UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL UNESCO EDUCATION REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE PROJECT II NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERI ENGINEERING NG TECHNOLOGY FLUID MECHANICS COURSE CODE: MEC214 YEAR 22 SE MESTER I THEORY Version 1: December 2008 TABLE OF CONTENT Table of Contents Week 1 1.0 Fluids 1.1 Definition 1.2 Classification of fluids 1.2.1 Gases 1.2.2 Liquids 1.3 The difference between liquids & gases 1.4 Properties of fluids Week 2 2.0 Types of fluids 2.1 Ideal and real fluids 2.2 Newtonian fluids 2.3 Non-Newtonian fluids 2.4 Specific gravity of liquids Week 3 3.0 Pressure equation 3.1 Pressure of liquids vary with depth 3.2 An orifice tank 4.0 Pressure measuring instrument 4.1 The barometer 4.2 Piezometer 4.3 U-tube manometer 4.4 Inverted U-tube manometer 5.0 Questions and solutions on pressure measurement 6.0 Derivation of equations 6.1 Parallel axes theorem 6.2 Total thrust acting on a vertical plate WEEK 7 : Understanding the Archimedes principle and its applications 7.1 Buoyancy of floating bodies 7.1 Archimedes principles 7.1.1 Centre of buoyancy 7.1.2 Buoyant force 7..2 Hydrometer 7.3 Floating bodies WEEK 8: Analysis and the practical determination of metacentric height 8.1 Determination of metacentric height of a vessel 8.2 Experimental method WEEK 9: Understanding the principle of conservation of mass 9.1 The principle of conservation of mass 9.2 Conservation of mass 9.2.1 The discharge 9.3 Application of continuity equation WEEEK 10: Understanding the conservation of energy 10.1 The conservation of energy 10.2 The Bernoulli’s equation WEEK 11: To know the momentum equation and its applications 11.1: Introduction and understanding the concept of steady streamline and stream tube WEEK 12: To understand the concept of momentum and fluid flow 12.1 Momentum and fluid flow 12.2 Momentum equation for two and three dimensional flow along a streamline WEEK 14: FLUID DYNAMICS 14.1 Types of flow 14.2 Determination of laminar and turbulent flow WEEK 15 : To know the types fluid power machines and their application 15.1 The fluid power machines 15.2 The pumps 15.2.1 Classification of pump 15.2.2 Centrifugal pump 15.3 Hydraulic turbines 15.3.1 Types of hydraulic turbines 15.3.2 Impulse turbine (pelton wheel) 15.4 Reaction turbine 15.4.1 Types of reaction turbine 15.5 Hydraulic press 15.6 Air Compressors 15.6.1 Types of air compressors 15.6.2 Reciprocating compressor 15.6.3 Rotary compressor FLUID MECHANICS WEEK 1 1.1.1 Define a fluid. 1.2 The different types of fluids. 1.3 Distillation or classification of fluids. 1.4 Properties of fluids. (Density, specific weight, relative density or specific gravity, specific volume pressure, viscosity, adhesion, cohesion, surface tension compressibility, capillarity. FLUIDS Liquids have definite volumes: may vary likely with temperature and pressure. Definition – Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under the action of shearing forces, however small they may be i.e it offers negligible resistance to change of shape and is capable of the following. Thus a fluid can either be a liquid or gas. Distinction or classification of fluids. 1.1 1.22a Liquids: - Liquids have definite volumes and the volume may vary likely with temperature and pressure; and normally have free surface. 1.23.1 Gases: - Gases normally occupy the volume of their containers and they can readily be compressed. The fundamental difference between liquid and gas is that liquid is hard to be compressed while gas can easily be compressed. 1.23.2 Liquids:- e.g. water, oil, petrol, kerosene, paint, e.t.c. 1.23.3 Gases:- Oxygen, carbon dioxide, Nitrogen e.t.c 1.3 Liquids Gases 1. Difficult to compress, may be regarded as 1. A gas is comparatively easy to incompressible. compress. 2. A given mass of liquid occupies a fixed 2. a. Changes of volume with volume irrespective of the size or shape of its pressure are large, cannot normally container. be neglected and are related to change of temperature. 2b. A given mass of gas has no fixed volume and will expand continuously unless restrained by a containing vessel. 3. A free surface is formed of the container is 3. It will completely fill any vessel in greater than that of the liquid. which it is placed and does not form a free surface. 4. The molecular structure of liquid are less densely packed, making the structure looser than that of solids. Thee individual molecules have greater freedom of movement causing change of structure.. 4. Gasses have no formal structure, the spaces between molecules are large and the molecules can move freely. 1.4.1 Properties of fluids. Density:- The density of a substance is ρ that quantity of matter contained in unit volume of the substance. Density, ρ = mass of subs tan ce volume of subs tan ce Density of a substance can be expressed in three different ways namely; (i) (ii) (iii) Mass density Specific weight Relative density. (i) Mass density:Mass density is defined as the ρ mass of the substance per unit volume. ρ= ( m kg .m − 3 v Typical values of density at ) P = 1.013 x 105 Nm−2 , T = 288.15k Water, 1000 Kg m−3 , air, 1.23 Kg m −3 1.42 (ii) Specific weight:- Specific weight, ω , is defined as the weight per unit volume. ω= weight Mg m = = x g = ρg volume v v Typical values: water, 9.81 x 103 Nm−3 ; Air, 12.07 Nm−3 1.43 (iii) Relative density or Specific gravity:Relative density, is defined as the ratio of the mass density of a substance to some standard mass density. For solids and liquids the standard mass density chosen is the maximum density of water(which occurs at 4c at temperature and pressure) σ = ρ subs tan ce ρH 2 0 at 4°C For gases, the standard density may be that of Hydrogen at a specified temperature and pressure, but the term is not used frequently. Relative density is dimensionless, since it is pure number. Typical value: Water 1.0; oil 0.9. 1.44 Specific Volume:- This is defined as the reciprocal of either mass density or reciprocal of either mass density or specific weight; i.e volume per unit mass or volume per unit weight. Unit = m 3 N 1.45 Pressure:- Pressure is the intensity of a force measured per unit area of the surface on which the force acts. The pressure exerted by a fluid has the following important properties:i. ii. The pressure exerted by a fluid “at a point “ that is, on a very small area, is the same in all directions. The direction of the resultant pressure exerted by a fluid at rest on a solid surface is always perpendicular (normal) to the surface. h AB is the surface area. P is the force exerted. X P=P A 1.46 VISCOUSITY Viscosity is the internal resistance to movement of one layer of the fluid over an adjacent one. It is the property of a fluid rather than that of a static fluid. Relative movement between two layers requires shear forces parallel to the surface over which they act. 1.47 Vapour Pressure:All liquids have the tendency to evaporate when they are bounded by interface. Evaporation means that there is a continuous movement of molecules in the form of vapour pressure above the liquid surface. The magnitude corresponds to the rate of molecules escaping from the surface. The number of liquid molecules going out of the liquid continues to increase until it reaches the point where the vapour pressure is sufficient to maintain a balance i.e the number of molecules leaving the liquid is equal to the number entering it. At this stage, when there is a balance, the liquid saturated with vapour and the vapour pressure at this point is called saturation pressure. If ABCD (FIG 1) represents an element in a fluid with thickness perpendicular to the diagram, then the force P will act over an area A equal to BC x s. The force per unit area p/a is the shear stress φ and the deformation, measured by the angle ф (the shear strain), will be proportional to the shear stress. In a solid,ф will be a fixed quantity for a given value of φ, since a solid can resist shear stress permanently. In a fluid, the shear strain ф will continue to increase with time and the fluid will flow. It is found experimentally that in a true fluid, the rate of shear strain (or shear strain per unit time) is directly proportional to the shear stress. (1) Cohesion (2) Adhesion (3) Viscosity 1.48 Adhesion:- Adhesion is the physical attraction of the physical attraction of the of one material for the surface of another. (see Portland cement) The most widely accepted and investigated theory of adhesion is the wet ability – a adsorption theory. This states that for maximum adhesion the adhesive must come into complete imitate contact with the surfaces of the adherent. That is the adhesive must completely wet the adherent. Cohesion:- A phenomenon in which the same material in contact makes them cling together(with two different materials the similar). According to kinetic theory, cohesion is caused by attraction between particles at the atomic or molecular level. Surface tension, which causes liquids to form spherical droplets is caused by cohesion. 1.49 Surface Tension:- The property that causes the surface of a liquid to behave as if it were covered with a weak elastic skin; this is why a needle can float on the smallest possible area because of cohesive forces between molecules at the surface. 1.410 Capillarity:- This is the spontaneous movement of liquids up and down narrow tubes or capillarity. The movement is due to unbalanced molecular attraction at the unbalanced molecular attraction at the boundary between the liquid and the tube. If liquid molecules near the boundary are more strongly attracted to molecules in the materials of the tube than to other nearby liquid molecules, the liquid will rise in the tube. If liquid molecules are less attracted to the material of the tube than to other liquid molecules, the liquid will fall. WEEK 2 2.1 Types of fluids. 2.2 Newtonian fluids. 2.3 Non-Newtonian fluids. 2.4 State Newton’s law of viscousity. 2.5 Explain the effects of viscousity in fluids. 2.1 TYPES OF FLUIDS There are two types of fluids namely, ideal and real or non-ideal fluids. The ideal fluid does not exhibit viscous properties and cannot sustain frictional and shear stresses when in motion. The forces sustaining its motion are purely pressure forces. Since it cannot sustain frictional stresses, it cannot dissipate mechanical energy into heat. On the other hand, the real fluid possesses viscous properties sustains frictional and shear stresses and dissipates mechanical energy into heat. In practice, the ideal fluid does not exist, but the flow of many real fluids can be analysed by assuming that they are ideal especially if their viscousities are low. h X Fig. 2.1: 2.2 Newtonian fluids:- The fluids that obey Newton’s law of viscousity and for which N has a constant value are known as Newtonian fluids. These fluids are the ones whose viscousities are not dependent on the rate of shear or the duration and or the duration and conform to Newton’s basic law of viscous resistance. τ =N dv dy Most common fluids fall into this category, for which shear stress is e.g. Gases and thin liquids Shear Stress Plastic Bingham Plastic Pseudo-Plastic Newtonian fluid Dilatant Ideal fluid T = 0 Rate of Shear, Fig 1: Variations of shear stress with velocity gradient. du dy 2.3 Non- Newtonian fluids:Fluids which do not obey Newton’s law of viscousity are known as non-Newtonian and fall into one of the following groups. (1) Plastics, for which the shear stress must reach a certain minimum value before flow commences. Thereafter, shear stress increases with the rate of shear according to the relationship. du τ = A + B dy n Where A, B and n are constants. If n=1, the material is known as a Bingham plastic (e.g. sewage sludge) (2) Pseudo-plastic, for which dynamic viscousity decreases as the rate of shear increases (e.g. colloidal solutions, clay, milk, blood, solution of cement) (3) Dilatant substances in which dynamic viscosity increases as the rate of shear increases(e.g. Quicksand) (4) Thixotropic:- substances for which the dynamic viscousity decreases with the time for which shearing forces are applied (e.g. thixotropic jelly paints, e.g. printer’s ink) (5) Rheopectic materials for which the dynamic viscosity increases with the time for which shearing forces are applied. (6) Visco-elastic materials, which behave in a manner similar to Newtonian fluids under time in variant conditions but if the shear stress changes suddenly, behave as if plastic. Examples of Non-Newtonian fluids are long chained hydrocarbons. 2.4 Liquid Specific gravity 1. Alcohol, ethyl. 0.79 2. Benzene 0.88 3. Carbon tetrachloride 1.59 4. Kerosene 0.81 5. Mercury 13.6 6. Crude oil 0.85 – 0.93 7. Lubricating 0.85 – 0.88 8. Water 1.00 Types of Fluids There are two types of fluids, namely, ideal and real or non-ideal fluids. The ideal fluid does not exhibit viscous properties and cannot sustain frictional and shear stresses when in motion. The forces sustaining its motion are purely pressure forces. Since it cannot sustain frictional stresses, it cannot dissipate mechanical energy into heat. On the other hand, the real fluid possesses viscous properties sustains frictional and shear stresses and dissipates mechanical energy into heat. In practice, the ideal fluid does not exist, but the flow of many real fluids can be analysed by assuming that they are ideal especially if their viscosities are low. WEEK 3 2.1 Explain how a fluid can exert pressure due to its own weight. 2.2 Derive an expression for the pressure at a point in a fluid. 2.3 Explain why the pressure in a fluid varies with depth. h3 A h2 h1 B C Fig 3.1 Consider a cylindrical container as shown in fig 3.1. A fluid of known density is poured into it to a level l1. The area of the cross-section is A. Pr essure = But density ρ = Force Weight W = = Area Area A Mass(M ) Volume(V ) Mass (M) = Mass(M) x acceleration due to gravity (g) M= ρ V But Weight(W) = Mass(M) x acceleration due to gravity (g) W = Mg Pr essure (ρ ) = Mg ρvg = A A But volume (V) = Area (A) x height (h) W = Mg Pr essure (P ) = Mg ρvg = A A But Volume(V ) = Area (A ) x height (h ) V = Ah Pr essure = ρAhg A = ρgh 3.3 Pressure in a fluid varies with depth h3 A h2 h1 B C Fig. 2.3: An Orifice Tank WEEK 4 Describe the working principles of the following fluid measuring instruments. Explain their uses 3 4 12 The barometer. 13 Piezometer. 14 U- tube manometer. 15 The inverted U- tube. Describe the working principles of the following fluid measuring instruments. Explain their uses 4.1 (1) The Barometer:A practical method of measuring pressure of the atmosphere of the atmosphere is by means of the mercury barometer (fig 4.1) A a Fig 2 h The space A at the top of a closed vertical tube dipped in an open bath of mercury is emptied of air as far as possible. The pressure in space A is then equal only to the vapour pressure of the mercury vapor. However, this vapour pressure is low and may often be neglected. The space A is therefore almost at zero pressure. The pressure of the atmosphere on the mercury in the open bath forces the liquid up the tube until the sufficient to balance the pressure of the atmosphere. Let h be the height of the mercury column above the level mercury in the bath; that is h is the “height” of the mercury barometer. Let Ws be the specific weight of mercury and a specific weight of mercury and a the cross-section area of the tube; The volume of mercury column = ax h Weight of mercury column = Ws x a x h Pressure exerted by the mercury at the level of the bath = weight of column area of tube = ws x a h a = ws h This is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the mercury surface in the bath. The height h of the Barometer is therefore directly proportional to the pressure of the atmosphere. The density of mercury is 13.6 x 103 Kg m3 , therefore specific weight of mercury ws = 13.6 x 103 x 9.81 Hence, if h is in metres, atmospheric pressure = ws h Thus, 1 meter of mercury, h = 1 corresponds to a pressure of 133.3 KN/m². For large pressures the unit used for the atmospheric pressure is the atmosphere. 1 atmosphere (atm) = 101.3kN/m². = 1.013bar = 760mm of mercury = 10.4m of water 2.41 (ii) Piezometer:The relationship between pressure and head is utilized for pressure measurement in the manometer or liquid gauge. The simplest form is the pressure tube or Piezometer shown in fig. 4.2 h1 h2 • A • B Fig. 3: Pressure Tube or Piezometer It consists of a single vertical tube open at the inserted into a pipe or vessel containing liquid under pressure which rises in the tube to a light depending on the pressure. If the atmosphere, the pressure measured is ‘gauge’ pressure. Pressure of A = Pressure due to column of height h ρ A = ρgh1 Similarly, pressure at B = ρb = ρgh2 2.42 (iii) U-tube manometer:D Fluid P, Liquid Q1 Mass Density ρ • A h2 h1 B C Fig 4 U-tube manometer The U-tube gauge, fig. 4.3, can be used to measure the pressure of either liquids or gases. The bottom of the U-tube is filled with a manometric liquid Q which is of greater density ρman and is immiscible with the fluid P, liquid or gas of density P, whose pressure is to be measured if B is the level of the interface in the left-hand limb and C is a point at the limb and C is point at the same level in the right-hand limb, Pressure ρ B at B = Pressure ρC at C For the left-hand limb Pressure Pb = Pressure Pa at A + Pressure due to depth h1 of fluid P = ρ A + ρgh1 For the right-hand limb. ρC = Pr essure ρ D at D + pressure due to depth h2 of liquid Q ρ D = Atmospheric pressure = zero gauge pressure and so ρC = 0 + ρ man gh2 Since ρ B = ρC ρ A + ρgh1 = ρman gh2 ρ A = ρ man gh2 − ρgh1 (iv) The inverted U- tube:- Fluid, density ρman X X h b •B a • A Liquid, density ρ Fig 4.4 inverted U-tube manometer. The inverted U-tube shown in fig 4.4 is used for measuring pressure difference in liquids. The top of the U-tube is filled with a fluid, frequently air, which is less dense than that connected to the instrument. Since the fluid in the top is at rest, pressures at level xx will be the same in both limbs. For the left- hand limb ρ xx = ρ A − ρga − ρ man gh For the right-hand limb ρ xx = ρ B − ρg (b + h ) ρ B − ρ A = ρg (b − a ) +gh(ρ − ρ man ) Thus or if A and B are at the same level , ρ B − ρ A = (ρ − ρ man )gh If the top of the tube is filled with air ρ man is negligible compared with ρ and ρ B − ρ A = ρgh . If the tip of the tube is filled with air ρ man is negligible compared with ρ and ρ B − ρ A = ρgh . On the other hand, if the liquid in the top of the tube is chosen so that ρ man is very nearly equal to ρ , and provided that the liquids do not mix, the result will be a very sensitive manometer giving a large value of h for a small pressure difference. WEEK 5 Compressibility and the Bulk Modulus. All materials whether solid, liquid, or gases are compressible, that is the volume V of a given mass will be reduced to V-δv when a force is exerted uniformly all over its surface. If the force per unit area of surface increases to P+δp, relationship between change of pressure and change of volume depends on the bulk modulus of the material. Bulk modulus = change in pressure volumetric strain Volumetric strain is the change in volume divided by the original volume. Therefore, volumetric strain = dv V Bulk modulus = K = -v Vdρ dv dρ (The minus sign indicates that the volume decreases as pressure dv increases. Therefore, Change in volume Change in pressure = Original volume Bulk mod ulus − δv δρ = V K In the limit, as sp => 0 K = -v dρ dv ……………………….1.1 considering unit mass of a substance, V = 1 ρ …………………. 1.2 Differentiating, Vdρ + ρdv = 0 v dv = - dρ ρ Substituting for V from equation 1.2 1 dv = - 2 dρ ρ ……………………1.3 p Putting the values of v and dv obtained from equations (1.2) and (1.3) in equation (1.1) K = ρ dρ dρ ……………………..1.4 The value of K is shown by equation (1.4) to be dependent on the relationship between pressure and density and, since density is also affected by temperature, it will depend on how the temperature changes during compression. If the temperature is constant, conditions are said to be isothermal, while if no heat is allowed to enter, or leave during compression, conditions are adiabatic. The ratio of the adiabatic bulk modulus to the isothermal bulk modulus is equal to r, the ratio of the specific heat of a fluid at constant pressure to that at constant volume. For liquids, γ is approximately unity and the two conditions need not be distinguished; for gases, the difference is substantial (for air γ =1.4) Perfect gas: A perfect gas is defined as a substance that satisfies the perfect gas law. PVs = RT…………. (1) and that has constant specific heats, specific volume; R is the gas constant; and T is the absolute pressure; R is the gas constant; and T is the absolute temperature. The perfect gas must be distinguished from the ideal fluid. An ideal fluid is frictionless and incompressible. The perfect gas has viscosity and can therefore develop shear stresses, and it is compressible according to equation (i) above. It may be written as P = PRT Where P = m/v PV = RT Replacing V by 1 ρ ;- ρ x 1 ρ = RT ρ = PRT VISCOUSITY The criteria which determines whether flow is viscous or turbulent is the quantity ρvl , known as µ the Reynolds number. Re = ρvl µ Where ρ = density of the fluid. V = the critical velocity. L = the characteristic length of the system U = coefficient of dynamic viscosity Experiments carried out with a number of different fluids in straight pipes of different diameters have established that if the Reynolds number is calculated by making l equal to the pipe diameter and using the mean velocity v, then, below a critical value of ρvd = 2000 µ Flow will normally be laminar (viscous). This value of the Reynolds number applies only to flow in pipes. Reynolds number is a ratio of forces and hence, a pure number and may also be written as µ ρ 1 vl = , where V is the kinematic Viscosity v = i.e ρ µ v v A 4cm Total mass = 3kg 3cm G 5cm B Example: Find the moment of inertia of fig below a X ρ Q X δ2 d K.E = ½w²∑mr² M = 2+1+3+4 = 10kg R = 3+1+2+2 = 8m I = ∑mr² = M1r1² + M2R2² + M3R3² +M4R4² = 2 x 3² + 1 x 1² + 3 x 2² + 4 x 4 = 2 x9 + 1 + 3 x 4 + 4 x 4 = 18 + 1 + 12 + 16 = 47kgm² Radius of gyration M = M1 + M 2 + M3 + M4 ½w² x Mk² = ½w² x ∑mr² Mk² x ∑mr² = I I = Mk² K = √(I/M) Moments of inertia (page 710) K.E = ½mv² V = wr k.e = ½m(wr)² = ½mw²r² K.E (1) = ½w² x m(1)r(1)² K.E (2) = ½w² x m(2)r(2)² K.E (3) = ½w² x m(3)r(3)² K.E (4) = ½w² x m(4)r(4)² K.E = K.E1 + K.E2 + K.E3 + K.E4 K.E = ∑½w² x mr² Example : To find the moment of inertia (1) and the radius of gyration (k) of a uniform thin rod about an axis through one end perpendicular to the length of the rod. S S d1 Z dz Q P a Let P = mass per unit length of the rod Mass of element of PQ = ρδx Second moment of mass PQ about xx = mass x (distance)² = ρ·δx·x² = ρ·x²·δx d2 Total second moment for all such elements can be written I = ∑ρx²δx As x --- 0 ρ²x² = ρ I = Mk² M = aρ I = k² = a²/3 = k² = ⅓ x a² = √⅓ x a = a/√3 Hence k² = a²/3 K = a/√3 Example 2: Find I for a rectangular plate about an axis through its e.g. parallel to one side as shown in fig 2x Let ρ = mass per unit area of plate Mass of strip PQ = b·δx·x²ρ i.e. mass x (distance)² Total second moment for all strips covering the figure I = ∑ b·ρ·x²·δx I = b·ρ·d³ 12 I = Mk² = b·ρ·d³ 12 K = d² 12 I = Md² 12 but M = ρbd Example 3: Find I for a rectangular plate 20cm x 10cm of mass 2kg about an axis 5cm from are 20cm side as shown. Mass of strip = b·δx·ρ Ρ = 0.01kg/cm² Area of strip = 20·δx Mass of strip = 20·δx·ρ 2nd moment of mass of strip about xx ≈ 20·5x·ρx² I = ∑x²dx·20ρ Total thrust on a vertical plate immersed in liquid Consider a thin strip at a depth Z below the surface of the liquid. - Pressure at P = w z (where w = weight of unit volume of the liquid) ∴ Thrust on strip PQ ≈ wz - 9.52 Then the total thrust on the whole plate z =d 2 ≈ ∑ aw zd 2 z =d c If δ 2 → 0, total thrust = d2 ∫ awzd d1 = z2 d2 aw 2 d1 = d 2 d 2 aw 2 − 1 2 2 = aw 2 d 2 − d12 2 [ ] 2 = aw (d 2 − d1 )(d 2 + d1 ) 2 = d + d1 aw(d 2 − d1 ) 2 2 d 2 + d1 is the depth half-way down the plate i.e. it indicates the depth of the centre of gravity of 2 − the plate denoted by z − Total thrust = aw(d 2 − d1 ) z = a(d 2 − d1 )w z − Also, a (d 2 − d1 ) is the total area of the plate ∴ Total thrust = area of plate x pressure at the c3 of the plate Depth of Centre of Pressure The centre of pressure is the point of application of the resultant force due to fluid pressure on one face of an immersed surface. O b x − x − dp y dx C G C P Fig. 6 − To determine the depth y of the centre of pressure we use the principle of moments. The sum of the moments about the water surface 0-0 fig “K” of the forces on all the thin strips such as D − must z − equal the moment p x y of the resultant thrust p about 0-0. Force on strip DE = pressure x area of strip dp = p x bdx = wx . bdx, sin ce p = wx Moment of this force about 0-0 is dp . x = wxbdx . x = wx 2bdx − 2 ∫ wx bdx and this is equal to the moment P x y of the resultant force Total moment about 0-0 = P about 0-0 Hence - P . y = w ∫ x 2bdx, since w is a constant. But ∫ x bdx is the total second moment of area I of the area A about 0-0 2 AB Thus − P . y = w x I AB − − Now P = wA x , where x is the distance of the centroid G below 0-0 Thus − y= wI AB wI AB I AB = = − P wA− Ax x Second moment of area about 0 - 0 First moment of area about 0 - 0 = Let I G = Second moment of area A about axis through G parallel to water surface 0-0 AK2 = Where K is the corresponding radius of gyration. Then the parallel theorem for 2nd moments of area stated:-2 I AB = I G + A x -2 − y = IG + A x - Ax -2 AK 2 + A x = − = Ax − − K2 − − +x x K2 − − −x + x − x But GC = y − x = K2 GC = − x WEEK 6 6.1 State the parallel axes theorem. 6.2 Derive an expression for the total thrust acting on a vertical plate submerged in a liquid. 6.3 Identity the point where the resultant thrust acts.( depth of centre of pressure). Example 1 To find the moment of inertia(I) and the radius of gyration (k) of a uniform thin rod about an axis through one end perpendicular to the length of the rod. Let ρ ═ mass per unit length of rod. Mass of element PQ ═ ρ σ x Second moment of mass PQ about XX ═ mass ×(distance)2 ═ ρ . σ x.x2 ═ ρ x2 σ x 2 Total second moment x3 3 a 2 ∫ ρ x dx = ρ → O, as X o I ═MK 2 for ═ ρ a 3 3 but For the left- hand limb Pxx = Pa – Pga – Pmangh For the right-hand limb Pxx = Pb - Pg (b+h) all such ρ x 3 M ═ a ρ ═ ═ elements ρ a 3 can be written I ═ ∑ ρx σ 2 x Thus Pb – Pa = Pg (b-a) + gh (P – Pman) Or if A and B are at the same level, Pb – Pa = (P- Pman) gh If the top of the tube is filled with air Pman is negligible compared with P and Pb –Pa = Pgh. On the other hand, if the liquid in the top of he fluid is chosen so that Pmax is very near equal to P, and provided that the liquid do not mix, the result will be a very sensitive manometer giving a large value of h for a small pressure difference. Compressibility and the bulk modulus. All materials whether solid, liquid, or gases are compressible, that is the volume V of a given mass will be reduced to V-δv when a force is exerted uniformly all over its surface. If the force per unit area of surface increases to P+δp, relationship between change of pressure and change of volume depends on the bulk modulus of the material. Bulk mod ulus = change in pressure Volumetric strain Volumetric strain is the change in volume divided by the original volume. Therefore, volumetric strain = dv Bulk modulus = K = - Vdp dv Vdp dv (The minus sign indicates that the volume decreases as pressure increases. Therefore, change in volume = change in pressure Original volume − δv SP = v K In the limit, as sp => 0 bulk modulus K= Vdp ……………………….1.1 dv considering unit mass of a substance, v= 1 …………………. 1.2 P Differentiating, Vdp + PdV = 0 Dv = - (v) dp P Substituting for V from equation 1.2 dv = - (1) dp ……………………1.3 p Putting the values of v and dv obtained from equations (1.2) and (1.3) in equation (1.1) K=P dp ……………………..1.4 dp The value of K is shown by equation (1.4) to be dependent on the relationship between pressure and density and, since density is also affected by temperature, it will depend on how the temperature changes during compression. If the temperature is constant, conditions are said to be isothermal, while if no heat is allowed to enter, or leave during compression, conditions are adiabatic. The ratio of the adiabatic bulk modulus to the isothermal bulk modulus is equal to r, the ratio of the specific heat of a fluid at constant pressure to that at constant volume. For liquids, γ is approximately unity and the two conditions need not be distinguished; for gases, the difference is substantial (for air γ =1.4) Perfect gas: A perfect gas is defined as a substance that satisfies the perfect gas law. PVs = RT…………. (1) and that has constant specific heats, specific volume; R is the gas constant; and T is the absolute pressure; R is the gas constant; and T is the absolute temperature. The perfect gas must be distinguished from the ideal fluid. An ideal fluid is frictionless and incompressible. The perfect gas has viscosity and can therefore develop shear stresses, and it is compressible according to equation (i) above. It may be written as P = PRT Where P = m/v PV =RT Replacing V by 1/p; P x 1/P = RT P = PRT A 4cm Total mass = 3kg 3cm G B 5cm X P 2cm example : Find the moment of inertia of fig below X d ρ b G Q − d 2 δ2 d 2 K.E = ½w²∑mr² M = 2+1+3+4 = 10kg R = 3+1+2+2 = 8m I = ∑mr² = M1r1² + M2R2² + M3R3² +M4R4² = 2 x 3² + 1 x 1² + 3 x 2² + 4 x 4 = 2 x9 + 1 + 3 x 4 + 4 x 4 = 18 + 1 + 12 + 16 = 47kgm² Radius of gyration M = M1 +M2 +M3 +M4 ½w² x Mk² = ½w² x ∑mr² Mk² x ∑mr² = I I = Mk² K = √(I/M) Moments of inertia (page 710) K.E = ½mv² V = wr k.e = ½m(wr)² = ½mw²r² K.E (1) = ½w² x m(1)r(1)² K.E (2) = ½w² x m(2)r(2)² K.E (3) = ½w² x m(3)r(3)² K.E (4) = ½w² x m(4)r(4)² K.E = K.E1 + K.E2 + K.E3 + K.E4 K.E = ∑½w² x mr² Example 3: Find I for a rectangular plate 20cm x 10cm of mass 2kg about an axis 5cm from are 20cm side as shown. Mass of strip = b·δx·ρ Ρ = 0.01kg/cm² Area of strip = 20·δx Mass of strip = 20·δx·ρ 2nd moment of mass of strip about xx ≈ 20·5x·ρx² I = ∑x²dx·20ρ = 20ρ QUESTIONS PART A 1. 2) A particular fluid stored in a container has a volume of 3m3 and mass of 40kg. Calculate i) Specific weight ii) Specific volume iii) Relative density A container fig. Q2 shown below has the following fluids stored in it. What would be the pressure exerted by air (Pair), if pressure (PA) at the bottom of the container is 200 KN/m2 and the density of oil is 600 Kg/m3, that of water is 1000 Kg/m3. Take specific gravity of mercury to be 13.6. Air 3m Oil 2m Water 500mm Mercury A 3) 4) What would be the pressure in KN/m if the equivalent head is measured as 600mm of a) Mercury of specific gravity 13.6 b) A liquid of density 520 Kg/m3 What would be a) the gauge pressure b) the absolute pressure of water at a depth of 12m below the free surface. Assume that the density of water to be 1000 Kg/m3 and the atmospheric pressure is 101 KN/m2. 5) 101 KN/m2 P1 = 0.87 x 103 Kg/m3 4m Pm = 13.6 x 103 Kg/m3 3m A Fig. Q5 Fig. Q5 is a container that has two immiscible fluids in it. Calculate the pressure at point A (at the bottom of the container). 6) 7) 8) The diameters of the pistons of a hydraulic jack are a) 100mm and 10mm respectively. Find the effort required to lift a load 20KN. The pistons are on the same level. b) The diameters of the pistons of a hydraulic jack are in the ratio 1:5. The pistons are on the same level and a force 200N is applied to the smaller piston. Determine the load that could be raised by the larger piston. What would be the pressure in KN/m2, if the equivalent head is measured as 4000mm of a) Mercury of specific gravity 13.6 b) Water of density 103 Kg/m3 c) Oil of specific weight 7.9 KN/m3. The pressure at a point in the sea is 8 atmospheres. What is the depth of the point, if the specific gravity of sea water is 1.17? P A 10m B Fig. Q9 Fig. Q9 is special Jar that contains water. If the pressure required to remove the cork at B is 150 Kpa, calculate the value of the pressure P that must be applied at A. 10) A U-tube manometer is arranged as shown in fig. Q10 to measure the pressure difference between two points A and B in a pipeline conveying water of density ρ = 103 Kg - m-3. The density of the manometer liquid Q is 13.6 x 103 Kg. m-3 and point B is 0.3m higher than point A. Calculate the pressure difference when h = 0.5m. Fluid P of density ρ B A b a h C ++ ++ ++++ ++ ++++ ++ ++++++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++++ ++++ ++ ++ ++++ ++ ++ ++++ ++ ++ +++ ++ ++++++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ Manometric liquid Q of density ρ man D Fig. Q10 PART B 1) If the critical velocity of air in a pipe of 125mm diameter is 0.234 m/s, what would be the Reynolds’ number. Calculate also the critical velocity of water in the same pipe. Take the kinematics viscosity of air as 1.46 x 10-5 m2 and that of water as 1.10 x 10-6 m2 s 2) s Oil of specific gravity 0.9 and viscosity 0.17 NS/m2 is pumped through a 75mm diameter pipeline at the rate of 2.7 kg/s. Show that the critical velocity is not exceeded. 3) Water flows through a pipe 25mm in diameter at a velocity of 6 m/s. Determine whether the flow would be laminar or turbulent assuming that the dynamic viscosity of water is 1.30 x 10-5 kg ms and its density 10- 5 kg viscosity 9.6 x 10- 2 kg ms m3 . If oil of specific gravity 0.9 and dynamic is pumped through the same pipe, what type of flow will occur.? WEEK 7 UNDERSTANDING THE ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE AND ITS APPLICATION 7.0 BUOYANCY OF FLOATING BODIES When ever a body is immersed wholly or partially in a fluid it is subjected to an upward force which tends to lift (buoy) it up. This tendency for an immersed body to be lifted up in the fluid, due to an upward force opposite to action of gravity is known as buoyancy. The force tending to lift up the body under such condition is known as buoyant force or force of buoyancy or up thrust. The magnitude of buoyant forces can be determined by Archimedes principle. 7.1 Archimedes principles: This states that when a body is wholly or partially immersed in fluid, it experiences an up thrust which is equal to the weight of fluid displaced. This is mainly about ships and boats: how they managed to float upright, and why they sometimes do not. Consider the equilibrium of a stationary floating object such as a ship. Two forces act upon it its own weight W which is acting, vertically upwards excerted by the surrounding fluid. The upthrust is governed by the archemedes principle. 7.2 (I) CENTRE OF BUOYANCY The up thrust on a body always acts through the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced by the body. This point is called the centre of buoyancy. Consider a cylinder in which the upthrust act along the vertical centre line, because of the symmetry of the cylinder about the centre line, it would be unreasonable to expect it to act anywhere else. Consider another example say ship. It has a A much complex shape. The side view has no symmetry, so we cannot easily tell where the line of action of the upthrust will be. If we take moment about any point such as G, the centre of gravity of the ship, we can see there is anticlock wise moment acting. The ship can be in equilibrium only if the weight and the upthrust are equal and opposite and also acts along the same restical line. 7.2 (ii) BOUYANT FORCE The vertical upward force which the fluid or water exerted on the body that were immersed in the fluid is known as the buoyant force. 7.3 HYDROMETER A given floating body will float at different height in liquids of different densities for example, because the temperature and salinity of the sea varies from place to place, its density also values, and so a ship will float at different depths in different part of the world. The depth at which a given body floats can be used to indicate the density of the liquid. An instrument does it is called a hydrometer. The hydrometer is usually shaped as shown in the diagrams below, weighted at the bottom so that it floats upright. The stem is graduated. (i) To indicate the density of the liquid In the left hand diagram the hydrometer is shown floating in a liquid of density ρ0, a volume V0 of the hydrometer is submerged so that V0 of the liquid is displaced. When the hydrometer is floated in a liquid whose density is grater the diameter floats a distance H higher, so that submerged volume is now (V0 – Ah), where A is the area of X-section of the stem. The upthrust on the hydrometer must be equal and opposite to its weight W. Therefore, W = e0gV0 = e.g. (V0-Ah) ρ0/ρ = 1- Ah V0 h = V0 (ρ – ρ0) A ρ By making the area A rather small, that is, by making the steam narrow, we obtain a sensitive hydrometer, one which gives a large change in height in for only a small difference (ρ-ρ0) in densities. 7.4 FLOATING BODIES Consider a wooden board that float in the position shown below. It is noted that the centre of buoyancy is below the centre of gravity. To observe how the body can float stable even with B below G, consider the situation where the plank has been turned through an angleθ. From fig (i) the weight W=mg acts through the center of gravity G and the upthrust R acts through the center of buoyancy B of the displaced fluid in the same straight line as W. for body tilted at angle θ the volume of liquid remains unchanged but the shape of volume and its center of gravity changes while the center of buoyancy move from B to B, and a turning moment, WX is produced. The metacentric m is the point at which the line of action of the upthrust R for the as placed position cuts the original vertical through the center of gravity of the body G. The metecentric height is the distance GM for angle of tilt θ. Righting moment =WX Where x= GMθ. , provide that the angles of tilt is small so that sin θ=θ in rad. Righting moment =w. GM. Sinθ. =w. GMθ. Note that comparing fig (ii) and (iv), it can be seen that, (I) if m lies above G, a righting moment W.GMθ is produced, equilibrium is stable and GM is regarded as -ve. (II) If M lies above G, an overturning moment WGMθ is produced equilibrium is unstable and GM is regarded as –ve. (III) If M coincides with G, the body is in neutral equilibrium. Therefore the stability of a floating body depend on the metacentric height i.e. the distance G M. WEEK 8 DETERMINATION OF METACENTRIC HEIGHT OF A VISSEL. The metacentric height about the longitudinal axes can be determined if a load p is moved transversely a distance x across its deck causing the vessel to move through a small angleθ. The overturning movement due to movement of load the Righting movement =W.Gm sinθ. Where Gm= metacentric height and p=px W=p+w, (w, weight of vessel and p=load). Note that: The effect of moving the load p and a distance x is produce an overturning movement on the vessel and a righting movement is produced for equilibrium of the vessel in tilled position. For small angle sin θ = θ :. Righting movement=W.GMθ Where W=total weight of vessel (w+p) For equilibrium in tilled position, Righting moment = overturning moment. WGMθ=PX. GM= p x W sinθ Where G.M= metacentric height θ=radians. EXAMPLE 1 A cylindrical drum with flat ends, whose diameter is 600mm, floats in fresh water with its vertical, if the total mass m of the drum (including content) is 225kg, to what depth h will it be submerged? Since the cylinder is floating in equilibrium, its weight must be exactly balanced by the upthrust, and this is equal to the weight of the water displaced. Weight of cylinder=weight of water displaced Mg=water x (volume displaced) g 225xg=1000 x (π x 0.32 xh) g. h=0.796mm or 796mm EXAMPLE 2 In an experiment to determine the metacentric weight for a passenger lines of displacement 28.000 tone (i.e. its mass is 28,000 tones). An object of mass & tone is moved a distance 10m across the width of the ship. The ship is observed to turn through an angle of o.380. Find the metacentric height. For the conversion of angle, θ = 0.380 = 0.38 x π/180 rod. The metacentric height, GM= PX. Wθ = 8 x 10 28.000x66x10-3 =0.43m EXAMPLE 3 The crew of a small motor cruiser all moves to one side of the vessel to wave to a passing boat. The displacement of the cruiser is 40 tomes. The combined mass of the crew is 400kg and thing are initiated distributed evenly over the width of the boat which is 4m. If the metacentric height of The boat is 0.25m, through what angle does it turn when the crew all move to one side The angle, θ= PX WGm = 400X2 40,400X0.25 = 0.08 rad :. Q=460. WEEK 9: UNDERSTANDING THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MASS 9.1 PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MASS The theory of fluid flow tests on two principles namely the principle of conservation of mass and principle of conservation of energy. The principle of conservation of mass stated that “matter can neither be created nor destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another” This principle can be applied to the flow of fluid. Using the principle of conservation of mass, it can be said that in a given period of time, the same mass of fluid that enter a system must be equal to the amount of fluid flowing out. 9.2 CONSERVATION OF MASS Consider a flow through a pipe of cross-area A1, density ρ1, and valuation V1 at section (1) i.e. point of entry and ρ2, A2, V2 at section (2) i.e. at outlet mass flow rate at section (1) = ρ1A1V1 Mass flow rate at section (2) = ρ2A2V2 By conservation of mass, mathematically, ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2 = m- - - (1) Where m = mass flow rate For incompressible flow (in general gasses and vapour are compressible, liquids are incompressible) the density is practical constant. The equation (1) becomes. A1V1=A2V2 = Q - - - (2) Where Q = discharge or volume flow rate m3/s. The equation (2) is called the equation of continuity of flow. 9.3 DISCHARGE The volume of liquid passing through a pipeline at any given cross section in unit time is referred to as discharge or volumetric flow rate, Q. Assume that the cross section area of the pipe is A and the fluid flow at uniform velocity V, then the discharge or volumetric flow rate Q is given by. Q = AV (m2 x m2/s) The unit is cubic meters per second m3/s Give the density of the fluid passing through the pipe of cross section in unit time, the mass flow rate can found, Mass flow rate, m = ρAV = ρQ (kg/m3/s) The unit is kilogram per second (kg/s). Air is discharged from a compressor outlet at a velocity of 3mk with a mass flow rate of 7.68 x 10-3 kg/s. if air has density of 1.293kg/m3, determine the volumetric flow rate and the diameter of the outlet. SOLUTION: Velocity of the air = 3m/s mass flow rate m = 7.68 x 10-3 kg/s the density of air = 1.293kg/m3 Q =? From the date. Q = AV. But m = ρAV and A = m ρV ∴ Q=3 = 7.88 x 10-3 1.293 x 3 9.4 APPLICATION OF CONTINIUTY EQUATION. The continuity equation can be applied to determine the relation between the flows into and out of a junction consider the figure below: - For steady condition Total inflow to junction = Total out let from junction ρ1Q1 = ρ2 Q2 + ρ3 Q3 For an incompressible fluid, ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ3 so that Q1 = Q2 + Q3 or A1V1 = A2V2 + A3V3. I general if we considered flow toward he junction as positive and flow from the junction as negative them for steady flow at any junction the algebraic sum of all mass all mass flows must be zero. WEEK 10 UNDERSTANDING THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 10.1 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Consider an element of fluid shown below will posses potential energy due to its height Z above datum and Kinetic energy due to its velocity V and the same way as any other object. For an element of weight, mg. Potential energy = mg Z Potential energy per unit weight = mgz = Z - - - - - - - - - - (i) mg Kinetic energy = ½ mg V2 = ½ mV2 g Kinetic energy per unit weight = ½ mV2 - - - - - - - - - - --(ii) Force exerted on AB = PA After a weight of fluid has flowed along the stream tube, section AB will have moved to AB Volume passing AB = mg /ρg = m/ρ ∴ Distance AA1 = m/ρA Work done per unit weight = P/ρg - - - - - - - - - (c) The term p/ρg is called the flow work or pressure energy. By equation a, b, and c, it can be seen that the 3 terms of Bernoulli equation are the pressure energy per unit weight, Kinetic energy per unit weight and the Potential energy per unit weight. Thus, Bernoulli’s equation state that for steady flow of a frictionless fluid along a straight a streamline, the total energy per unit weight remain constant from point to point although its division between the three forms of energy may vary: Pressure energy K.E per P.E per Total energy Per unit weight unit weight unit weight per unit weight = constant P1 + V2 + ρg 2g Z1 = H - - - - - - - - (IV) Each of these has the dimension of length or head and they are often referred to as his pressure head p/ρg, the velocity head V2/2g the potential head Z and total head it. Applying this equation between two points 1 and 2 on stream line, equation d becomes. P1 + V12 + Z1 = P2 + V22 + Z2 - - - - - - (v) ρg 2 ρg 2 Or total energy per unit weight at 1 = total energy per unit Weight at 2. QUIZ 1. A jet of 50mm diameter impinges on a curved vane and is deflected through an angle of 175. The vane moves in the same direction as that of jet with a velocity of 35 m/s. If the rate of flow is 170 litres per second, determine the component of force on the vane in the direction of motion. How much would be the power developed by the vane and what would be the water efficiency. Neglect friction. QUIZ 2. A jet of water , 50 mm in diameter , issues a velocity of 10 m/s and impinges on a stationary flat plate which destroys its forward motion. Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate and the work done. QUIZ 3. A jet of water of diameter 75 mm moving with a velocity of 20 m/s strikes a fixed plate in such a way that the angle between the jet and the plate is 60. Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate. i. In the direction normal to the plate , and ii in the direction of the jet WEEK 11: TO KNOW THE MOMENTUM EQUATION AND ITS PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS 11.1 INTRODUCTION AND UNDERSTANDING OF CONCEPTS OF STEADY FLOW, STREAMLINE AND STREAMTUBE We now come to the subject of fluid dynamics: the study of fluids in motion. We only need to think of the swirling flow that can be seen in the spray behind a road vehicle travelling in wet weather to realize that the motion of fluids can be very complex. Flow of this kind is virtually impossible to analyze in detail. Fortunately, there are many common situations in which analysis is possible because the flow is steady; that is, the parameters of the flow at any point (the speed and direction of motion, the pressure, the density etc.) do not vary with time. Flows of liquid along a pipe, of air over the wing of aircraft or of water through a pump are just a few of the many cases which can be treated by steady-flow analysis. For each of the following cases, do you think the flow is likely to be steady or unsteady? (a) Flow of water trough the nozzle of a fire-hose (b) Flow of air over a waving flag (c) Flow of natural gas along a pipeline. (a) Steady; (b) Unsteady; (c) Steady In most instances the rate of flow of water through a fire-hose or of gas along a pipeline is probably roughly constant, so the flow will be steady. In case of the flag, even though the speed of the wind may be constant, the flow around the waving flag is continuously varying as the shape of the flag changes, so the flow is unsteady. In this book we shall be confining our attention to instances of steady flow. Whether the flow is steady or unsteady, it is often useful to draw a diagram of the pattern of flow of a fluid. A common way to do this is to draw lines which at every point have the direction of the fluid velocity. These lines are called streamlines. A typical diagram is shown in the next frame. The diagram above shows an aerofoil (a shape like the wing of an aircraft or the blade of a turbine), with the flow around it illustrated by streamlines. A picture like this is very helpful when we wish to visualize the flow. When fluid is flowing past a solid boundary, such as the surface of an aerofoil or the inner surface of a pipe, obviously the fluid cannot flow into or out of the wall, so its velocity close to the boundary wall must be parallel to the wall. So, close to the solid boundary, is it possible to have streamlines that are not parallel to the boundary? No, the streamlines must be parallel to the boundary wall At very point the streamlines have the direction of the fluid velocity: this is how they are defined. Close to the boundary the velocity is parallel to the wall, so the streamlines must be parallel to the wall also. (There is only one exception to this: close to a point where the velocity of the fluid is zero, the streamlines close to a wall are always parallel to it.) Because the fluid is everywhere moving in the same direction as the streamlines, fluid can never cross a streamline Do you think it is possible for streamlines to intersect one another? (What is the direction of motion of the fluid at the point where the lines cross? No streamlines cannot intersect one another If two streamlines were to cross, then at the point of intersection a particle of fluid would have to be moving in two directions at once, which is of course impossible. It is often useful to consider a part of the total flow in isolation from the rest. A common way of doing this is to imagine a tubular surface, formed by streamlines, along which the fluid flows. This tubular surface is called a stream tube. The diagram above shows a stream tube. Remembering that the ‘wall’ of the tube is formed of streamlines, can fluid flow through the wall of the tube? Fluid cannot flow through the ‘wall’ of a stream tube We have already seen that flow is always along and never across a streamline, so the fluid cannot escape through a stream tube’s wall, which is entirely composed of streamlines. In this respect a stream tube is just like a solidwalled pipe. It differs from a pipe in that if the flow is not steady the streamlines will not always be in same place; but when the flow conditions at each point do not vary with time the position of the streamlines do not very, so the walls of the stream tube are effectively fixed. When the flow does not vary with time we call it… WEEK 12: UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF MOMENTUM AND FLUID FLOW 12.1 MOMENTUM AND FLUID FLOW In mechanics, the momentum of a particle or objectify is defined as the product of its mass M and its velocity V : Momentum = MV . The particles of a fluid stream will possess momentum, and, whenever the velocity of the stream is changed in magnitude or direction, there will be a corresponding change in the momentum of the fluid particles. In accordance with Newton’s second law, a force is required to produce this change, which will be proportional to the rate at which the change of momentum occurs. The force may be provided by contact between the fluid and a solid boundary (e.g. the blade of a propeller or the wall of a bend in a pipe) or by one part of the fluid stream acting on another. By Newton’s third law, the fluid will exert an equal and opposite force on the solid boundary or body of fluid producing the change of velocity. Such forces are known as dynamic forces, since they arise from the motion of the fluid and are additional to the static forces due to pressure in a fluid; they occur even when the fluid is at rest. To determine the rate of change of momentum in a fluid stream consider a control volume ABCD (as shown below). As the fluid flow is assumed to be steady and non-uniform in nature the continuity of mass flow across the control volume may be expressed as. l 2 A2V2 = l 1 A1V1 = m Fig 12.1 control volume ABCD i.e there is no storage within the control volume and m is the fluid mass flow. The rate at which momentum exits the control volume across boundary CD may be defined as l 2 A2 V2V2 Similarly the rate at which momentum enters the control volume across AB may be expressed as l 1 A1V1V1 Thus the rate of change of momentum across the control volume may be seen to be l 2 A2V2V2 = l1 A1V1V1 Or, from the continuity of mass flow equation, Note that this is the increase of momentum per unit time in the direction of motion, and according to Newton’s second law will be caused by a force F , such that This is the resultant force acting on the fluid element ABCD in the direction of motion. By Newton’s third law, the fluid will exert an equal and opposite reaction on its surroundings. 12.2 MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR TWO-AND THREE- DIMENSIONAL FLOW ALONG A STREAMLINE The momentum equation F = m(V2 − V1 ) was derived for one-dimensional flow in a straight line, assuming that the incoming and outgoing velocities V 1 and V2 were in the same direction. The figure below shows a two-dimensional problem in which v1 makes an angle θ with the x -axis, while V2 makes a corresponding angle φ. Since both momentum and force are vector quantities, they can be resolved into components in the x and y directions and equation F = m(V2 − V1 ) applied. Thus, if FX and FY are the components of the resultant force on the element of fluid ABCD, Fig 12.2 Element of fluid in pipe ABCD FX = Rate of change of momentum of fluid in x direction = Mass per unit x change of fluid in x direction = m(V2 cos φ − V1 cos θ ) = m(VY 2 − VX 1 ) Similarly, FY = m[V2 sin φ − V1 sin θ ] = m(VY 2 − VY 1 ) These components can be combined to give the resultant force, F = F 2 x 2 +F Y Again, the force exerted by the fluid on the surroundings with be equal and opposite. For three dimensional flows, the same method can be used, but the fluid will also have component velocities Vz1 and Vz2 in the z direction and the corresponding rate of change of momentum in this direction will require a force ( Fz = m V z − VZ 1 ) QUIZ Derive the momentum equation and the resultant force for a fluid flow in pipe for both two and three dimensional flow. WEEK 13: THE APPLICATION OF MOMENTUM EQUATION 13.0 APPLICATION OF MOMENTUM EQUATION 13.1 IMPACT OF FREE JETS INTRODUCTION A fluid jet is a stream of fluid issuing from a nozzle with a high velocity and hence a high kinetic energy. When a jet impinges on a plate or vane, it exerts a force on it [due to change in momentum].this force can be evaluated by using impulse momentum principle. The following cases of impact of jet will be considered. 13.1.1 FORCE EXERTED BY THE JET ON THE STATIONARY PLATE 1. When flat plate is held normal to the jet; 2. When flat plate is held inclined to the jet; 3. When plate is curved. 13.1.2 FORCE EXERTED BY THE JET ON THE MOVING PLATE. 1. When plate is held normal to the jet; 2. When plate is held inclined to the jet; 3. When plate is curved. 13.1.3 FORCE EXERTED BY THE JET ON A STATIONARY PLATE Force exerted on a stationary flat plate held Normal to the jet The Fig. below shows a fluid jet striking a stationary flat plate held perpendicular to the flow direction. Let a and v be cross sectional area and velocity of the jet respectively. The jet after striking this plate [vertical],will get its direction changed through 90 ; but, it will move on and off the plate with velocity v, if we neglect the friction between the jet and the plate as is possible when the plate is smooth. If the friction is considered, the velocity of liquid coming off the plate will be slightly less than v. The force exerted by the jet on the plate [assuming is smooth] in the direction of jet. [X direction], Fx =Rate of change momentum [in the direction of force] = [Initial momentum-final momentum] = Impulse momentum principle. = [mass/sec] x [velocity of jet before striking the plate- velocity of jet after striking the plate]. = ρaV [V-0] Or Fx = ρaV2 Where ρ = mass density of liquid; a = area of jet and d = diameter of the jet. It may be noted that a jet leaves in the direction normal to X-axis, the final velocity in the X-direction is zero . 13.1.4 FORCE EXERTED ON A STATIONARY FLAT PLATE HELD INCLINED TO THE JET The fig. below shows the stationary flat plate inclined at θ0 to the direction of horizontal jet. If a and v are the cross-sectional area and velocity of the jet respectively, then the mass of liquid per second striking the plate = ρ x aV After striking the plate (assuming it smooth), the jet leaves the plate with velocity equal to initial velocity (V). Let us apply the impulse-momentum equation in the direction normal to the plate. Force in normal direction, Fn = ρaV (Vsin θ - 0) = ρaV2 sin θ This normal force can be resolved into two components; component Fx parallel to the direction of jet and component Fy, normal to the direction of the jet Fx = Fn sin θ = ρaV2 sin θ x sin θ = ρaV2 sin2 θ Fy = Fn cos θ = ρaV2 sin θ x cos θ 13.1.5 FORCE EXERTED ON STATIONARY CURVED PLATE i. Jet strikes the curved plate at the centre: Consider a fluid jet striking a stationary curved plate (smooth) at the centre shown below. The jet after striking the plate comes out with the same velocity, in the tangential direction of the curved plate. The velocity at the outlet of the plate can be resolved into the following two components: i. Component of velocity in the direction of jet = - V cos θ (-ve sign indicates that the velocity at the outlet is in a direction opposite to that of the fluid jet) ii. Component of velocity perpendicular to the jet = v sin θ Applying impulse-momentum equation, we have: Force exerted by the jet (in the direction of jet). Fx = ρaV (V1x – V2x) Where V1x = initial velocity in the direction of jet = V V2x = final velocity in the direction of jet = - V cos θ ∴ Fx = ρaV (V – (-V cos θ) = ρaV ( V + V cos θ) Or Fx = ρaV2 (1 + cos θ) Similarly, Fy = ρaV (V1y – V2y) Where V1y = initial velocity in the direction of y = 0 V2y = final velocity in the direction of y = V sin θ ∴ Fy = ρaV (0 – V sin θ) = - ρaV2 sin θ NOTE The resultant of the force F = Fx2 + Fy2 Example 1: A jet of water, 75mm in diameter, issues with a velocity of 30m/s and impinges on a stationary flat plate which destroys its forward motion. Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate. Solution . Diameter of jet, d = 75mm = 0.075m Velocity of jet, V = 30m/s The force exerted by the jet on a stationary vertical plate is given by F = ρaV2 Where, ρ = Mass density of water = 1000 kg/m3 a = Area of jet = π/4 x d2 = π/4 x 0.0752 = 0.004418 m2 ∴ F = 1000 x 0.004418 x 302 = 3976.2 N (Ans) Example 2: A jet of water strikes with a velocity of 35m/s a flat plate inclined at 300 with the axis of the jet. If the cross-sectional area of the jet is 25cm2, determine: i. The force exerted by the jet on the plate. ii. The components of the force in the direction normal to the jet. Solution . Velocity of jet, V = 35m/s Inclination of the plate with the jet axis, θ = 300 Area of the jet, a = 25cm2 = 25 x 10-4m2 i. The force exerted by the jet F: F = ρaV2 sin θ = 1000 x (25 x 10-4) x 352 x sin 300 = 1531.25N (Ans.) ii. The component of force, F: Fx = F sin θ = 1531.25 x sin 300 = 765.625N (Ans.) Fy = F cos θ = 1531.25 x cos 300 = 1326.1N (Ans.) QUIZ 1. A jet of 50mm diameter impinges on a curved vane and is deflected through an angle of 175. The vane moves in the same direction as that of jet with a velocity of 35 m/s. If the rate of flow is 170 litres per second, determine the component of force on the vane in the direction of motion. How much would be the power developed by the vane and what would be the water efficiency. Neglect friction. QUIZ 2. A jet of water , 50 mm in diameter , issues a velocity of 10 m/s and impinges on a stationary flat plate which destroys its forward motion. Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate and the work done. QUIZ 3. A jet of water of diameter 75 mm moving with a velocity of 20 m/s strikes a fixed plate in such a way that the angle between the jet and the plate is 60. Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate. i. In the direction normal to the plate , and ii in the direction of the jet Week 14: FLUID DYNAMICS Fluid dynamic is concerned with the study of fluids in motion. 14.1 TYPES OF FLOW 1. Laminar flow: in this case, fluid particles move along in layers or laminar with one layer sliding over and adjacent layer. The flow is governed by Newton’s law of viscosity (for one-dimensional flow) it is also called streamline viscous flow. 2. Turbulent flow: - This occurs when the fluid particle move in very irregular paths causing an exchange of momentum from one portion of a fluid to another. This is also called a non viscous flow. Laminar flow tends occur when the fluid velocity s small or the fluid velocity is large or both the turbulent flow sets up greater shear stresses and causes more mechanical energy to be converted to thermal energy. 3. Steady Flow: This is characterized by a steady mass flow rate and by that across any section at right angles to the flow all properties are constant with respect to time. True steady flow is found only in laminar flow. Steady, turbulent flow is said to exist when the mean velocity of flow at a section remains constant with time. 4. Unsteady Flow: This occurs when conditions at any point change with time. An example is the flow of a liquid being pumped through a fixed system at an increasing rate. 5. Uniform Flow: This occurs when, at every point the velocity vector is identical in magnitude and direction at any given instant. That is du /ds = o in which time is held constant and S is the displacement in any direction. This equation states that there is no change in the velocity vector in any direction through out the fluid at any instant. 6. Non-Uniform Flow: This occurs when the velocity vector vari8es from place to place at any instant i.e. du/ds ≠ o AN example is the flow of a liquid through a tapered or curved pipe. To determine whether a particular flow is laminar or turbulent depends on three particular i.e. velocity, viscosity and density of the and the cross-sectional area through which the fluid flows. 14.2 Determination of laminar and turbulent flow Fig 14.1 long tube carrying water The sketch shows a long tube along which water flows from left to right. A thin stream of coloured dye is introduced into the water on the centre-line of the tube. Would you expect the stream of dye to be straight, as shown below, or confused, as shown below? Either is possible When the water is flowing slowly, the motion is orderly, and all the particles move in straight lines parallel to the axis of the tube. The stream of dye will then be straight. This kind of flow is called laminar flow. By contrast, in a fast-moving flow of water the particles move in a random way, in addition to the general left to right flow. The dye rapidly gets thoroughly mixed, and after only a short distance the water becomes a uniform pale colour. This is called turbulent flow. But what we do mean here by ‘fast’ and ‘slow’? In particular, at what does the flow change from orderly to random – from laminar to turbulent? This question was investigated by the British engineer Osborne Reynolds at Manchester during the early 1880s in one of the classic experiments of fluid mechanics. He used a thin filament of coloured dye in water flowing along a glass tube, so that the pattern traced by the dye could be observed. The water was stored in a tank in which was allowed to settle for sometime before each experiment, so that there will be no eddies remaining in the tank that might affect the behaviour of the water in the pipe. Fig 14.2 Reynolds apparatus Reynolds observed what we have already discoursed: that there are two kinds of flow. Furthermore, he showed, when the value of the dimensionless ratio ρud µ Is less than about 2000, the flow is always laminar. (Here u represent the u represent the mean velocity of the fluid, ρ and µ are the density and viscosity, and d is the inside diameter of the tube.) When the value of this ratio is greater than 2000, the flow is usually turbulent, unless special precautions are taken. We have already met the ratio ρud µ It is now universally known as Reynolds number. It is denoted by Re. Example 1: Water at 500C flows at mean speed of 0.5m/s along a tube of 5mm diameter. The density of the water is 988 kg/m3 and the viscosity is 0.548 x 10-3N s/m2. Determine whether the flow is turbulent or laminar? Solution To determine the character of the flow, need to calculate the value of Reynolds number: ρud µ = 988 x 0.5 x (5 x 10-3) 0.548 x 10-3 = 3830 and this is greater then 2000, so the flow is likely to be turbulent. Example 2: A glycerine at temperature 250C is flowing down a pipe of inner diameter 20mm at a mean speed of 0.5m/s. the density of the glycerine is 1250kg/m3, and the viscosity µ is 0.942N s/m2. Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Solution: We need to calculate the Reynolds number, and this time we find ρud µ = 13.3 and this is less than 2000, so the flow is laminar. Quiz 1: A pipeline 700mm in diameter carries a flow of methane gas at 150C and gauge pressure 3 bars. The density of the gas is 2.70kg/m3 and its viscosity is 1.15 x 10-5 N s/m2. The mean velocity of flow of the gas is 0.95 m/s. Quiz 2 Find the friction factor of the conditions given in questions 1, and estimate the pressure drop in a 100m length of the pipeline. The roughness value of the inner surface of the pipeline is k = 0.28mm. The characteristic no relating this parameters is refers to as the Reynolds number and is given by, Reynolds no. = ρVd γ Where ρ = density of fluid V = velocity of fluid d = cross section diameter of pipe γ = dynamic viscosity of fluid The following condition holds for the Reynolds no for turbulent and laminar flow. Reynolds no < 2100 means a laminar flow Re > 2300 means a turbulent flow Re = 2100 to 2300 means transition from lamina to turbulent WEEK 15 FLUID POWER MACHINE Fluid power machine could be described as how energy is added to a system in order to move the system or convert from one form of energy to another. This could be classified as either positive displacement or dynamics. In positive displacement, energy is periodically added to increase the fluid velocity while in dynamics energy is continuously added to increase the fluid velocity. 15.1 PUMP A pump is a machine which provides energy to a fluid in a fluid system. It assists to increase the pressure energy or kinetic energy or both of the fluid by converting the mechanical energy. 15.1.1CLASSIFICATION OF PUMP On the basic of transfer of mechanical energy the pumps can be classified as follows:1. Rotor dynamics pumps i. Radial flow pump ii. Axial flow pump iii. Mixed flow pump and iv. Centrifugal pump 2. Positive displacement pump i. Reciprocating pump ii. Plunger pump iii. Piston pump iv. Diaghran pump 15.1.2CENTRIFUGAL PUMP A centrifugal pump consists of the following main component that is impeller, casing, suction pipe and delivery pipe. The impeller is a wheel (or rotor) with a series of backward curved vanes (or blades). It is mounted on a shaft which is usually coupled to an electric motor. The casing is an air tight chamber surrounding the pump impeller. It contains suction and discharge arrangements, supporting for bearings and facilitate to house the rotor assembly. It has a provision to fix stuffing box and house packing material which prevent external leakage. The pipe which connect the center/eye of the impeller to sump from which liquid is to be lifted is known as suction pipe. In order to check the formation of air pocket the pipe is laid air tight. The centrifugal pump works on the principles that when a certain mass of fluid is rotated by an external source, it is thrown away from the central axis of rotation and a centrifugal head is produce which enable it to rise to higher level. As the impeller rotate at an angular velocity with the aid of a shaft and the electric motor, it creates a vacuum that force the liquid into the housing which subsequently discharge out through the discharge pipes. FIG 15.1 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 15.2 HYDRAULIC TURBINES Hydraulic turbine is a prime mover (a machine which uses the raw energy of a substance and converts in to mechanical energy) i.e uses energy of flowing water and converts it into the mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator which is directly coupled to the shaft of the hydraulic turbine. From this electric generator, we get electric power which can be transmitted over along distances by means of transmission lines. 15.2.1 TYPES OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES 15.2.2 Impulse turbine (pelton wheel) In impulse turbine the pressure energy of water is converted into kinetic energy when passed through the nozzle and forms the high velocity jet of water. The formed water jet is used for driving the wheel. Pelton wheel among various impulse turbines is a tangential flow impulse turbine. It consists of a rotor, at the periphery of which amounted equally spaced double hemispherical buckets. Water is transferred from a high head source through penstock which is fitted with a nozzle through which water flows out at a high speed jet. A needle spear moving inside the nozzle controls the water flow through the nozzle and the same time provides a smooth flow with negligible energy loss. All the available potential energy is thus converted into kinetic energy before the jet strike the buckets of the runner. A pelton turbine is provided with a casing, the function of which is to prevent the splashing of water and to discharge water to the tail race. 15.3 REACTION TURBINE In reaction turbine water enters the wheel under pressure and flow over the curve blades. When the water flows over the curved blades, the pressure head is transformed into velocity head. Water leaving the blade has a large relative velocity but small absolute velocity. Thus practically whole of the initial energy of water of water is given to the runner. In these turbines water leaves the runner at atmospheric pressure. The difference of pressure between the entrance and exit points of the runner is known as reaction pressure. This reaction pressure is responsible for the motion of the runner and hence, these turbines are known as Reaction or pressure turbines. FIG 15.2 REACTION TURBINE 15.3.1 i. TYPES OF REACTION TURBINES Francis turbine. In these type of turbines water under pressure enters the runner through the guide blade radially in inward direction and leaves axially i.e. parallel to the axis of shaft. This turbine as already explained is a medium head [30 to 200 m] turbine and requires medium quantity of water. The water under pressure, from the penstock enters the casing which surrounds the fixed blades and rotating runner. These turbines generally use scroll casing, which helps in transforming a part of pressure energy into kinetic energy. Thus this difference of pressure is responsible for the rotation of runner. FIG 15.3 Pelton wheel turbine ii. Kaplan turbine. Here the runner also has two vanes attached to a hub or a boss and are mounted in such a way that their angles can be adjusted while the turbine is in motion. These blades are usually adjusted automatically by means of a servo motor governing. With the change of angle of the runner blade at varying load condition, quantity of water passing through the blades also changes to suit the varying load conditions. This type of turbine thus has a speciality that it gives good efficiency even at different load conditions and water flows over the blades without shock. Fig 15.4 Kaplan turbine 15.4 Hydraulic Press The hydraulic press is a device used for lifting heavy loads by the application of much smaller force. It is based on pascal’s law, which states that intensity of pressure is transmitted equally in all directions through a mass of fluid at rest. Working principle: The working principle of a hydraulic press may be explained with the help of the fig. below. Consider a ram and plunger, operating in two cylinders of different diameters, which are interconnected at the bottom, through a chamber, which is filled with some liquid. Fig 15.5 Hydraulic pressure Let W = Weight to be lifted F = Force applied on the plunger, A = Area of ram, and a = Area of plunger Pressure intensity produced by the force F, P = F Area of plunger = F a As per Pascal’s law, the above intensity P will be equally transmitted in all directions. ∴ The pressure intensity on ram = p = F = W a or A W=F x A a 15.5 AIR COMPRESSOR Air [or gasses] are required at high pressure for many application e.g. in chemical, industrial and construction field. It is used for operating small pneumatic hand tools in workshops, for fabrication works, and also for paint spraying, mining operations etc. i. ii. iii. iv. v. Compressed air has been accepted as more useful power medium and replacing steam, because of the following advantages. Compressed air can transmitted from one point to another with ease. Use of compressed air is safe. The tools using compressed air do not overheat in use and are cheaper and easy to maintain. Pneumatic tools are lighter than similar ones using steam. 15.5.1TYPES OF AIR COMPRESSORS Air compressor could either be positive displacement or non positive displacement. Positive displacement compressors are mainly reciprocating air compressor, rotary air compressor and screw air compressors. Where non positive displacement type of compressors are centrifugal compressors and axial-flow compressors. 15.5.2RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR A reciprocating compressor is a machine which increases pressure of air by compression process and delivers it at a higher pressure. Earlier compressors followed steam engine of large bore and stroke, few cylinder, slow speed, double acting, horizontal construction. With the development of internal combustion engine, air compressors nowadays are of small bore, short stroke, multi cylinder, high speed, vertical construction. The reciprocating air compressors resemble an internal combustion engine in construction. In this a piston moves in a cylinder through the motion of a crank shaft. Inlet and outlet vales are provided, as in I.C. engines, internal lubrication will also done like I.C. engines, with the result of small amount of oil is always present in the air deliver by the compressor. Prime-movers employed on air compressors are generally electric motor and diesel engine. Electric motors are used were electric supply is available and compressor is stationary. Where as diesel engine are used to drive portable compressor and for stationary unit when electric is available. 15.5.3ROTARY AIR COMPRESSORS Rotary machines which are used for supplying air or any other fluid are called fans or compressors. A fan is a machine which moves gaseous fluids with a pressure ratio of up to 1:15. A compressor is a machine which moves gaseous fluids with a pressure of ratio of more than 1:15. Rotary compressors have adiabatic compression. Their speed is very high and are small in size, as compared to reciprocating compressors, due to high speed and can be directly coupled to turbine, electric motors etc. Rotary compressors deliver more clean air and uniform delivery of air is obtained.