bodies influence even our simplest behaviors. For as Bauby showed us, a glitch in our biological functioning can change our lives in profound ways. Keep in mind that as you read this page, everything you are doing—perceiving these words on the page, being conscious of the meaning of the words, being ▲ Jean-Dominique Bauby blinked more than 200,000 times to write The Diving Bell and the Butterfly after having a stroke and ending up in a locked-in state. This book was later turned into a major motion picture. motivated to continue reading, and so on—originates in your wonderfully complex biology. ◼ PART 1 Foundations in Biological Psychology Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 43
