Cell Biology Study Notes: Resolution, Organelles, Molecules

Define resolutionthe ability to distinguish between<div>two objects very close together; the higher the resolution of an image, the greater the detail that can be seen</div> Define magnification and give the equation -the number of times larger an image of an object is than the real size of the object<div>-magnification = image size ÷ actual (real) size of the object</div> Diagram: Cell membrane, microvilli, cilia"<img src=""Cell-components_Plasma-membrane.jpeg""><img src=""Cell-components_Microvilli.jpg""><img src=""Cell-components_Cilia.jpg"">" Diagram: nucleus, ER, ribosome"<img src=""Cell-components_Nucleus.png""><img src=""Cell-components_Endoplasmic-reticulum.jpg""> ER also contains cisternae<img src=""Cell-components_Ribosome-1.jpeg"">" Diagram: cell wall, chloroplast, vacuole"<img src=""CELL WALL.jpg""><img src=""Cell-components_Chloroplast.jpg""><img src=""Cell-components_Vacuole.jpeg"">" Diagram: Golgi body, lysosome(+info)"<img src=""Cell-components_Golgi-aparatus.jpg""><img src=""Cell-components_Lysosomes-1e3ade109224ab4bf121f3c8b8d2c77f7cd3eb07.jpg""><br>lysosome contains several enzymes<br>lysosome could destroy a bacteria" Diagram: microtubule, centriole (+info)"<img src=""Cell-Components_Microtubule.jpg""><br>Dimers are a pair of protein (tubulin alpha, beta)<img src=""Cell-components_Centriole.jpg""><br>Centriole replicates in interphase" Diagram: mitochondria"<img src=""Cell-components_Mitochondria (1)-d8dc0041ee794248d0b5ecbb485935901797b1cf.jpg"">bilayers present in each membrane" Diagram: bacteria "<img src=""Cell-Components-Prokaryotic-cell.png"">" Diagram: Virus"<img src=""image-f94b9a298083074846f9e2b0bd3bc34cb9cc7063.jpg"">" Maximum magnification and Maximum resolution: light vs electron microscopeResolution<br>Light: 200nm; Transmission: 0.5nm; Scanning: 5nm<br><br>Magnification<br>Light:x1500; Transmission: x50M; Scanning: x100k SIZES: size, unit, size trend organelles"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-12-17 at 13.48.03.png""><img src=""Screenshot 2023-12-17 at 13.48.23.png""><img src=""Screenshot 2023-12-17 at 13.48.45.png"">" Unit conversioncm<br>x 10<br>mm<br>x1000<br>micro<br>x1000<br>nano RESOLUTION: Visibility(size, organelle), Shortest distance, Detail(mag, wavelength)"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-12-17 at 14.17.02.png"">" NUCLEIC ACID: types, location"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-12-17 at 21.27.20.png"">" RIBOSOME:where, from"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-12-17 at 21.39.30.png"">" PROCESSES: protein, lysosome<div><br></div><div>1.State the term for the function of Golgi body </div><div>2.How are protein transferred from RER to Golgi </div>"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-12-17 at 14.50.24.png""><div>Function of Golgi body : Glycosylation</div><div>RER to Golgi: by vesicle </div>" Common Formation: ATP, VesicleATP: mitochondria, chloroplast, bacteria<br>Vesicle: Cell membrane, ER, golgi Rough ER produces <span class=cloze>[...]</span> but Smooth ER produces <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Rough ER produces <span class=cloze>hormones</span> but Smooth ER produces <span class=cloze>steroid hormones</span><br> e.g oestrogen, testosterone Is virus a eukaryote or prokaryote?"None. It's not alive" Mitochondria evolved from bacteria but lost the <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Mitochondria evolved from bacteria but lost the <span class=cloze>cell wall</span><br> Functions of ATP (4)<ul><li>form ADP</li><li>protein synthesis/ DNA transcription</li><li>load sucrose into companion cell</li><li>DNA replication</li></ul> 2 types of cells that require many of some organelles for their functionGoblet cell: <br>Golgi body<br>To produce mucin (a glycoprotein)<br><br>Lymphocyte:<br>Golgi body(for modifications) and Rough ER(ribosome)<br>To make antibodies (protein) Plasmodium is a <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Plasmodium is a <span class=cloze>eukaryote</span><br> <span class=cloze>[...]</span> is an organelle that <b>contains cytoplasm</b><span class=cloze>Plasmodesmata</span> is an organelle that <b>contains cytoplasm</b><br> Graticule info(3)<ul><li>helps with proportion(NOT comparison)</li><li>used for measurement(but measurement of real length is by stage micrometer)</li><li>NO parallax error possible</li></ul> Relation/calc: Magnification, graticule, resolution"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-12-17 at 21.49.35.png"">" "Microscope slide question(magnification)<br>Which circle represents the specimen?<br><img src=""microscope slide.jpg"">"Red small circle "<div><b>Protein</b></div>1.Amino acid structure <div>2.State the number of double bonds <br><div>3.State Protein bonds (4)</div></div><div>4.How is a dipeptide formed ? (Visually) </div><div><br></div><div>5.<font color=""#af52de"">Between which groups are:</font></div><div>H bond (secondary)</div><div>H bond (tertiary) </div><div>Ionic bonds </div><div>Hydrophobic interactions</div>""<div><b>Amino acid</b></div><div><img src=""image-9059425a8d2a90ae83d7dd32f8ba2af1b5f4c772.jpg""><b><br></b></div><b>Primary</b> = peptide<div><img src=""image-44f2f70313e871699bcaa88753fe169bc82c84c7.jpg""><br><div><b>Secondary</b> = hydrogen between carboxyl and amino</div><div><img src=""image-65cb6ac369b7c52e2b42a81ae676a714cd10601a.jpg""><br></div><div><b>Tertiary</b></div><div><ul> <li> <strong>Hydrogen </strong>(these are between R groups)</li> <li> <strong>Disulphide </strong>(only occurs between cysteine amino acids)</li> <li> <strong>Ionic</strong> (occurs between charged R groups)</li> <li>Weak <strong>hydrophobic interactions</strong> (between non-polar R groups)</li> </ul></div><div><img src=""image-52587be574f2455cce6f84ad816af12a5df11ce4.png""><br></div><div>Hydrogen bond in tertiary= between R groups<img src=""image-af0ec58709b0adcd2fccdfffaf56b284802a933c.jpg""><br></div><div><br></div></div>" List of reducing and non reducing sugar Non reducing: sucrose only<div>Reducing: monosaccharide (glucose, fructose, galactose) , maltose, ribose, deoxyribose</div> Consistent reaction time error of 2s. What type of error ?Systematic error<div>Akin to that of faulty uncalibrated equipment </div><div>Cannot be reduced by replicating </div> Carbohydrate bonds + info"Bonds<div><img src=""image-841b2a7fedcfd1bda9a849cbad006ad7ca1f15be.png""><br></div><div>Info</div><div>All monosaccharide(even fructose) are hexose except ribose(pentose)</div><div>Like starch, glycogen can form granules in animal cells </div>" Carbohydrate molecules: glucose, fructose<div>Bond diagrams: a 1,4 + a 1,6 + (cellulose structure) b 1,4 and hydrogen bond </div>"Glucose alpha vs beta<div><img src=""image-b88604254767f149d42a36c9d41c354ad342b07f.png""><br></div><div>Linear glucose</div><div><img src=""image-707f872a51f1ccc967e9a2e8be8faf82ad2d666b.jpg""><br></div><div>Fructose</div><div><img src=""image-209a41498eef59483c0f288944477bd22184c9f1.jpg""><br></div><div>Glycosidic 1,4</div><div><img src=""image-887cda632095764e92f9b994d5f5125ce9a926d0.png""><br></div><div>Glycosidic 1,6</div><div><img src=""image-ecb2883a0894edb1eeccb66c8e594138e061130a.png""><br></div><div>B glycosidic 1,4 + Hydrogen bond</div><div><img src=""image-f1e682bd4d17d080746ab3282e89f63ffdc8f1ce.png""><br></div>" <div><b>Molecular formula and ratio</b></div><div>Monosaccharide </div><div>Disaccharide </div><div>Polysaccharide </div><div>Lipid </div><div>Fatty acid (formula only) </div>Monosaccharide <div>C6 H12 O6 </div><div>1:2:1<br><div>Disaccharide </div><div>C12H22 O11</div><div>1: 1.8 : 0.9 </div></div><div>Polysaccharide </div><div>(C6 H10 O5)n</div><div>1.2 : 2 : 1</div><div><br></div><div>Lipid </div><div>C : H : O</div><div>1 : 2 : less than 1</div><div>Fatty acid</div><div>CH3 (CH2)n COOH // C3 H6 O2</div><div><br></div> <div><b>Lipid</b> </div><div>1. Structure (general) of Triglycerides and Phospholipid</div><div>2. Number of double bonds in Triglycerides and Phospholipid<br>3. In which state do each exist at rtp?</div><div>4. How is a triglyceride formed? (Groups etc) </div><div>5. How is the bond formed called </div><div>6. Which one is saturated? And what benefit does it have ?</div><div>7. What is the number of arrangements that 3 fatty acids can have in a triglyceride?</div>"Triglycerides <div><img src=""image-5d0feee166aeafb3e8317d5f1eb112aa61abec03.jpg""><br></div><div>Phospholipid</div><div><img src=""image-5dcf960d110ba30f724b6766799a27738bdae520.png""><br></div><div>State: can be either solid or liquid (depend on saturation. Saturated is solid)</div><div>Saturation:</div><div>- both can be either unsaturated or saturated </div><div>- saturated is more compact (irrelevant to branching)</div><div>Number of arrangements of 3 different fatty acid(eliminate symmetrical)=3</div>" Nucleotide structure + reaction "Nucleotide<div><img src=""image-386e3b6f2619496521c5a48cd301d9e3ee277376.png""><br></div><div>Polynucleotide </div><div><img src=""image-54a9b178fb06eb3559700e91e1ac76428c265acb.png""><br></div>" <b>Terms definition</b><div><br></div><div>Monomer, polymer, macromolecule, monosaccharide, disaccharide, polysaccharide </div>monomer: a relatively simple molecule which is used as a basic building block for the synthesis of a polymer;<div><br><div> polymer:a giant molecule made from many similar repeating subunits joined together in a chain;</div><div><br></div><div>macromolecule: a large molecule such as a polysaccharide, protein or nucleic acid</div><div><br></div><div>monosaccharide:a molecule consisting of a single sugar unit and with the general formula</div><div>(СН2О)n</div><div><br></div><div> disaccharide : a sugar molecule consisting of two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic bond</div><div><br><div>polysaccharide: a polymer whose subunits are monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bonds</div></div></div>  <span class=cloze>[...]</span> is formed when phospholipid bilayer is placed in water, not <span class=cloze>[...]</span>" <span class=cloze>Liposome</span> is formed when phospholipid bilayer is placed in water, not <span class=cloze>micelle</span><br> <img src=""image-d700fcd77af84f6398b108951bdfab6f3f18a473.jpg"">" <b>Protein info</b><div><b>Structure </b></div><div>Bond(s) that hold the secondary structure= <span class=cloze>[...]</span><b><br></b><div><u>Level(s) affected/ concerned :</u></div><div>Induced fit= <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div>Change 1 amino= <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div>Determines specificity= <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div>Form active site= <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div> determined by DNA sequence= <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div>affected by sickle cell mainly= <span class=cloze>[...]</span> </div><div>Determines 3 and 4= <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div><br></div><div>How to know if protein is completely hydrolysed= <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div>How does low pH cause denaturation= <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div>Number of genes required to make protein = <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div><br></div></div><b>Protein info</b><div><b>Structure </b></div><div>Bond(s) that hold the secondary structure= <span class=cloze>H bond ONLY</span><b><br></b><div><u>Level(s) affected/ concerned :</u></div><div>Induced fit= <span class=cloze>3</span></div><div>Change 1 amino= <span class=cloze>all</span></div><div>Determines specificity= <span class=cloze>all</span></div><div>Form active site= <span class=cloze>1-3 OR 1-4(only if 2 or more polypeptides mentioned)</span></div><div> determined by DNA sequence= <span class=cloze>1</span></div><div>affected by sickle cell mainly= <span class=cloze>1</span> </div><div>Determines 3 and 4= <span class=cloze>1</span></div><div><br></div><div>How to know if protein is completely hydrolysed= <span class=cloze>all must fit general form of amino acid</span></div><div>How does low pH cause denaturation= <span class=cloze>H+ attach to negative R groups</span></div><div>Number of genes required to make protein = <span class=cloze>number of polypeptides</span></div><div><br></div></div><br> <b>Globular and fibrous</b><div>1.State solubility </div><div>2. Type of function </div><div>3. Give examples of globular </div><div>4. What happens if collagen is boiled? </div><b>Globular</b><div>-soluble</div><div>-physiological roles</div><div>E.g Haemoglobin, amylase, DNA polymerase (important)</div><div><br></div><div><b>Fibrous</b></div><div>-insoluble</div><div>-structural roles</div><div><br></div><div><b>Info</b></div><div><div>If collagen is boiled= helix unwind</div></div> Explain what is R in amino acid (2 marks)- R group/variable group<div>- they can be different for each amino acid </div> Hydrolysis <span class=cloze>[...]</span> at room temperature Hydrolysis <span class=cloze>cannot be done</span> at room temperature <br> Why would a branching enzyme be needed?To make 1,6 bond Max number of reactions when forming triglyceride ?4<div>(3 ester and 1 water)</div> Define extracellular Outside cells  Define primary structure Sequence of amino acids  Define hydrolysis Breaking a bond with addition of water  Enzyme forms <span class=cloze>[...]</span> bonds with substrate <div><br><div>Enzyme holds <span class=cloze>[...]</span> so that <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div><br></div><div>Enzyme has no effect on <span class=cloze>[...]</span> yield/ of product </div></div>Enzyme forms <span class=cloze>temporary hydrogen</span> bonds with substrate <div><br><div>Enzyme holds <span class=cloze>reactants</span> so that <span class=cloze>their reactive groups are close together </span></div><div><br></div><div>Enzyme has no effect on <span class=cloze>energy</span> yield/ of product </div></div><br> At optimum temperature, <span class=cloze>[...]</span> bonds of enzyme break first<div>Not <span class=cloze>[...]</span> bonds as they are the <span class=cloze>[...]</span> </div><div><span class=cloze>[...]</span> bonds breaks last </div>At optimum temperature, <span class=cloze>Hydrogen</span> bonds of enzyme break first<div>Not <span class=cloze>disulphide</span> bonds as they are the <span class=cloze>strongest</span> </div><div><span class=cloze>Peptide</span> bonds breaks last </div><br> 1.Any Inhibition, even <span class=cloze>[...]</span>, does not prevent <span class=cloze>[...]</span><div><br></div><div>2.Non competitive inhibitor binds to <span class=cloze>[...]</span><br><div><br></div></div><div>3.Non competitive inhibitor cannot prevent <span class=cloze>[...]</span> but can prevent <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div><br></div><div>4.Inhibitors are involved in which protein structure(s)? : <span class=cloze>[...]</span> </div><div><br></div><div>5.Competitive inhibitor can be countered by <span class=cloze>[...]</span> as <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div>1.Any Inhibition, even <span class=cloze>high concentration</span>, does not prevent <span class=cloze>other factors from affecting rate</span><div><br></div><div>2.Non competitive inhibitor binds to <span class=cloze>allosteric site</span><br><div><br></div></div><div>3.Non competitive inhibitor cannot prevent <span class=cloze>substrate binding</span> but can prevent <span class=cloze>product formation </span></div><div><br></div><div>4.Inhibitors are involved in which protein structure(s)? : <span class=cloze>Tertiary only</span> </div><div><br></div><div>5.Competitive inhibitor can be countered by <span class=cloze>increasing substrate</span> as <span class=cloze>it lowers the competition </span></div><br> <i>3 means that it does not interfere with binding. Substrate can still try to fit</i><div><i>Competitive would prevent it from even trying </i></div> In induced fit, no <span class=cloze>[...]</span> is required to change the shape of active site, only <span class=cloze>[...]</span> is needed<div><br></div><div>Induced fit also has not advantage against <span class=cloze>[...]</span> </div>In induced fit, no <span class=cloze>binding with substrate</span> is required to change the shape of active site, only <span class=cloze>contact with the substrate</span> is needed<div><br></div><div>Induced fit also has not advantage against <span class=cloze>inhibitors</span> </div><br> <div><b>Temperature</b> </div>As temperature increases, speed of dénaturation <span class=cloze>[...]</span><div><br><div>More collisions after optimum is <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div><br></div><div>Enzyme cannot be denature at <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div>Also remember that question of 5°C and -18°C, there was greater activity of enzyme at -18 because <span class=cloze>[...]</span> </div><div><br></div></div><div><b>Temperature</b> </div>As temperature increases, speed of dénaturation <span class=cloze>increases</span><div><br><div>More collisions after optimum is <span class=cloze>irrelevant after denaturation </span></div><div><br></div><div>Enzyme cannot be denature at <span class=cloze>low temperature like 5°C even when compared to another lower temperature </span></div><div>Also remember that question of 5°C and -18°C, there was greater activity of enzyme at -18 because <span class=cloze>crystals damaged the cell membrane and more enzyme leaked out</span> </div><div><br></div></div><br> "Specificity of enzyme determined by (not levels) :<div><br></div><div> <font color=""#000000""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(0, 122, 255);"">-</span></font> <span class=cloze>[...]</span><font color=""#000000""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(0, 122, 255);""> of tertiary structure </span></font><span class=cloze>[...]</span><div><font color=""#000000""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(0, 122, 255);"">- </span></font><span class=cloze>[...]</span><font color=""#000000""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(0, 122, 255);""> of amino NOT </span></font><span class=cloze>[...]</span></div> <div><font color=""#000000""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(0, 122, 255);"">- NOT shape of </span></font><span class=cloze>[...]</span></div></div>""Specificity of enzyme determined by (not levels) :<div><br></div><div> <font color=""#000000""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(0, 122, 255);"">-</span></font> <span class=cloze>R groups</span><font color=""#000000""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(0, 122, 255);""> of tertiary structure </span></font><span class=cloze>(bonds are between those) </span><div><font color=""#000000""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(0, 122, 255);"">- </span></font><span class=cloze>sequence</span><font color=""#000000""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(0, 122, 255);""> of amino NOT </span></font><span class=cloze>peptide bond </span></div> <div><font color=""#000000""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(0, 122, 255);"">- NOT shape of </span></font><span class=cloze>substrate</span></div></div><br> " Advantage and disadvantage of inhibitorsAdvantage : regulation to maintain balance <div><br><div>Disadvantage: loss of product</div><div>Less productive </div></div> What are the qualities of good immobilisation material? <div>Give an example </div>-unreactive<div>-non toxic</div><div>-insoluble</div><div>-long shelf-life </div><div>Example: alginate </div> <div><br></div>{{Both}} Inhibitors <span class=cloze>[...]</span> the reaction and do NOT <span class=cloze>[...]</span><div>But only non competitive <span class=cloze>[...]</span><br><div><div>This increases <span class=cloze>[...]</span> in end product</div></div></div><div><br></div>{{Both}} Inhibitors <span class=cloze>slow down</span> the reaction and do NOT <span class=cloze>denature</span><div>But only non competitive <span class=cloze>reduces vmax</span><br><div><div>This increases <span class=cloze>substrate concentration</span> in end product</div></div></div><br> Inhibitors vs Km and Vmax. Explain each."<img src=""image-d9f8e5fc84251320a74e524f773a6a926eef5298.png""> <div>1.Vmax decreased as it is determined by enzyme concentration(but enzyme changed)</div><div>2.As competition with substrate increases, more substrate required to reach half vmax. Hence higher km</div><div>3.Low Vmax= low Concentration of product over time</div><div> (not maximum product)(they won’t put the over time part)</div><div><br></div><div><br></div>" Rate-time graph. With all factors constant"<img src=""image-2c94f0e5977ecd4b0cce2579e584cc56069a6725.jpg"">" Immobilisation adv vs Free enzyme adv"<b>Immobilisation</b><div><img src=""image-c9fea4b698f7c3b19bedfceb88ba031599ab2ff1.png""><br></div><div>Thèse protections against environmental conditions lead to</div><div>-longer shelf life</div><div>-More product per unit time (as not deteriorated)</div><div><br></div><div><b>Free</b> </div><div>-lower optimum temperature </div><div>-that’s enough to kill microorganisms </div>" Concentration of enzyme substrate complex- time graph (in excess substrate)"<img src=""image-055e435ffd60aaa82be90cabfd8e3fc0f98f3014.jpg"">" "Components graph<div><img src=""image-612d5fa742133c54ba719ae81916a55b6f8cffbf.jpg""><br></div>""<img src=""image-63cfa9629573fd792b6cadb47f2b48d3dfcba43f.jpg"">" Concentration of enzyme-time graph (not unbound, not in complex)"<img src=""image-09f494ec089f34bf136dc54c79b8f417403f88be.jpg"">" Product-time graph (part of component)<div><br></div><div>Level off= <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div>2 lines but one is lower = <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div>"Product-time graph (part of component)<div><br></div><div>Level off= <span class=cloze>substrate all used up</span></div><div>2 lines but one is lower = <span class=cloze>denatured, so max product concentration not reached </span></div><br> <img src=""image-800d8eb4200374b35e0cf48491fa74410d93d993.jpg"">" We are observing rate with increasing substrate concentration <div>ALL OTHER FACTORS ARE CONSTANT</div><div>When the graph levels off, it means that <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div>We are observing rate with increasing substrate concentration <div>ALL OTHER FACTORS ARE CONSTANT</div><div>When the graph levels off, it means that <span class=cloze>substrate is no longer limiting. One of the constant factors becomes limiting </span></div><br> How to measure progress of reaction (2)<br><ul> <li><strong>rate of formation of a product</strong> </li></ul><ul> <li><strong>rate of disappearance of a substrate</strong> </li><li>COLOUR CHANGE REACTIONS: colorimetry (saw no question on this)</li> </ul> Inhibitors graph: type, concentration <div><br></div> <div>In the graphs, the <span class=cloze>[...]</span> are limiting</div>" Inhibitors graph: type, concentration <div><br></div> <div>In the graphs, the <span class=cloze>respective inhibitors</span> are limiting</div><br> Type<div><img src=""image-e200094b908944d0d47fd64f02f08d0bf96db981.png""><br><div>Concentration of competitive inhibitor</div></div><div><img src=""image-dee00bc0aa4fa8d82eb9056f13bb4a62a4bebc47.jpg""><br></div>" "<b>Product-time graph (diff temp)</b><div>Can you find optimum?</div><div>Is there dénaturation?</div><div>Where is rate fastest?</div><div><img src=""image-a92e70c4c959ba03c7dfc6cd6f050700cd4e8e69.jpg""><br></div>""<img src=""image-98a91831034921a4547bb98c914c58294e8a1da9.jpg"">" "<b>Mass of product-time graph. </b><div>What can cause the difference in lines ?</div><div><img src=""image-8475fcd103e89f6b114c49965c78b87d84fb3ce6.jpg""><br></div>""<img src=""image-a0e5a2682b880497fb1cf8d9b34f5d7182f0d029.png"">" pH-time graph (lipid to fatty acid reaction)<div><br></div><div>PH changes <span class=cloze>[...]</span> at beginning then <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div>Product(fatty acid) cause <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div>So H+/OH- is not considered <span class=cloze>[...]</span> </div>pH-time graph (lipid to fatty acid reaction)<div><br></div><div>PH changes <span class=cloze>rapidly</span> at beginning then <span class=cloze>less rapidly</span></div><div>Product(fatty acid) cause <span class=cloze>dénaturation</span></div><div>So H+/OH- is not considered <span class=cloze>an inhibitor</span> </div><br> Product concentration is not supposed to decrease<div>Substrate concentration is not supposed to increase</div><div>If all given options contradict this. Why?</div>"There will be no time axis.<div>The question will state that recording are taken after a few minutes then the experiment is restarted at another temperature (or other factor)</div><div>So there’s no complete reaction here </div><div>It’s relative </div><div><img src=""image-7630dece9bd8fca73e398abb9d41deff4c609bd3.jpg""><br></div><div><img src=""image-88160684ec441916485d388a320230d874c6de3f.jpg""><br></div>" "<b>Unreacted substrate - time graph</b><div>Can change in substrate concentration lead to Y?</div><div><img src=""image-c540e22f10062168a0ef288894970e4f5e40f63e.png""><br></div>"Yes<div><br></div><div>Few substrate = easy/fast to deacrease unreacted substrate</div><div>A lot of substrate= slow to finish a lot of unfeacted substrate </div><div>Y can be caused by high substrate concentration or other factors</div> Why is immobilised enzyme stable against changes in pH and changes in temperature ?1. H+ / OH- cannot enter the beads<div>2. Immobilised enzyme’s active site/ tertiary structure is slightly changed </div><div>(Active site is preferred wording)</div> Immobilised enzyme beads are placed in a column. Reactant is supposed to flow down it. Why are smaller beads better?- More beads can be packed<div>Slow passage of solution</div><div>More time available for reaction to take place </div><div>- surface area to volume ratio</div><div>Faster reaction </div> <b>Rate factors graph </b><div>Guess the factors affecting rate </div><div>Guess graph shape</div><div>4 graphs will be shown (rest in other flashcard)</div>"Ph<div>Temp</div><div>Substrate conc</div><div>Enzyme conc</div><div>Inhibitor conc</div><div><img src=""image-53cfa9e05a28d698d07d4c58cd3dfaefea96afb0.jpg""><br></div><div><img src=""image-2344670104e9bdbac72a69ccddf5ae2567b53932.png""><br></div>" "All blood vessels <div><img src=""image-48f7617d703ba94a7b92e27328d2383b739e84ca.png""><br></div>""<img src=""image-269f9b574f3a3f5c61785b1405ec4011d4b8588e.png"">" <b>Diagram of TS blood vessel:</b> externa, media , intima <div>Artery</div><div>Vein </div><div>Capillary </div>"<img src=""image-516aa61651c30d51a24c8a9350c15d783650f07c.png""><img src=""image-3a69d7c378cb0b8a54a5115d92196a0f3105c9e7.png"">" "Pressure changes with blood vessels<div><img src=""image-e8e2473e20d5b56ac9808129177e3bf32446fcd5.jpg""><br></div>""<img src=""image-0549f9aff8635d25fb8e09566c1d305c96b15563.jpg"">" "Pressure changes in heart <div><img src=""image-c7d65efb480245842e69e0c7466445f2be02fa53.png""><br></div>""<img src=""image-d5e26729709d8125418799be5275577769a5f323.png"">" "LS heart diagram <div><img src=""image-63439af310b9a1e1c594b2698258660713abb157.png""><br></div>""<img src=""image-a961f5986139caf56c803fe7596cee7928b50cde.png"">" "Recognise blood cells <div><img src=""image-deb78984c6072fccae06a75d090c2a729537afca.jpg""><br></div>""<img src=""image-6db90ebcada47be522ca40c0b36e5a3d93b0e8e8.jpg""><div><b>Monocyte</b></div><div>-largest</div><div>-bean shaped nucleus </div><div>-nucleus has a light stain</div><div><b>Neutrophil</b></div><div>-multi lobed nucleus </div><div><b>Lymphocyte</b> </div><div>-large nucleus</div><div>-dark stain</div>" <b>Contents of blood, tissue fluid, lymph<br></b><br><div><b>present in All</b>: <span class=cloze>[...]</span><br><br>State the different substances and whether present </div> "<b>Contents of blood, tissue fluid, lymph<br></b><br><div><b>present in All</b>: <span class=cloze>antibody, antigen, WBC(phagocyte/neutrophil, lymphocyte, glucose, CO2</span><br><br>State the different substances and whether present </div> <br> <img src=""Screenshot 2024-03-15 at 09.09.47.png"">" "<b>All reactions of CO2 diagram</b> <div><br></div><div>State 1-15</div><div>CO2 exists in 3 ways in blood: state the percentages (red circle)</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""image-aba243a548f00868ace2b80d19b0f9b4ae59c3cf.jpg""><br></div><div><br></div>""<img src=""image-242ee8a9a2f8ac02a818ad01264bab73137fe539.jpg"">" "Graph of speed, pressure and area of cross section<div><img src=""image-60e7f65eee3cf42d094653c0cc68c95f1e3943a1.jpg""><br></div>""<img src=""image-be09a58be310b042d9b9b885919d301ce8c06ad1.jpg"">" <b>Some structure functions </b><div><br></div><div>Small lumen = <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div>Thin wall= <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><b>Some structure functions </b><div><br></div><div>Small lumen = <span class=cloze>slow down for diffusion</span></div><div>Thin wall= <span class=cloze>rapid diffusion</span></div><br> Blood vessel contents : elastic artery, muscular artery, vein, capillary "<img src=""image-6e8e99551a896a240a1ccc2358a901508b33bb1c.png"">" <ul><li>When haemoglobin has a high affinity it <strong>binds </strong><span class=cloze>[...]</span> and <strong>dissociates </strong><span class=cloze>[...]</span></li></ul><ul><li>When haemoglobin has a high affinity it <strong>binds </strong><span class=cloze>easily</span> and <strong>dissociates </strong><span class=cloze>slowly</span></li></ul><br> Define double circulation Blood flows twice through the heart in one complete <u>circuit of the body.</u> At higher altitude, more oxygen needs to be <span class=cloze>[...]</span>, hence a <span class=cloze>[...]</span> affinity <div><br></div><div>Also affinity aside, you would to take up more oxygen and <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div>"At higher altitude, more oxygen needs to be <span class=cloze>taken</span>, hence a <span class=cloze>higher</span> affinity <div><br></div><div>Also affinity aside, you would to take up more oxygen and <span class=cloze>pump blood faster</span></div><br> <img src=""image-7460e74096ff3c9bd4e3fa7d9b47f60a464b3583.jpg"">" "Label heart photo <div><img src=""image-412a1e01c175cd1953d471de5f371403c393bed0.png""><br></div>""<img src=""image-847d9ded3473bad9337d33a943f8d4d4d54c0d89.png"">" In case you’re 🤪<div>What would you expect pH in respiring muscle to be like and why?</div>Slightly Lower pH<div>Lots CO2 produced from respiration </div><div>Reaction with water in RBC ends up producing H+</div><div><br></div><div>Although effect greatly minimised by Hb (Bohr)</div> <span class=cloze>[...]</span><strong> </strong>causes Bohr shift too<span class=cloze>carbaminohaemoglobin</span><strong> </strong>causes Bohr shift too<br> Don’t ask why, even chat got couldn’t  Partial pressure of oxygen  is <span class=cloze>[...]</span> percentage of oxygen  Partial pressure of oxygen  is <span class=cloze>not the same as</span> percentage of oxygen  <br> Because percentage is relative to other gases in air <div>PO2 is like it’s concentration (less O2 in each breath)</div> Binding with haem group: who does or not?Oxygen yes (oxy)<div>Carbon monoxide yes (carboxy) </div><div><br></div><div><b>Carbon dioxide</b> binds to some part of a globin chain to form <b>carbamino</b></div><div>Just not the haem group </div> The cooperative binding of haemoglobin can also be called <span class=cloze>[...]</span>The cooperative binding of haemoglobin can also be called <span class=cloze>‘increasing the capacity of RBC to carry O2’</span><br> 1164 Define systolic blood pressure <div>Define diastolic blood pressure </div>The maximum blood pressure in arteries  produced by contraction of the ventricles <div>The pressure in arteries when ventricles relax </div> What happens between unwinding of dna molecule and formation of phosphodiester bonds by polymerase ?During unwinding H bonds are broken between the parent strands. The nucleotides are already lined up at the template strand. <b>They form new H bonds with the parent strand</b> before being connected to each other <b>Describing semi conservative replicatio</b>n (map stuff+ specific ms stuff)<div>(11) although 5 marks only </div>"<b>General</b> (supposed to know from map)<div>1.Helicase <font color=""#bf5af2"">unwinds</font> DNA molecule // double helix</div><div>2.<u>Phosphodiester bonds</u> formed between nucleotides by <font color=""#bf5af2"">DNA polymerase</font> // <font color=""#af52de"">DNA polymerase</font> involved in <u>polynucleotide formatio</u>n </div><div><font color=""#bf5af2"">3.Okazaki fragments</font> formed in lagging strand; polymerase moves in <font color=""#bf5af2"">one direction </font></div><div><font color=""#bf5af2"">4.Each new molecule = one original + one newly synthesised strand</font> </div><div></div><div><br></div><div><b>Specific (ms)</b></div><div>6.(Unwind)<u> </u><font color=""#bf5af2""><u>H bonds</u> </font>break between base pairs</div><div>7.Both DNA strands used as <font color=""#bf5af2"">template</font> </div><div><font color=""#bf5af2"">8.Complementary</font> nucleotides added // <font color=""#af52de"">complementary base pairing </font></div><div>9.Process <font color=""#bf5af2"">continues along whole DNA molecule</font> </div><div><font color=""#bf5af2"">10.Activated DNA nucleotides</font>// phosphorylated nucleotides provide energy to form bonds </div><div><br></div><div><font color=""#bf5af2""><br></font></div><div><b>AVP only 1 mark</b></div><div> 11. Process occurs <font color=""#bf5af2"">step by step </font><b><br></b></div><div><font color=""#bf5af2"">12. Helicase</font></div><div> <font color=""#bf5af2"">5.Ligase</font> joins Okazaki fragments<font color=""#bf5af2""><br></font></div>" State the name of the part of the chromosome that <b>prevents the loss of genes during DNA replication.</b>Telomere  Type 1 mutation: purine instead pyrimidine (or vice versa)<div>Type 2 mutation : wrong purine / wrong pyrimidine </div><div><br></div><div> Why is type 2 more likely? (3)</div>"Purine and pyrimidine are of <font color=""#af52de"">different sizes</font><div><font color=""#af52de"">Purine bonds to pyrimidine</font> to maintain width of double strand </div><div><font color=""#af52de"">2purine/pyrimidine will distort the double helix width </font></div>" Explain how genetic code is degenerate ?"Genetic code is degenerate <div>More than 1 codon is specific to the same amino acid </div><div>There are 64 codons and 20 amino acids </div><div>E.g lys AAA AAG <font color=""#ff3b30"">(only if table provided)</font></div><div><font color=""#af52de"">Start codon may be different</font> (although AUG met is most common)</div>" State how anticodons (tRNA) and codons (mRNA) interact <div>Choose the <b>right keyword </b></div>"<font color=""#af52de"">Hydrogen bonds are formed</font> between complementary bases <div><br></div><div><font color=""#ff3b30"">No marks awarded for complementary base pairing </font></div>" Define gene (3)"<div><b>Easy</b></div>1.Sequence of DNA nucleotides <div><br></div><div><b>Specific</b> <br><div><font color=""#af52de"">2.form part of a DNA molecule </font></div><div><font color=""#af52de"">3.code for a polypeptide </font></div></div>" 1.Protein synthesis mainly occurs in which mitosis cycle phase ?<div>2.State the phase of DNA replication too</div>S phase in <u>Interphase</u> <div><br></div><div>Some ms do not give mark for s phase </div><div>: late interphase, after G1 , before G2</div> ATP structure "<img src=""image-840974325094ee9761aa0db367e2ad6d9288640e.jpg"">" <b>Nucleotides</b> <div>1. Structure of nucleotides (DNA vs RNA)</div><div>2. List purines and pyrimidines</div><div>3. State matching pairs and their number of H bonds </div><div>4. Which one has 2 rings ?</div>"1. <img src=""image-a47d993d8d29defc0b9f06217fd349d318d96c2c.png""><div>2 and 3</div><div><img src=""image-869355d3b4b64958383219d198343666bec3f0d7.png""><br></div><div>4. Purine is bigger with 2 rings </div>" <b>Define gene mutation (4)</b><div>(For 2 marks) </div>"<div><b>Basic(MUST know )(also from syllabus)</b></div>1.a <font color=""#af52de"">change in the sequence of base pairs</font> in a DNA molecule<div>2.Causing a <font color=""#af52de"">change in amino acid sequence of polypeptide</font></div><div><font color=""#af52de""><br></font></div><div><font color=""#af52de""><b>For 2 marks</b></font></div><div>3.Type: deletion/substitution/addition/frame shift mutation </div><div>4.New allele (don’t expect you to know this yet)</div><div>5.Altered mRNA</div>" Importance of glycine in collagen (3)"<div>Glycine has the smallest R group</div>Allows close packing of the 3 polypeptides <div>Glycine is every 3rd amino in a chain</div><div><img src=""image-0d654bf46518ee739679a6157c78e127e97810bd.png""><br></div><div><br></div><div><font color=""#ff3b30"">The term High tensile strength is deliberately ignored</font></div><div><font color=""#ff3b30"">No mention of compact </font></div>" <b>Percentage calculation given % of another base </b><div>E.g 20% T. Find G</div><div><br></div><div>- How to calculate </div><div>-Explain calculation (2)</div>"T= 20% so A= 20% (Corresponding has same %) <div>Remaining = 60 divided among the rest </div><div>C=30 , G=30</div><div><br></div><div>Explanation :</div><div><font color=""#af52de"">Bases are complementary </font></div><div>Calculation (A +T=40, C+G=60, Half of 60= 30)</div>" <b>Role of anticodon(2) </b><div>(easy + specific)</div>"<b>Easy</b><div>Anticodon binds to <font color=""#af52de"">codons on mRNA</font></div><div><font color=""#af52de""><br></font></div><div><b>Specific</b></div><div><font color=""#af52de"">Specificity ensures correct amino acid sequence</font></div>" <b>RNA</b><div>1. State 3 types of RNA</div><div>2. Structure of each </div>"<img src=""image-bd499a33ce772c4d1a06c5b303d44928b7e96200.png""><img src=""image-f8d4ee4752c447954f50c91ff618664badb83935.png"">" "Explain how Chargaff's findings helped Watson and Crick work out the<div>structure of DNA. (7)</div><div>(Chargaff: proportions of complementary bases are equal)</div><div><font color=""#ff3b30""><br></font></div><div><font color=""#ff3b30"">(3 marks: try to guess as many points)</font></div>""Find a cohesive way to brain dump everything you know about DNA structure <div><br></div><div>These terms are looked for:</div><div>1. Complementary base pairing </div><div>2. A with T and C with G</div><div>3. Hydrogen bonding </div><div>4. Purine with pyrimidine </div><div>5. Double ring with single ring </div><div>6. 2 DNA strands </div><div>7. Strands are anti <font color=""#af52de"">parallel </font></div>" State the carbohydrate component of DNA (slight trick)Deoxyribose <div>(Pentose and ribose not accepted)</div> Scientists used to think that protein carried information instead of DNA. Why? (4)"Bro what . Cuz they were stupid (The idea is about the variety )<div><br></div><div>1. Information could be the <font color=""#af52de"">sequence of amino acid</font> </div><div>2. Different proteins have <font color=""#af52de"">different sequences</font> of amino acid </div><div>3. There are <font color=""#af52de"">20 different amino acids </font></div><div>4. Great variety in protein structure </div><div><br></div><div>Ignore: many functions; primary structure </div>" <b>Difference between DNA and RNA (8)</b><div>As extensively as you can (this is 4 marks)</div><div><b>Easy</b> </div>1.single-stranded ;<div>2. uracil and not thymine</div><div>3. ribose not deoxyribose ;</div><div><br></div><div><b>Specific</b> </div><div>4.no base pairs <br><div>5.no hydrogen bonding </div><div></div><div>6. e.g. -H and not -OH on C2 ; </div><div>7. DNA is longer ; </div><div> 8. no helix in RNA</div></div> What is a base pair (visualise it)?<div>You messed up a question because you forgot what it looks like </div>2 bases (like A and T)<div>When we talk of base pairs, it means they are bonded. So each on a different strand</div><div>If they were 3 side by side, then that’s codon </div> <b>A single base pair (e.g 6th) is deleted</b>.  (Spoiler you find out that a stop codon appears from that; question won’t tell you that) <div>“State what will happen to the sequence of amino acids “<div>(Guess the accepted keyword)</div></div>"<font color=""#ff3b30"">Frame shift rejected </font><div><br></div><div>Only (number) amino acids joined by peptide bonds </div><div>// chain stops after __</div><div>// very short molecule produced </div>" State an enzyme used in Transcription RNA polymerase <b>Role of ribosome in protein synthesis (7)</b><div><br><div>(Same points as describe translation)</div><div>(Easy + specific)</div><div>(4 marks)</div></div>"<b>Easy</b><div>1. translation <div>2. mRNA attaches to ribosome </div><div>3. provides binding sites for tRNA molecules ;</div><div> <div>4. formation of <font color=""#af52de"">peptide bond</font>(s) ; </div> <div>5. (allows) assembly of amino acids into, sequence </div></div><div><br></div><div><b>Specific</b></div><div>6.two amino acids are held close together ;</div><div>7.bond between amino acids catalysed by peptidyl transferase</div></div>" How would you label the strand in a virus ?"Nucleic acid/ DNA / RNA / genetic material <div><font color=""#ff3b30""><br></font></div><div><font color=""#ff3b30"">Ignores Strand (because can be double stranded)</font></div><div><font color=""#ff3b30"">Rejects circular dna </font></div>" <b>Describe role of tRNA in protein synthesis(6)</b><div><br></div><div>(3 marks)</div><b>Easy</b> <div>1.tRNA carries an amino acid to ribosomes ;</div><div>2.anticodon (on tRNA) binds to codon on mRNA; </div><div><br></div><div><b>Specific</b> </div><div>3.(each type of) tRNA carries a specific amino acid ;</div><div>4.tRNA molecules hold amino acids, in place for peptide bond formation ;<br></div><div>5.tRNA molecules, reused (Reject leaves ribosome)</div><div>6.amino acid is attached to ACC <br></div> <b>Describe formation of tRNA (6)</b><div><br></div><div>Mostly easy and similar BUT terms you wouldn’t expect are ignored </div><div>This is the trick (Try and guess without those)</div><div>(3 marsk)</div>"Basically Transcription (like mRNA)but<div><br></div><div><font color=""#007aff"">Blue: different from replication </font><br><div><br><div>1.gene for each tRNA (molecule) is transcribed ; </div><div>2.hydrogen bonds in DNA are broken ; (<font color=""#ff3b30"">I unwinding / unzipping</font>)</div><div>3.By helicase </div><div><font color=""#007aff"">4.one strand of DNA is the template ; </font></div><div>5.(free RNA) nucleotides joined together by phosphodiester bonds ; <span style=""color: rgb(255, 59, 48);"">(I complementary base pairing because will detach)</span></div><div><font color=""#007aff"">6. By RNA polymerase ;</font></div></div></div>" Diagram TS leaf "<img src=""image-e0d7f1cb26588a38ed6d7c26709dc3a038064c7a.png"">" Diagram ts stem"<img src=""image-946a9b295103b218f9b894d56ad8991e63044042.png"">" Diagram ts root"<img src=""image-743bbbf2a9c426ab7cbb8c6e67e5614f2a8ed076.png"">" <b>Describe the role of mRNA</b> (6)<div>(vague= includes both translation and transcription) <div>(3 marks, choose the most important points suitable for this)</div></div><div><b>Easy</b></div><div>1.copy of the, DNA/gene, (coding) for a, polypeptide</div><div>2. for translation / (question specific protein) production;<br></div><div>3. mRNA codes for, sequence, of amino acids</div><div><br></div><div><b>Specific</b> </div><div> 4.travels from nucleus, to ribosome</div><div>5.(nucleotide/base) sequence is a series of codons ;<br></div><div>6.base pairing between codon on mRNA and anticodon on tRNA ;</div> "<div><font color=""#ff3b30"">Not verified </font></div><div><font color=""#ff3b30""><br></font></div><font color=""#ff3b30"">Take a guess, can single stranded DNA( virus) </font><div><font color=""#ff3b30"">1. Do semi conservative replication </font></div><div><font color=""#ff3b30"">2. Contain H bonds <br></font><div><font color=""#ff3b30""><br></font></div><div><font color=""#ff3b30"">(I guessed it right but might as well save it)</font></div></div>"1. Yes (it basically like an open and exposed dna molecule ). Actually Ai says no MUST VERIFY<div>2. Yes because it’s folded to fit in the virus </div> What does polymerase link? (Correct term ugh)Nucleotides<div>Not bases (that’s h bonds) </div> "eNgLisH<div>Each strand of DNA double helix acts as a template <font color=""#bf5af2"">for the opposite strand.??</font></div><div><font color=""#bf5af2"">What do you think that means </font></div>"It’s referring to the new strand <div>They’re trying to set you up </div> Given normal dna sequence and mutated sequence (incomplete)<div>Are these true:</div><div>1.the presence of mRNA stop codons, UAG, UAA or UGA</div><div>2.ribosomes cannot translate the mRNA</div>1. You got to check in the given mutated sequence EVEN IF it’s incomplete <div>2. No because no (nonsense info)</div> "<img src=""image-fb26e3d3e347ba77e3405f2b664197bb82562b97.png"">"It’s A. Don’t ask why not B<div>Memorise for now </div><div>Even ai doesn’t know </div> Polymerase direction Binds to 3’ end of template/original strand<div>But <strong>builds the new strand in 5’ to 3’ direction</strong></div> Other name for non template (stated by syllabus idk how important this is)Non transcribed  Functions of microtubule include functions of <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Functions of microtubule include functions of <span class=cloze>spindle, cilia, centriole, centrosome </span><br> (Not confirmed: from tuition ) <div>Which molecule present in all viruses? </div><div>1 thymine </div><div>2 adenine</div><div>3 cytosine </div>Answer said 1,2<div>I don’t believe it </div> Name the described structures <div>1. Non membrane bound spherical structure</div><div>2. Membranes with surround enclosed inner cavity </div><div>3. Membrane bound sacs arranged as flattened stack </div>1. Ribosome <div>2. Smooth ER</div><div>3. Golgi </div> Contain tonoplast ?<div>1. Root hair</div><div>2. Companion</div><div>3. Sieve tube element </div><div>4. Endodermis</div>1,2,4 Double membrane organelles ? (3 so far) Chloroplast <div>Nucleus</div><div>Mitochondria </div> Does bacteria contain folded internal membrane ? No  How to know which cell structures contain mRNA ? If they contain RNA in general <div>Not if they contain Ribosome </div><div><br></div><div>(To confirm )</div> Does photosynthetic prokaryote contain chloroplast ? Check  <b>Sieve tube diagram </b><div>State structures in sieve tube element typical of a cell (6)</div><div> State structures in sieve tube element NOT typical of a cell (2)<br></div><div>State structures of companion cell (1)</div>"<img src=""image-83b48352fc126f73b35f37fbb633e769b0a9aa5f.jpg""><div><b>Sieve tube element </b></div><div>Typical </div><div>1. Mitochondria</div><div>2. Cytoplasm</div><div>3. Cell wall??</div><div>4.cell membrane </div><div>5.smooth ER </div><div>6. Plasmodesmata </div><div><br></div><div>Not typical </div><div>1. Sieve plate </div><div>2. Sieve plate pore </div><div><br></div><div>Companion cell </div><div>Like a typical cell </div>" Xylem vessel contains 2 features only (2)<div>State which </div>"Lignified walls<div>Pits</div><div><img src=""image-8c40693037ce2cbfc739673bea9f09dfca671e09.jpg""><br></div>" Does mass flow occur in xylem ?Yes (as per Cambridge book and questions)<div><br></div><div>Mass flow is described as “ mass flow. This means that all the water molecules, plus any dissolved solutes, move together at the same speed, like water in a river.“</div><div>Though there are no solutes but mineral ions. </div><div>Though wrong, for Cambridge it is <u>right</u> </div> Function of companion cell (2) From website, I thought in case I need to know <div><br></div><div><ul> <li>control the metabolism of their associated sieve tube member</li> <li>They also play a role in loading and unloading of sugars into the phloem</li></ul></div> "Don’t be dumb <div><img src=""image-7fece4c6985bdd5151f942655a3f4503b82e7d1c.png""><br></div><div>And you’re not supposed to recognise </div>"1 only  State the function of each of these structures of sieve tube element:<div>1. Sieve plate and pores </div><div>2. Cellulose cell wall </div><div>3. Lack of most organelles </div><div>4. Thin cytoplasm </div><div>5. Thin cell wall</div><div><br></div><div>(They make sense )</div>"<img src=""image-e571045be1d477dfd81f889b22e88f9249a48b6f.png""><div>5. Rapid entry of water for high hydrostatic pressure </div>" State the functions of each structure of companion cell:<div>1. Most organelles (like nucleus)</div><div>2. Transport protein in membrane </div><div>3. Lots of mitochondria </div><div>4. Plasmodesmata </div>"<img src=""image-2b99bffea1e100488349b1f631a9c42263945b78.png"">" "What is T<div><img src=""image-951c5c9917db39a79bc1d438ede6fee92a1d8411.png""><br></div>"Sieve plate State 3 supporting tissues<div>State their function </div>   They provide support and strength to the plants. <div>Parenchyma, Collenchyma, and Sclerenchyma  </div> "Which is best for xylem ?<div><img src=""image-b08d15bc81a73e17f983c3ba16954400882c5884.jpg""><br></div>"Must have cell wall <div>Cell wall thick enough </div><div>Shape must not be too round </div><div>D</div> Function of casparian strip (to know for mcq)Blocks movement of water back in apoplast (cell wall) <div>It is waterproof </div><div>Forced to take symplast pathway into cell</div> Why must xylem have small diameter ?For capillary action<div>And it won’t collapse </div> "<img src=""image-af8da225cb95e15f1c938bd6e61f720802b8cc1b.jpg"">"À <div>Osmosis to enter root</div> Negative w.p= <span class=cloze>[...]</span><div>Positive w.p= <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div>Negative w.p= <span class=cloze>low w.p</span><div>Positive w.p= <span class=cloze>high w.p</span></div><br> Along a w.p gradient means ?Down a w.p gradient <div>Same thing apparently ?</div><div>An mcq said that for symplast pathway </div> "<img src=""image-b5a591aa3fef103d7fe7415e03d7226322e8b3b6.png"">"1H bonds to 1O only <div>Also known that it moves as a chain</div><div>B</div> Is co transporter protein a carrier protein ?Yes "<img src=""image-fd351cac8ab808ad08d2c3810a208948d203822d.jpg"">"C<div><br></div><div>Not supposed to have epithelium</div><div>Top layer is cuticle </div><div>You can’t see SA ratio</div><div>Sunken just means it’s kinda inside </div> Why would circumference of a stem decrease at night ? Related to transpiration <div>Not permanent stuff like adhesion, cohesion (that’s all the time)</div><div>Root pressure works </div> Describe translocation. (8)<div>(4 marks!)</div>"<div>Red: more important (same points as other questions)</div><div><br></div><div>1.Sucrose <font color=""#af52de"">diffuses</font> into <font color=""#af52de"">sieve tube</font> from companion cell via Plasmodesmata </div>2.<font color=""#ff3b30"">presence of sucrose (in sieve tube) lowers water potential (of phloem sap)</font> ;<div><font color=""#ff3b30"">3.Water enters (sieve tube) by osmosis</font><br><div>4.<font color=""#ff3b30"">increases hydrostatic pressure (in sieve tube at source) </font></div><div>5.sucrose removed / unloaded (from sieve tube/companion cell) at sink <font color=""#ff3b30""> (important too but not always accepted )</font></div><div>6.<font color=""#007aff"">Water exits at the sink (by osmosis into xylem) causing low hydrostatic pressure  (use the whole sentence : each segment used different times)</font></div><div>7.Decrease volume in sieve tube at sink</div><div><font color=""#ff3b30"">8.movement of sucrose from high to low hydrostatic pressure ; </font></div><div><font color=""#ff3b30"">9. (Called) mass flow;</font></div></div>" How supporting tissue ( like parenchyma cell) support the plant?(4)<div>(2 marks)</div>1. Water enter cell by osmosis <div>2. Vacuole full of water </div><div>3. vacuole exerts outward pressure</div><div>4. Hydrostatic support </div> Define magnification Number of time an image is larger than the actual size  Explain the role of H bond in moving water up the plant (7)<div>(3 marks)</div>1. Adhésion /  H bond between water molecules and cellulose lining <div>2.cohesion between water molecules </div><div><br></div><div>Specific </div><div>3.Water molecules are attracted to each other (polar AW I think )</div><div> 4.Water leaving xylem at top pulls water molecules bellow</div><div>5.Transpiration pull</div><div>6.Continuous column of water </div><div>7.Movement of water against pull of gravity </div> "<img src=""image-b4824d1cdab6056079016ee54c358900b02ca4da.png"">"Plasmodesmata <div><br></div><div>1. Connect 2 cells</div><div>2. Facilitate movement of substances between cells </div><div>3. Symplast pathway </div><div>4. Passage of cell signalling molecules </div><div>5. Removes need for cell membrane </div><div>6.increase rate of movement of substances between cells </div> Water leaves leaf into atmosphere. Describe (7)<div>(4 marks)</div>1 evaporation of water to water vapour <div>2 Water from cell wall, of (spongy) mesophyll (cell) ;</div><div>OR layer, of moisture </div><div>3  water vapour enters (substomatal) air space</div><div>4diffusion of water vapour (out) through stoma /</div><div> 5down water potential gradient</div><div>6stoma stated as open</div><div>7heat energy required for evaporation </div> State the function of spongy mesophyll (1)<div>State adaptations and their functions (6)</div><div><br></div><div>Total (2-3 marks)</div>"<img src=""image-d55504007abe6283cc257bf6226bf11db7a70762.png"">" "Lung microscope <div><img src=""image-74af070b580fee3714b15a78d4be5a087ccaa108.png""><br></div>""<img src=""image-580636fd1e8389c108950e211ed376ab183b484c.png"">" <b>Lung microscope diagram :</b><div>Bronchiole</div><div>Blood vessel</div><div>Alveolus </div><div>State how you’ll identify each </div>"1.Bronchiole circular , large and empty <div>2. Blood vessels: circular and looks filled <div>3. Irregular shape and empty </div></div><div><img src=""image-7eac18776f14c3d51646e959852f2c8772735701.jpg""><br></div>" Where is cartilage found and in what form ? (2)1. Trachea: c shaped / incomplete rings<div>2. Bronchus :plates of cartilage </div> Is endothelium present in bronchioles?No<div>I think that’s a blood vessel thing </div> "<b>Smooth muscle diagram </b><div><img src=""image-36432093f1f46a6107a4fcaebf19d54ba2f58d32.png""><b><br></b></div>"C<div>Tightly packed cells beneath ciliated epithelium (D)</div> Do all types of bronchiole contain ciliated epithelium ?No<div>Present in terminal bronchiole but <br><div>Respiratory bronchioles only contain a few  </div></div> Ciliated cell , smooth muscle and goblet cells contain lots of some structures <div>State for each (3)</div>Ciliated cell and smooth muscle: mitochondria <div>Goblet: mitochondria , Golgi, ER</div> "Concentration gradient <div><img src=""image-2122fb235ff6d752434aa39ec703feaa7788280e.png""><br></div>"A "Name the hidden cell <div><img src=""image-6799cda2358f4819471155dbea784da29681d9b4.jpg""><br></div>"Goblet cell "Lung tissue diagram <div>Name A, B, C</div><div><img src=""image-9fb99e6bbb4761d34ed9832d36bee46d8f344eca.png""><br></div>"A ciliated epithelium (cilia, on top)<div>B smooth muscle (right below epithelium)</div><div>C cartilage (with many cells like dots)</div> Describe exchanges in as blood flows in capillary beside alveolus 1.Oxygen moves from alveolus to capillary and carbon dioxide moves from capillary to alveolus <div>2. Diffusion of respiratory gases down a partial pressure gradient </div><div>3. Reference to Kpa from given table </div><div>4.diffusion through alveolar wall/ squamous epithelium </div><div>5. Diffusion through endothelium/ capillary wall </div><div>6. avp haemoglobin binds to oxygen in </div> Describe the role of elastic fibres in gas exchange system (4)<div>Easier </div>1.Alveoli stretch during inspiration <div>2. Recoil during expiration to expel air </div><div><br></div><div>Specific <br><div>3 Stretch to prevent rupture </div></div><div><br></div><div>AVP </div><div>4 Allow trachea/bronchus/bronchiole to expand during inspiration (avoid, I found no source stating that )</div> Describe the distribution of cartilage (5)<div>(2 marks)</div>Easy<div>1. In bronchus</div><div>2. In trachea </div><div><br></div><div>Specific </div><div>3. C shaped (trachea)</div><div>4. Surround smooth muscle (trachea)</div><div>5. Plates/irregular (bronchus)</div> Function of cartilage (4)<div>(2 marks)</div>Easy<div>1. Keeps airways open</div><div>2. Provides support</div><div><br></div><div>Specific</div><div>3. Allow flexibility when bending neck/swallowing </div><div>4. Rings allow widening when breathing in inspiration </div><div><br></div><div>Sometimes accepted </div><div>Prevent bronchus from collapsing </div> Function of smooth muscle <div>(2 marks)</div>Easy<div>1. Contraction and relaxation </div><div><br></div><div>Specific</div><div>2. Changes diameter of lumen of trachea/bronchus/bronchiole </div><div>3. Control airflow in bronchioles </div><div><br></div><div>AVP</div><div>Change size of lumen during coughing </div> Why large animals require gas exchange system ?Easier<div>1. Are multicellular</div><div>2. Need large quantity of/enough oxygen to supply every cell/all body parts </div><div><br></div><div>Specific</div><div>3. Active so high demand for O2 /removal of CO2</div><div>4.Diffusion across surface not enough to meet needs</div><div>5.Long diffusion distance (hence not fast enough </div> What feature would confirm that a diagram is showing bronchus ? (Real question) (1)<div>State other visible features too(5)</div><div><br></div><div>(3 marks)</div>Cartilage <div><br></div><div>Elastics fibres </div><div>Smooth muscle </div><div>Thick wall/ wall with many layers </div><div>Large size relative to surrounding alveoli</div><div>Large lumen relative to wall thickness </div> Why would you need cells that can divide by mitosis in gas exchange system ? (1 answer related to chapter)List some Functions of mitosis <div>1 to accommodate for increase in size of gas exchange system in growing infants </div> How is the alveoli adapted for its function ?(5)<div>(2 marks)</div>Thin wall<div>Shift diffusion distance between alveoli and capillary </div><div>Elastic tissue stretch and recoil for inhalation and exhalation </div><div><u>Many</u> alveoli for large surface area</div><div>Surfactant prevents alveoli from collapsing </div> "What is O<div><img src=""image-e15db1673a36360357d10db6040e80969389ae8e.png""><br></div>"Mucus glands  1176. 9700_s17_qp_12 Q:27<div><br><div>What is systolic blood pressure?</div></div>The maximum blood pressure in the arteries  1178. 9700_s17_qp_12<div><br></div><div>1.Blood has <span class=cloze>[...]</span> concentration of protein than tissue fluid because <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><div><br></div><div>2.Lymph has <span class=cloze>[...]</span> concentration of lymphocytes than tissue fluid as <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div>1178. 9700_s17_qp_12<div><br></div><div>1.Blood has <span class=cloze>higher</span> concentration of protein than tissue fluid because <span class=cloze>larger proteins too big to pass through endothelial pores into tissue fluid </span></div><div><br></div><div>2.Lymph has <span class=cloze>higher</span> concentration of lymphocytes than tissue fluid as <span class=cloze>high number of lymphocytes are found in lymph nodes </span></div><br> 1235. 9700_s20_qp_11 Q: 29<div><br><div>What explains why the left and right sides of the heart contract simultaneously?</div></div>D There is no barrier to electrical excitation between two sides of the heart.<div><br></div><div>(Atrial systole Caused by SAN) </div> "Factors affecting blood pressure <div><img src=""image-2967129350cdd269173c35d62c29bd9df6a6b719.png""><br></div>"A "This is part of an ECG<div>Name A TO D</div><div><img src=""image-7009b564798871ca1f20474e44f9f5466f9e1178.png""><br></div>"A atrial systole <div>B ventricular systole </div><div>C ventricular diastole </div><div>D 1 cardiac cycle / 1 beat</div> Graph of thickness of wall from artery to vein "<img src=""image-f56e1ff96b8fd7edd050bc864e3eb83f687ac432.png"">" <div>126. 9700_w20_9P_22 Q: 6</div><div><br></div>Explain Bohr shift <div>State benefit to tissue</div><div>(6) (3marks)</div>"<div><b>Easy</b></div><div>1.Actively respiring tissue means more CO2<br></div><div>3.More hydrogen ions bind to haemoglobin to form HHb (<font color=""#34c759"">HHb accepted)</font><br></div><div> 4.More oxygen unloaded from haemoglobin//lower percentage saturation with haemoglobin <font color=""#ff3b30"">(I faster)</font><font color=""#34c759""><br></font></div><div><br></div><div><b>Specific</b> </div><div>2.More formation / dissociation of carbonic acid </div><div>5.Haemoglobin <u><font color=""#af52de"">affinity</font></u> for oxygen decreases <br></div><div>6.More oxygen to meet demand for <u><font color=""#af52de"">respiration</font></u> (<font color=""#ff3b30"">I respiring tissue)</font></div><div><br></div><div>MUST USE the word “more” otherwise maximum 2 marks </div>" <b>Function of WBCs</b><div><br></div><div>128. 9700_s19_qp_23 Q: 5</div><div>Function of neutrophil : <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div><b>Function of WBCs</b><div><br></div><div>128. 9700_s19_qp_23 Q: 5</div><div>Function of neutrophil : <span class=cloze>phagocytosis /endocytosis of pathogens </span></div><br> 128. 9700_s19_qP_23 Q: 5<div><br></div><div>Explain relationship between altitude and RBC count shown in table(7)</div><div> (4 marks)</div>"<div><b>Easy</b> </div><div> 2 as altitude increases, partial pressure of oxygen decreases <br></div><div><div>3 lower saturation /affinity of haemoglobin with oxygen // more haemoglobin required to carry sufficient O2 to tissues</div> <div>4. Rate of production of RBC increase</div></div><div><br></div><div><b>Specific</b> </div>1 (describe data e.g highest is A/lowest is B)<div>5 (describe data e.g little difference between values/ difference in altitude small)</div><div>6  ref to adaptations to environment (<font color=""#ffcc00"">e.g body adapts to environment )</font></div><div>7 AVP ref to differences in demographic (<font color=""#ffcc00"">e.g response also depends on differences in demographic)</font></div><div><font color=""#ffcc00""><br></font></div><div><font color=""#ffcc00"">Yellow: I made that up </font></div>" How does graph of foetal blood differ from maternal blood dissociation curve ?"<img src=""image-0fc92a6eb9bb928022108ae8da40457bc184c6ce.jpg"">" What drug is used for malaria and why? Quinine <div>a preventive drug </div> <div>Q37/12/N/16</div>What disease among studied ones cannot be passed directly from parent to child ?Malaria because of mosquito<div>“Parent to child” is a trap</div><div>Not referring to foetus </div> <div>Q36/12/J/16</div>Guess the disease <div><br></div><div>1. Can be transmitted by animals to other animals including humans </div><div>2. A mode of transmission is transfusion with contaminated blood</div><div>3. Causative organism can show multiple drug resistance </div><div>4. Majority of humans who die from it are children </div>Malaria  <div>Q34/12/N/15</div>Why is antibiotic taken at evenly spaced time intervals ? To maintain a concentration of antibiotic in the body which is lethal to bacteria  State the preventions of TB1. Contact tracing <div>2. BCG vaccine </div><div>3. Pasteurise milk </div><div>4. Ensure meat cooled properly </div><div>5. Provision of new housing (no overcrowding)</div> HIV has a long <span class=cloze>[...]</span> which means <span class=cloze>[...]</span> HIV has a long <span class=cloze>latent stage</span> which means <span class=cloze>there are no symptoms</span> <br> People with HIV <span class=cloze>[...]</span> live for many years People with HIV <span class=cloze>can</span> live for many years <br> Q37/12/N/14<div>Why can’t sickle cell anaemia be eradicated ? </div>It is an inherited disease<div> Vaccination not possible </div> Q35/12/N/13<div>In Natural passive immunity, antibodies of the baby are <span class=cloze>[...]</span></div> Q35/12/N/13<div>In Natural passive immunity, antibodies of the baby are <span class=cloze>broken down after a short term </span></div><br> because they have not been made by the baby’s lymphocytes (non self)  <div>Q36/12/N/13</div>Vaccination can be referred to as <span class=cloze>[...]</span><div>Q36/12/N/13</div>Vaccination can be referred to as <span class=cloze>injection of antigens</span><br> Q35/12/N/11<div>Is blood transfusion a method of infection for malaria? </div>No <div>It is mainly through mosquito vector </div><div><br></div><div>Although it could be transmitted by blood </div> 27 <div>State the problems associated with planning vaccination programmes to eradicate diseases: TB, malaria, sickle cell anaemia, cholera </div><br><div>TB = different vaccines needed for active and dormant-to-active forms </div><div><br></div><div>Malaria= different stages with different antigens; invades body cells </div><div><br></div><div>Sickle cell= genetically inherited recessive condition</div><div><br></div><div>Cholera= invade gut cells where immune system less effective </div> Define non infectious disease(3)<div>(2 marks) </div>1. Not from pathogen <div>2. Cannot be transmitted to someone else</div><div>3. Condition that reduced effectiveness of the functions of organism/ abnormal condition (describing disease) </div> <div>185. 9700_s18_qp_23 Q: 4</div>Define disease (2 marks)1.Abnormal change in the body  which produces poor health <div>Or</div><div>Absence of good health/ well-being </div><div><br></div><div>2.Further detail </div><div>-Reduce effectiveness of functions </div><div>-Infectious or non-infectious </div><div>-Have adverse effect </div><div>-Produces symptoms </div> 188. 9700_s17_qp_22 Q: 3<div>1.State one of the 4 species of Plasmodium that infects humans (1 mark)(4)</div><div><br></div><div>2. State the name of the mosquito that is host to Plasmodium (1 mark) (1)</div>"1. Falciparum <div>/ malariae/ ovale/ vivax</div><div><br></div><div>2. Anopheles </div><div><font color=""#ff453a"">I female/male</font></div>" 189. 9700_s16_ms_21 Q: 1<br><br>TB, malaria and cholera<br>State the name of pathogen, mode of transmission and type of organism"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-03-19 at 22.43.32.png"">" 9700 W19_qp_21 Q:5<div>(a) Explain what is meant by the term immune response.(2)</div>Two from <div>1 ref to non self / foreign antigen </div><div><br></div><div>One from </div><div>2 activation of lymphocytes </div><div>3 ref to specificity </div><div>4 ref to immunological memory </div><div><br></div><div>Need to make an example definition using those </div> <div>S16 qp23 q3</div>Define non self antigen (3)"<i>Non self </i><div>1 foreign </div><div>  <font color=""#ff3b30"">A not from the person’s body </font></div><div>2 triggers an immune response/production of antibodies </div><div>  <font color=""#ff3b30"">A other events in immune response described </font></div><div><font color=""#ff3b30""><br></font></div><div><i>Antigen</i></div><div>3 protein/glycoprotein </div><div>4 ref to binding of specific antibody/ formation of antigen-antibody complex </div><div><br></div><div>Need to make an example answer </div>" Define autoimmune disease (1)"1 failure to distinguish self and non self antigens <div>  <font color=""#ff3b30"">A foreign <i>for non self </i></font></div><div>2 immune response / antibodies produced against self antigens </div>" State what happens during interphase: G1, S, G2"<img src=""image-e65fab3842f7fa08cb11c57c8f00666a40d39532.png"">" A cell can remain in interphase for <span class=cloze>[...]</span>A cell can remain in interphase for <span class=cloze>several months </span><br> Give a simple description of the following and function if any: <div>chromosome, chromatid, chromatin, nucleosome, histone, DNA molécule, polynucleotide strand, nucleotide, centromere, telomere </div>"<img src=""image-268f630d0e001fc56a7442e506a3850d5ac3f06a.png""><img src=""image-89d10647181a6bb6d839e2c4aee1e9f8f935a6b8.png""><img src=""image-2200b31544992a4fb414065a4ce98acefc2371f4.png""><img src=""image-3ea3460f9bef74b4fe86d1e74c8da8af95b264fa.png"">" Chromosomes are molecules made of DNA material in <span class=cloze>[...]</span>. A chromatin, a chromatid and a pair of sister chromatids(although 2) are referred to as <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Chromosomes are molecules made of DNA material in <span class=cloze>any form</span>. A chromatin, a chromatid and a pair of sister chromatids(although 2) are referred to as <span class=cloze>ONE chromosome (because it is 1 unit of DNA material) </span><br> State what happens during prophase and metaphase "<img src=""image-58d67318c21e20a8c6de9d973f54e1eed8c95d08.png"">" State what happens during anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis "<img src=""image-5c129b50c455614ea614176a16345d377b70fb17.png""><img src=""image-f0c8ccafd24ec9e1507233c3985c6fd7e12889c8.png"">" Compare cytokinesis in Mammal vs plant "<img src=""image-dec7edb169c174ae5e5cb57857c267770b8f00ac.png"">" "Label the mitotic cycle <div><img src=""image-4ff61996d1047153dfb7ce7885c9a344c34ec1d8.png""><br></div>""<img src=""image-2eb5d7550d8568d1652e255c92b69223122dadff.png"">" Describe the function of stem cells "<img src=""image-acac63e5b9490e1f5e800e5be94193f635b8c95c.png"">" Stem cells divide only in <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Stem cells divide only in <span class=cloze>bone marrow </span><br> Telomeres are <span class=cloze>[...]</span> protein Telomeres are <span class=cloze>non coding</span> protein <br> State the function of telomeres "<img src=""image-99f726739b5557ed3ba4b3cf7bae91d967d06375.png"">" Describe telomerase "<img src=""image-3d0725dd35a1346c39a612d45f16f513d33ca1e7.png"">" Telomeres have a high quantity of <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Telomeres have a high quantity of <span class=cloze>telomerase</span><br> Where are telomeres found ? (3) "<img src=""image-f7971f16804be91d55fea37202a5fdc6d03d21e4.png"">" Define metastasisCancer cells from malignant tumors can break off, travel through blood or lymphatic systems, and form secondary growths in other parts of the body What causes cancer ?- begins when genes that regulate cell division undergo mutations.<div>- Mutated genes that promote cancer are called oncogenes.</div><div>- Most mutations result in early cell death or immune system destruction.</div> State and explain the 2 types of tumours - Benign tumors do not spread and are not cancerous.<div>- Malignant tumors invade and destroy nearby tissues, causing cancer.</div><div>    - Malignant tumors interfere with the normal function of the organ or tissue they originate in, potentially causing blockages or other issues</div> Define cancer - Uncontrolled cell division<div>- Has high quantity of telomerase</div><div>- Forms tumour (irregular mass of cells)</div><div><br></div> Explain the importance of mitosis "<img src=""image-0dd29083bb87942db1493c3576b2ff1e2e89182d.png"">" State the functions of centrosome "<img src=""image-20a5b8dcf15c5ec82eb527a2b19f79b3d85fcfc4.png"">" Compare mitosis in mammal, mitosis in plant and binary fission "<img src=""image-f736a32972672901444d8b22dff6a5266f21dee7.png""><img src=""image-f9d249260885560b4d31e2ffd4fe27d82e6f80a9.png"">" For comparison question, must compare both sides and use the word <span class=cloze>[...]</span> For comparison question, must compare both sides and use the word <span class=cloze>both</span> <br> Otherwise half mark  Describe the change in mass of DNA throughout the mitotic cell cycle "<img src=""image-3e95260895512a3111288a99436d656b1fcfc29c.png"">" "State which stage of the mitosis cell cycle and state how you identified it <div><img src=""image-72415ffaf3124fcb38a356087071610813a6f352.png""><br></div>""<img src=""image-627f812276782ce1adcb4c45b0275a5ae308fd14.png"">" "Label the fluid mosaic model<div><img src=""image-fb02284ed8bfbbceb4049754a7de046689ff8d46.png""><br></div>""<img src=""image-812e895f7fc078c3dd977e74c01125e3912bd41b.png"">" How is cell membrane formed?<br>State the thickness of cell membrane"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-06-19 at 19.46.38.png"">" state the functions of :<br>1. transport proteins<br>2. receptor proteins1. moves substances across the membrane<br>2.to receive a signalling molecule(hormone) state the function of glycolipids and glycoproteinsfor cell-to-cell recognition (for immune response) membrane proteins can also act as <span class=cloze>[...]</span>membrane proteins can also act as <span class=cloze>enzymes</span><br> How to draw the phospholipid bilayer(4 marks)"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-06-19 at 20.04.18.png"">" State the factors that affect fluidity and how"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-06-19 at 19.50.28.png""><img src=""Screenshot 2024-06-19 at 19.51.41.png""><img src=""Screenshot 2024-06-19 at 19.53.16.png""><img src=""Screenshot 2024-06-19 at 19.55.22.png"">" What is passive transport?Movement of substances down a concentration gradient.<br>Does not require ATP Define diffusion-net movement of particles<br>-from a region of higher to lower concentration<br>-due to random motion State the passive methods of transportdiffusion and osmosis State and explain the factors affecting diffusion1. Temperature<br>Higher temperature, higher kinetic energy of particles<br>2. concentration gradient<br>Steeper gradient, higher diffusion rate<br>3.Surface area<br>4. Total surface area to volume ratio (TSA:V)<br>As size increases, TSA:V decreases. Diffusion rate significantly decreases due to larger distance of diffusion<br>5. the nature of substances<br>Small non-polar molecules and large non-polar molecules (fatty acid) can easily pass through the bilayer <br>Water (slightly polar and small) can pass through with some difficulty.<br>Small and large polar molecules cannot pass through the bilayer<br> For cuboids with different dimesions, those with the <span class=cloze>[...]</span> will fill up at the same time or (have the same TSA:V?)For cuboids with different dimesions, those with the <span class=cloze>same minimum distance of diffusion(minimum thickness)</span> will fill up at the same time or (have the same TSA:V?)<br> small non polar molcules enter the cell by <span class=cloze>[...]</span><br>Ions enter the cell by <span class=cloze>[...]</span><br>Both process <span class=cloze>[...]</span> ATPsmall non polar molcules enter the cell by <span class=cloze>diffusing across the bilayer directly</span><br>Ions enter the cell by <span class=cloze>diffusing using a transport protein.</span><br>Both process <span class=cloze>do not require</span> ATP<br> State the 2 types of transport proteinand their functions1. channel protein has water filled pores to allow ions to pass through by facilitated diffusion<br>2. carrier proteins<br>It has a site complementary to a specific substance.<br>When molecules bind to the site, the protein changes its shape to transport substances across the membrane<br><br> Define water potentialTendency of water to move from one area to another 2 factors that affect water potential1.Solute concentration<br>2.Pressure applied to solution(more pressure, increased w.p) Distilled water has a water potential of 0kPa. A concentrated solution has a lower water potential. Hence it has a more <span class=cloze>[...]</span> w.pDistilled water has a water potential of 0kPa. A concentrated solution has a lower water potential. Hence it has a more <span class=cloze>negative</span> w.p<br> for the same amount of water entering the cell by osmosis, why does the w.p of plant cells increase more than that of animal cells"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-06-19 at 20.50.43.png"">" define active transport"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-06-19 at 20.54.15.png"">" what type of transport do channel protein and carrier protein do"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-06-19 at 20.54.35.png"">" state the types of bulk transport1. exocytosis<br>2. endocytosis<br>bulk movement of liquids (<u>pinocytosis</u>) or solids (<u>phagocytosis)</u> into the cell by folding in cell surface membrane to form vesicles bulk movement <span class=cloze>[...]</span> ATPbulk movement <span class=cloze>requires</span> ATP<br> explain cell signalling"<img src=""Screenshot 2024-06-19 at 21.11.39.png""><img src=""Screenshot 2024-06-19 at 21.12.17.png""><img src=""Screenshot 2024-06-19 at 21.13.33.png"">" Difference between scanning and transmission microscope Scanning is in 3D A higher resolution means <span class=cloze>[...]</span> visibility but <span class=cloze>[...]</span> value"A higher resolution means <span class=cloze>higher</span> visibility but <span class=cloze>smaller</span> value<br> <img src=""image-d24a1e3ff376064f03b500e7d1a97cdbb229c1fd.png"">"

Cell Biology Study Notes: Resolution, Organelles, Molecules

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Cell Biology Study Notes: Resolution, Organelles, Molecules

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