IGCSE
Physics (0625)
Notes
Content
1. General physics
1
2. Thermal physics
14
3. Properties of waves, including light and sound
24
4. Electricity and magnetism
33
5. Atom physics
57
-ILll-LLl-
l,&enerol phlsies
i.l Lenglh o.'t4r fime
t;ll 30(r,rr',-wilhirr o'olrnfi
$icamelzt scfe'rJ ga4et v'*'d fo( (neasqting lengths
l.ch?tv Leto re.dinS; lX' "'o etro(.
1. ?loCf obiCCt in gop.
l.Tctve (ed:\ a*) rptc t@.r.'ce',vnr'^r
ed
lhql can befirrberrel''utl;ng a
lh?, htghesl scc.la clivis;on
WJ'r:,1':""#1"
i-l;r:1 r,. Ji1{i Ii:(a}rd V()t,lI ';:er0-Cil()r
f("ai'ii{ir] o}nii .rrylend yclir at}Swer
ni. i:,.1f*|i"iL'tiii
fixed
srale
scale *n
revolvirrg barrei
gap being
measured
Read the highest scale
Meas,rring |;me
' l;ne of sighl errorS (anctog'ec J;sPtcrY)
' Yeqdl;on, lirnc e(rors (onalo3*'reld;gitot)
Mec.st ring volqrne
' Pqrcrllctr erru. (?rccaqi ion: bollr>rt' oF
rrmisc\,6 <i eYe level)
'rngqlilnmcnl of l;ghl Jenjors (sensoro)
1
Analo3€ cliSplo.l: rW.f e(ho"ft) rna^,ing ro*.rrrcl o circ.rbryl' sfnle.
DkJi}rc.rl clis gbrl: Slranrts
l{0rrs,^re
o nurn ber.
tirne: B' tfonj flor SlcrrlinS tha timlng rltaTy;*tr il crncl rese+liy1g
lhc inslr.rrranl to Zero.
Petid o( ct fcndr-rlwfi
t' Ptace <r reqercvvr ftwyer wr)er
JijJ.tr;'j'::
2.fvsutc line of s;gvrf {o ma.rker tt d
o6ci,rorion.
}o plonC or*a++ien-
3. T;Ae how lotrg <e, penJulurn larrcS io un&rgo a,l lectst lo oicillol;ons.
ogci\lulions
-
4. retiod = -@
i.2 Malion
d,s lcrnce
S?e"iz tale of rnovcrr6n|
firne
qn4 its clirection of trovel.
chon?g i1 leldeil)
arf;bfo;lio'n: Lhcnngc in spu,c)
lirre iqken
\'leV:cit1z $peecl of sorelhincJ
trs
t
Onitc'r rn acce ierol i on : C.on5 hEln Y a,cC le ccrlio n
d6,c4.trerolicrn / rtzlo.a<rl;on : nf,g6i;r7g occglerolion
5pee.i
- l;rne gfo,?hs
n<<+te+ra+ian.r.
@
Here 6re iour examples o{ velocity-lime
.?C
70:
'f
n
cl
Steady 4I(eleration
ol 2 mlst
iire saeed ci lhe car iil{reases
t:7 7frls evi,ty S8{o*d.
The irjitial Speed i5 zeril, 5* thE'
aa{ i! s1*riin{l {rorrt rilsr.
:
:",
i
0 '
-*i
i
Steady acceleration
o, 4 mls'
Ih? lliPld iii l,le aar in{reases
it'y' ,i rnl: er,*rY -se<-Cnd.
'l
Br*:
qi-1
;
i'
.L-...-,ir.r*./
timFJ s
' :,:l
1"",,,
:..., , .,
a:
4i
L.i
fr
l0-,.
i':
t
.t'rrrl
.-i
e
E rr,
Xtv
:a -:
r rilaii.i. i iiite
':
i
$1
ffi
E#
etilr! i*r a i;i:,.,:.,iirirr,r:
hp ,,rrlral speeci is zerc, sc, tht'
(ar is siartinq fr$m reit, ' :r'."'''rf
1tm{, si
Zero arceleration
Tlrt rar ha.. a \iriJiiy spee{l oi
:0mis,
^ , -,"1
t
11-.n€C
Steady retardation
(deceleration) of 4 mls'
fhe 5Fe€c oi tit car daiieai':
by 4rn/t. in oth€{word5:
th€ aaae'platicn i: -rli:rlii
'ihe iural s.*eeC is zelt, !g &:
tar ao,ngs tC i't't
: '
i.r.:-.:,
,, i
'.
- tl
E ta{,ire;$l4g at,ft4!r lH
*
. oc(clerolbfl , 1{cElien} oF spcct-time groPh
'ofto2cllbhr,nCe
ffi-r-l
i|,'S*Bnrtte dtst+nc
.$-:
I
3if,a
:
* speea.ltx);ent oF ct;sla,.rde.lir,c grag\
c!(Cele rcrtion of f ,r,
fot, = Lo ffi 152
obtoin.
l6rm;nq, Velociiy'. The max;rnr,rrh vClocily on objCc{ cqn
1
i'3 lu\as; and weignl
Weighl: $crss x Grqvity
( kgl
(
rv) {e} loN/F9
/tloss: A fneos,,r,re of tl:r- amoemt of subshencc in on objecf,
'Xtent*ler tt'e fiuass*d oo o\1cr:1, fhe slr6nger i3 tbe forlh's eravilc^--:'onol
pull on iI.
' Tl:€ <lranler the rna.ss, lttc
{afcr ;s th€ reriihnce. la c\o:rge in rroliooWEtgfrt:Ihc effecl ol agraviulunol Fietd oY1 o trbss'
Us.hg a bccrm bcrtc.n6,g
l. Pul lhe obiec,l in o,f pqn.
LhrlrJ slcr.rdoal nc$t?* to*:r/-olher pcr' unlil Vnrn b,otcrres.
I. E'na fh" rn@ss of ahiecl.
j"T irensrf\
I
J
\^
'&l.
rn
P*T
DenSilY= t/olrrmc
check ing densily
Lialur<l: t. Pc".^r }q,ril )nto rrrcer+ur\ Cyt;nder
I u.,rur,,g
),lAvel an lhe eccrle niveb lhC vot,.rrne J
ma,g5
3. F;ncJ $'.atS" aF conlc,.in6.r withou) tiguid.
t ,'.,o*
4.S.rbsFrael fiTn yfic..ll of conftriner wirx |;q.a;sl . J
s.?,t
Re3-,t61 !el;d: t, f;hc} volq,rrzlQ , '. afetu of leose x heiglt
l^ f;;l
Yncrst
3.P,?
l-rrcgulorl"l 6hcr.per,r S.:t;d:[I. P,rt soUr] a i6to rntd.sL].ring cyl;rtde.. wilh liluid.
displ6(2n1..1 . vottrvng t'
metiocL l
L2, R;5e lyy B'rel an fiw wltne sca,te q;\tcl vo\tm? o[ I'he sotl..t.
3'F;nd mc,yls
,1. y-fr/y
4
Prcalicling i[ objeci wiil floa]rr;nk oF bc
s*?endd
Dcnsil) ob,iacl ) Densit) wcrt?... sink
Dcnsilv obier-l= Densily rltoler: Suspended
Densiiy obreet l pmsitrl wo,fec1; Flool
,. 5 i otres
)'s'\ {f{eLts o{ focces
fl A focfe crln prcl)\Ne A Ltnnetrc
Sizer5haPC and velocitY
;n @*qpe
o F .r W)y.
Exten.i^.'<
Hookcts Laur;A matcriol obcls llookcts [^w if, bcnrcr]h il<,
is
staat)6 t;m;r, lhe e$cns;on
p6prli6slt tc, lhe locd.
loacl;sPring canslqnf X eflcnoiut
F,
K
x,f;gx
limil oF prroportiorrollty: Tlr0 rn6rirnu,rn poml an gxlension is pnoForlb?,r I
lo lrre lqzt,
ldtl&/N
x r5 +he limil of proporrr.onc{,;ly.
Etos}iaIimi}:Tharrvoxirnu/1poin}c4obje?-|"ffi"elc6hco|tYodrc*urnl,o
;g pr\incrr lenglll whe6 tyr locrcl is rarnovedi on objec| $ritl !s r
perrhahenfltl sltytched beyonal lhb poirt),
5
Rear!lonL-&reReJ,-rrlonf torz. to<e t + Fo1a2,
2v -\ 5N
d_-r
3N
I--"i
(esu)tont F<:CCez --*
Resutlcrnl Fo"ce= rnqss x G.ccelgrcrtion
--4 Newion'5 seco\d la.- of rholion
F; rncr.
Newton's firsi lqw of ;notion;
lf rro eXte(ttol fctrce force ;s Oc|ing on il2 on 66decl
wilt
- if stalioncrry, r0rhoin slqtbhorY
Jlraig I i
' i6 vuvingr\@ep moviPg o+ a slex)1 sPeed ih q.t t;ne.
Fr;clion:Ih,e fu-c< balween lwo Sqvfaceg which impe.des rfiolion on.J rcsr,,lfu in
hea$,ag.
Ex: A:. fesislorre
ff biPetol Fo<v{" In",arcl b'ce fr(e*A ye gwvr- lhe ouject rn61e in ct dccle
.
l4ote cenldy,1.^1 force ;5 vlge&ol i[;'lr'14e5 i5 ;ncreaser^
.Speed is increosed
' (p4rius is fed\rcect
a
\ncircqbr rnc,tion, thg occdeft.|tbn is l'ar towofcls +he cenir( o? lhe c\{*.
G
H",ap,rl. Prorl.iclF.<r .r PgrPCrrtiriutar ditlerroc€ firnm hA Pil'a#-
*lfffr4sing f(.rg 6rdiSlmee'fr,.',4 ihr fi\,rl ior.Q'qfr5 *hr.,rr,^ry,fi'r ,^f 46rCf'
uI
+- Wrren ther( iS no rc.s.rhanf fr.q€ onel nO frSrrBell *urning 6F(arlt 6L.5yJleF^ 4s in'
-
9=torJl.)<g
l lttr lfi t'lf kt z l0
.
' ,'
1, 6i*g*oN1rg. {'c'il
.
:, , .
-?rg-pp/g,n'2N
([t*iti>"i'q)Io,:d*.1''3wr'{*ftN,.4o,+}r (loux 6no)
.lolNf* rfolr.n tkrpm
ra ? Nr*r= lrr.rtr*
xl y:50A N
\rTnrrN:ss!N
X:1f:r,rrl
-
Iryerimer.J:t.lle{ra ru\g srrsFrde<\ frcrn a spcing ber\xr,ncf"
Ula'tVPd,
2.wegnts h.Mg; thcirpos)tbrts oireoAj'.rsler) so llpr; lheSyslern r;,1
3. Sysfcn is tn eguit;briu/vr,
*r LLcx;Ywi5r., rnoff10nt z polr.trlue
' d}nticlool( W'sc ryrorn evtl 2 nego,t+te
' het momeol(comb:rcd *olultrzero
1.5.1 cenbe of mr^"ss
F;nAing lxt @lre oF .r:toss
f, r$hicher.t poin| lhe co,r) is s*spandeL f.oynti| wjt/ a)*.rys borrg with
h q,rtre of macs.5erlr)c-g]ty.vulu fn? V;o.
6rce
{r
_Fira_
nPworcl
__-*-_.--.F
frlth Pin
A/ }B
l'
;ll/
I I
a*-.-,; { vue'gnt
Ho'tg cad' Frotn p"n a] o.,e Po;nl
A wegr.,t is hangCd 6n pfua6 1lnt- atttp
Poin) A lo St1o,,r lhe pos;tio4 cF L;n<{bi AD ,s
db-n or lltc c6rd.
Ruprol 5teps
A,,* rD
4enlrc 1
4. "$ors
I aaet a {rr?d;f,frre.nt poin*-
*,rt : f nierseclion o( lhe lines drawn it lh' Cenfre oF *tass,
I L-Jp
9*tu
siobi-tily
5b;bl2 e1,ilil,ri,$r-t-Jnt renhe of_$roe< st*yS aoer. llqe.b.<e. Ol,;r.cl FattS ba.te .+o
ils--on?rhnl f rrltrr rn.hen iippa r.
On*fal^V 4uilt\q'w.t; (?nlfe oF rnats |mftCrt;alely
fnrces l,eyoqrt the
bc^s? beca,vsc frS so S,rtqil,Abiecl i,< onlv br;tdyrced b,.ip€ly.
l{tr'teat alr.ili}.-riurr: h,nererr th2 abldc} r,'aj, i}.< r I }rU'r,F rnasg ..S a-}i,o}s
A-octly'eVerl+* ils ltS1. Wh,r. le,Fl e,to.et lse abWl *,ill.
Slay wheff i!-tS. lf fno.rerJ, ||re ahieri *,ilt J;lny in,lB new
Fsrlioro.
l'5.5 5r torr anet ,r"lnr<
4\ri?fots hn*a r,Cir%Iion n"nal merrril,,rr
'Sr::l*rSf have mognittrlg h.rrt no rricarlicrn FX: lo<c, varunae
-
_
1,6 rt{ornefllurn
l'brrignt.rm: nnctss *Ye]tr,cify t P-:rnV
Iesullrrnf force=@
r,Y
iirnC
(.+, rnt''rnu
Imp.rtse'. Er'l
'
Ira?ulre
EnrmplS: 5 t<9 lr',.cY r 5 ,,".ls a'l hyo lo
mls
atB ;h 5 s. lrnpqtseT Force I
I- It mv-*lo*
5f = 15 l<9. te*/6 ]' tlPt. 5r''lt )
6f * 25 irq rnl*
J*p*tse.;E lrq'r.ri6
l- 5 *t/S
I.V unzrny, work ond Powet
kin*u oner31: Y2 x l\cxs x Veto"it)z
K.t.= Yz mr"
6ravilcrlion al ?olenttttl energY s trloss r A t&gnl
6. P.E.'
mgh o:,oi,llg
IO
9*tu
'
(t*Oqe'feoran aoC fi*m lo AnotvtPf'
0;ff;cult +cr
'
'Dee? dcilllng
GeothefiYqt: Walef P.rmPacl |O hol
ditficult arwt fu\Pgr:Ls;v€.
roor.s fio CrE(rlc s)earn
{^na} lr.rfns lu{birJfS-or
lfactf/3,r fission, trf@riqrn otortrs
'CTZAftS rwlbctCtivA
'p;t
woJ)rs-
by shoa|in9 herrtorr
bifferent
fnaAecf nnale,cials
'Ila#'t*5}e caunlriA
[].'o,t ctetiv et ew,lcYoir
lr.ne vqr1dng a,movn*
Curfcnl wlen iY ohrorbs
ol s*n 1rght,
obsorbg
W(gl ond .rre
$/ind lu.rbi'res tutn getgatotg
Nois y
et.]frgY
*'
Ra*rn,t2r
le .rlo(lfces cqnrel be ctepleni shecl'
- t/on-t+rene,^loble (csovytes r,!!i+L coh bc ct?plenished.
' The S'.}l' is ||'g Sovfice oF q.ll o'^r energy tesostces eI<ePI gaolherrnolT htrclear
qhd |ictrEr),
, Ihe Sun Cfeqles ercfigy by nuClCOr f*ion, o. process where hydrogen twzPt o.ae
Purhccl lqPther lo forna
]rel;urn.
r.Jow m,rfh wieful work i5 ctoqg
wi
lh errelg y s utpll;ed.
-ulefqlltt€rgI o!.*P., r
' Cf{;c;eocy; enengy ;npr^t
I, IOCrZ
t^rcFul Powtr ot^]lg'!t
,llooz
' e{ftciexy: power inPu}
l2
0*d,
l,lgrt-rlong = e n,o rg Y trrryrgfCr r€c)
h,t"rk iS clong Wh€ngW cr forr€ rne-kraf
sorrethirrg rrv'r'e'
W6rr f T): ForEe( Nl :l Disinnce(rn\
W: FcI = Ak
1.7.4 Power
Wor k (f,)
i. f Press*rre
x.rr. € (P',1.
#;i'
?ress* .rpJPO=-Hei{xtlm)--Deo<
;tY( fyrrrf ) r Crc'v; tY ( F U/ Kt)
E
fohstqflt Fof e^Eh Fxc*)ar Frari!€r lorrt.
Odolition ta the orlrrysphel.ic pres,rlrra
-
Z.Tl}vrnctl physics
2.1 Simprg krnelic moe0qtor m'"lel oF r:q,?fet
2.1.1 S}oles ol r.u-l+er
Sotii\;Fixed s\aw qnol vol*rn € - \rww,'yres.s;b)e. H+l+ensjtf
L;
qo.l I F ixeA voxt"rrrl. Tc+Ves sYroY o€ conda i ner' Xncnrn 7G 6s ; blr'
6c"S' No Fixecrshq.?e or Wtaxfie.Fitls rrp iheir con+crirret,CorYl? fessiblg.
2.L2 olur^lsr model
(al.'rl
.
'Slrong fe,tces of
(.n, <
:-l
'Weakaitrrelirre I 'O,r".r| rro force s oF qllraclion
fow|.
| ' Parlictes Fa- aVtrl anc) naove
I
atlnrction belwe?n
Pcz.Ylides
' ParticleS arnergAd
: Parlic.les Jlide
I
[ixecl
sl.r;tW/volqrr:€.
| 4",.1oy. .'. lvo
aest eoi;hrjf,v'. l' Utt,ae witt', ?nc\ o-lher ane) beutn@,
I
ia a"k*fice.
6nly
. AtoasSvibrol€ lo
ond fro .'. fixec)
f*-fixed
I off in a)l d;rcc],6n5:
'
Potrcrn.'.lqkes |
D
Shapc of *n*rr'rer.\
'No
:
Ya[r*m?, atd slnpe
r- /.\--',J-'-
.l--i*r*J.;
L_{.,v.J.*r
6os rnale<r.re .rrlirn
;t
. Lthen o porlicP Is hcofed, * 1norrS f oslerl @
'Tnepaflitle5 o€ o"<106 rrc,{eqJ:i(,t(,\y ornd eic?r}' frcrstrre on lhe urcllls oF ihetr
66iy$qinar by cottiratin! into {hern Wi}h VaryiffS rrrorrenlrmg.
l+
2,2 \\emrr:;l ProPerlies "tn<l lernperohtl<e
2.2,t fierrra\ exPongion af sr,t;drrtq*ricls andgaoa
iotidsrt,laids c}d go6es e^P$cl wlrren liney ace beo.tecl bea'vsg
tlblro,AeA vibGr,te more qt qtd '';;p noviocl furtber aTorl'
G*SeSt C2a6es erponcl thc frcr
lhe'r
W)\tSe ]beit rttaleculeS qyg ihe f,t*t+l''esi
ogor| or:,A l./;co'rt*, lhey oft a'Lif lt:,/- Foslcst'
Clcf,cv *)'ctn thc'sf a{
L\*rc)S: Sirlce l\e Pa..|izles ef a t'9rr'"ch dte Y:nuch
i",twee, ecrah other qre
lheir fofr,es of altaction #,,
#1
giEatef, whiah rl f4'yts that *5an lhe| elyonc) lcss thqn gasef but
fnoG lhovr sol;dS '
Ja;as:Sollclc exPc!,nol thclaoaiitlrir rtrolccrrlas qre belel lo6ll'er'in
<<,,wirtg ,yerl (aceu -5*lyror.lioh behltan ilerre, and
a )aflice'
*hey arn\'7 vib/alP
to ond fiu.
& Fxporsir*,: gas ) l;1ui4 )Solicl
Afflicaliovs and Corscl'en4"q
Consctqerfes
' overhec.rl ccrbles rn,rtl bc slcek so lhcrt they dor"l ShaP or detech when
lhey confroct on cod A1s'
' Gary vvlve to be lefi iv1 fail5 lo oUow fot elloln5i5n '6Yt hot dayl'
cLrireni
cLJi-reilt
Iran
to
heater
suor;l,v
App[rrrt;rv,s I Blrne]q'l ]herriloJ ]c.]
l. TevnPerc..tute 3el5 loo high
brass
in';ar
2. BimOtc,,t Shrp bend5, ca,us;Ag conlcr,is l<.>separale unlil
lemperelurg fqil'5 enorqh.
Bimeial strip
ffii$iy'
-b,n'e:ui.-.-,!'
Slraighten5, rousin3 conlr'ls lo lowh far
mai6tcrin\ng ct Sleadnl lerqPeratr"re-
t6
colrirol kr'ob
coniact5
1.?:7- l1€qjurerflen I oF lemge(atvtl
measurEmeni of lenpAlute.(Exc.rnPle: [1p611;r"' of I'guid in L;qutd'gbss
thcrmomelerJ
5enii);vii1: chonp ;o letg+hd frope$y'(lengf\uoturtt€tetc) Pd unit dqtEe,
Ronc)A: the low46l lamPeralure fncalu(ad +ollp
hgfml [emP*tal,+ta
Lirroritl: lrogoelianaliiy 6[ +lc change in Vcopefiy to l]e, fiso trt l,;rnrlol'r*e.
r FixraFriCIIs qre defjnila {crrpacoirfies whtro 5ornalhing llappvt cncl a-t9 ud
tc, acr,tibrcrte o.lnernoy4eter. [Earz, ne,
Jffi
crncl borllincr
,)
Faint oF wal€f)
' 2 d;ffcten} rrtetc.ts joinecr lo (orm 2 lwwltans
'lemperrolrr,re cl;Fference cytr:,t-s o iir.,y vollq€ wbiC\ DcrEcs a cutrt6}. {law,
' [] ntater lcr"rpercfufe d;f(dtnce efEc-rtes o qlaier ctrfienl.
'lSsed {cx bgn fltrrlr*+1a65 wh,c\ cLr;rnXe rctpiclty ard L:r:r,te,ct lo;!lc-re.rr,ge,
('zoor" to ltoo"c)
: a,ia rllelei measures
c-.iea: ;itci converts to
. :erl:rature readino
cop,ler rtire
I
-1
constantan \^iire
\
pr"ir. conrains temperaruresensrng junciion
. ,\
coid junction
ll
!gi,-;ryrr.
Li4Lud-in-glaJS therrnomebr
ql@hot
' fls lW lemyexalute fises or fufis, lhe l;guid( rnerc't-ttt1 ord#ettl%rficind6ae
dqae i5 its sen'silivily-
(pnlruLls, L}yolnqe in th( Iarylhtwwae oF l'qoJ tr
' Arvrcrr.n\ of exponsion cabc tiofuled |r' tenpes61lvft on a '1ca)e'Und
2!r&W trpto?ot'riirrbutitY oF +7e.exf9{9rt n tq lvelfylI4ttlsve rs iF
l,itraaf,{}y.
alcci'rcl (or n-rercliry)
'iniead'
nar[o\'! iuDg
'.lolar fiXecf goirrt
c,olibrattng tLPl(!;e llaflrtoilnelet in mal tirry icfi OoC
1'fUn +'"crbn,'+er i6 boilin? '&c!tsr, l,,
oL: qPPe(
\**r'
f;xel Potnt)
J. Diu,idp o\gtonce bet.areen two f ixed poinB inlo lOo eluat
&lpl>
6;s4is43^
nafiEwar
'fo frcral,*
scr\t;tivit):' thinnCr lrrbg
" las Aento lqqid
' b)99cr b'r\b
-lherrr*tt cqpocity (heett eofcii))
2.2.3
Tvyterrnl enefql; Iha tohcrl k;ncfc. a'rA Pfenlia'l err'rPieS
of oll lbe aiow''s
Or rnalecr*l0S ivr a mcltefial'
* fine \6yW o fnoleri<rl is, *re fcS;r- ils Parlfcl06 no'gt o.'hct lhe rhofe
illerrrail e::rml ;l hag.
Ih€ryylc.f A?crL,;\: I.lec* gno/in1 reclr*iccl to rois€ lho temperolure
ef a bocly
b'1 | )eqtees cotsi*s,
'lhermc,tl caprcit't:
l7t"c)
{urr0}it1 mo55 x ip€cif ;c he*l,l
( I I rx'c)
( kg)
cqpci'ry
iherrnc,,t eagar,it1 = r^c
Sya.frn heol cr+7at;\: l{eor energ) rapira,r lo raisethe femp.mlut?
of lry of,q
Subatq,nce by I de4te?s Cels;,tE wilho.rt ChcLr9ilg ;ls slale'
J8
9*
F*r-r'anaeot |o meosurg (fiftr
hra'| cafritY
rrs6S oF \^.lotet' (\)
l.kriEer C€lntcrlns o 6fF
'
Forlic.rlcrr
?, An elcckicqt becrkf ote FaFlicu€r+cFt WEtrtl irrwilchPd on 6r a Cev-tgL3' t4sr lhetrnomelcr to fini lW incrw+e in tem1e,,.lure' ('c)
f,fa,tr.rtote SPclcilrc- heat 6cqr itY,
F T'Le
'v{tl't€ '''$
r;'f #''t! erfPrf*ir*eq$e dqf l{1
@vx*By
{r, 'hre beefere'nd
I
f': - p.,,,r.r€fppry
,/.---_ll-
li......
u)-
hr e. u r rrr'"cl[ nq r
,
.
E rnsortdbn erE,rmraea *hc lseq c,fl- f:nef,EaflL
eh€qy.
eJectric
heater
water
rnsuiation
rrrture nf *he r"ater increases le y 10o6 . Fivrt lhe (?Crific he''ri
r
-l
Pout,r x lirrrg + 'eYre*g -t
heryF
$$efi€x.
rrr+ts
tivng=
f,r+brar.ill
.'. pnwar."
r
" #r'nPrc*,lrxg€ rhf,*nTg
IO6W y zgos: o.S lct x L x
{*..,{3,i,r{kqs*}: (
loPC
_
--.
).2.4 Metling and bo;i;ng
r4eltinq
An inorcose in ler{psfahrre Co,,v& a.n irE(.er5g in thg kine}iogne{gI of
- cr' sot;cl , ca\^s\nc) thern fo vibrcr]e nore' l'lomrar' ]here isntl arr increcrse in
in
Energl i: i+**eo4 bei''9
betuAro fhe s.rpp;erl
h.a4*,rtltufs w.hal
parlicleS
tx.gl
i'tlo e' liqwd'
t'vtPr\ fo lpaK t\a boncls lotYvan lhe rrrotec"r\et, #H#3" the sol;d
wlh\
lqur+ina goint: T|,o leYnpe,/ft]i/Ufe a,l wbicn a' s"t'bsfa'nce lnells'
An iyrceeerse intemperulwre cq)r"lee oa
irvt@ in ihe kinetic ehergl o{ lhel\udt
4cr,usin, ils rnc1ecd' ia u'-brtr,ie mofe.T\e lOmpero,lqc<'
beo.r,4,e fr,c g;wn lnenyvtenerny iswgo,t lo
molec-rles t<horrging it
doesn't inCreo5e duting;;)ing
brecrk lhe boras beiwee'n lhe liqrrid's
inlc' q- gos'
l3-1*g pinl:'ihe lemperoturo of r^'hich
Boiring ys Eve.Torotion:. Ijoil;ng
q s'rboionce boils'
'rjjfot a f ixe4 tempero.Iurg.lt tqteS proe thrcrugho..rt
fiie f;q*id'
' Evqporcrhc,n occ'^rs ol any le"rperofure' 'lt onl'; lakes phre on
lhe t;quicl'5 lns{are,'"
(.,rrbnrr.\c,q annrl S..h\f i$lr,\hot't
cpnd,orvg)pA Whan o 9or ir coolecl, iti Paf,hblel lore erprg)i l\'re1
logQthef ,rathen lrcy b*,rmP intaech
move slo"ref ancl cbsef
ot}rex) thcry aontt hcrve encrql to
bounce d.Yro,J, thus thel s\a1 clo* loXetner
t64 forrn a liluid'
Solrditiccrtion: Wtten c. lq,,ril Ct&r\ts prrticleSlarerer'gy;
thel rnove Sb},e( otf(,'&5d
unt'l\ lvef con 6n\Y vibru\e-a5ol;ot horforrrrecl'
2s
lqfcnt neof of f.sirn: nre {hcr/'"l ene'gy rayurtan }c, c}un3e E-+,qbqtarr€ frorn
e ''alicl-ia
A lilqid wiil.F'.'Lq.cha,fte in,ltrytPPdur?'
Lolenl heal af v. ?r-isc*ion: tha {trerweri enene, reqqifFcl tc) chon+E F ,q(rbsb{cp Froh^ a
-
lquia lo .. AaS wllho..rt- cL c-hon?e infervrPercr'hrt'e'
rvrFr"'i?ll
lafen] heaf :.Ihe {hcrrnal ercn, frlrr;rr*t io break ftae h^tr[< b''t\^,een the
in {emPerc'h"tpOf a. <.,balcxrc. io rlr+Yrge
,ubrtanca r*ilh^r,r.t q. el.rgn?c ;n *emFUjr,rfe.
€ne"lty= lvr4r< - sP"'rTic lfnfs4l hA't
rI
(
-
K0) (yks)
Aherrdy= m
Sp€cific lalrn$e..t,^f frsir.n <^f, ice:l.Wnll hr.+er i5 SwibltrJ, on.folz. rerlcrin {iue.(Wi)
-
l' F;nt-morr bqiled oqc'y 6rom fhe al;Egetrsce
-
of lvre rvrc*g bcrtr.nCets reergling S
3. Co*c,rr..le l.
2.3 Tharrncr,\ poca#
2.3.1 Cond,rrlion
+
water \
t{q
rods coated rryith
a thin laYer of ''vax
when cold
.'-#
\
'\
ir.lto!:1 lvilx
/
l,"il:r"
\
I
.\
I
io-____a
\nruru,o + -\r.
steei
iron
lrap lce
alr:mtnium
copper
Frperr-e"ii s!@w.s ha* uaPr
rolid wax
tength ol
rrel{ed wox shows be$ cov:dttcloY
Ccrrlcvtr t;-n
in <'^liel(
.lh-ctm.#€*dt wYen hectl
fit*
.
'is Jt'rppriel to sor'glhlnt
ovt{\g;r vibrcr}ior's la \e
[n metqlS
iS
o paov {hcrrrtl crr4duck"
ils aLrrs vitrclafostet one\
c-a;tnnY a}orns
4',6ther wol cr.f rarell@llduclicarr rutpPe,,rs ih
atosLv,<tA 6re/.
o}r"rtee,{o
eVc\vdtS
fr.\ove/lheylrave\randoml,.1;6}harre}elqnr,lcolti.r'qwi}hqtornstorssonihe
vibr<rlions.
2
.3.'L 4on v€c\ion
/ 'oo*uer,\ro11 i5 on ivnpcrrlovrt tno\\oA o( lhermot
trans{"t in {lutids'
,A5ofr*;av\|o,rrnswp,lheTortio,leswkhafe.wo{fYletbecomelessden*arndrise
a conration c\Nred\'
@lkb(
?orttc\es'bes;'\'cgfi;2
whito *re
cooler
\.rater
sinks
'--
tlot355lUm
Dermanqanate
cry5ia1; tO
colcUi'vriatel
H
22
9*d,
'llfrrnet grfngl ivr^nofuf hry radiatrbh clo6tt| reaF;re n"-r!cdius-
Mr.tl Brrrrk
While
Silva
lrnittef
Qe9le**t
lAir.c4t
*Lcr.'rhe-r
*'*e a.rrouni ar.rqdirr,lion errillecl atble}ails on theAwUe*leupafurc
and S,rrSo,Oe ctfec" OF . br*ty.
-
matt'Eoil;nr@
--1@s---P}rcllll- d- l}gtaw'l.bbnc+
Corxpari4g eynmilers
rnatt
.
black white
r
fYorvr ecch
'ltc}rf fgorlngs, cciftFefEul.
thermomerer
j-Plo!6r-fhr€t al the SanaC-itsSqvrce
frdm tl.'rr*rl ]€O]tl-'
-
jk6-irrJ€nap-cr..r.^G
11 _
2,3A -Co:tsa4,qsrx.€s- -of energ-'1 firaoafer
I pfela,t spoo^ ir1 a. hoh drjn\< ha^s, wg becatae;t
d'&
hea+Y'
'(-4*" fi r\ 4g,ff€rttJ L(b\c Sa btezA.'D*r1ng fhe&v, the lqnol is warrnerdd a*s a,$ a,lwb so*ce. lnr,n\ lhe ngh!1 fhe 5@ qsts oolln"otro*r.u: A bLaek sau@fan Lql6 }y1lle( ihan o.wh41e .l.lre, white ho.#es 5lo-ycaalgt-thart Jaf,t otPS, ( T}recmp*t=Bo'''lalrm)
3,?(cgerties of wovesl inc\ur},ng iiSht arrrso'-rnd.
3.t Genercr\ wr^ve PfoPeriies
vr{d€froat: ltw ga* oF cx-lrcry5ve,;'e wa,\te
6(ffu cornpY€iiioa of a.Iongitr<}inal
wclve.
SfeeA'" how fc"El {he wov4 kcrrrels ur@9used ln rn'lJ'
fteq*utcry"-{he n. rvrber af ,araves pe;n1 any pin} lX t*t-on6. rngosured in
her-tz (!lz)
Wavelenjtft d;sl:once lgf$Pcn .r pc'rni on a" wlrv€ 1o lhe frrrrvolgnt poitrt on
Lhe next -\Nare in melgfs'
Amplilude: frror<ivnurn dtsfo,nce a' v\nve nb!/es fforn iS {esl gosilion When
Vrttr.le puJ.5Q4,
I
Velocitl: frelcncy r wo'Jclerrgt)'
kn,s) .
1He)
(m)
(l.lz)
y 6i
(5)
F
a.
po..t- ir:r:'o i.l i..:
{:,'. i.-
'- -,*
.
Y:fh
lVartp, l*olion
of regulor in terr'qlr' ln foPes
arrt springr it is cdted .siuUoU*+ whi\e irr rry*ier ! &vet, il is knowr"t cls qn
Wq{0 }4ot,on ( per''ottic rnotion) is molion fepealgcl
ol4dk^Lon
24
cr1
J/ELe
-&fkce
Pekar.ti^n
'hhe\ wqve is .t6wect ,.l6wh,jl;e re€rqCEcljanArrl@
'1A,harr wqvg-ie-+ea
ura-_lus fekb.led ow^y
fDet.r wc\tr{ ;g gE:.*e{ t}utn
\
Di((ccrr.tion
'Wqvesbenrlfoutidthosde5o(on6'bslaole'otsPta;,jlor'rtt*lh€J?ats
thro.rnvr .^ gaP'
' \ri<ler aap PnDc\ o& lebs 4;6fltation
vravelengfh'
Lhe sorne os lh9
is
abo'r't
tnegov
o€
' onl,l5gnlFicon) if the size
' Af an ec\qer lon'ner \^t!'/elengthg
h
El
g/
wo'r\<\ Po*)t",e wroro
diffrqr'lion'
/-l
!-fi:<!-::--:!F
4
'i
+\.+* _.--)r..\
i.
--
\r\btgf \lb\,€6
'Ripple lonK is .rcc} (or enPerirnents'
' RipgEs( tinl urcrv€9) aresenl'
o}tos| l)t' s'r1orc of
'obtqrB p .rl in thcir Palrr to .,'yi/'
srID
rnoto[ ic
woler'
+fr1 frad'rced #ecl'
)
proc'uce
viirraiio ns
sircboscope
(spinnirig disc) to
'ireeze' the r,,,a',,e
nrotion
ftli
r, Ll **!.
V,. \: D
n'i j\\
\,'YAVE
shado',',;s
on sateen
2e
\
0*/,
,Plane(fblLrnirorsrre''leo"rrefladion'. Roy< f,ib# q/! ol.j€.t rcF,t'l' .ff +hP n irra' inb l^"f ey' b'S we $PP thgm
' A line jainin€ e p;*elJta]' P:*c o( "t>tinqe a
-
e
' I'vro4re '4 v'rh'cil' norc^yg ^'hrorl1 Pa55 ilri"'gh ilP iFrage- ?h{
irv^+Ue rannel b" €af)4ec0'6n -4. Stf'ek'
3,2,2 Refr.etioq ..f h..hi
I
a MorF, two PoinB ,*n tle incidaql fo{r refr"c }ecl
on o,rlt:ng oF the rrhs6 slc6 qrirh c* F€rril cn t\g PoPtr'
3.(6-n@r lhg dot( to /rPctle r' /.'ngrarr; e Frotroctor is usenl
{e fl4€l +h€
0*tu
l.Rors of light
arlgle- beupen ine
,Angr.aeauiucrk* -}o-{,
e:r Afe refcaC fer\ '^uny from the
**uuttre*-f*[ac're' t^ teg at"ge mati-"d
LLmen?erat rraalg tfF.€lring fn,r r ?le{9 i,n+o
Re frrrf
rile- lnde" tn)JPeec) of l;ghi'in
voclYm
feftorl;ne i.,Aex -@o(lgr'r i" rteAi"o-
q*1.o+d_'c}Pr45e-.J*rr!,$4.-3-g>i-'
. -- -t t)\
_ L; )ln -tn+ =Wh?\. ra.v( .-{g Y.eFrte't bqr,tinto }}e rDP''"'dr
;Ai*E reit*red orr! into a, less dr,nse medt*rn.
9*tu
'iblod inlafn il fegteal;ar': wpn-cll-t-r!a-]j9.b}-is rcil8il*l*bs*-]mfii-lbe-meditvYt
baro.r<e tl'e "'rtqle-crfifr'i4ence wr$
*he
qfeal1r- llan.
cririccrl r"nglt' (j
-QPlrcot_frrort
-jrrSic.le lhabodlY,
zontcrins ''
;;"
lon? b'tr1e:})P af c>Plic^alJilreS'
3;?.i Thin rcnvercaing len6
-rens -d)eclsJr9hl_tnYs-
Fnrrl?at {r'.rS thC Poin}
bB
eWr'-
wh€}(E naY6 Pa'allel ll.o-lhe PrS6;frJ;t'aa;S
conlerye'
with o
E*-oP!&al-ami-49'
In cil leorthr C;storra fr^.+*ha FrinriFcu-F '< ancl-}lre
-
thf,
11*vr tht principot focrs'
l0ns
Conuer3ing
a.
to
Nhen on o$@r 3 closa*
behin<J ile
to corne from o position
appeaf
lbel
lnslwl'
ra,ys befer conrlerge '
this \^,c!y AS a
tvr'rs lhe l€ns ii 'r'|d
rnojnifiecf
l
r'nd
t'rPrigrr\
;s
lenr. the;ilogc
;flqne'
magilfling glo55' tt is cr'virtua\
Bfql lroc^4e.
}he oprico I czolre
When o!ie\ i5 fu'rtber crrtcq From
!<'.,., ,-:r.-...' :', .,', ir i-.':,'i
g
F=--- rt
I -*:=
f
,O,-' ,:,', i-':!,rri
;+
t---
A) R roy thro.qtr &rlla of ihe
ler$' P@les |Yrco"gh lhe Wr9'
lo }he pciwigc'\ c^'rcis' Passes lrrou1h
B) A r.1 Pafc',[o\
o[ the len6'
trcln F t'
Wh;ch
t) A ra1 the'"gh Ft'{wnt \eole +ho leng, Poralte\
the
focrrs.r"r lh€ ollter stde
*o tvro principol axis'
P;cf€al r'tP
. lrnage c6n be Pt*€ed oA o SC1AAYv,
Vift,. 'l lrr'.'?e
,$Ilrn ablect i5 cbe{ to the opticat gsnlf€ lnqn
f t'
*'1
-r+-
* ctsed fof rnogniFYir't q\qss
'lro roys rnel to Forr^ ihe imagg'
, \ra6qg Cc,ootl be g;cVed,.aP ah &f @fi'
30
j 2.+ Dsperrion of I;3hl
' \Iren ligh| iS te(toc@) bI o pfis'1.rf lhe \ncide*e toy is oof po,rsllel +o th(
emecgenl ftry, 5in6:g the priSrnls Sides src not porullgt.
' Whifg \igh| is c, rn*trrre of @lorrrs 2 aod the pr.srn tefcctols eadt by ct
)i4(ereil aylapnf- td is deviolel trrcS+ ond viol8t is devicltacl rYlos|. Thx co,.res
' lhc wr"ite l;ghl fo
6li5Pefse inlo c' stutrurn.
t4or:r.chro,;v;rtic; A l;ght o€
a SinglC wcrvelength e-ncl color-+r.(Ex: lc,segs)
hgVrt spectrrarn: Qeel
Grcen
Blr.g
ft.i:},.,*
- i
tl
3.3 E lecl'ro rne.gr€l ic sp€ct rurn
lonq y,,avglga,g ih1 low fralugr,c.'l
5lror} wave terpffu _h;9 h
/''\-./
tL.<lio llicrciwoves lnfra'-recl
UW
v;rible Ligvrt Ullrcr'lviolel
'{te4q'*t
X'fi:ys"- 3i,ml^a ,oys F
WclyeS
'crll 9.fir. wctves trovet wilh the sorne \;ctrn Speed in a\t*L,**r/t.
' s?ecd of elecilo majnetic wo\reg in q- vqr,.luvn iS I O-rrrcju/l- o.ncl is appttt<;rne,fu)y
tlt satnl- iD q.ir,
uSes
RodiO wcrv€5: ft*)io otnd tclevis;crn comyrr.LniccrlionS.
M'6ro{.bve5r Sa}elli}c lCleviston e*wt tlle phonOS
lnfroran, €leclricol qpplionc?s(raclicrn) hec,tlers onc) gr-tls), (emole conlartlrs fctr
lelevisions qnd,lnln;rl ef etturm s.
X*fcr,yS: urfl)iCine(x.p.y phcrlogrctprr) crrct filling cafice(CetlS) qnc,ls€c.^f;]).
5ofrt) Urue: i5 c. rnUtagerri it cql.^Sti 6crrCCf(rn-rrtoliorfd
3t
Lor,plnegs ..ncl pitch
'-[he hgtres ]rre fraluency, the higher the pltch.
'The highey {rre ompi}ude, tW le.Aec }he sourra.
Vc\o"s
Hard S*rrfoceg re1l?cl so*i) h/oveS, crealing echoes.
4'[]ecte ;.it\ and macarreti5rn
1.I 5irnPB Phefk rnenLoF rrrgn€tisrn
unlike Poles
l}'e co-b;nea{teW is alnast
Belwee, lil(e potes, lbere is
uniform (evse1 in Sirergth.
o naulrcl\ poinl r6here {he
combinel\ fietd strengh is zero.
Fnrrz(, Lplwefn ma?slok dnj
fiagneli. nmla-:lI!,
the v'aognelle rnqier lc.tts o1g Pultecl inlo pasitton b'7 btes f tom +heWrcs of the
F Mc.gnetic {c,rces Afe drr? to ln}erodiong betwsPh rmgnetU 6CldS"
l3
I"a, fa\ t'lcv€'rxztlsrn
, tl3.g1,1-fb mplecicr,ls op .,fr(wtd +o tnol1rrcls bea.'se {hey becon"q
rrrrToel
maqrctise) wha1 d ?\/rlno\ i6 ntutbY.'fw
;n)cca mgnetist-t in
lf,crn
.fvs ;gved ple nrrl{at lw mqna is thl 67fa6i}e o( lhe pte
end o€ IIC rnogret.
a* )lt
Lpl& @ch ?iefe oF v'€fo+t to
trha"rltruPtion beYwe* urnli?e PP5
$hC mdq?e'J'
ltvrlneticrrrc.Ierials: Mcrheficrts which @fi be
ttwtrnelised snA art' a}trtacled
to g4nds'Gx: fetu'S rneta'E)
thot <anrpt be nqrgtiseA qnd <rr?n'+.
Non-mognBlic 6at erialil" i'{cr'leftds '
a fals
allcacl et) | s v:ta$ae4' Fx" *n''n eYoVr non ftrrous e )
. glrolting a,n obrecy xrlt\ c'. .rr\agrw\ \^^ilt ind\rce Fno9n4li5v11' (.rr€nf
.Anobicc}<onbevotaaincrtong6;|q1rrif€onda(d.c.)dilall-i5Pq$e4
lx6; r}1agnelistg lr'e ohiee|'
coil. Th( ctrtrcn) ho' q. r'a4naiic e€€cc\
in tne
' An obiacl cprt V ho,mroe'd in o mogngic f;eld'
4 .,,g$ il.r:,".i,r.i,'
lua rrucl€qsl"ftrcx etechroh lu,s a moqnetic gfkol4s il 59ins ancl orbits
5o w\ 'r]orn ects aS e f iny
ic eftecti of lvre ekctfons do,Tt] conee\r
2- lne rflq9
hgl
n rogngl '
3. As lhe rnaferi<r\ becomes rna{v'p}ised,
rnore Qn<} morf o{ it5 q16miC
li\e \AF
*.v.then \-,eahed +o <, !-glr--leuaBcGsrg
or
.1
arg lqrirwo aut o{ tine, dgr'"oqbctisinq 159 obigcf '
rn49nS}J
havrnr,^9c€ar rl9 qlo-'ic
u*g,;]l6Gl"':t'9$-.T*:"T* j:I
rnoSnghs
v
back crnd forlh,
-w
r./tur\=i:+
ese'l
ac.9il.
rn
vlaxhof LafFDe
, ttw,nlot
cos+ba Trare/i.^
|hrows lpal,orrn oqto€ lrne.
pri*.;",q ar rn hhet'c-f'elcl lh'cr} cr'oniE o\ireoliows 1e1picllr1 oncr
Lxw;mai lo idenli1\ lhr ntlern of mqJnelic f;etcls,
t-Jtarl wilh cofiposS 6s6rr 6nQ snd of rrrqLlne+.
2. Ileeclle positiorr is rrorlced. wilh two &Is'
}.{omposs is rvloverJ 5o tho} the needte lines .rPwi}x pr6v;oosdoi... <r,nd >o ot:'
4 , O"+S arg
a, ynognef ic €;eld t;ne
ioingj |c, (+rv,ptott;ng
<jmp65i,
-,-f- \)e
/ -/4,r-t-9"Pt'Per
i
iiet d littz"',i , -,
,
=.'_-
Sofl iron; lo6es yirst^atty oll oFiIs ind,,rcd rrragflet;sr.,:t) il is d"lemryro'ry
prgnel. (Soft m4nelic nralericrl)
Slenl: l<ec?s sor"le o{ its iduLd rno.qflelisrrl c,nd beqres a ffrt>tooefil
n:rLgn7l. (llard mog<el n m"rfgrtcrt)
)es;gn: uLs€ a glab;d lo c{qa\q o, naXnetic {i
u\e: For ayytalions ,yuhe{e r*lgoafism neecls
is ndal
ovtt loncl periods.
{o be furrrecj an o*) off,(Ex'.JcrqP rnotol
3s
9*d,
4.2.1 (la'ltl- clx'rXe
-
baaetr4ld*,lh_4, J&eW
Fur*suli.-
-------:-----:--1.-.:l
od
Cn a rflvL"
-object
Ele(l'.; trisr'r
ql., p.olnl is tne dire'on af
_.&edirea{ion of qrr epr*e;c{'rdid
rio.rgedJfat P;*'
* 'ir!
{
I
I
I
I
I
*
}he fotte-6r*folnlrre
Tr,rturlir-rl
l.chorylxl obiec+ is brou€ht clqre lo urrharyet) o\iecl.
Z-Trc. chornes d;€Fercnl +o txe ctwr4ed obiecl rrlove torvcrrcls ;11
ihe l;ke charja
art repellecl o*,ay3.The uhr^,bnled Clanjes aft Cc*rlb3cl avt6;y.
Iaa,qcenl chaf,ge: A ctuftje lho{ rc.ppecrrs':orr en vrr-lvrgu) objecl Wrese oF
o clvtgt) ob;at ne-^fby.
fr lf,e q.*ccrct;on i s slrong€r thon repulsion beccrusg the oflrcl_cling cL.nrge, q.e
c\osz. .ihqn lh€ rapell;hg onOS.
electrcns flo'.,,,
rn io replace
r'i:i:str:q aleci:-cis
@
condrrlorS :.tTrqlericrls lhqt tet eleclronf p..ss |\ru.gh fhem.
^f_
-v,/
$f
s.''^. of lheir &lr"ns-ae
lhot they cen
Fus fres1, beiween the"n.
I"s'rhlors::rnqleria\5 l.hc.t l.n'6t1 <onctuct crl o\\.
uV+Xrn
elgcJ,-.b*et.ot tr+hilI-Lcld to ab'us q,nd ar?no| freeroynovel btrt f\ey cah
be tnonsferrecl by rr,rbbilag.
3*
nx
-4J.2 Cerrent
..rfr^.6|: a f told of cnclfgg'/IYl.lPe(gG
'
Zl rz ee
'
JlIdeEt ($\= clos$eK)/rirneS'sl - -'
{.1' ltrlec}oroatle-&rce-
I,e'of,-cl.n aeofrof-sc'r"re-{
vo}s (V)
-'@gc*"Pced-re'
*crvcuriraoA-nor-srryp\ica.*-er^'reol
: a ees,+d^**_if< €r^.f. when Fol in
'-IVb€4.l o. c4rrtyrfl-i5Ue.na 5vgpf'ea -.lll-:tor,r4e-ls
@lhecatl-
fo^ref b'eccv*SB of thg
c" so*rrae
. 1",,tuL -i,'defr'hectjn r@ieLbl
in-a*iry-c*sge-
fnv''ct e1@+de c;ta'il..-
1?A-Pc&lpXr}itEef oce--
n
, p..d, -,igneaour9cli
a
vo$stlpJ -tL= Lik-
'fr- vattlqgter rdeoiser-th€-\'altc'?p
in q'eEcr€[Y a'ral ;s-<onrrpctac{ f n leqYnltgl=--
*,J-L&eSalorra----re5nkr:de-(C)ajP -cI-' 6Djr^^rtr,ot
( A1
*,Utt[Arbr5--
l"t""l"tf;-EatU
a-&dEjsi
.-na.4o{ I le's T?6irlolraa
9*d*
battery
(or low voltage suPPlY)
CorfPnf fn cr corcftdor dePCO&
l
e
dn
' iha €ond.rc\oc is e aailact t+F /en?li-
I
6t r,irhforne wire.
..--
' ' -=
-
' P.il- is vn4ec\ by ry-'jr'.<)ing 'the' tzc"r''ieblg
' (esistonce crrlc"lole ui$ R- Vll
vvater to
keep
nichrorne
at constant
temperature
nlc-rome
wire
Oh'n:a Res;rtof
-'_-
'.' J*$ fhet
utit! h .P a con
s-t''r.l-- --
filoprnl Lo.nn
lo iYtrt'rcr,<e Cufrent i<nti Prefodtonol l.n |rra P4'
lo
9*t"
-@nogrrwtur--
' .fcoale<+ur)+-
curjEn l (A) rE -Votltry e
SngV+,-G*trert A) r -rlotloie
(
"
. __EdrytL-lftetlr;c citcwis-
a*tAxct*.44
(Y )
til
9*tu
{.matr swi}ctr wi}b.}hna wire5
--#-
Eltfcbe\ h..gh rEsislc.nce ;n cme
6l,16ctio6 but o lonl (es;ston@ in
fY€ othey. Atbw cuffenl lo fbw in one
dlr€a+iorL
Cr
1,,7'Z 5*-ieg sloil-Patullfl citct^ils
'
--z/ {D d*
'
crrrlen] ai-everl poin]-jn e- ser'ies-circuit
' Series: Rrotcrlz RrtRz
is the san\L--
-
rrfcuil
: fhe surn,o.S, }h0 -- Pd't-cr6fes5' 1ff'-@Eaprrenls -:st a' sericL'
js-agusLl -to-tA€'---
letcq +'d. arrosr-tt€-saffl Y'
o.r@r
'' lor
: , +or:r,llet ciraui\
-fcom
ilra osr;lf6i-.is |otgt'x- tj-arr-tlre- crrfrreat-
,in exl,,=Lnrrrtr'
.
r.sisl1'u6e-af fbb-fe5":*os9-irr4a'm}el-Il:re-cprnll,ecl
I
-
jS leSS-lhcu {hal-ofejthff
iil*.,
'Pc'ra\Igl: T6, = Rr Rr
" fhe-arUenl -Sr*,m
lle -ga\rt'ce-i5 +hLillla el A:y- {';'rlerrls--in -the-s {{ffJofe*h{a*nJb?s-
o*-rx Parotlel cizr..it'- -lafrrPl i+;c'toJlel : -l- lf -ar:e lc,vu'p-br*'W-!\e 'file-ts-Sl'ltrLl'ratk
2,Eacl-tarvrp gels trrto.:,|rr:,urr p-'cl--
ldvcro ag es aF
Parallg\ C;fct.i}
6f}
.j
*
--.ii
)\t:
1t
I
I
:i
:
1l
I
5er'ieS (irc,.ri t
i:
42*
1,3.-:. f,clroo ornj L{jg o( civgr;1 comporre*ls
?oitnlio"t oivirler
'* p.+*li"l a;vider d;vides tE vollc*je inip srnatler Pcrrts'
I
F ttiqnu yeiiitance, higher str^te a? wl*qge.
i
v,n
i
Vo,ef
i
i
,lz
,
\
Yo.rl: Vtn x iRrotql/
A varbbte Fohaniicel dividelllpjqdio_Aq|aal lts€e cr velpicrbl€ {esif.rc,(; jJ <rcts l;lce a
iotanlicr\ div;bt bsi you c-on arl*jusi 'fhe ourtg-rt'
- -\E
ideulce wilh on ?iltedle\1 high ra6illonLe \h oncditgclljn oncl a rc\iher tow fesislux€
). ihe olhet.
:.',q,,," s crrrfffits lo
{low
il
one diftrtion -
-: ,-.\r be."rStcl in a. feclif.gr; h*r,iS Ae'r.rx.fenl inlo DC cqrrait.
anlY
. i,c<I€ trlets lne {<,rwarcl Pc.rfs o€ a,,c' lfrrougx'
DC o.^t
AC tn
\
p;ode
:
ln Prrl lyaa<rlrlftf(
'Jlrermistpr: Ber,islor wilh high (eeistoflce when cold <rncJ low (esisdorre when \cJ\-,
fney conro;a Sexwa.odtcloa' rrraler iol.
'h?ht -deperr)*,rt (es;6lor(L0R): lusisbr wilro higtr f?sislctttc€ in the dorX but c(
.low f?5i5fonc? in the ligh)"
---j
,- /.Il,etrnitov
*'Lpg. afg uu5eq in eE lronrc cifc*ritS thal'
iwilch liqtrls off ond on.
4l
. 1terrni516"s <rte qs&l in t€mP€rolutr€
O percrtecl 6lc$ry,,rs,
9*d"
Ljl^ttlcb_of
o€'t
ut-etrcs*r i
2.tkdfoqs€r +$
rron armature
-o
power
for
suppiy
motor
I
I
"t=
eiectric 1
_.-.-'-
output circuit
t
(symbol)
-lrgrrr-swir€.hjtffq- c'*+*t-<iacuili5a}sooFF-
.. 1--^^ .oi:v (svmbol)
Y-
o-ulP'rl ei*nuir is "
rrgh+ -tnli+ive 5\ lit(\.\
'LDR rs por+ oS o polenlia\ clivide/
In dayliSSlrLDR hcri s bw fesisloncf ,gi't;n1 rt cu low s|:rrte af lW }plt+eay vctlloge.lrrvol{ap. is ioo tow lo lufn }he trtrnsislDr on.
In clortcne$S,LDQ bos o hiTh rtS,slarr€-rgiv,ng it a hgh slpte oF the lry:firerl- yollqge.
,fu Votlo4e i5 hgh grrough lo lr.rrn lhe lronsitto-r on.
'Iroa5;stof Jwibhes on o felc,.l tha| *c.rnS ihe lcrrrp on.
l0 ko
T
*
t"
a
,/,le
-a: .'.a,
I
",;;;;;'
o.|
nattery
I
I
I
I
I
Transistor switched ON
@
' lre.m*sror is
porl of c. poleatk-rl clividef'
'A| troo- lemp€val*re, tte, t'.CrmiSlor Lo, a h ah klisionc€ atul o vrtojOf Shatg oF the
\'oitcrrJ9,.trxc, |xa v6lfgr;1€. aLfoss lhe lowt {.is$!af rSF,r} ebpt€h lD }urn }art;stoc oh.
'\rhe," fler6l516t ;5}r:tl%)1ilS CS;slc,yXe ,r iovJz CavSir-61 thg lo,"rpr res.blor to geh
a loffr ghore of *hg bo)1a-.y vollage.l)e. vol+ane is evafru +o +urn trcensisl,or on.
' TrqfUb.ler s!!-+cbes c.ntdelay fhai s",itcnf,S a betl orr"
ihermistOl'
i!!.:r'| ,
*fe$siStor
4s
9*d*
NOL3ofa
-
'orP=meu}'oge-c
- -iner.l-A-is
NoT Hgh'
---iry-ras IANE-B-crte-
-[or lo&-high-
49_
neifhel
4.5 Don?er< of ereciri
Benrnc<rp,.r in<uLrliar: (,rrntcrC* with ryiGfi-ivawlfe esp6icrll tl,r.4,,e +o g",?s ;n Lhe-
insqlcr+tbn, 6rg]v|ses elfu+(V iW,-]r(S w\;Lb cc,r, .nu.<e <ef ;6-.s
injr,r;eg- or q hoc.k(._
terlrerr*;ng of roble.<'wnen lc.ng P-tens:on leods o€ cniEctrlr, l\e+n:r:y.6aetrrlt
Iha Crr.nanl *.r.crvls ttre ur;6 b'r| thelrrf,l hes le,5s_aff:cl-_L0_.qaft
if lhe wirr iS in crlicdht btrnrrlg. Ihk<crn-rar*te fie(
"hnt+P rr^rdition5: wr.ler Can ccr.tqcl e cur€nl, so iF elfCtricol equiprnet* iS wel Sarneoag
rn;gnLgar eleeln*, tlec)-
Fr. PrntarJs r. Circ*ril.lt is c. thin picce of tpi€ Nlh,rch.overrurrls ctrrl meLRi$-'
*he r,rrfgnl ;S b hb,tl li ls
fto@r on ihg tirla hlifp he6re ihe s.^,,'+rh, pr,..enr,'ng A (uSe W:t\ hove c. Spea;Frc r,*rrcqi Valrle r \Frgefnre
$Jhh-rhe&t+A3.ri\e.ble fuSgyot+ vn*si setent tl"e €,v'e f
behrd rn^rirt,r*rf- VA)rA(L
*ffir
4t
lii *,:,.
r* (,,nktc+, ayarlt,b{@Kihg rr€ circtrir-rhe r.,a
;ffi;";
}'-rtran-ilLo-
tesol.euctlrh,,g.ltraicrt<slireaf*,uebr,,,}isheiter'beeorrse-itrrrntere}'-reset bLitton
contacts
aelail
current
elecirornagnet
s Clrcuit breaker
(a{ cr'rrcrr:l
'TVeptli-wi{e c{eates o' JaFa rc"rle
io-flow I nror,rgrSr# lle' wiqg'
cet8ing'
I Earlh
*E /:-t(|G.rrt XaeS
lerra;x^l coarfgc)ff) k' r':r,:kll41;ittglb
Wfe i'.slacd sF aa'tasinT an9Elar
lffiu5ll+ earEr
s}rcr.V-
. A strbnB curfen* Sqrges thnaq8h ecrr{h
th,s h'ols tha fijse einot
tcraalrf:
wire &ai'lse ii'ha$
disqonrrects *M q?f-tto'ncg
q" Y€ri -low 'r-Efis iat^ce-
9*tu
Y.<6ed c,rtc6\ q ynctgr,pt;C {jelct.
2- imcg.e,&*..ji ?enenilecl ir,_t[g_ w;6g*
i' &c {'rt,.t----l#iu Cfr.rlte -cr cuJr.en+ if l}C-wire is+-crr+ of
_cr
Cincuil"
4 Cusreol" is d€tf&feol -:by-c,..--tctt vonr" rn&tref.
qfe .ql L\)be=lclr4tn}r:r
induced
current
induced cuffent
in opposite direciion
)|raignt wire( flerniling's
riSt't hond
'*le)
tn'M 3,,o,.
induced current
opposes motion
. rl6ving wi{e in oP$oSiE dilec:tio{\
reverse fiek) d;rrcliarr
<rro''rnc\ |o
. turnif\t rrraqnei\
I [u\\ing wlatv.e] o.*
. Clrange pote5
' r/v}{e rn@gnel faSter
, r+sipg c1 5trun30( rrognel
n'l''nber of
' iwrerS;n1 |u'e
lt'trvr 3
on lhe a'\
[ingerr Polnf in thg conven)iotlctt
c'rr-renf d;Gclba'
thumb qines \v''e iVortb Pol€
ij
r{ttq
!--l
s
5o
9*tu
tlre ccit anrlrtfad }o the or*tsicle pcrl oF tW cira,il - Tey aup zt<,t tlty ,itta ,e __
,qf ro'{bfft
ylhth albrilq 6, r\rrfaoi fia Fr-w.
carbon brushes
A Simple a.c. generato[ connected
to a lamp
(l
f: 6s6€h't is qqfjmcUrn when
rnaxin:uit-': ior+rard
'lhe co;l iS horizonlal Sinq
CUITENT
f iaUr lineg are be;ng
l
tut
ql the tr-:c.stcsL rale
50*
1 rotatlon
.+
rl
' fL^11g9\ i
5 <f 'uhen l'\o to;l
is wrfiol€ ,|;soE i}-'irnli
I
,.i
--i',:i I
Curtting on1 t;ew I;neS'
I
co'i Posiiion
lire e.m.f- outP-"l
ccrnbe \nc{'caser) \'Y;'increosirrci
}h€ hqmb€r oF ir'rrns 62n tL,e
C$\.
'irrCrg65l69 iae clrg4 o€ \'t'e Ccil
' \),5iYv4 c. 5hor6ot rrayfl
' rohr\\v:g )\rt colt fqgier '
4,6'1 Trqns{oYrnor
Bos,c Tronsfortne(
. AC curren\5 con b<, \n ciert€d 6r decleosgo1 by a
q'rr ;16'4 cotl€"
l€r'ot}daty co;l ond
'Loyr5i*9 a{ a pnmq*ll Co'I1 a
qgr a}te{,1iiiiYYJ ; ..*1'aFa:i,{'€,ic\. .
lhe ,Prl.rlsrY co{€, i| ?B op
e'.x€n!'
. WhEn -aI ler-rq}inq}"v,!-i.ironsforr"6-
'\nbhe-oI9.}'i;r...r^r5!*5.f;e.rclwilri.oi.^(e..arrql}erylitlvol)axeinl\reo*|pu}cor4,
('r5sr'r'vne e1F;o;ency=lod'1')
' Power l\e &re ot1 bolh sicla'
's
'ft-6,1n5{6,:rncrs.sarga!-:sd-rdla4@whic\'ri6lheTrindiptst}'oi;Foi}sqv'e
\aa1ne\tcatlYt;nl(edlao\vetqingcvtl?a*inotrg'ca}\6e|aninr)'+L€c)e'vrt'F'ittllf
52
*lret,
'
g{9rL !blloqe(v)
rJl r
-J/ Ot. e
-
lGid3 Eo DGPurAlr
-
';n?q.r .r^nlkrrgfv\ |.rns an in[u] Geil
:e
rls a Is
Ns
-----
I putt
coil: 500 turns
--.=---\
secondary (outpug
coil: 1000 iurns
-p{rmarv
V a.c. outpui
voitage
core: lron cr Mumetal
's:tr.
pasrcf L&$i in a .r.igtof
fJawerlc,6s.
ig
P.* I
Sinr-fu
- Cuffahi.
'5ln ' bbnsrnggrerp Cctlol€s arg Very lorg, they hor o- t-l nF rrg,Sleyg,. \lence€od\
a |rco'::rftx-n^pr, is u,sd {r. irrrr',-es€ }hr r':l}o+€ rtn€l deC.{Fa.6g }hg Cq{y.pnl,
-
- ih;t
nCr,r$qhlat', (Liq Ct€."
r zsrl+lgs-
(.qr, be l^SerL Sirree evr,tyi,nt iS fCdrfcgel-
4.6,4 -T\\L rn2gnehc
e$U\ of o cr-rr€nt
1
cur rent
(co nr:entional)
::l
t
ri3 9netrc
No4netic
(;sl'l a{bun} a'auntnY aqrrYiny
,\ogre,t;o fiel4 a'tcutrl
ct 6urrevrl
eo.r r \, i rg wire-
5o11eplcl
l> h1e wi{€
f :tyre fiek) is stroo995\ dole
<>f fl'f (otce
clirezlicr'
s
i
tle
f ield liriB al a poirr\
' !he, diiec\ion of a nEgt€iic
.>b. the N pote
ai c'' maSr€\ a't lhdl point'
brealdferr€\c}J and a Circ'rit
ip
isusecl
a crrrrrn\
,l,l\o,lnelo effral oi
fi'\n6,rao^slng lrra crrtf€nl'iwress'g9
o€ tur^o
" \nrwlr.g lYe nvr'rnber
*Ye Streogtr^
ol l:r/ie fieH'
of o' coi\ kptgctset. t}f
tetllz<ft€'$ fhe
'Re\|arsing lr( c\^ffafll dirgolior"
fl(eo?Il-
rnogrrelic fielct airccliotw
* ftel.r d;tectt;on: N.?aW lo 5 Fll
-+.-"
" Daflrr-lit", f,J,be iS Ug€ct
gi/en by Lo{
' lBver5;a3 fielol dlreelion, (everr,es th€
current-carrytng
coils
4,to-.b cr.c. rnolat
r+rni^g e$4-f;l'
a' f
' OL Clrrranl-ccrrrying coit ir1 o rnagneiic ileu exPeriences
IlumHr- 6f 1vrn5 oo lne cotl
-i*rbs;ng'lhe
bY,
;nc
reased
ile
effecl
is
'
' lytc(?ss;nJ }hg cqtrenl
-iwrecs:n11ne shenT|h oi lha ticfretic f;etd'
'
.bP?e{ wlra. ltt free ic
-r is m.^rle o[ irutrloted
;ura'i€ Sgl*een itr4 pates
ol W1? rrcqne|'
i)'
totateg
'lith
",(pl;tiirrq i: fitaa to $'e ;oi! 'erd
i ne roi)
f rrb o-Toinsf the c(trnmsfalor' )<eepng
whb}'
con}ol}s
}urJ
'-B:ir*ilr5-Jr{€
rno'Je of cpypx'
thg boLlexY' ]ha1 c're q"PllY
Co,nneatftl to
thdtt! |v1g
I. icil i5 hcrizooicr\ ctnd b?ic"^sq '2€
+;rc& o're futilresl qP4r'I
4rrcl g;veS
t)rc loll'
lhelr rrr.axirlrtltYr lrtmi'.'9 *ftcl ov'
Fotrgs <anr\ {urr:n i} tlltc}'''
l\nc
lorrx?s
P,tlT:-:
fo
'rerlicc"]
2. I\a coil euent'c.\t1
F!{'1r'"'i
lo cYnnge t}'e dileclior' of il-s
t!1e
rylIg*4j*""t
uerlica\racr'r'r$;nl
the
3,coir 6ver'hoah
cu(1r46| -
{. fories ihanle Cireclion qyyr f .r6hes ,oi'l
F li e i i\re< t\e
urrtil is vt'rllco') a'na}n'
is l:;verSec),
c'irrerrf cr- flg? rrrergr,elr fietct
ihe ruit^i';or' of
\w ;.:ir iS ldvt\scd'
l
:r(
Ir
\r6qrlY !/efllcle
Coi\ orre/Jhoots veriicE
56
/T>
L//l
J/
e,o
5. Abrnu flFsirr
.a
-Z
elPllrrf')
3- Atom rnusf hav€ been largely ernply Sqce,with ilS pasiliv€ charge epd rnaj} nLilS--rns JcpEcqdei4l-in 6 li6y n,.Eleqs al +he(rft|f€, ctc4ordi@
,/
abha saurce
beam of
alpha particles
*,*J--
detector
Rutherford's explanation
-----%1J+
Most alpha
//.\
(_#
particles are
undeflected
atom
/ /v'
Lg
A iew alpha
particles are
deflected
slightly
A few alpha
;;=G
particles
bounce
off nucleus
\*
5.1,2 $lrcle.ur
.Ip11ualevs of crn alorn iS madea4l oF net'r'trorrs
and proionS'
frjB ratrons: No oharqe
Protont: (t) Posilivo
cttet#
nrrrqE{: nr'*&b€r af P<:o+artJ
Pfcton
Nwlgon n,.r'wtEE{: flng 1'}f il
frrr,cti.le, go7-5 et;ffelrn] {ype
ifi cn olorn' Z
rrtrfrrber of prolong &ndr n€r'rtrons i+ibe-'n\AtgtiS'
A
of crlom' 2X'
\*loPe;a}clnsofih45ar]0ekzffent*hathcl,,€n6;glg..ilturntrdrSo{rrerrtronl
in whic\.. o, larSe
N\]{lAjr iirsior,: lhe p'ocess
tr\,6leu3 iPl;ts lYric,J'd) St,Elle(
nqclei With
tx;;r'r'':-lts ]'ign[ p"nsl'at'l%
lhe r:ela'ra ci ene'gy' )t'i{'[eus 57li
r}lorg i,lY$lobit il beg,r,e>,
1he rnore nzqttorB ,]"bB.,l]3Pe bls, lx*
by F"s', +\r'o sl\elgf ^\acle;
the p,ness in which a tonle nucleus tlfo$agci
Nwlear Fu'jon:
wifh Jhe (e4ase o[ enert]v-
5,2 f\odioocriv:tt
,"2.| }ci-\ion of roct;doctivit-\l
-eac hat:und-re,rrf;a''
.jr^luorror+ntsofrlaclicr}ic,niso}u,cly5clrrrrrndt,tsbeiau,se.,t-+}}errrclicctctiue]-Ilrrlericr)sinlFPerr'',:ronrr\3r*'JLisisc<rllgelbcrckgrot'n'Jrircl'<ilion'
',tainlyCa$eltpr''rralurcl\sr'^rdes:5o;l'iocvs)cnit',,br^ilctingrrrr|9r'roB'fooc'lo"'d
Jrin(7 rhc sP'rie'
,tacle.}rs
1.)re 'urincrow' iS |h;n en'ar1h
u<, P an'r
))
(ot: 4- pc^rtic\e5 io pcr;ss |lrouS}r
t'^\oe, it iotlieoS iha g:s insl19
1.\f +rf a(:potticts ente{s the
higb*r,,:\tage
3.Th;s 1e\s o(f o.
'P'\YK
crcro;t tYre 3;l slrr{ ra i-l'^\:c
.:l (r''rterrt
rrr t'.'d tir'e\?,
' /\ betr.r prrf'lio\e oi' <ld.t.nl11cr v'cr;liorticx' \rfs tl.'e $a1\'flg
effe;{"
58
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*ll aoh b€ a..f;. tgct l" . r..te ,rlr"(lellj
ilt' Cr,,.r,l. l-re......e.o,s) ,^" o ".., 1"r:_
Geiger-Miiller tube
d+
ifrn rnka
450 v
\rmtdCIA,'
supply
o_
'A\phfr rArJicr-l-bn: . tv-ri,S:r:{:i: ,s +selrr\ frr.r' 5-ofe cEtft}lorS
rOn;i€S
.
'Alpy,o r'crdbir;vr **E aif i,n dd\A*ct
' 5rnoYe +Dm cr flirE ebsorB alphe rtrtiolionr 4tlerlnS iorrr:at,bn
anr\ |ri%erin3 the aLrtrn.
' Belcr r',rti*tiotr, 'Jra<grs ond rrpoikruirrl thg ihicfngs5 of rnfigrkr\S
1
-*rl
frorers ctre roet;oqdivg 6hemks"\s u6€cl6r m€zticgt inruging- (e<l€\.n
cheynkols corra*tatelr, dsrvrlgecl ordr's€as€c\ ports o{ lY,ebdvt
can{ lhe ra-Jia}rbyr Ccncgntrqies wiy\ i}.
t' Frai+tuat eldz\afurs .)c:hetl lgag"rriilee\ rodicrtirvr rlhcl crn i.roge o[
fh.etnslJe of t\e5gsr>1 is rilocre $rithhre help.rts. cornputg:r..
' ,?oaiOlt"l is 1xectin iv'rJus\rJ in <rfl6|srs +hq| wronilov c\r-,o\
Adj'.ot
ihi*iass
conrtrg\ \:re lhLtrr#s oF nlltB-:ru\S.
' Tnc lhluver ihe rnc*eriCi ih: more ,r-,rcilticn is -ab,sorbec,\ 6no\ +b,e
le55 r*iloYlorr ri:i,u,hpS \he,Jelclcrr
' te}orl". serda Jigno\S lo elulyrnerr| fh$ cptj.$1 thbEreS.
' Cornon ct rcrl,'qhiorr:.Trecri rnSn\ o t ccrficet'
' htfng 2q.yc,r1:ty9€
ftoiogrcr,pr-,s
' jlorili:lrtg tboct and rnft.ligc{l eqv;pfren}.
5.2'l Roc,t,'o.cli"e deroy
fi rs.,z;l:ois,cllo9, ;5 6.lterocl lo ogke a marg slable cryrcfideyrerr+.
')urlng tx'or p-de-eLy {hc h.,^clar^s chonges }c, tt-ro,l of o, aif(erenl elerner,*'"
Rqd,uqc+i.,e daoy:
Alp},a ,-Eroly
'fin eterrull .ie<r*ys fhro,*,qlr ,ibe..emrgrbn 6F a p.rficte5, lbat leoves lhe n<.rrleqS ruirh
2 pr?tonS .^od 2 nekl-rons less ft-qr. beFoce.
.21G^222^+
NuLiear e4t+arioni tr fiE :-+ 8C Rn +' 2 04.
9*tu
y'rqnli7reut6;f1gi
rnqsSkss t?kIt'tr/e sF
'Aj€.rhqa ChO.g€S i^fr. a
f,miOnrAr. etectrOn crnd an e.ni;ner+r":r,ra.
hhe h€:qircryr ln ihe nuCleus.
,r,. re r o,,,"o;o-,t111 -+
r3'l
ve t ?,
P t 77
5"1,t ttrolf-\iFe
given <nmft€ io fc.rt io hrtjf i15 orr?;yrcrj rr.ut.r,e
20
IU
5
I
I
I
JI
haif-life
rvl, ,.,.*;,.,",,*",r-
5.2.5 Sr^(etr1 Prera.r*t'ron5
'Roai.rtlon can a,t fet) DN A, i,orr5ing rntrhe,)io[)5.
, Qadicltion trr:r, bl.6e CatWY.
' Rodiortisrr, ilarneqes Sqboharr@ <rncl rrra.|cficis in *frg e\lS of living t}vlngS"
!feaa.^\,O-r3:'Roaio6:4,tive rrro,)er;a\ iS 5!,s{t4\ ,rr c. EOc\ Cclvr}airrCt' or<J lc:ckea) 6;werr;.
: PiCkedwp. rit}. 7ongS, rcYborelrrrrcLg' \<egt o.^,o1 {'o",thebrrfy c}y}dl.n<:! tsi^tat*t peopre.
'Left a,rf oF,-l-6 d<r6Jg.rlrr67 for e,5 SY,ertsliiyr'e c'S po,sdble.
62