Classroom
Assessment
Principles and Practice
that Enhance Student
Learning and Motivation
Eighth Edition
James H. McMillan
Virginia Commonwealth University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: McMillan, James H., author.
Title: Classroom assessment: principles and practice that enhance student
learning and motivation / James H. McMillan, Virginia Commonwealth University.
Description: Eighth edition. | Hoboken: Pearson Education, Inc., [2024] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022034920 | ISBN 9780137849147 (paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Educational tests and measurements. |
Examinations—Validity. | Examinations—Interpretation. | Motivation in education.
Classification: LCC LB3051 .M462499 2024 | DDC 371.26—dc23/eng/20220803
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022034920
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Preface
I
remember it well: When I took my first “tests
and measurements” course in graduate school
at Michigan State University, I was fairly
apprehensive—what would this class have to do
with teaching and learning? Would I be using
complex mathematics and learning about the
technical aspects of “standardized” testing that
really had little to do with what I wanted to do
day in and day out in the classroom? Well, the
course met some of my negative expectations!
It was interesting, but not as helpful as I hoped
when applied to teaching. I have written this
book to address this shortcoming, to be directly
relevant to instruction so that student learning
and motivation are enhanced.
The premise of this book is that classroom
assessment has a direct and powerful impact on
student learning and motivation. It is through
everyday interactions with students, as well as
quizzes, unit tests, papers, and assignments,
that teachers communicate what is important in
learning, the standards that indicate proficiency
and more advanced levels of understanding and
skills, and communicate with students about
what they understand and what needs further
learning. While much recent emphasis has been
placed on large-scale accountability testing,
classroom assessments, from what I have seen in
schools, show what is really being learned, as well
as what influence teachers have had on student
achievement and motivation. Classroom assessment is the most direct, specific, and helpful indicator of what students know, the depth of their
understanding, and the nature of their interpersonal and intrapersonal dispositions.
Over the past two decades the field of classroom assessment has changed considerably. There
is much more emphasis on how student assessment is an integral part of ambitious teaching that
effects student learning and motivation, not just
something that is done after instruction to measure
iv
what students have learned. Importantly, sociocognitive and sociocultural theories of learning
and motivation are emphasized as foundational
for assessment, with clear implications for practice. Much attention is focused on formative
assessment—what is also called assessment for
learning. Standards-based instruction and assessment is present at every level of education and
nearly every subject. State accountability tests
reinforce the emphasis on assessing students’
levels of proficiency, which will have direct implications for what you do for your classroom assessments. There is now a much-needed emphasis on
equity and cultural relevance in the classroom
that needs to be reflected in assessment and grading. Technology is ubiquitous, operationalized in
online assessments and grading systems. These
four influences—assessment as part of instruction to improve student learning and motivation
based on contemporary research, standards-based
education, equity and cultural relevance, and
technology, form the foundation for this book. All
are essential factors in understanding how classroom assessments need to be designed and implemented to improve targeted student outcomes.
This book, then, is designed to provide prospective and practicing teachers with:
• a concise, nontechnical, and engaging presentation of assessment principles that clearly
and specifically relate to student learning and
motivation;
• current research and new directions in the
classroom assessment field; and
• practical and realistic examples, suggestions,
and case studies.
The approach I have taken to meet these
goals is to build assessment into the instructional
process, focusing on assessment concepts and
principles that are essential for effective teacher
Preface
decision making, and integrating principles of
learning and motivation. The emphasis throughout is on helping teachers to understand the
importance of establishing credible performance
standards (learning targets), communicating
these standards to students, and providing feedback to students on their progress. There is much
less emphasis on technical measurement concepts
that teachers rarely find useful, though there is
extensive discussion of aspects of assessment
that result in high quality and credibility, such as
accuracy, fairness/equity, matching assessment
to clearly and publicly stated standards, positive
consequences, and practicality.
With minor exceptions, the basic organization
of the text is unchanged from the seventh edition.
Chapters 1 through 3 present the fundamental
principles of assessment and instruction, with an
emphasis on the importance of the teacher’s professional judgment and decision making, as well as
student perspectives, as integral to making useful
and credible assessments that enhance learning
and motivation. Chapters 4 and 5 cover formative assessment, but here I’ve made a significant
change. Chapter 4 is retitled informal/embedded
formative assessment, the type that occurs “on
the fly” during instruction, and Chapter 5 formal
formative assessment, such as chapter or unit
tests. Both Chapters 6 and 7 focus on summative
assessment—Chapter 6 for summative assessments like tests and quizzes that occur weekly or
monthly, and Chapter 7 for externally designed,
large-scale tests tied to accountability. The next
few chapters (8–11) are organized by type of
assessment, beginning with selected-response
item formats. Each of these chapters shows how
to assess different types of learning targets.
Chapter 12 presents what is now termed interpersonal and intrapersonal disposition assessments
that are used to measure attitudes, values, interests, beliefs, self-efficacy, student self-reflection,
and other dispositional traits, as well as many
21st-century skills. Chapter 13 reviews the assessment of students who have special needs and are
included in the regular classroom. The heavily
revised Chapter 14 presents culturally and linguistic responsive assessment practices that are
v
needed for our increasingly diverse student population. The final chapter examines grading and
reporting the results, with a strong emphasis on
standards-based grading.
New to This Edition
There have been significant additions and revisions throughout for the eighth edition:
• Perhaps most importantly, there is now an
integration of equity and cultural relevance
throughout the text, with examples and explanations of how culturally relevant assessment is
essential for improving learning of all students.
• Over 50 new sources are cited; with a total
of now more than 300 citations, to provide a
comprehensive integration of contemporary
research and theory with practice.
• Sociocognitive and sociocultural tenets of
learning and motivation are incorporated
throughout to situate classroom assessment
to have a positive impact on students.
• All new Teacher Corner excerpts provide
examples of how National Board Certified
teachers practice assessment in their
classrooms.
• Videos that feature K-12 classroom teachers
and students are embedded in all chapters to
illustrate key learning outcomes.
• Learning Objectives are now specified
throughout each chapter and are aligned with
new digital content that is available within
the Pearson Learning Management System
with
including interactive
self-check quizzes and application exercises.
• There is greater coverage of the role of technology in assessment, grading, and reporting of information. This includes coverage of
computer-enhanced–type test items, eportfolios, digital badges, and electronic grading
systems.
• The self-instructional review exercises that
were included in Appendix C are now at
the end of each chapter, with the answers in
Appendix C.
vi Preface
• Revised case studies and reflection questions begin each chapter to engage readers in
actual classroom assessment scenarios (with
answers at the end of the chapter).
• Revised cognitive maps provide readers with
a graphic advance organizer.
• New author reflections are included that provide my personal insights and suggestions.
Several instructional aids are included to
facilitate understanding and application of the
content. These include boldface key terms; chapter summaries to review essential content; comprehensive interactive Self-Check Quizzes and
Application Exercises keyed to major learning objectives to provide opportunities for practice and
application (see the following section for more on
this); self-instructional review exercises and applied
action exercises at the end of each chapter; extensive use of examples, diagrams, charts, and tables;
complete example of a student IEP, and a glossary
of key terms.
New to This Edition by Chapter
and simple understanding; (2) deep understanding; and (3) reasoning, with new
descriptions and examples.
• New section on the use of Student Learning
Objectives.
• New section on Webb’s Depth of Knowledge
(DNK) framework, with descriptions and
examples of the four DNK levels.
Chapter 3: High-Quality Classroom Assessment
• Revision of the fairness principle to fairness/
equity to emphasize cultural relevance.
• Greater emphasis on the functional aspects
of validity for classroom assessment (use
and consequences), including the addition of
trustworthiness as a way to characterize the
quality of CA in terms of impacts on students.
• New section
assessment.
on
managing
classroom
Chapter 4: Informal/Embedded Formative
Assessment (new title)
The following summarizes major changes and
revisions to individual chapters.
• Use of informal/formal description to more
clearly differentiate types of formative
assessment.
Chapter 1: The Role of Assessment in Teaching
and Learning
• Greater emphasis on equitable formative
assessment practices.
• New section on equity to significant factors
influencing classroom assessment.
• New information
platforms.
• New section on ambitious teaching to emphasize the integration of strong instruction with
assessment.
• Major revision of the feedback section to
emphasize self-regulation/self-direction and
the nature of feedback that is most effective.
• New section on assessment literacy; less reliance on standards of assessment and more
emphasis on the situated, contextualized
nature of classroom assessment.
Chapter 5: Formal Formative Assessment (new
title)
• Enhanced integration of sociocultural theories and the importance of cultural relevance.
• New emphasis on cultural relevance of homework, preassessments, and seatwork assignments to ensure students can meaningfully
relate to the exercises.
Chapter 2: Standards and Cognitive Learning
Targets
• Clarification of types of cognitive learning
targets into three categories: (1) knowledge
about
using
digital
• Replaced “summative-based” with “formal.”
• New emphasis on use of digital tools for formative assessment, including online polling,
virtual quizzing, social media, and memes.
Preface
vii
• Revision of feedback section to be tailored
to formal formative assessment, including
equity concerns.
• Clarified the difference between assessing
knowledge/simple understanding from deep
understanding/reasoning.
• Updated section on learning progressions,
with new examples.
• New section on technology-enhanced scoring
of constructed-response questions.
Chapter 6: Planning and Implementing
Summative Classroom Assessments (new title)
Chapter 10: Performance Assessment: Projects,
Papers, and Presentations (new title)
• Substantively revised case study to open the
chapter.
• New examples of tasks and rubrics in several
disciplines, including the visual arts.
• Greater emphasis on the use of digital tools
for summative assessment.
• New table and narrative on culturally responsive performance assessments.
• Greater emphasis on the importance of sampling error.
• New table and discussion to introduce types
of performance assessment, including concise
stand-alone, unit-based, and complex tasks.
Chapter 7: Using Large-Scale Standards-Based,
Growth, and Other Standardized Tests (new title)
Chapter 11: Portfolios: Paper and Digital
• New section on the interpretation and use of
growth assessments.
• Greater emphasis on eportfolios, including
the use of voice-recording, blogs, and videos.
• Additional emphasis on cultural bias and
standardized testing issues for culturally
diverse students.
• New section on digital badges, including use
of badges for intrapersonal dispositions such
as civic awareness and personal responsibility.
• Revised test-taking skills needed for students
for digital testing.
Chapter 12: Assessing Social and Intrapersonal
Dispositions and Skills (new title)
Chapter 8: Selected-Response Assessment:
Multiple-Choice, Binary-Choice, Matching, and
Interpretive Items (new title)
• Changed “noncognitive dispositions”
“social and intrapersonal dispositions.”
• Expanded coverage on use of selectedresponse items to measure reasoning skills.
• Greater emphasis on technology-enhanced
items, including drag-and-drop, use of drawing tools, and use of dropdown menus.
to
• New coverage of social-emotional traits, with
strengthened ties to cultural relevance and
achievement.
• Expanded coverage of intrapersonal dispositions & skills.
• New section on measuring student attitudes
toward assessment.
• Greater emphasis on culturally relevant
selected-response assessments, with a new section on avoiding cultural irrelevance and bias.
• Greater emphasis on cultural factors in assessing social and intrapersonal dispositions.
Chapter 9: Constructed-Response Assessment:
Completion, Short-Answer, and Essay Items
Chapter 13: Assessment for Students with
Disabilities and Exceptionalities (new title)
• New section on avoiding cultural irrelevance
and bias, with an emphasis on the influence
of culture and prior experiences.
• Updating of descriptive terminology.
• Substantial revision of assessment and grading accommodations section.
viii Preface
• New section on universal design for learning
as an approach to determining assessment
accommodations.
Chapter 14: Culturally and Linguistically
Responsive Assessment (new title)
• Expanded section explaining that culturally
responsive assessment is being proactive, not
focusing on what to avoid doing.
• Reduced emphasis on enculturation with
much more coverage of English Learners.
• New section on race/ethnicity to student
characteristics influencing assessment.
• More on formative assessment, including
four types of culturally responsive formative
assessment.
Chapter 15: Grading and Reporting Student
Performance
• Greater emphasis on learning management
systems now commonplace as electronic
grading programs.
• Greater emphasis on equitable grading and
parent/guardian conferences, including consideration of cultural differences with respect
to utilizing nonacademic factors.
• New section on grading as a means of providing feedback.
• Greater clarity in marking and grading individual assessments.
Learning Management
System (LMS)-Compatible Assessment Bank,
and Other Instructor Resources
LMS-Compatible Assessment Bank
With this new edition, all assessment types—
quizzes, application exercises, and chapter
tests—are included in LMS-compatible banks
for the following learning management systems:
Blackboard, Canvas, D2L, and Moodle. These
packaged files allow maximum flexibility to
instructors when it comes to importing, assigning,
and grading. Assessment types include:
• Learning Objective Quizzes Each chapter
learning objective is the focus of a Learning
Objective Quiz that is available for instructors
to assign through their Learning Management
System. Learning objectives identify chapter
content that is most important for learners
and serve as the organizational framework
Preface
for each chapter. The higher order, multiple
choice questions in each quiz will measure
your understanding of chapter content,
guide the expectations for your learning, and
inform the accountability and the applications of your new knowledge. Each multiple
choice question includes feedback for the correct answer and for each distractor to help
guide students’ learning.
• Application Exercises Each chapter provides
opportunities to apply what you have learned
through Application Exercises. These exercises
are usually short-answer format and can be
based on
written cases, scenarios modeled by pedagogical text features, or a strategy from the
Compendium. A model response written by
experts is provided to help guide learning.
Chapter Tests Suggested test items are provided
for each chapter and include questions in multiple choice and short answer/essay formats.
Instructor’s Manual
The Instructor’s Manual is provided as a Word
document and includes resources to assist professors in planning their course. These resources
consist of chapter overviews, learning objectives,
guidance for using available PowerPoint® slides
to promote concept development, questions for
discussion, supplemental teaching suggestions,
and worksheets.
PowerPoint® Slides
PowerPoint® slides are provided for each chapter and highlight key concepts and summarize
the content of the text to make it more meaningful for students. Often times, these slides also
include questions and problems designed to
stimulate discussion and to encourage students
to elaborate and deepen their understanding of
chapter topics.
ix
Acknowledgments
Throughout the development and writing of this
book I have been fortunate to have the support
and assistance of classroom teachers who have
provided quotations, practical examples, and
suggestions. I am very grateful for their willingness to help, for their patience in working with
me, and, most of all, for keeping me grounded
in the realities of teaching. They include Andrea
Johnson, Anthony Swann, John Arthur, Ashley
Depugh, Greg Lyndaker, Tedra Hall, Avia Ennis,
Shannon Wakefield, Brian Letourneau, Rachel
Boyd, Jamie Mullenaux, Susan Pereira, Marie
Wilcox, Carole Forkey, Beth Carter, Tami Slater,
Arleen Reinhardt, Patricia Harris, Ann Marie
Seely, Andrea Ferment, Terri Williams, Steve
Myran, Suzanne Nash, Steve Eliasek, Daphne Patterson, Craig Nunemaker, Judy Bowman, Jeremy
Lloyd, Marc Bacon, Mary Carlson, Michelle Barrow, Margie Tully, Rixey Wilcher, Judith Jindrich,
Dan Geary, Joshua Cole, Christy Davis, Elizabeth
O’Brien, Beth Harvey, Rita Truelove, Rita Driscoll,
Dodie Whitt, Joe Solomon, Stephanie Stoebe, Elizabeth Shanahan, Dan Leija, and Leslie Gross.
I am deeply grateful for the essential contributions of Dr. Heather Bumgarner, who initially authored the introductory case studies, and
Stephanie Moore for updating the case studies
for this edition. In particular, they worked tirelessly to construct the introductory case studies as realistic examples of assessment situations
facing teachers that reinforce major points in the
relevant chapter. I know their inputs have helped
to keep the book grounded in reality, better organized, and more accurate. Lauren Cabrera and
Stephanie more did great work editing the selfinstructional quiz questions.
I would also like to express my appreciation
to the following college and university professors
who offered insightful and helpful comments
and suggestions. For the first edition, thanks
go to Cheri Magill, Virginia Commonwealth
University; H. D. Hoover, University of Iowa;
x Preface
Kathryn A. Alvestad, Calvert County Public
Schools; John R. Bing, Salisbury State University;
John Criswell, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania; George A. Johanson, Ohio University; Catherine McCartney, Bemidji State University; and
Anthony Truog, University of Wisconsin, Whitewater; for the second edition, Lyle C. Jensen,
Baldwin-Wallace College; Cathleen D. Rafferty,
Indiana State University; Gerald Dillashaw, Elon
College; Daniel L. Kain, North Arizona University; Charles Eiszler, Central Michigan University; and Betty Jo Simmons, Longwood College;
for the third edition, Gyu-Pan Cho, University of
Alabama; Saramma T. Mathew, Troy University;
E. Michael Nussbaum, University of Nevada;
and Kit Juniewicz, University of New England;
for the fourth edition, Sally Blake, University of
Texas at El Paso; Roberta Devlin-Scherer, Seton
Hall University; Carla Michele Gismondi Haser,
Marymount University; and Saramma T. Mathew,
Troy University. For the fifth edition, thanks go
to Rondall R. Brown, Eastern Oregon University; Carolyn Burns, Eastern Michigan University; Candyce Chrystal, Mount Marty College;
Stephanie Kotch, University of Delaware; Alan
L. Neville, Northern State University; and Tasha
Almond Reiser, The University of South Dakota.
For the sixth edition, thanks go to Kristen Bjork,
University of Nevada–Las Vegas; Patricia Lutz,
Kutztown University; Linda Fortune-Creel, Troy
University; and Alton Corley, Texas State University. For the seventh edition, appreciation is
extended to Nelson J. Maylone, Eastern Michigan University; Shambra Mulder, Kentucky State
University; Christopher Palmi, Lewis University;
Amy Lynn Rose, University of North CarolinaGreensboro; and Bo Zhang, University of Wisconson Milwaukee.
I am very grateful for the encouragement
and direction of my editor of previous editions,
Kevin Davis, and for the current edition Senior
Analyst Rebecca Fox-Gieg. Curtis Vickers has
provided outstanding editing and suggestions
on all draft chapter revisions. In addition, many
thanks to others at Pearson, especially Content
Analyst Bridget Daly, Content Manager Jenifer
Niles, Digital Producers Joshi Shruti and Abinaya
Rajendran, Product Manager Drew Bennet, and
Katie Ostler of Ostler Editorial, Inc.
On a more personal note, I continue to be
amazed at the support provided by my wife,
Jan—for putting up with all that has been
required to complete the book editions over the
years.
Brief Contents
1
The Role of Assessment
in Teaching and Learning
1
2
Standards and Cognitive
Learning Targets
36
3
High-Quality Classroom
Assessment
4
Informal/Embedded
Formative Assessment
112
5
Formal Formative
Assessment
150
6
7
8
Planning and Implementing
Summative Classroom
Assessments
9
Constructed-Response
Assessment: Completion,
Short-Answer, and Essay
Items
267
10 Performance Assessment:
72
183
Using Large-Scale StandardsBased, Growth and Other
Standardized Tests
204
Selected-Response Assessment:
Multiple-Choice, BinaryChoice, Matching, and
Interpretive Items
236
Projects, Papers, and
Presentations
293
11 Portfolios: Paper and Digital 333
12 Assessing Social and
Intrapersonal Dispositions
and Skills
360
13 Assessment for Students
with Disabilities and
Exceptionalities
405
14 Culturally and Linguistically
Responsive Assessment
440
15 Grading and Reporting Student
Performance
469
xi
Contents
Preface
1
iv
The Role of Assessment in
Teaching and Learning
Introductory Case Study
The Bigger Picture Context of Classroom
Assessment
21st-Century Knowledge, Skills, and
Dispositions
Technology
Principles of Cognitive and Sociocultural
Theories of Learning and Motivation
Standards-Based Education
High-Stakes Testing
Data Literacy
Equity
37
2
Knowing Where Your Students Are Going
Revisiting the Big Picture
Educational Outcomes
Educational Goals
38
38
40
41
Standards
State Standards
Common Core State Standards Initiative
Deconstructing Standards
42
43
46
48
Educational Objectives
Taxonomies of Educational Objectives
50
51
4
4
6
7
9
10
11
11
12
12
Components of Classroom Assessment
Purpose
Gathering Evidence
Interpretation
Use
18
19
20
20
21
21 •
Recent Trends in Classroom Assessment
22
Teachers’ Classroom Assessment and
Grading Practices Decision Making
Teachers’ Beliefs and Values
External Factors
Students’ Perceptions of Assessment
24
26
26
26
Assessment Literacy
30
xii
35
36
Introductory Case Study
15
18
Summary 33 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 34 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 34 • Applied Action Exercises
• Additional Resources for Practice 35
Standards and Cognitive
Learning Targets
1
Integrating Instruction and Assessment
The Realities of Teaching
Instructional Decision Making
and Assessment
Ambitious Teaching
DIAGNOSIS 21 • GRADING
INSTRUCTION 21
2
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES 51 •
BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES 52
• MARZANO AND KENDALL’S NEW TAXONOMY 54
• DEPTH OF KNOWLEDGE FRAMEWORK 54
Student Learning Objectives
57
Cognitive Learning Targets
Knowledge and Simple Understanding
DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE AND SIMPLE
UNDERSTANDING 62 • PROCEDURAL
KNOWLEDGE AND SIMPLE UNDERSTANDING
58
61
63
Deep Understanding
Reasoning
Criteria for Selecting Learning Targets
Summary 68 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 69 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 69 • Applied Action Exercises
3
63
64
66
71
High-Quality Classroom
Assessment
Introductory Case Study
What Is High-Quality Classroom Assessment
and Why Is It Important?
Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets
Alignment of Assessment Methods
and Learning Targets
72
73
74
76
76
Contents
Types of Formative Assessment
ASSESSMENT METHODS 77 • MATCHING
LEARNING TARGETS WITH METHODS 79
Validity
What Is Validity?
How Is Validity for Classroom
Assessment Determined?
82
83
84
CONTENT-RELATED EVIDENCE 84 •
CRITERION-RELATED EVIDENCE 87 •
CONSEQUENTIAL EVIDENCE 87
Reliability/Precision
What Is a Reliable/Precise Score?
Assessment Error
How to Improve Classroom Assessment
Reliability/Precision
89
89
90
Fairness/Equity
Transparency: Student Knowledge of
Learning Targets and Assessments
Opportunity to Learn
Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills
Avoiding Student Stereotyping
Avoiding Bias in Assessment Tasks
and Procedures
Accommodating Students with Special
Needs and English Learners
A Model of Fairness in Classroom
Assessment
93
Positive Consequences and Practicality
Positive Consequences for Students
and Teachers
Alignment with Standards
Practicality and Efficiency
92
95
95
96
96
96
98
99
99
101
102
105
TEACHER FAMILIARITY WITH THE
METHOD 106 • TIME REQUIRED 106 •
COMPLEXITY OF ADMINISTRATION 107 • EASE OF
SCORING 107 • EASE OF INTERPRETATION 107
Managing Classroom Assessment
Summary 108 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 109 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 110 • Applied Action Exercises
4
108
111
Informal/Embedded
Formative Assessment
112
Introductory Case Study
113
What Is Formative Assessment?
The Process of Formative Assessment
Characteristics of Formative Assessment
114
115
116
xiii
117
Gathering Evidence for Informal/Embedded
Formative Assessment
Observation
120
121
ASSESSING NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR 122 •
ASSESSING VOICE-RELATED CUES 125 •
SOURCES OF ERROR IN MOMENT-BY-MOMENT
OBSERVATION 127
Oral Questioning, Dialogue, and
Discussion
128
NATURE AND PURPOSE OF ORAL QUESTIONING
FOR INFORMAL/EMBEDDED FORMATIVE
ASSESSMENT 128 • CHARACTERISTICS OF
EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING FOR INFORMAL/
EMBEDDED FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 129
Practical Techniques for Eliciting Evidence
for Informal/Embedded Formative
Assessment
Providing Effective Feedback for Informal/
Embedded Formative Assessment
Types of Feedback
135
137
139
TARGET-REFERENCED 139 • SCAFFOLDED 140
SELF-REFERENCED 140 • STANDARDSREFERENCED 141
Determining the Nature of the Feedback
AMOUNT 142 • TIMING 142 • MODE
AUDIENCE 142 • TYPE OF TASK 142
141
142 •
Differentiated Informal/Embedded
Formative Feedback
143
LEARNER LEVEL OF ABILITY 143 • GRADE
LEVEL 144 • SUBJECT 144
What About Giving Praise?
Summary 146 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 147 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 148 • Applied Action Exercises
• Additional Resources for Practice 149
144
149
5 Formal Formative Assessment 150
Introductory Case Study
151
Formal Formative Assessment Revised
152
Preassessments, Homework, and Seatwork
Structured Exercises
Pretests
Homework
Seatwork
153
154
155
156
156
Quizzes, Tests, Papers, and Projects
Quizzes
157
158
xiv Contents
Unit Tests, Projects, and Papers
Practical Techniques and Digital Tools
ONLINE POLLING 160 • VIRTUAL QUIZZING
• SOCIAL MEDIA, MEMS, AND EMOJIS 161
158
159
161
Large-Scale Summative Assessments
Used Formatively
DIRECTIONS 197 • ITEM ARRANGEMENT
PHYSICAL LAYOUT 198
163
COMMON ASSESSMENTS 163 • INTERIM
ASSESSMENTS 164 • YEAR-END
ASSESSMENTS 165
Feedback Reconsidered
Feedback Types and Modes of Delivery
Anticipating Feedback
166
167
171
Instructional Adjustments
Mastery Learning
Differentiated Instruction
Response to Intervention
Learning Progressions
172
173
174
176
176
Summary 180 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 181 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 181 • Applied Action Exercises
6
182
Planning and Implementing
Summative Classroom
Assessments
198 •
Administering Summative Assessments
Using Summative Assessment Results
Summary 201 • Answer to Introductory Case
Study 202 • Self-Instructional Review Exercises
• Applied Action Exercises 203
7
197
197
199
200
202
Using Large-Scale StandardsBased, Growth and Other
Standardized Tests
204
Introductory Case Study
205
What Are Standards-Based
and Standardized Tests?
Standards-Based Tests
206
207
STATE STANDARDS-BASED TESTS 208 •
NATIONAL STANDARDS-BASED TESTS 210 •
INTERIM ASSESSMENTS 210
183
Introductory Case Study
184
Summative Assessment Revised
185
Planning Summative Assessment
Representative Sampling for Tests
Use of an Assessment Blueprint
Number and Length of Assessments
Grade Level
Type of Item
Format: Paper-and-Pencil or Digital?
Use of Assessments Provided by Textbook
and Test Publishers, Companies,
and School Districts
186
187
187
188
189
190
190
Preparing Students for Classroom
Summative Assessments
Assessment-Taking Skills and
Testwiseness
Item Type and Format
Assessment Anxiety
When to Construct Summative
Assessments
Putting Together, Administering,
and Using Summative Assessments
Putting Together Summative Assessments
191
192
193
193
194
195
Growth Assessments
Standardized Achievement, Readiness,
and Aptitude Tests
213
215
NORM-REFERENCED ACHIEVEMENT TEST
BATTERIES 216 • APTITUDE TESTS 217 •
READINESS TESTS 217
Understanding and Interpreting
Standardized Test Scores
Test Score Report Formats
Interpreting Standards-Based
and Standardized Scores
218
219
219
STANDARD ERROR OF MEASUREMENT 220 •
ALIGNMENT 221 • STANDARDS-BASED
INTERPRETATIONS 221
Interpreting Test Reports for
Parents/Guardians
226
Student Test-Taking Skills and Strategies
and Test Administration
Test-Taking Skills and Strategies
Administering Standardized Tests
Summary 232 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 233 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 234 • Applied Action Exercises
• Additional Resources for Practice 235
228
228
231
235
Contents
8
Selected-Response Assessment:
Multiple-Choice, Binary-Choice,
Matching, and Interpretive
Items
236
Introductory Case Study
237
Selected-Response Items—Advantages
and Disadvantages
238
Guidelines for Writing Selected-Response Items
Multiple-Choice Items
239
239
ASSESSING KNOWLEDGE AND SIMPLE
UNDERSTANDING 244 • ASSESSING
APPLICATION 246 • ASSESSING REASONING
Binary-Choice Items
247
249
ASSESSING KNOWLEDGE AND SIMPLE
UNDERSTANDING 250 • ASSESSING
APPLICATION 252 • ASSESSING
REASONING 252
Matching Items
253
Selected-Response Interpretive Exercises
255
Technology-Enhanced and Culturally
Relevant Selected-Response Items
Technology-Enhanced Items
Avoiding Cultural Irrelevance and Bias
261
261
262
TRADITIONAL SOURCES OF BIAS 262 •
INFLUENCE OF CULTURE AND PRIOR
EXPERIENCE 263
Summary 264 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 265 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 265 • Applied Action Exercises
• Additional Resources for Practice 266
9
Constructed-Response
Assessment: Completion,
Short-Answer, and
Essay Items
Essay Items
Constructing/Selecting Essay Items
Scoring Essays
279
281
284
Avoiding Cultural Irrelevance and Bias
Traditional Sources of Bias
Influence of Culture and Prior Experience
287
287
288
Summary 289 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 290 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 291 • Applied Action Exercises
292
10 Performance Assessment:
Projects, Papers, and
Presentations
293
Introductory Case Study
294
What Is Performance Assessment?
Characteristics of Performance Assessments
Types of Performance Assessments
Strengths and Limitations of Performance
Assessments
295
295
297
STRENGTHS
298 • LIMITATIONS
298
299
Learning Targets for Performance Assessments
Deep Understanding
Reasoning
Skills
COMMUNICATION AND PRESENTATION
SKILLS 303 • PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS
DIGITAL SKILLS 305
301
301
302
303
305 •
Products
266
xv
306
Constructing Performance Tasks
Step 1: Identify the Performance Task
307
307
RESTRICTED-TYPE TASKS 307
• EXTENDED-TYPE TASKS 307
267
Introductory Case Study
268
Completion Items
270
Short-Answer Items
Assessing Knowledge and
Simple Understanding
Assessing Deep Understanding and
Reasoning
Technology-Enhanced Scoring
272
273
275
276
Step 2: Prepare the Task Description
Step 3: Prepare the Performance
Task Question or Prompt
310
311
Judging Student Performance
Performance Criteria
Scoring and Interpreting
316
316
317
CHECKLISTS 317 • RATING
SCALES 318 • RUBRICS 319
Summary 330 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 331 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 331 • Applied Action Exercises
• Additional Resources for Practice 332
332
xvi Contents
11 Portfolios: Paper and Digital 333
Introductory Case Study
334
What Are Portfolios?
What Are the Advantages and
Disadvantages of Using Portfolios?
335
ADVANTAGES
337 • DISADVANTAGES
337
338
Planning, Implementing, and Evaluating
Portfolios
Determine Purpose
LEARNING TARGETS
341 • USES
340
341
341
Identify Physical and/or
Digital Structure
Determine Nature of the Content
Determine Student Self-Reflective
Guidelines and Scoring Criteria
Implementing Portfolio Assessment
343
343
344
345
REVIEW WITH STUDENTS 345 • SUPPLY
PORTFOLIO CONTENT 345 • STRUCTURE
STUDENT SELF-REFLECTION 346
Evaluation and Feedback
CHECKLISTS OF CONTENTS 350 • PORTFOLIO
STRUCTURE EVALUATION 350 • EVALUATIONS
OF INDIVIDUAL ENTRIES 351 • EVALUATION OF
ENTIRE CONTENTS 351
Summary 356 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 357 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 358 • Applied Action Exercises
• Additional Resources for Practice 359
351
352
352
355
359
12 Assessing Social and
Intrapersonal Dispositions
and Skills
Introductory Case Study
Are Social and Intrapersonal Dispositions
and Skills Important?
What Are Social and Intrapersonal Disposition
and Skill Learning Targets?
Intrapersonal Disposition Learning Targets
UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION 377 •
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 377
Teacher Interviews
379
Student Self-Report Questionnaires and Surveys 381
CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE FORMATS 383 •
SELECTED-RESPONSE FORMATS 384
Student Self-Assessment
What Is Self-Assessment?
Self-Assessment Strategies
390
390
395
FREQUENCY CHECKLISTS 397 •
TEMPLATES 397 • SENTENCE COMPLETION
398 • RATING SCALES 399
Summary 401 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 402 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 402 • Applied Action Exercises
403
13 Assessment for Students
350
Student–Teacher Conferences
Digital Portfolios and Badges
Digital Portfolios
Digital Badges
Methods of Assessing Social and Intrapersonal
Dispositions and Skills
374
Teacher Observation
375
360
361
362
365
367
ATTITUDES 367 • VALUES 368 •
MOTIVATION 369 • SELF-CONCEPT AND
SELF-ESTEEM 370 • SELF-EFFICACY 371
Interpersonal (Social) Skill Learning Targets 372
with Disabilities and
Exceptionalities
405
Introductory Case Study
406
Legal Mandates
407
Disability Categories and Exceptionalities
Intellectual Disability
Sensory Impairments
Speech and Language Disorders
Physical and Health Impairments
Specific Learning Disability
Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
Autism
410
411
411
412
412
413
414
414
Identifying Students for Special Education
Services
Prereferral
Formal Referral
Individualized Education Programs (IEPs)
415
416
417
419
Assessment and Grading Accommodations
Assessment Challenges for Students
with Disabilities
COMPREHENSION SUPPORT 422 •
AUDITORY PROCESSING SUPPORT 422 • VISUAL
PROCESSING SUPPORT 423 • TIME
CONSTRAINTS 423 • ANXIETY 423 •
EMBARRASSMENT 424 • VARIABILITY OF
BEHAVIOR 424
421
422
Contents
Specific Accommodations
424
UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING (UDL) 425 • TEST
DIRECTIONS, CONSTRUCTION, AND FORMAT 426
SHORT-ANSWER AND ESSAY ITEMS 427 • MULTIPLECHOICE ITEMS 428 • BINARY-CHOICE ITEMS 428 •
COMPLETION ITEMS 429 • PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENTS 429 • PORTFOLIOS 430 • TEST
ADMINISTRATION 430 • TESTING SITE 430
Grading and Reporting
IEP GRADING 432 • SHARED GRADING
CONTRACTING 433 • RUBRICS 433
Summary 435 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 436 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 437 • Applied Action Exercises
• Additional Resources for Practice 439
432
433 •
Formal Formative Assessment
458
STRUCTURED EXERCISES AND IN-CLASS
ASSIGNMENTS 458 • PRETESTS 459 •
HOMEWORK 459 • QUIZZES, UNIT TESTS, AND
INTERIM ASSESSMENTS 459 • DIGITAL
FORMATS 459
Summative Assessment
460
PREPARING CLD STUDENTS FOR SUMMATIVE
ASSESSMENTS 460 • DIRECT TRANSLATION?
• SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT FORMATS 461
Grading
439
14 Culturally and Linguistically
15 Grading and Reporting
440
Introductory Case Study
Why the Emphasis on Culturally and
Linguistically Responsive Assessment?
Who Are “Culturally and Linguistically”
Diverse Students?
Acculturation
469
470
443
Teachers’ Judgments in Grading
Objectivity
Teachers’ Grading Decision Making
471
472
474
444
445
Functions of Marking and Grading
Basis of Comparison
476
477
449
449
INDIVIDUAL STUDENT-REFERENCED
NORM-REFERENCED 478 •
STANDARDS-BASED 479
477 •
Providing Feedback
Motivation
Using Factors Other Than Academic
Performance
482
484
486
EFFORT 486 • ATTENDANCE AND
PARTICIPATION 488 • ATTITUDES 488
452
DIFFICULTY COMPREHENDING TEST LANGUAGE
453 • DIFFICULTY EXPRESSING WHAT IS KNOWN
454 • LACK OF CONTENT AND CULTURAL
KNOWLEDGE IN TEST ITEMS 454 • UNFAMILIARITY WITH TEST FORMATS 454 • EMOTIONAL
STRESS 454
Bias and Sensitivity
Student Performance
Introductory Case Study
LANGUAGE AND LITERACY SKILLS 449 •
EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND 450 •
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 450 • RACE/
ETHNICITY 451 • CULTURAL FACTORS 451
Classroom Assessment Difficulties for
CLD Students
467
441
ACCULTURATION STAGES 446 • ASSESSMENT
OF ACCULTURATION 447
Assessing CLD Students
CLD Student Characteristics Influencing
Assessment
461
463
Summary 465 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 465 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 466 • Applied Action Exercises
• Additional Resources for Practice 468
Responsive Assessment
xvii
454
Assessment and Grading Adjustments for
Diverse Classrooms
457
Informal/Embedded Formative Assessment 457
LEARNING TARGETS AND CRITERIA 457 •
OBSERVATIONS 457 • ASSESSING NONVERBAL
BEHAVIOR AND VOCAL CUES 457 • INFORMAL
ORAL QUESTIONING 458 • CODE-SWITCHING 458
Group Work
Approaches to Marking and Grading
Individual Assessments
Letter Grades
Percentage Correct
Rubrics/Checklists
Standards-Based
Written Descriptions
Determining Composite Grades
Select What to Include in the Final
Grade
Select Weights for Each Assessment
Combining Different Scores and
Grades
488
489
490
492
492
493
495
495
496
497
499
xviii Contents
WEIGHTED CATEGORIES VERSUS TOTAL POINTS
METHODS 499 • USING JUDGMENT WHEN
COMBINING GRADES 500 • CHEATING 501 •
RECOGNIZING TEACHER FALLIBILITY 501
Reporting Student Progress to Parents/
Guardians
Report Cards
Progress Reports
Parent/Guardian–Teacher Conferences
Student-Led Conferences
Summary 507 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 508 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 509 • Applied Action Exercises
• Additional Resources for Practice 510
509
503
503
504
505
506
Appendix A Fundamental Descriptive
Statistics and Scaled Scores
511
Appendix B Example of Student
Individualized Education
Program (IEP)
523
Appendix C Chapter Self-Instructional
Review Exercise Answers
533
Glossary
References
Index
544
547
557
Chapter 1
The Role
of Assessment
in Teaching and
Learning
Integrating
Instruction and
Assessment
Factors Influencing
• Realities of teaching
— fast paced
— hectic
— complex
• Teacher decision making
• Ambitious teaching
— rigorous learning goals
— authentic learning
opportunities
— sense of safety and
belonging
— equity
Types
• Preassessment
• Formative
assessment
• Summative
assessment
• Of, for, and as
assessment
Components
• Purpose
• Gathering
evidence
• Interpretation
• Use
Chapter 1 Concept Map
• 21st-century knowledge,
skills, and dispositions
• Technology
• Principles of cognitive
and sociocultural learning
and motivation
• Standards-based
education
• High-stakes testing
• Equity
ROLE OF
ASSESSMENT
IN TEACHING
Assessment Literacy
• Assessment standards
for teachers
• Contextualized
application
Assessment and
Grading
Decision Making
• Teacher beliefs
and values
• External factors
• Student
Perceptions
Research on
Learning, Motivation,
and Instruction
• Cognitive/Constructivist
theories
• Sociocultural theories
• Motivation
— feedback
Students’ Perceptions
of Assessment
Recent Trends
• Alternative assessments
• Assessment integrated
with instruction
• Student self-evaluation
• Authenticity
• Public standards and
criteria
• Student involvement
with assessment
• Formative assessment
• Equity
1
2 Chapter 1
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1.1
Explain how seven important contextual influences in
education impact classroom assessment.
1.2
Describe how classroom assessment before, during, and after
instruction can be integrated with ambitious teaching.
1.3
Describe the nature of classroom assessment, its purposes,
components, and characteristics.
1.4
Explain how teacher beliefs, external factors, and students’
perceptions of assessment could influence teachers’
assessment decision making.
1.5
Summarize key elements of classroom assessment literacy.
Introductory Case Study
What Should the Team Do?
During their weekly content team meeting, the math teachers at Whitmore Middle School
were discussing their upcoming unit on fraction computation. For each unit this year, the
team had given a computerized end-of-unit summative test using questions available on the
testing platform. The tests had 30 multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, and technology-enhanced
items similar to those on the end-of-year high-stakes test.
Abby suggested that it might be a good idea to make some changes to how they were
assessing student learning on this test. She wanted to give a constructed-response assessment with fewer items that followed recent assessment trends and learning theories. Her proposed assessment would be a real-world problem of cooking pizzas that would allow student
choice for which eight of ten teacher-created open-ended problems students wanted to complete. Students would also create and solve two of their own fraction problems. Throughout the
fraction unit, students would be completing these types of tasks and Abby knew that the feedback she would provide to students would increase their progress in mastering the learning targets. Abby knew using an authentic task and a rubric for scoring would allow her to emphasize
student effort, which she knew would encourage her students to stay motivated for learning.
Since Rohan had collaborated with Abby in designing most of their previous real-world
activities, Abby thought they could create the assessment for the team. Rohan however, suggested they stick with the current computerized assessment because he believed the current
assessment provided reliable standardized feedback to teachers and parents on students’
mastery of learning targets. Additionally, teachers could use the efficient computer data analysis to drive immediate remediation efforts. He also believed it was important for students to
be exposed to assessments similar to the end-of-year high-stakes test so students would
have practice in preparing for it. Abby countered that she believed the traditional summative
assessment was solely for providing students with a grade, that this test didn’t align with their
teaching methods, and that the end-of-unit assessment did not positively impact student
learning and motivation.
The Role of Assessment in Teaching and Learning
Rohan suggested that the real-world assessment ideas could be incorporated throughout
the unit of study and that they should give the computerized summative assessment at the
end of the unit.
As you read this chapter, think about what the team should do. Should they follow Rohan’s
advice and give the computerized assessment or give the real-world assessment? If they follow
Rohan’s advice, how can Abby integrate her assessment beliefs and values throughout the unit?
Allow me to begin this book with two stories that are directly relevant to the
importance of classroom assessment. When my daughter, Ryann, was 11, she was
heavily into gymnastics, working out most days of most weeks. During this particular year, the gym where she worked out hired new coaches, both from Russia.
Immediately, the review of her work (performance) changed dramatically. What
she was once praised for now received detailed, critical feedback (e.g., “No, put
your hands in this position, not like this”). When the girls were “tested,” doing
their routines, they were judged with higher expectations and only received
praise when well deserved. Instead of hearing “good” all the time, they heard
“wrong” most of the time. Negative comments, though, were accompanied by
suggestions for doing something different and practice that would help them.
The gym and training assessment environment changed, and with it, eventually, the level of performance. The acceptance of mistakes and honest feedback
changed the “assessment” culture in the gym. The end of the story is a happy one.
As a team, they were the best in the state, and Ryann made positive contributions!
Consider as well my son, Jon, who decided to be an art major in college.
He gravitated toward ceramics, sold his work as a potter after graduation, then
enrolled in a master of fine arts program. Jon’s experiences in graduate school
impressed me from an assessment perspective. His work was continually and
publicly subjected to criticism from both his professors and other students. It
was as if this method of instruction, which could be brutally honest, fostered
a perspective that what might seem to be “negative” feedback was what was
needed to learn. As with my daughter, mistakes and errors were pointed out.
They were an integral part of the assessment process and helped him advance in
his craft. Another happy ending. Jon is now a ceramics professor!
These stories illustrate how important assessment is for learning, whether in
the gym, the studio, or the classroom. It shows how the right kind of assessment,
and the manner in which it is integrated with instruction, can have dramatic effects
on how much is learned and how well something is performed. Research on teacher
decision making, cognitive learning, student motivation, equity, and related topics
has changed what we know about the importance of assessment for effective teaching. For example, one finding is that good teachers continually assess their students
relative to learning goals and adjust their instruction on the basis of this information.
Another important finding is that assessment of students not only documents what
students know and can do but also influences learning. Assessment that enhances
learning is as important as assessment that documents learning. As a result of this
research, new purposes, methods, and approaches to student assessment have been
developed. These changes underscore a new understanding of the critical role that
assessment plays in instruction, learning and motivation.
3
4 Chapter 1
The Bigger Picture Context
of Classroom Assessment
LO 1.1
Explain how seven important contextual influences in education
impact classroom assessment.
OK, so it’s clear that as a teacher you will be responsible for assessing what
students in your classroom have learned by gathering evidence of student
learning and using that evidence to document and, hopefully, promote student
achievement and motivation. But more than that, by your assessments, you influence students in a multitude of ways. All of this occurs in a larger classroom and
curriculum context that has changed considerably in recent years. Essentially,
there are a number of powerful influences now that affect everything you do in
the classroom, including assessment, and understanding these factors is essential in developing and using effective assessments. That’s because of something
I’ll be talking a lot about in this text—alignment. Alignment simply means that
things are configured so that they reinforce and support each other. In science,
for example, it’s important to have alignment between research questions and
methods; in gymnastics, it’s critical to align music to the floor routine.
Teaching, which includes the use of student assessment, is most effective
when these powerful contextual forces are aligned with what the teacher is
doing in the classroom. For example, when the curriculum and your instruction
are aligned with state standards, it’s likely that students will achieve well on
state tests. When your teaching and assessment are aligned to what we know
about how students from diverse cultures learn, achievement and motivation
are enhanced. What, then, are these contextual influences? I’ve laid them out in
Figure 1.1 to emphasize their impact on classroom assessment.
21st-Century Knowledge, Skills, and Dispositions
You have probably heard much about what students need to know and be able
to do to function effectively in life in the 21st century, and what high school
graduates need to do to be ready for college and/or careers. From many levels, including national and state government, business, and educational policy
wonks, there is an almost endless series of high-profile calls to action for changes
in education to meet the new demands of an information-based, interconnected
digital world. We’ll consider these outcomes in more detail in the next chapter,
but here is a short summary of what is now considered “essential” for students:
• Deep understanding of fundamental concepts of important content areas
and disciplines
• Cognitive skills such as problem solving, decision making, critical thinking,
and metacognition
• Creativity and innovative thinking
The Role of Assessment in Teaching and Learning
Figure 1.1 Significant Factors Influencing Classroom Assessment
21st-Century Knowledge,
Skills, and Dispositions
Equity
Technology
Principles of Cognitive and
Sociocultural Learning
and Motivation
CLASSROOM
ASSESSMENT
Standards-Based Education
High-Stakes Testing
Data Literacy
• Effective communication skills
• Effective social skills
• Global understanding and perspectives
• Dispositions such as self-regulation, responsibility, flexibility, self-direction,
determination, perseverance, risk taking, and integrity
Your challenge is to develop and use assessments to foster the development
of all of these 21st-century skills, not just to assess the subject you are teaching.
5
6 Chapter 1
Teacher’s Corner: How One Teacher Emphasizes
21st-Century Skills
Tedra Hall
National Board Certified Middle School Teacher
I make it a priority to incorporate tasks that require
critical thinking and problem
solving into my instruction
as frequently as possible.
When I am designing my
instructional activities and
assessments, I deliberately
focus on the skills I want my
students to utilize. I place
an emphasis on critical
thinking and problem solving skills through application,
analysis, and evaluation. Instead of using traditional
tests, I often used performance-based assessments
so that students practice thinking critically instead of
relying on rote memorization. It’s essential that students practice these skills regularly in order to be successful in society.
It’s also essential that students work with a variety of
people in order to be team players. I utilize a variety of group
creation strategies to ensure that students learn to work
with others—student choice, random group generators,
counting off, and part-luck/part-choice (where a sign-up list
for teams is created and students are chosen in random
order to add their name to the sign-up). I emphasize to my
students that in order to be true team players, you have to
be able to work with everyone, not just friends.
In addition to needing time to practice being critical
thinkers, problem solvers, and team players, students
also need time to reflect on their performance and set
goals for growth. Every time my students complete a
large task, I allot time for them to reflect on their work
skills, critical thinking, problem solving, teamwork, etc.,
using a rubric. I also set aside time for them to chart
their progress and make strategic goals for improvement. Incorporating reflection and goal creation gives
students autonomy over their learning and results in
growth in their critical thinking, problem solving, and
team-work skills.
Tedra works hard to get students meaningfully
engaged in learning through assessment. What are
some ways she does this?
In the first of many Teacher Corner excerpts, note how Tedra Hall, a middle
school teacher, emphasizes critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration,
and goal setting, and how she aligns her assessment to both foster and assess
these skills.
Technology
The prevalence of technology has significant implications for classroom assessment
(Smith, 2022). Not only are we teaching postmillennial digital natives (though careful here—not all students are!) with accompanying expectations, skills, and comfort
with technology, we also use new technology in teaching and assessment. Digital
tools such as virtual quizzes, online polling, social media, podcasting, blogging, virtual labs and field trips, online rubrics, apps, and other technologies support assessment that can more effectively and efficiently identify student learning gaps and
The Role of Assessment in Teaching and Learning
7
Teacher’s Corner: Use Technology for Assessment
Anthony Swann
2021 Virginia Teacher of the Year
Technology in the classroom
is a must. The onset of the
COVID-19 pandemic proved
that all educators should be
utilizing technology more
often than normal. Digital
tools for classroom assessment have the potential to
heighten engagement and
collaboration within the
classroom.
For example, I can easily review a lesson on
multiplying fractions. But utilizing digital platforms
such as Kahoot, Quizlet, Gimkit, and many more
will help encourage students to participate in review.
These types of assessments not only give students
the chance to review, but it helps students to talk
amongst themselves and to offer help to peers that
may be struggling. Often times teachers feel as
though they have to do all of the talking and teaching.
On the contrary, some students learn best from other
students.
What are some of Anthony’s reasons for using
digital tools for assessment? What learning outcomes
is he emphasizing?
accommodate greater assessment equity. Improved technology has now made item
banking for teachers routine, including the use of adaptive tests that accommodate
different levels of student ability (Bennett, 2015). Technology has also provided the
capability to use new types of test items, including simulations and other active formats that demand student actions and thinking, with automated scoring. Teachers
are now able to access data about students online and record grades electronically.
Many teachers now routinely use apps and other programs on electronic devices
such as iPads and iPhones to assess students. Technology is a huge influence and,
as we will see, provides many new opportunities for novel and effective means of
evaluating student learning more efficiently.
Principles of Cognitive and Sociocultural Theories
of Learning and Motivation
Here is where the rubber really meets the road. If you want to achieve
21st-century knowledge, skills, and dispositions, you must teach and assess in
alignment with what we know about how children and adolescents learn and
what motivates them. There has been a flood of research, especially in the areas
of cognitive and sociocultural theories, that has led to solid, well-documented
principles of learning and motivation that have direct implications for assessment. Learning and motivation are best supported by assessment design and
implementation that incorporates these principles, especially to achieve deep
learning and 21st-century skills and dispositions.
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Cognitive, sociocognitive, sociocultural, and constructivist theories of learning show that acquiring new knowledge is best built on students’ prior knowledge, life experiences and background, and interests. Good instruction provides
an environment that engages the student in active learning, which becomes an
ongoing process in which students actively receive, interpret, and relate information to what they already know, understand, and have experienced, grounded
in their everyday lives and interpersonal interactions. That is, new information
needs to be connected to existing knowledge in meaningful ways. More than
accumulating knowledge, students need to actively construct new and deeper
understanding by integrating knowledge, skills, and procedures to solve problems, and by developing metacognition to monitor learning strategies.
To drive as well as document learning, assessment needs to likewise be
meaningfully connected to what students already know and can do. Alignment of
instruction with cognitive and sociocultural theories, as well as assessment, promotes
cohesion in what students are taught, how they are taught, and how they are assessed.
From a cognitive theory perspective, motivation is intrinsic and students are
especially engaged when challenged to revise misunderstandings and solve problems. Assessments need to be structured to reveal misunderstandings and challenge students to solve problems. Cognitive theories of motivation show that it
is important for teachers to constantly assess students and provide feedback that
is informative. By providing specific and meaningful feedback to students, and
encouraging them to regulate their own learning, teachers encourage students to
enhance their sense of self-efficacy and self-confidence, important determinants
of motivation (Brookhart, 2008). Meaningful learning is intrinsically motivating
because the content has relevance. The implication here is that assessment does not
end with scoring and recording the results. Motivation is highly dependent on the
nature of the feedback from the assessment. Thus, in keeping with the integration
of assessment with instruction, feedback is an essential component of the assessment process.
Sociocultural and situational theories of learning and motivation also provide
an essential foundation for effective, equitable assessment (Kang & Furtak, 2021;
Shepard, 2019). The idea here is that learning is “fundamentally a social and cultural activity” (Kang & Furtak, 2021, p. 1). This perspective emphasizes how individuals in their unique communities are enculturated to shape their knowledge
and dispositions. The social dimension, as defined by cultural norms and expectations, influences the nature of interpersonal relationships and establishes boundaries for appropriate behavior. In turn, these social and cultural factors influence the
meaningfulness and impact of assessments. Well-designed assessments consider
these factors since they are so fundamental to learning and motivation.
The research from cognitive and sociocultural learning theories has laid the
foundation for significant changes in classroom assessment (Penuel & Shepard,
2016; Shepard, 2019). As we discover more about how students learn and what
motivates them, we realize that assessment practices, as well as instructional
practices, need to change to keep pace with this research. The list of principles
The Role of Assessment in Teaching and Learning
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Table 1.1 Implications for Assessment from Cognitive and Sociocultural Theories of Learning and Motivation
Theory
Implications for Classroom Assessment
Cognitive/Constructivist
Knowledge is constructed; learning involves creating
personal meaning that connects new information with
prior knowledge.
• Use multiple modes of assessment that allow flexibility in how students
demonstrate knowledge and understanding.
• Assess current state of knowledge to target instruction and subsequent
assessments.
• Use assessments that require application of knowledge.
• Individualize feedback so that it is meaningful for each student.
Sociocultural Theory
Learning is fundamentally a social process, based on
the relevance of life experiences and cultural ways of
interacting.
• Use authentic assessment that reflects all students’ cultures,
experiences, and backgrounds.
• Present assessment tasks in multiple modes to serve equity goals.
• Encourage students to talk through their reasoning with others.
• Utilize peer assessment.
Differentiation
There is variety among students on learning styles,
language, memory, aptitudes, attention, cultural
background, and developmental pace.
• Provide choices in how to show mastery/competence.
• Provide sufficient time for all students to demonstrate knowledge.
• Provide students opportunities to revise and retest.
• Use multiple modes of assessment.
Goal Setting
Students perform best when they know the goal,
see examples or exemplars, and know how their
performance compares with established standards of
mastery.
• Make standards explicit before beginning instruction.
• Give students examples of performance at different levels.
• Provide specific feedback that links performance with standards.
• Use assessment during instruction.
• Use student self-assessments.
Self-Regulation
Students need to know when to use knowledge, how
to adapt it to new situations, and how to monitor and
manage their own learning.
• Use performance assessment with actual “real-life” problems and issues.
• Use student self-assessment.
• Use assessment during instruction.
• Limit objectively scored assessments.
• Provide progress monitoring feedback.
Self-Efficacy
Motivation and effort are important components of
learning and performance that shape perceptions of
capability to succeed.
• Use “real-life” tasks and examples.
• Use assessment during instruction.
• Provide individualized feedback to see the connection between effort
and performance.
• Provide feedback that encourages internal attributions, especially effort.
is long and I can’t do them justice here, but in Table 1.1 many of them are listed
with implications for assessment. I’ve done this to again emphasize the importance of alignment of assessment with the principles. Here’s the main takeaway to remember: for assessment to enhance student learning, not just document
proficiency, it must be based on cognitive and sociocultural principles of learning and
motivation.
Standards-Based Education
Essentially, we have a “standards-based” educational system in America and
many other countries. Standards-based, using commonly accepted objectives for
student learning, is now a ubiquitous buzzword in education, if ever there was
one. As we’ll see in detail in Chapter 2, standards frame what students should
know and do—they formalize and standardize what gets taught and assessed.
Every U.S. state has learning standards, with corresponding pacing guides and
curriculum at the district level for implementation.
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High-Stakes Testing
Like it or not, it is abundantly clear that externally mandated high-stakes
accountability tests have a profound impact on teaching and classroom assessment. For most teachers, there is no escaping this reality. What you do in the
classroom will be influenced by both the content and the nature of these tests.
Students, teachers, and administrators have always been held accountable,
primarily at a local school or district level, and sometimes at the state level. In
the last two decades unprecedented federal and state accountability testing
policy initiatives have increased the pressure on schools to show positive test
results, as well as to evaluate teachers on the basis of their students’ test scores.
High-stakes tests are ones that have important consequences. This is the case
for tests that determine whether a student can graduate from high school, when
school accreditation is tied to test scores, or when teacher evaluation is determined by how their students perform on tests.
In 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) was signed to address
increasingly unworkable and unrealistic prescriptive requirements from earlier
federal legislation, including the 2002 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, and the
2009 Race to the Top initiative. ESSA places much less emphasis on a one-size-fitsall federal process, allowing states more flexibility in testing and standard-setting.
For teachers, this means some easing of pressure in one sense but introduces new
testing demands that can also be onerous. Regardless, there is little doubt that
some kind of federal and/or state pressure will ensure that large-scale accountability tests will have high stakes and negative sanctions for low-achieving
schools, resulting in some cases with state takeover of schools. It is also clear that
administrators and local boards of education, as well as state-level policy makers,
want these measures of student performance to be as strong as possible.
With these accountability requirements, large-scale and common testing
has significantly influenced what teachers do in the classroom, including what
they do in the selection, construction, and use of their classroom student assessments. Today, in certain tested subjects such as math and English, there is much
more selection of possible test items from online databases than from teacher
constructed items. There is a great amount of emphasis on “test prep,” on “teaching to the test,” on aligning classroom tests with large-scale tests, and on using
classroom test formats that are like the ones used in the state accountability tests.
Clearly, classroom assessment must be considered in the current climate that
emphasizes high-stakes testing. One purpose of this book is to incorporate these
accountability and large-scale testing demands and influences with classroom
assessment procedures that we know can enhance student learning and motivation. Unfortunately, for many, teaching to external standards and high-stakes tests
conflicts with classroom assessment methods that have changed to be more consistent with contemporary theories of learning and motivation. But here is a silver
lining: It turns out that classroom assessments that are selected and implemented
on the basis of promoting student learning, rather than just showing student performance, will result in higher accountability test results. The key is focusing on
The Role of Assessment in Teaching and Learning
how classroom assessments will maximize student motivation and learning, rather than on
what will result in the highest percentages of students judged at least “proficient.”
Data Literacy
There is no question that we have entered the world of big data, whether called
data-driven decision making, data dashboards, or more pessimistically though
perhaps accurately data-deluged, resulting in data-diving, data delirium, and sometimes being data doped. Big data are everywhere, and there are recent calls for
teachers to be “data literate.” In various forms the need for data literacy skills for
all educators has been strongly promoted, and is increasingly present in state certification requirements for teachers and administrators. A key feature of the call for
improving educators’ capacities to use data is the emphasis on multiple sources
of data, habits of mind (Bocala & Boudett, 2015), data properties, transformation
of data, data management, data transformation, and communication (Mandinach,
Friedman, & Gummer, 2015). A very important consequence of the emphasis on
big data that directly impacts teaching and assessment is a renewed emphasis on
understanding and using quantitative analyses related to standardized and other
large-scale and common testing. This includes the need to understand with greater
depth more technical concepts such as reliability/precision, standard error, pretestposttest analyses, accurate graphic presentations, validity, and a host of other complex topics that are typically given little space, especially in teacher preparation.
Since data literacy includes the interpretation of all types of data (including, e.g.,
classroom climate, attendance records, behavioral, family information, extracurricular activities), you will need to integrate these data into what is needed for assessment. At this point this is uncharted territory, but the train has left the station.
Equity
Since learning is most effectively conceptualized as a cognitive process influenced
heavily by sociocultural conditions, it follows that assessment needs to consider
these same factors. An emerging concept, then, is the idea that assessment must
be equitable and culturally responsive—designed in ways that promote evidence
of learning that is fair to all students (Kang & Furtak, 2021; Taylor, 2022). In particular, marginalized students need assessment tasks and feedback that reflect
their ideas, perspectives, and values. Viewed through the lens of sociocultural
and sociocognitive theories of learning, this means that you need to purposefully include nondominant perspectives into your assessment activities (Mislevy,
2018; Mislevy & Oliveri, 2019). This will provide more fair opportunities for all
students to successfully understand, relate to, and demonstrate what they know
and can do. Equity is more than avoiding bias in assessments, it is purposefully
designing assessments to incorporate examples, language, social norms, expectations, and other cultural factors from nondominant populations.
Another way of thinking about assessment equity is to become aware of
how historically dominant values result in assessment practices that are unfair to
marginalized students. Are assessment tasks relevant to the lives of nondominant
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students? Are teacher values that are critical to the design of assessments sensitive to the lived experiences of marginalized students? Are opportunities to show
proficiency greater for students from the dominant culture? The goal is to create
and implement culturally responsive assessments that allow all students to demonstrate their proficiency. Much like the concept of inclusion with students with
special needs, equitable assessment is designed so that students from marginalized cultures are able to be engaged in activities that they are able to relate to.
If you are still wondering why these seven factors in Figure 1.1 are important,
here’s my take on classroom assessment and what I stress throughout this text.
Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning, not something just done
after instruction to document student achievement. It happens all the time during
teaching, in informal and anecdotal ways, as well as in the form of tests, papers,
and projects. The simple fact is that what and how you assess, on a continual
basis, will directly influence your teaching and student learning and motivation
in the broadest sense, and that process is influenced by these seven factors.
Integrating Instruction and Assessment
LO 1.2
Describe how classroom assessment before, during, and after
instruction can be integrated with ambitious teaching.
The Realities of Teaching
Classroom life is fast paced, hectic, and complex. To illustrate this reality, I summarize here some of what Michelle Barrow does during a typical day in her
first-grade classroom. She has 10 boys and 11 girls in her class; seven are members of minority groups and six of whom are from single-parent families. As
many as four of her students will participate in the gifted/talented program, and
four students were retained from the previous year. See how easy it is for you to
get through this list of disparate tasks.
Before school begins in the morning, Michelle:
• Reviews what was learned/taught the previous day
• Goes over student papers to see who did or did not grasp concepts
• Prepares a rough agenda for the day
• Speaks with aide about plans for the day
• Puts journals on student desks
As soon as students enter the classroom, Michelle:
• Greets students at the door
• Reminds students to put away homework
• Speaks with Mateo about his expected behavior for the day
• Reminds Anthony about what he is to do if he becomes bothered or frustrated by others
The Role of Assessment in Teaching and Learning
During the morning, Michelle:
• Calls students to the table to go over the reading assignment
• Has Lucia read a column of words and then goes back and randomly points
to words to see whether she knows them or simply has them memorized
• Comments to Ye-jung that she has really improved since the first day of
school
• Discusses with Kevin the importance of doing homework every night
• Listens as Javier attempts to sound out each word and gradually blends
them together
• Reminds Maggie that she is to be working in her journal rather than visiting
and talking with others
• Gives Jason, Kori, and Ari a vocabulary sheet to do because they have completed their journals
• Observes students in learning centers before calling reading groups to tables
• Verbally reinforces correct answers, gives each student a copy of the week’s
story, goes through the book, and points out action words
• Calls up the low reading group and focuses on letters m and f
• Notices that Kevin has poor fine-motor skills and makes a mental note
to send a message to his parents telling them that he should practice his
handwriting
• Checks on Anthony to see how many centers he has completed
• Notices that students in the writing center are not doing as they were
instructed
• Walks beside Anthony down the hall, verbally praising him for following
directions
• Notices that Laquinta has some difficulty answering higher-level thinking
questions
• Makes a mental note to split gifted group up into two smaller groups
After lunch, Michelle’s day continues as she:
• Starts math lesson on beginning addition with hippo counter
• Walks behind Scott and gives the next problem to the class
• Punches cards of students who have followed directions
• Notices that another table immediately stops talking and starts paying
attention
• Tells students to rewrite sloppy copies
• Reminds Kevin and Anthony to use guidelines on the paper
• Praises and gives punches on cards to Ye-tong and a few other students for
good handwriting and concentration
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• Notices that Tim is watching others, asks him if he needs help
• Gives 5-minute warning for music time, notices students working more
intensely
• While students are in music, looks over their writing, arranges the papers
into groups
After students leave for the day, Michelle continues by:
• Grading student papers
• Making sure materials are ready for the next day
• Making notes in her gradebook about notes sent home and how the day went
• Checking portfolios to see progress
• Calling some parents
And so it goes for most classrooms. There is a hectic immediacy while multitasking. Many decisions are made continuously about students, instruction, and
assessment. What is represented here is just a small sample of Michelle’s actions,
all of which are based on decisions that in turn depend on how well she has
assessed her students. How did she decide to discuss with Kevin the importance of homework? What evidence did she use to decide that she needed to
check Lucia’s reading? In each of these cases, Michelle had to conduct some kind
of assessment of the student before making her decisions. The role of an effective teacher is to reach these decisions reflectively, based on evidence gathered
through assessment, reasoning, and experience.
Each decision is based on information that Michelle has gathered through a
multitude of student interactions and behavior. Research indicates that a teacher
may have as many as 1,000 or even 1,500 interactions with students each day
(Billups & Rauth, 1987; Jackson, 1990). Often these interactions and decisions
occur with incomplete or inaccurate information, making the job of teaching
even more difficult.
Consider how the following aspects of Michelle’s and other teachers’ classrooms affect decision making (Doyle, 1986).
1. Multidimensionality: Teachers’ choices are rarely simple. Many different tasks
and events occur continuously, and students with different preferences and
abilities must receive limited resources for different objectives. Waiting for
one student to answer a question may negatively influence the motivation
of another student. How can the teacher best assess these multiple demands
and student responses to make appropriate decisions?
2. Simultaneity: Many things happen at once in classrooms. Good teachers monitor several activities at the same time. What does the teacher look for and listen for so that the monitoring and responses to students are appropriate?
3. Immediacy: Because the pace of classrooms is rapid, there is little time for
reflection. Decisions are made quickly. What should teachers focus on so
that these quick decisions are the right ones that will help students learn?
The Role of Assessment in Teaching and Learning
4. Unpredictability: Classroom events often take unanticipated turns, and distractions are frequent. How do teachers evaluate and respond to these unexpected events?
5. History: After a few weeks, routines and norms are established for behavior. What expectations for assessment does the teacher communicate to
students?
It is in these complex and fast-paced environments that you will make some
of your most important decisions—about what and how much students have
learned. Accurate and appropriate student assessment provides the information
to help you make better decisions.
Instructional Decision Making and Assessment
It is helpful to conceptualize teacher decision making by when decisions are
made—before, during, or after instruction—and then examine how assessment
affects choices at each time. Preinstructional decisions are needed to identify
learning gaps, set learning goals, select appropriate teaching activities, and prepare learning materials. As instructional activities are implemented, decisions
are made about the delivery and pace in presenting information, keeping the
students’ attention, controlling students’ behavior, and making adjustments
in lesson plans. At the end of instruction, teachers evaluate student learning,
instructional activities, and themselves to know what to teach next, to grade students, and to improve instruction.
Thinking about teaching as phases that occur before, during, and after
instruction is aligned with three major “types” of classroom assessments—
preassessment, formative assessment, and summative assessment. Preassessment is
what you will do before instruction to ascertain students’ knowledge, attitudes,
and interests. This information is then used as a starting point for designing
instruction (Chapman & King, 2009). For example, a government teacher who
wants to begin a unit on the 2009 recession might want to know how well students are prepared by examining scores on a previous test that demonstrate
their knowledge of supply and demand. If students show weak understanding, these concepts need to be reviewed. Formative assessment is conducted
with the primary purpose of improving student learning. It can occur during
teaching (informal/embedded; on-the-fly), or more formally after evidence of
learning is presented (e.g., after students answer questions on a worksheet). It
is a way of assessing students’ progress, providing feedback, and making decisions about further instructional activities that will enhance learning. (You’ve
probably heard about formative assessment; it’s everywhere in the literature.)
Summative assessment is a culminating event used to document or certify
student proficiency at the end of a segment or unit of instruction (McTighe &
Fererra, 2021). It is also used to generate information that can be used to provide
feedback and guide subsequent teaching and learning, but the primary purpose
is to document student proficiency.
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Table 1.2 presents examples of the types of questions teachers ask at these
different points in the instructional process. Table 1.2 also offers examples of the
type of assessment information needed to make these decisions.
Figure 1.2 illustrates further how assessment is involved in each stage of the
instructional process. This figure shows how preassessment is used to provide
information to transform general learning goals and objectives into specific learning targets. You will usually be provided with general state, district, or school
learning standards for a particular grade level or subject. These standards are used
as a starting point to develop more specific learning targets that take into account
the characteristics and needs of the students and your style and beliefs.
Table 1.2 Examples of Questions for Decision Making and Assessment Information
When Decisions
Are Made
Questions
Assessment Information
How much do my students know?
Previous student achievement; test scores;
observations of student performance
Are my students motivated to learn?
Observations of student involvement and willingness
to ask questions
Are there any exceptional students? If so, what
should I plan for them?
Student records; conference with a special education
teacher
Preassessment
Before Instruction
What instructional activities should I plan? Are these Overall strengths and needs of students; comments
activities realistic for these students?
from previous teachers; evaluations of previous
teaching
What homework assignments should I prepare?
Student progress and level of understanding
What is acceptable evidence that students have
attained desired proficiencies?
Determine which assessment methods will provide
needed evidence
Formative Assessment
During and After
Instruction
What type of feedback should I give to students?
Quality of student work; type of student
What question should I ask?
Observation of student understanding
How should a student response to a question be
answered?
Potential for this student to know the answer
Which students need my individual attention?
Performance on homework; observations of work in
class
What response is best to student inattention or
disruption?
Effect of the student on others
When should I stop this lecture?
Observation of student attention
Summative Assessment
After Instruction
How well have my students mastered the material?
Achievement test results in relation to a specified level
Are students ready for the next unit?
Analysis of demonstrated knowledge
What grades should the students receive?
Tests; quizzes; homework; class participation
What comments should I make to parents?
Improvement; observations of behavior
How should I change my instruction?
Diagnosis of demonstrated learning; student
evaluations
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