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Global Politics
BA Honours Political Science (University of Delhi)
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Written by Manish Verma
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INDEX
Unit-1 Globalization: Conception and Perspectives
a) Understanding Globalization and its Alternative Perspectives
b) Political Debates on Sovereignty and Territoriality
c) Global Economy: Its Significance and Anchors as a Global Political Economy: IMF,
World Bank, WTO, TNCs
d) Globalization: Its Cultural and Technological Dimensions
e) Global Resistances: Global Social Movements and NGOs
Unit-2 Contemporary Global Issues
a) Ecological Issues: Historical Overview of International Environment Agreements,
Climate Change, Global Commons Debate
b) Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
c) International Terrorism: Non-State Actors and State Terrorism; Post 9/11
Developments
d) Migration
e) Human Security
Unit-3 Global Shift: Power and Resource Governance
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Unit -1: Globalization: Concepts and Perspectives
Lesson - 1 : Understanding Globalization and its Alternative
Perspectives
Question - What is globalization ? Discuss the disagreement on globalization.
AnswerIntroduction - Globalization is the process of interaction and integration between
people, companies and governments of different countries. In globalization, the whole
world is given the form of a market. Globalization refers to the expansion of
openness , increasing self-reliance and economic integration in the world
economy. Under this, mutual dependence arises between the world markets.
Globalization: Meaning and Definition
Globalization can be considered to mean the absence of geographical boundaries and
the end of geographical distances. That is, each nation establishes its relations with
other nations by going outside its borders. Globalization is done by the market forces
operating in the domestic market to come out of the national boundaries and perform
their mechanism.
Meaning of globalizationThe English word ‘Globalization, The first discussion of the term globalization comes
from the book of ' Jan Nesvir ' ' Globalization ' (1998) is a book written by the
sociologist Melcolm Waters. Globalization is made up of two words, world integration,
in these two words world means different countries on earth and integration means
mutual cooperation and coming together under one roof helping other.
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To make any good , service , thought system , capital , intellectual property or principle
worldwide, that is, unrestricted exchange of every country of the world with other
countries. Meaning the integration of the country's economy with the world economy is
called globalization . Globalization is the process of transformation of local or regional
goods or events on a global scale.
Definition
 According to Prof. S.K. Dubey , “ Globalization includes all those educational ,
social and economic activities , which are related to human welfare. ,
 According to Pro. K. Manasvi , “ Liberalization is the global process of harmonizing
economic development and privatization. ,
 According to Pro. T. Raghavan , “ Globalization is indicated when the world’s
social, economic, educational, cultural and human problems are solved on one
ideological platform of the world ”
 According to Mrs. Rajkumari Sharma , "world-class efforts made for scientific
progress, economic equality and human welfare come under the purview of
globalization."
 According to Pro. Deepak Nayyar , “Globalization is the expansion of economic
activities beyond the political boundaries of a country. ,
 According to Giddens , “Globalization is the increasing interdependence or
mutuality between different people and different regions of the world”
Flows in globalization are of the following types –
i.
The transmission of ideas from one part of the world to other parts of the world.
ii.
Easy movement of capital to more than one place.
iii.
Free movement of goods to multiple countries.
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iv.
Smooth movement of people to different parts of the world in search of trade and
better livelihood.
Globalization: Disagreements and Protests
Globalization has been one of the most controversial events from the 1990s to the
present day . This controversy has divided the realms of thought , politics and economy
between supporters and critics of globalization.
All critics of anti-globalization are of the opinion that in the last years of the twentieth
century, The ruling elites of the world created a network of capitalist globalization to
spread the world market for their personal interests.
Bretton Woods institutions , developed capitalist countries of the West and the
East and multinational corporations together have created global structures , the
uncontrolled authority of large multinationals critical of globalization , trade agreements
and weakly regulated financial markets through that authority. oppose the
implementation.
These critics allege that multinational companies use conditions and standards of labor
protection, standards of employment and compensation of workers, standards of
environmental protection, national legislative authority, conditions of independence and
sovereignty in order to make maximum profit.
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The struggle against capitalist globalization is being waged on two levels all over
the world.
1) Ground mobilizations are being done .
2) Decentralized public campaigns for direct action and civil disobedience have been
launched on a global scale.
Examples of Movements Against Globalization: Narmada Bachao Movement in India,
Landless People's Movement in South Africa And so on. Globally ' People's Global
Action Network ' and ' World Social Forum ' (WSF – World Social Forum) Globalization
is being widely opposed by Its slogan was ' Another world is possible '.
The critics of globalization give their own views as an alternative to globalization1. These include of many views such as the nationalist - French Nationalist Front. The
proponents of this stream (idea) argue that the institution of nation-state should be
raised in alternative to globalization.
2. The second group of critics of globalization is strongly against dividing the world
into national boundaries instead of supporting nationalism or protectionism. They
have established organizations like ' No Border Network ' . These groups are
supporters of such forms of global solidarity against capitalist globalization imposed
from above, which pave the way for the development of good democratic
representation , progress of human rights and good public welfare.
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As a result of anti-globalization thinking, many such works have emerged which
have given inspiration and momentum to this movement. One of such famous works is
the book ' No Logo ' by Canadian journalist Naomi Klein which criticizes the production
strategies adopted by multinational corporations and brand-led marketing based on
popular culture. This book has become like a manifesto of the critics of globalization.
India's noted eco-feminist Vandana Siva's work ' Biopiracy ' depicts how the natural
capital of the local people is converted into forms of intellectual property to make it
one's business property.
Conclusion:In a broader context, globalization began before the end of the 16th century, in Spain,
and especially in Portugal. The global expansion of Portugal in the 16th century was
particularly associated with a large number of continents , economies and cultures.
Globalization or globalization is the process in which business , services or technologies
are increased , developed and expanded throughout the world. It is the expansion of
various trades or businesses in the world market all over the world. Due to
globalization, governments in different parts of the world have adopted uniform
economic policies , But the results have been very different in different parts of the
world. Here too we have to focus on the context-specific rather than drawing general
conclusions. Due to economic globalization, public opinion has been deeply divided all
over the world.
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Question: Write the historical development of globalization.
AnswerIntroduction :- : - According to some authors, the real beginning of globalization as we
know it, started with Portuguese expansionism in the 16th century . It was a period
classified on the basis of rapidly increasing international trade and investment between
the European imperial powers , their colonies and , later , the United States.
History of Globalization: (Historical Development of Globalization)
Globalization is not a process of today, it is a process of the Chakravarti emperors. In
ancient times, during the reign of the king, international trade took place and trade was
done from one country to another. This process of globalization is going on since
ancient times.
We can see this process of globalization with the help of some examples –
1. There were trade links between the Indus Valley Civilization and the Sumerian
Civilization before 3000 BC .
2. The Han dynasty of China had trade relations with Asia and European countries in
the first century AD. India's trade relations have been going on for thousands of
years with countries across the eastern and western seas.
3. Sahara Central Asia was under the influence of Buddhist culture till the Gupta period.
During this period, India started having uninterrupted trade with Greece , Egypt ,
Rome , Iran and now Syria and Sri Lanka. To the east, Indian ships went to Cambodia
, Siam , Sumatra , Malaya and China.
4. Even in the medieval period, the empires of Genghis Khan and Timur Lung added a
large part of the world to what can be considered a rudimentary form of modern
globalization.
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5. Islam had grown and expanded during the medieval period and Jewish and Muslim
merchants went to different parts of the world for trade.
6. 17th century when the Dutch East India Company was established.
7. 19th century led to an increase in the number and quality of products. European
markets were created to sell the products.
The beginning of true globalization can be traced to the expansion of trade links
between Europe and African countries in the modern period, especially after the
Industrial Revolution. The discovery of America by Columbus in 1492 changed the
whole course of events. Later in the 18th century, Portuguese merchants established
factories, expanding their trade in the African continent. The establishment of colonial
rule in Asia, Africa and Latin America was the result of this process.
The desire for ' trade control ' of the great powers spread to Asia , Africa and Latin
America as imperialism spread and this caused many problems for the following years.
Some scholars are of the opinion that before World War I, globalization was led by
Britain and after World War II it was led by America.
The era of globalization that is talked about in the middle of the twentieth century is the
expansion of multinational companies that were established in Europe and America and
was related to the technological development in the field of science , development of
new knowledge and products on a global scale .
Most of the scientific discoveries made at this time were related to western nations. The
spread of Western culture was made possible through mass media , films , radio and
television. The role of international transport and mass media proved decisive in the
spread of globalization.
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If seen in the modern form in the 1990s, it came to a new point when globalization
worked to connect the whole world together.
Globalization in the twentieth century
•
Independent countries emerged after World War II and the United Nations was
established.
•
Modern globalization is the result of economists' business interests and the planning
of politicians.
•
The Bretton Woods Conference International Monetary Fund and the World Bank
were established.
•
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GATT – WTO was established in 1995. This
led to the reduction of international trade barriers.
Conclusion :- In this way the process of globalization has caused more damage to the
developing countries only. It has weakened democracy. It has dominated economic
power over political power. This has made multinational corporations an organization
working in the interests of developed countries. international economic institutions IMF,
WTO, World Bank are working towards strengthening the economies of developed
countries. Today, international economic agreements have become sustenance of the
interests of specific business class , it has protected the industries of developed
countries , but pushed the industries of developing countries to the decline. This has
widened the income gap between developed and developing countries.
it can be said that this process has greatly affected the international economic
relations. This has increased the importance of the role of the United Nations and its
associated economic institutions. It has internationalized the economy. Therefore the
need is not to eliminate it , but the need is to eliminate its narrow goals. For this free
trade policies should be made pressure free. All the countries of the world should give
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utmost cooperation. The efficiency of the existing world economic institutions should be
increased.
Question - What are the alternative approaches to globalization ?
Answer – In the era of globalization, the Introduction :- of free trade policies and the
increasing privatization of social services have facilitated the accumulation of wealth for
the capitalists at the cost of the worldwide environment and workers. Neo-liberal
globalization , which is the highest level of capitalism , now dominates every major
sector of the global economy. Over the past decades , international corporations in
particular have increased control over national governments and international
organizations.
The social and environmental values of neo-liberal globalization are prohibitive. Its
major global trends are increasing inequality and poverty , political instability and global
climate change. All these have been gathered and intensified by the neo-liberal
globalization , which has adversely affected the lives of every citizen of the nation and
the world. Considering these major trends and the current global economic crisis, it can
be said that neo-liberal globalization ignored the interests of the majority and is
unstable and questionable both economically and environmentally .
In this context, the alternatives suggested by the supporters and thinkers of
alternative globalization are included in the agenda of the countries of the world. In
this conflict of globalization, on the one hand, there is capitalist sovereignty , which is
based on privilege and dominance , while on the other hand, there is the idea of
alternative globalization which is based on values like freedom , unity and social justice.
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Proponents of alternative globalization advocate a variety of economic
organizations in which the administration of the means of production and distribution
of resources by direct ownership of the public or workers and the creation of a society
with equal access to resources for all individuals. Most scholars of this ideology agree
that capitalism allows illegal access to power and wealth to a small section of society,
who control capital, which they acquire through exploitation and thereby a An unequal
society is created. Which does not provide everyone the opportunity to maximize their
potential, nor the maximum potential of techniques and resources is used , which also
affects the interests of the common man. According to him, the main objective of both
developed and developing economies is the creation of a sustainable , just , democratic ,
diverse and truly free society, capable of being self-sufficient in local and regional
economy and maintaining harmonious relations with its environment and with each
other.
To empower nations and societies, it is necessary that they should again control the
local economy. and diversify it as per local requirement. This is in contrast to the
current situation in which all economies compete with each other , in which the supply
of goods and services is greater at the local level. It is an alternative to the free market
and free trade policies that currently dominate the economic and political sphere.
Supporters of alternative current reject the pessimistic view that there is no alternative
to globalization. According to them some alternative options of globalization are as
follows 1) The Local Economy: Local and Regional The main objective of economies should be
to produce as much of their primary products , manufactured goods and services as
possible from their regional resources. What they cannot produce on their own must be
procured from the neighboring economy. Long distance trading should be done only as
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a last resort. For this, controls like tariff barriers and quotas should be introduced
gradually.
2) Capital and Investment: Access to capital at the local and regional levels should be
in the form of investments that improve the social and environmental conditions of
industries and communities and increase employment opportunities. According to the
proponents of the alternative stream, this is done through the free market. because it
encourages large-scale and long-distance institutional and capital flows. To bring this in
the opposite direction, it is necessary both to encourage local activities and to bring
widespread capital flows under democratic control. Organizations with financial
institutions based on mutual principles must be encouraged. It also involves remutualization in the making of society.
It is also necessary to encourage local and regional financial institutions and for this
large institutions should be divided. Policies of ' Buy Here Sell Here ' should be
encouraged. National controls on capital operations need to be reintroduced and
financial flows should also be more widely regulated.
3) Controlling the speculators:
Alternative According to the proponents of the stream, investment should be focused
and not speculation based gambling. Financial trading on the margins should be
discouraged and strictly regulated. Loans should not be provided to the system based
on expectations and conditions. Taxes should be used to discourage short-term futures
trading, especially currency futures.
4) Transnational Corporations: The opposite effect of encouraging free market is that
these corporations dominate the market in which they do business. This process has
also crossed the limit in which such enterprises dominate the local community and
region. International corporations should be used to give priority to common interests
rather than corporate interests. Should be based on the ' sit here , sell here ' rule.
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5) Limited Market Access: The market participation limit of a particular company
should be fixed at the regional and national level. In a market where a particular
company is dominant , new industries should be encouraged through grants , loans and
subsidies. This will encourage production improvement, systematic use of resources and
provision of selection.
Continuing efforts should be made to check tax evasion of corporations , foreign
banking centers should be abolished on the basis of ' buy here sell here rule'.
6) Multinational Agreements: According to alternative globalization, this approach is a
hindrance to sustainable and equitable development, which has emerged in the form of
existing and proposed international arrangements such as the World Trade Organization
and the proposed Multilateral Agreement for Investment. They believe that all these
actions, at the cost of the rest of the world, take into account the interests of large
multinationals and capitalists, including the regions and communities in which they are
located. Such systems should be removed by encouraging cooperation based selfreliance. Financial aid policies and capital flows , technology transfer and residual
international trade should be based on fair trade and not on free trade. These actions
are essential for the sustainable development of the local economy.
Conclusion:In this way we can say that globalization is a multidimensional process and due to
globalization there have been vast changes in all spheres of human life. While some
positive results are visible on human life , they also have some negative consequences.
Revolutionary changes in governance , telecommunications , education , health sector
on one hand by globalization have made human life easy and convenient , while on the
other hand it has had terrible negative effects on poor countries and especially the
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weaker sections of different nations. There is a decline in the quality and fulfillment of
their basic needs like employment , health , education , housing.
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Unit -1: Globalization: Concepts and Perspectives
Lesson - 2 : Political Debates on Sovereignty and Territoriality
Question: Discuss three positions on globalisation and its relation to state
sovereignty.
Answer-
Introduction - The modern state is passing through a period of tremendous change.
A number of forces freed from globalization processes have influenced the state as the
center of popular imagination. Nation-states redefine their relationships with their
people at various levels have come to the fore. Although state sovereignty is still
important , it has been severely curtailed by division at the local level and integration at
the global level.
Different forms depending on the specificity of the regional formations. In this
lesson, many meanings of globalization and its implications for the nation-state have
been discussed in the first part. Later , it reveals different dimensions of the deformation
of the nation-state.
Nation-state and sovereignty
Nation-states are described as citizens and governance that operate within
geographically specific boundaries. To ascertain this combination, the nation-state
needs a self-conscious belief on the part of its citizens , which is more powerful than a
mere agglomeration/count of the given population of the country collectively. The
nation-state is a symbol of the citizen , giving him a sense of belonging to the
fullest extent. It expects an alliance of civil administration and self-conscious
patriotism. The nation-state embodies the hopes and aspirations of its citizens who put
allegiance to it.
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Definition and meaning of state
There is a broad agreement among sociologists as to how the state should be defined.
The combined definition will consist of three components. First , the state is a set of
institutions , which are managed by the private employees of the state. The most
important institution of the state is the institution of means of overcoming violence and
coercion. Second , these institutions are located in the middle of a geographically
bounded region , which is usually referred to as a society. Decisively , the state looks
internally to its national societies and externally to the larger societies between which it
must guide ; Often his behavior in one area can be explained by his activities in another.
Third , the state has a monopoly to make laws within its territory , which we call
sovereignty. It is oriented towards the formation of a common political culture co-opted
by all citizens.
Sovereignty
The exclusive right of the state to make laws/rules is often referred to as sovereignty.
modern world There is a major/original idea. In the beginning, it was clearly the right of
the state to commit legitimate violence to maintain order. But gradually the sovereign
nation-state made more valid claims on exclusive authority by including concepts like
social justice within its territorial boundaries. Thus , citizens have developed
expectations from the ability of their nation-states to solve their problems.
Objectiveness in the exercise of authority gives legitimacy to the actions of nationstates. The state is autonomous and sovereign , and represents a universal reflection of a
given national society.
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Threat to sovereignty
The nation-state has been mired in a critical situation with the advent of globalization in
the late twentieth century, as the ability of the nation-state to function independently
has been undermined by external forces at the global level and by internal forces at the
local level. This called into question the legitimacy of the multi-dimensional existence of
a nation-state.
The creation of the most important relationship in the life of the people is their
relationship with the nation-state. The nation , the people who had hitherto had
privileged relations with the states, no longer have such relations because the state is
neither capable of privately negotiating with global powers, nor is it capable of
establishing a sense of unity among its citizens. who want to remain a unique identity.
Third world countries feel this more seriously , because the competence of the
states is stronger on both the borders. Citizens are exploring new forms of
organisations , involving claims of their identity/existence in various ways. Its effects are
manifold. Local communities demanding more resources will sometimes find that their
interests lie in taking shelter of nation-states and at other times in their destruction.
International organizations will demand greater legitimacy, and one way to ensure this is
that supporting countries have their own individual legitimacy.
The recent state of the world summit has to explain how local communities are seeking
to become cross-border figures. Vienna Summit of Human Rights Groups , Beijing
Summit of Women's Groups , Rio Summit of Ecology Groups , Durban Summit Against
Racism or World Society Forum , all race , race , gender , ecological issues, on the basis
of race, race, gender, ecological issues, to local communities beyond the borders of the
nation. Trying to favor.
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They raise the question of social justice beyond the realm of nation-states , and link
them to the global process. For example , an attractive record of human rights within a
country must be good enough to be eligible to receive a loan , grant-in-aid from a
lending global agency or a donor agency , because human rights records are a crucial
issue in international lending transactions. are covered. This shows how much pressure
the nation-state is under from both domestic and global forces.
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Unit -1: Globalization: Concepts and Perspectives
Lesson -3 : Global Economy: Its Significance and Anchors as a Global
Political Economy: IMF, World Bank, WTO, TNCs
Question: Write an essay on evolution of the Bretton Woods System.
AnswerBretton Woods System:
The Bretton Woods system is responsible for making the dollar the world's international
currency and this system has made America the world's biggest superpower, after all
what is the Bretton Woods system ? And how did it increase America's power so much
that today America has become a world power, let's know.
Bretton Woods Conference:
of this system was laid in the days of the end of the Second World War, when the
Second World War, which lasted from 1 September 1939 to 2 September 1945, was on
the verge of its end, at that time all the countries were thinking of emerging from the
devastation and economic loss caused by this war. Started. As a result, to deal with this
situation, the Allied Nations, who had supported America , Soviet Union , Britain and
China in World War II, gathered in a conference held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire
city of America. 720 delegates from 44 countries of the world participated in this
conference and this world-class conference is known as Bretton Woods Conference or
Bretton Wood Conference.
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Creation of Bretton Woods System:
In August 1944 , the United States , Britain, and 42 other states met at the United
Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in the small resort town of Bretton Woods ,
New Hampshire. Whose task was to create the institutional architecture for the post-war
international financial and monetary system.
The most important result of the Bretton Woods process was the establishment of three
new bodies , collectively known as the ' Bretton Woods System ' .
•
International Monetary Fund ( IMF), which came into operation in 1947, whose
function was currency The exchange was to be looked after smoothly.
•
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD) , popularly
known as the World Bank , which came into operation in June 1946. Its purpose was
to assist in bringing the economy of the member countries back on track.
•
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT), which was replaced by the
World Trade Organization ( WTO) in 1995 . Although GATT is commonly seen as part
of the Bretton Woods arrangement , it was created by the United Nations
Convention on Trade and Employment and came into operation in January 1948. It
was concerned with the conduct and regulation of world trade.
Bretton Woods Agreement ' Multilateralism ' There is a clear example of this , which
became more important in the period after 1945. It would be a mistake to portray
Bretton Woods as a symbol of multilateralism and recognition of mutual interests. this
united states The important role played by the United States of America , which
emerged as the world's major military and economic power from World War II, was not
only initiated by the United States, but the conference also took place on American soil
and America itself in this negotiation. Leading the way, being active as well as effectively
directing some key results .
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'Bretton Woods system ' was a new monetary order seen by the International
Monetary Fund, which sought to maintain a stable exchange system. The World Bank
and GATT complemented the new international monetary order , by establishing a new
international financial order and a new international trade order respectively . The main
responsibility of the World Bank was to provide loans to countries in need of
reconstruction and development. Whereas GATT , which existed as a multilateral
agreement rather than an international organisation, sought to further the cause of free
trade by bringing down the level of tariffs. Between them , these bodies established a
form of proto-global economic administration based on a framework of norms and rules
that would guide future economic relations between states . between them , These
bodies established a form of proto-global economic governance , based on a framework
of norms and rules that would guide future economic relations between states .
Conclusion:America had proved the victory and strength of the Allied countries by destroying
Hiroshima and Nagasaki of Japan and all the friendly countries could not refuse to
walk under his guidance. In view of America's stable economy standing in such a strong
position, all the countries that came to the Bretton Woods conference agreed to make
the dollar the standard of the world currency. Thus the dollar came into existence as the
world currency. Started getting stronger. In exchange for this consent of all the
countries, America signed some agreements which are known as Bretton Woods
Agreement. As soon as the Bretton Woods system came into force, the I.M.F.
(International Monetary Fund) i.e. International Monetary Fund and World Bank were
established. Both these institutions still work to stabilize currency values and exchange
rates. The International Monetary Fund takes care of the global value of the currency of
its member countries.
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Question: Critically examine role of World Trade Organisation during 2007-09
crisis.
AnswerWorld Trade Organization:
The World Trade Organization is the only organization in the world that has been
formed to conduct and regulate international trade. The WTO deals with the economic
side in foreign policy , whose basic objective is to establish a multilateral trading system
throughout the world. To create an environment of fair competition for trade among the
member countries. In the year 1994, 123 countries signed the agreement through '
Caracas Agreement ' and it was decided to convert GATT into WTO as a result of the
Uruguay cycle talks for 8 years . It was born on January 1 , 1995, after the Gat and
Dunkel proposal. This is a kind of new GATT agreement.
Objectives of WTO :
The following are the objectives of the World Trade Organization :1. Promoting tax-free trade at least to reduce the barriers to world trade.
2. To effectively raise the standard of living of the whole world.
3. Increase in employment opportunities all over the world.
4. To encourage international trade of goods.
5. Promotion of trade in services.
6. To strengthen the concept of sustainable development.
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From GATT to WTO The ' Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ' (GATT) evolved from the ashes of the
Havana Charter ‘ The business in the world was facing severe problems during the
1930s and World War II so Allied countries thought of adopting a liberal world trade
system after World War II. With this view, in the winter of 1947-48 , the International
Conference on Trade and Employment was organized in Havana , in which 53 countries
participated and signed a charter to establish an International Trade Organization.
But the US Congress never accepted the Havana Charter. not supported As a result
of which no international trade organization came into existence. Simultaneously ,
23 countries agreed to continue comprehensive tariff negotiations for trade concessions
in Geneva , which were included in the ' GATT ' . This agreement was signed on 30
October 1947 . On January 1 1948 the ' General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ' (GATT)
came into force. Whereas ' WTO ' is the successor organization of GATT. The GATT was a
forum where member countries gathered from time to time to discuss and solve world
trade problems.
But the WTO is a well-organized and sustainable world trade organization that has a
legal status. Along with this, it is as important as the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund. As of January 1995 , it had only 77 members, whose number has
reached 164 at present. In the year 2018, Libya has become the 163rd member country
and Afghanistan the 164th member country.
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Where the two pillars of the Brettonwoods system - the World Bank ( 1946) and
the International Monetary Fund ( 1945) was established successfully and both these
institutions started functioning well. At the same time, the International Trade
Organization became problematic in its embryonic stage. Actually it was to be
established as the third institution of Bretton Woods. At the same time, it was also to
function as a special organ of the United Nations. The draft of the charter of this
organization was very ambitious.
Apart from trade, topics like employment , international investment , services were also
included in this draft. A conference was to be held in Havana in March 1948 to agree on
this charter . but havana In 1946 , long before the ratification of the Charter, 23
countries had decided to reduce and bind tax taxes on the basis of mutual
negotiations. Along with this, the governments of some member countries, in which
America was the head , did not ratify this charter. In the year 1950 , when America
expressed its inability to accept this charter, then this charter was formally declared '
dead ' .
This was followed by the seventh round of GATT – Tokyo Round ( 1973–79). The
contents of GATT were further expanded to include non-tariff trade barriers and at the
same time an attempt was made to bring about the required reforms in GATT. The
agreements reached at the Tokyo Round had a mixed reaction. The subsidy code
was implemented under the Tokyo Round ( 197379) . After the 24 Tokyo Round, with
the aim of rectifying the shortcomings of the GATT, member countries felt that a round
should now be organized after which such visits would no longer be needed. Later the
Uruguay Round was organized. As a result , the World Trade Organization was
established on January 1 1995 .
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•
GATT was a collection of rules and multilateral agreements that had no institutional
basis. In contrast, the WTO is a permanent body with its own secretariat.
•
GATT was concerned with the regulation of matters arising out of international trade
of goods across international borders. While W.T.O. The methodology of the
agreement and the decision-making process extend to the political level.
•
Although the governments of the member countries were permanently committed
to abiding by the GATT , but still the GATT was implemented on an ad-hoc basis.
While the W.T.O. The commitments of the member countries regarding
Global Economic Governance and the Crisis of 2007-09 :
There is nothing to worry about the work of global economic governance. Institutional
architecture was put in place to address the problems arising from the economic turmoil
of the 1930s . Nevertheless, financial and economic crises have occurred regularly since
the 1960s and have actually become more severe since the 1980s . The ' Asian Financial
Crisis ' of 1997-98 There were criticisms about the failure of the global economic
governance system to highlight the trend of advances , major instabilities and crisis ,
both and especially after the ' dot.com crisis ' of 2000 . 27 The intervention of the
International Monetary Fund in the case of the Asian crisis has been made more serious
by some. In addition , concerns have been expressed by many scholars about the
increasing volatility in the global economy.
For example, Susan Strange, highlights these dangers, calling it ' casino capitalism ' .
Similarly , economic commentators such as Joseph Stiglitz , Paul Krugman and George
Soros have highlighted the dangers inherent in the ' dogma of market fundamentalism '
, which underpins neo-liberal globalization and helped shape the Washington
Consensus.
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2007-09 has given rise to more challenging problems. First , this crisis was deeper
than the previous crisis of modern global capitalism , which caused the most severe
decline in the world economy since the 1930s . According to the World Bank, the year
2009 saw a 1.7 percent decline in global GDP , the first ever recorded decline in world
output while world trade was only 6.1 percent. Second , although its severity varied from
country to country and region to region , its impact was truly global as it affected almost
every country in the world. Third , rather than occurring in emerging or transition
economies, it originated within the domination of the financial capitalist country of the
United States.
29 In this context, especially considering the notable events of September 2008 , when
the stock market and global capitalism appeared to be on the verge of collapse. It is not
surprising that 2007-09 The crisis highlighted the need to reform the structure of global
economic governance. From the very beginning it marked the demand for a new '
Bretton Woods system ' .
Major challenges:
There is no definitive answer to the extent to which the structure of global economic
governance was responsible for the global crisis of 2007 . Eventually , both the Great
Depression of the 1930s and the Inflation Crisis of the 1970s emerged as the ' Bretton
Woods ' and ' Washington consensus ' , respectively , after nearly a decade of
institutional response , in terms of crises . Its dominance continues even today. How can
it be understood ? Early crisis management by G-20 , coordination on rapid domestic
action to revive the banking system And The inclination towards redistributive policies
imbued with the Keynesian style was clearly visible. Specifically , the G-20 Its action has
managed to cope with the pressure on national protectionism.
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Another most important factor has been the changing balance of power within the
world economy. Decisive moments in the development of global economic governance
- the creation of Bretton Woods in 1944 and 1980 Washington transitioned to
consensus in the mid-1980s—both of which were the United States' He was an
expression of supremacist power. However , under Obama , the United States took the
lead in formulating the G -20's response to the crisis.
Any such development in the future may be caused by new powers especially China , as
well as India , Russia . and will be greatly influenced by the views , interests and needs of
Brazil , which is collectively known as the ' BRICS Group'.32 The emerging economic
pluralism is likely to ensure that any changes in global economic governance are
gradual and will be incremental. It would effectively rule out the kind of comprehensive
and revolutionary reorganization that could only be brought about through the
existence of a global hegemony.
Conclusion: Since the establishment of the World Trade Organization in the year 1995 , till now
this organization has played an important role in increasing international trade and
resolving disputes between different countries. WTO It aims to remove trade barriers
and this idea is mainly beneficial to the economically developed countries, which have
been harming the developing countries and less developed countries for a long time. At
present, countries that were involved in the creation of WTO are , Now this system is
being questioned. Even though some of the WTO issues are against the developing
countries, yet this organization has contributed to the increase in global trade and
economic development of various countries. At present, it is very important to have a
rule based system at the international level so that the business Anarchy can be
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prevented and cooperation can be given to increase international trade and economic
development.
Question - What are basic objectives of World Bank?
AnswerWorld Bank :
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to the
countries of the world for capital programs. In fact, the World Bank is a specialized
institution of the United Nations , also known as the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development. Its main purpose is to provide financial assistance
to the member states in the work of reconstruction and development and to
include the economies of different countries in a wider world economy and to make
efforts to eradicate poverty in developing countries. The World Bank provides loans for
policy reform programs and projects. The World Bank is a constituent of the World
Bank Group. The Headquarters of the World Bank is in Washington DC, USA. Jim Yong
Kim is the current President of the World Bank.
Brief History of the World Bank :
The International Monetary Fund ( IMF and (the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development ( IBRD were established (in the year 1945 under the Brettonwoods
Conference of the United Nations in the year 1944 , hence they are also called
Brettonwoods twins. It is said that the main purpose of establishing this institution was
ruined in the world war. The economy had to be rebuilt.
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The IBRD, along with four other entities, the International Financial Corporation )1956),
the International Development Association )1960), the International Center for the
Settlement of Investment Disputes )1966) , and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee
Agency )1988) , form the World Bank Group.
Functions of World Bank :
World Bank member countries, especially in developing countries , are playing a major
role in providing loans for development works. The bank provides loans for a period of 5
to 20 years for various development projects .
1. The bank can give loans to member countries in the form of paid-up capital of 20%
of its shares.
2. Decides on loan service , interest rate , terms and conditions.
3. Generally, the bank provides loans for specific projects, which are duly submitted by
the member countries to the bank.
4. Borrowing countries have to repay the loan either in reserve currency or in the
currency in which the loan was sanctioned .
5. World Bank gives loans only to developing countries
Objectives of the World Bank :
The basic objective of the IBRD is to provide credit on reasonable terms to developing
member countries willing to adopt projects that reduce poverty and increase productive
capacity . Private investment loans are encouraged by the bank through guarantees or
partnerships and technical assistance is provided in the area of specific investment
projects and holistic development plans. The activities of IBRD mainly focus on lending
and credit , support support , technical support and other related services. The bank's
resources include capital accumulation from members , retained earnings and
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borrowings from the capital market. The bank's treasury continues to prosper by the
sale of portions of outstanding loans (mainly without bank guarantees) and repayment
inflows.
Most of the funds being loaned are raised in the form of direct lending from world
capital markets. Funds required for the functioning of the bank are obtained by issuing
interest bearing bonds or instruments to public and private investors. The bank provides
loans on reasonable terms and also ensures profit in the form of commission charges
and interest.
Loans are generally long term , to be repaid in currencies within 20 years with a grace
period of 5 years . The indebtedness or borrowing is limited to the member countries.
The quantum of outstanding loans cannot exceed the net amount of the Contributed
Capital Reserve. The government of the subject country provides a guarantee on each
loan. This provision prohibits obtaining loans for private enterprise. Loan funded
projects need to be profitable and useful. In principle , loans are made available to
projects that can not get finance from other sources on reasonable terms. Every loan
funded project is closely monitored and audited by the bank.
Origins of the World Bank The objective is as follows :
i.
Long term capital to member countries for economic reconstruction and
development render.
ii.
balance of payments and international To ensure balanced growth of business
long term motivating capital investment.
iii.
Promoting international investment.
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Organizational Structure of the World Bank :
The organizational structure of the World Bank consists of a Board of Governors ,
Executive Directors and a President. A governor and an alternate representative from all
member countries join the board of governors. Governors are often finance ministers or
finance secretary-level administrators of the countries concerned , who simultaneously
serve as governors of the IMF , IFC and MEGA. The Board of Governors meets annually
in which the functioning of all these institutions is reviewed.
In this board, each member has 250 votes and one additional vote . Is obtained.
Thus the bank works based on a weighted voting system , which rests on the amount of
countries' private contribution (which in itself is determined by IMF quotas). The voting
power of poor countries is proportionately less. One out of three meetings of the Board
are held at a site away from Washington.
Most of the powers of the Board of Governors have been transferred to 24
executive directors , Those who hold their meeting at least once a month at the bank
headquarters. These directors are responsible for the conduct of the normal business of
the bank. The powers of the Board of Governors relating to admission of new members,
change in capital stock and distribution of net income of the bank have not been
transferred. Five executive directors are appointed separately by the five countries
(France , Germany , Japan , USA and UK) holding the maximum share in the capital stock
. The remaining 19 directors are elected for two-year terms by the remaining member
states, which are divided into 19 geographical groups. Saudi Arabia , China and Russia
have the status of separate geographical groups. Each director may exercise his vote
as a unit of the total number of votes received by the countries in the geographical
group he elects.
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Executive Director The President of the World Bank is headed by the Executive Directors , who are
elected for a 5-year term. The Chairman oversees the functioning of IBRD as well as IDA
and IFC. According to a treaty agreement, the president of the bank can only become a
citizen of the United States.
Loan Facility :
Apart from providing credit facilities for reconstruction and development , various
types of technical services are also provided by the World Bank to the member
countries. To achieve this objective, the Bank has also established ' The Economic
Development Institute ' and a Staff College in Washington. The bank has so far provided
75 percent of its total loan disbursed to developing countries in Africa , Asia and Latin
America , while only 25 percent of the total loan has been given to the developed
countries of Europe.
The bank has also tried to establish coordination among the lending nations , So
that the financial needs of the particular member can be met more effectively. The Bank
has established its missions in a number of developing countries with the aim of
assisting in the development of development projects in developing countries. The Bank
with the help of experts from ' Food and Agriculture Organization ' ( FAO) , ' World
Health Organization ' ( WHO) , United Nations International Development Organization
(UNIDO) , UNESCO etc. to identify and identify projects in critical areas like agriculture ,
education and water supply. Assists member states in their preparation.
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Member Countries :
As of January 2014 , its membership was 188 . Like the International Monetary Fund ,
it also has two types of members original members and ordinary members. It also has 30 original members , who had joined the World Bank by December 31 , 1945 . India is
one of the founding countries of the World Bank like the International Monetary Fund.
Countries that take membership after December 31 , 1945 are called ordinary members.
The voting rights of the members of the bank are determined according to the share of
the member states in the capital of the bank. An additional suffrage is allotted for every
one share of the member nation.
Conclusion:Its main purpose is to provide financial assistance to the member states in the work of
reconstruction and development and to include the economies of different countries in
a wider world economy and to make efforts to eradicate poverty in developing
countries. The World Bank provides loans for policy reform programs and projects .
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Unit -1: Globalization: Concepts and Perspectives
Lesson -4 : Globalization: Its Cultural and Technological Dimensions
Question: Discuss the cultural dimensions of globalization.
Answer –
Analysis of Cultural Dimensions of Globalization :Many scholars argue that cultural globalization is not a linear process but a complex
process with a variety of implications. Some of Cultural Globalization The implications
have been perceived as hybridity of culture , cultural homogeneity and even clash of
cultures. Ideas related to cultural hybridity suggest that the mixing of different cultures
has led to the formation of fluid cultures rather than rigid cultures.
Other idea of cultural homogeneity interprets the world as unifying and assuming a
standardized form , primarily derived from the West and encouraging the process of
westernization. It is believed that cultural globalization has been primarily responsible
for displacing local cultures and promoting Western cultures through a homogenous
consumer culture. For example , American culture is said to have permeated every
corner of the world and America has dominated not only through market forces but
through the convergence of both economic and cultural forces. The fact that companies
such as McDonald's and Coco-Cola have been able to exert immeasurable
influence not only on the market , but also on the eating habits and eating
preferences of millions of people around the world , is indicative of a strong
influence of Western culture.
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Globalization has also been linked to a process of increasing conflict between cultures,
often expressed through Samuel Huntington's famous article Clash of Civilizations
(Clash of Civilizations 1996) . They argue that in the future , especially in the post-Cold
War era, the major source of conflict will be cultural and religious identities of peoples ,
and wars will take place between cultures. Similarly , scholars say that globalization
may be the reason for the escalation of conflict. It is argued that since globalization
exposes local cultures to a variety of influences , it will lead to a new sense of cultural
consciousness and therefore globalization can be a catalyst and a major source of
conflict between cultures.
Globalization is said to have affected local cultures and is often considered to be a
cause of redirecting and displacing local cultures through the process of
homogenization. It is also believed to be the catalyst responsible for the reclaiming of
local cultures.
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Anti-globalization movement
As we have discussed various dimensions of globalization , it is also necessary for us to
focus on another dimension of globalization which has been conceptualized as antiglobalization movements. There is no precise definition of this word. Antiglobalization movements can be described as those social movements of the late
twentieth century, which have expressed their opposition to the present nature of
development in the world. He is highly critical of the current market-driven economy—
the globalized neo-liberal system that thrives primarily on corporate power and
influence.
Such movements criticize the capitalist system and try to find alternative anticapitalist globalized relations . These movements support values such as democracy ,
environmental sustainability , sustainable development , promotion of human rights and
social justice. One of the most striking examples of anti-globalization movements is the
Battle of Seattle in 1999 , when protesters took to the streets criticizing world financial
institutions such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and particularly references to
fair trade , human rights and labor rights. were demonstrated to be inappropriate.
Conclusion:We learned how various factors have contributed to the cultural and technological
dimensions of globalization. Despite the spread of various views on the nature of
globalization, we can say that globalization is not entirely a recent phenomenon , in fact
, the world was connected even in earlier times. There is a vast scale , speed , intensity
and integration of world markets in which a sudden risk or shock can shake the
confidence of a nation or community. This is one of the most distinctive features of the
current nature of globalization. Presence of large multinational companies , integrated
markets with production and manufacturing chains, presence of online modes of
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transactions , fast air and sea routes have created a globalized world. contributed to the
birth of the present nature of
Question - What are the challenges of the technical dimensions of globalization ?
AnswerTechnical Dimensions of Globalization
It would not be wrong to say that technology has been one of the most important
dimensions of globalization. Technology has been majorly responsible for bringing
about drastic changes in the nature of the flow of goods/resources , trade transactions ,
movement of people , and the way information is shared and received. The spread of
technology across borders is a characteristic of technological globalization. Technology
has affected not only the economic aspects of society , but also social institutions , way
of life and world view of people. Technology has played a fundamental role in
determining the scale and scope of business.
research and development , use of online form of transactions , The use of
monetary instruments across national borders , conversations and online discussions
have changed the landscape of how economic activities are conducted in contemporary
times. The proliferation of international organizations and multinational companies with
sophisticated and complex machinery, advanced methods of manufacturing have
changed the pattern of production and employment. Proponents of globalization
argue that technology has been an important factor in promoting economic
growth and competition among nations in the era of globalization.
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However , on the other hand , there is an argument that the rapid rate of technological
change and the inability of many developing states to keep up with the progress , and
the inability to achieve a pre-requisite for participation , have given developing states
the same benefits of technological globalization as developed nations . kept away from
receiving. In addition , the actual and potential transfer of technological benefits to
developing countries are still questioned due to various trade barriers and intellectual
property rights.
Technology in the cultural and social sphere has enabled people to connect and stay in
touch on a regular basis. The development of faster means of transport has enabled
people to settle in different parts of the world for more job opportunities , family
obligations and even for leisure and tourism. Technology and transport have facilitated
the constant interaction and movement between people, due to which different cultures
values and even lifestyles are intertwined. is mixed.
We can see the presence of cuisines from one part of the world with their regional
and local adaptations available in another part of the world. Example For example ,
Mac Aloo Tikki Burger is an example of a multinational corporation that has adapted its
business model to the needs of local preferences. Also , when we travel to another
country, we get a lot of food options. Technology has been able to shape social
interactions and influence cultures at the local level. Consumption of a common culture
globally spread by technology , media and transportation is a key feature of the cultural
and technological dimension of globalization.
Apart from economic and cultural aspects , technological globalization has affected
the politics of a nation. One of the most important examples is the use of social media
such as Twitter , Facebook , Instagram and other online platforms. People around the
world constantly share their views and opinions on various issues that may affect the
politics of their host country and other country. The use of the Internet and social
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media sites to influence public opinion these days as much as technology is able to
create creative solidarity in communities of a very powerful, the constant flow of
information and the overflow of information create challenges to access absolutely
accurate information.
A great challenge is the problem of fake news , which is often circulated to create fear ,
anxiety and misinformation on various issues. Therefore , one of the major challenges in
the way of access to information is the conflict between correct information versus
incorrect information.
Challenges of the Technological Dimensions of Globalization
Technological divide: It cannot be denied that although technology is being used
extensively in almost every country and community of the world , there still exists a wide
technological divide between nations , communities and rural and urban areas . Poor
nations and communities often do not have access to technology to drive positive
change in the health care system , education sector or other developmental areas.
Technology inaccessibility is a major factor and also an indicator of social and economic
inequality.
Technology has been mostly used for extraction as compared to conservation of
natural resources . Many scholars argue the exploitative nature of economic relations
between nations. It is argued that many technologies which are mainly under the control
of rich countries have been using them for their development by extracting and
exploiting the resources of developing countries. such exploitation of resources has
become a tool. On the other hand , around the world Often at the expense of the
environment and the welfare of the people of the resource producing country.
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For example, the presence of certain types of multinationals has been linked to
environmental damage and is therefore often opposed by civil society , groups or
environmentalists in many countries. Another concern has been the issue of security.
Therefore , we can briefly discuss the important technical dimensions of globalization as
follows:
The flow of information and technology across borders is manifested through
interactions in economics , politics and culture. The movement of people and greater
relationships between people in different communities lead to the creation of shared
values and culture . National borders are turning into soft borders due to the movement
of persons , ideas and trade. The dominance of online social networking platforms and
media is emerging as a powerful media in influencing knowledge creation and
dissemination.
Other dimensions may include the revival of protectionist policies , Particularly in
instances when the terms of trade are unequal or have been disadvantageous to some
countries. The resurgence of local cultural identities may also constitute another
dimension of globalization , which often results in the disintegration of local identities as
a result of excessive exposure to Western cultures that are often equated with modern
cultures and consumerist culture. The technological divide between developing and
developed countries , urban and rural , rich versus poor, is an implication of
technological globalization. Also , over- exploitation of natural resources and But its
harmful consequences are also an implication of market-oriented economic models in a
globally competitive world.
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Conclusion - Proponents and skeptics of globalization have argued on the various
consequences
and
contemporary
nature
of
globalization.
Presence
of
large
multinational companies , integrated markets with production and manufacturing
chains, presence of online modes of transactions , fast air and sea routes have created a
globalized world. contributed to the birth of the present nature of For this reason ,
globalization has affected almost every aspect of our daily , community and national life.
Such developments have had significant consequences for different communities , and
especially for developing countries . In such circumstances , the states should act with a
balanced approach and pay adequate attention to capacity building to reap the benefits
of new developments in the world.
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Unit -1: Globalization: Concepts and Perspectives
Lesson - 5 : Global Resistance : Global Social Movements and Non-Governmental
Organizations
Question - What are contemporary global social movements.
AnswerContemporary movement
The "Black Lives Matter" movement was founded in 2012 by Alicia Garza , Patrici Coolers
and Opal Tom . Radical Black Organizer. This movement was launched in response to
the assassination of Travan Martin. Trayvan Martin, a 17-year-old black boy and high
school student , was shot by a white American man in 2012. During this, that white
American man had claimed that Trevan Martin looked quite suspicious. So to protect
himself and his neighbours , he shot Trevan. However, the American man was later
acquitted of all charges.
This was not a one-time incident and for this reason there were large-scale protests
after this incident as this incident shed light on the historical injustices done to black
people around the world , especially in America . For this reason there were protests
around the world and America against the incident , in which "Black Lives Matter" was
used on every platform of social media to show solidarity with the systematic
exploitation of black people . Black Lives Matter was a racial justice movement aimed at
bringing about radical change in the state (Greene et al. 2019). Also the "Black Lives
Matter" movement was a re-emergence of early civil rights movements in the US in the
1960s. These civil rights movements aimed to end institutionalized racial discrimination ,
racial division, and discrimination such as suffrage.
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On the other side, at the same time there was also the rise of the " MeToo" movement ,
which aimed to create an environment for women (including transgender women) to
live their lives without any fear of sexual harassment. and be able to work.
The rise of this movement can be seen in 2006 , The movement became more
popular when Tarana Burke founded the “ Just Be Inc.” organization to help women who
have been sexually assaulted , when in 2017 famous actress Alyssa Milano took to
Twitter to request women. Said that he should come forward and share with "#MeToo "
his stories of sexual harassment that once happened to him. She was initially unaware of
Burke's work, but Milano quickly expanded this movement with Tarana Burke . Under
this movement, the names of big people were revealed as accused in relation to sexual
harassment. At the same time, through this movement, personal stories related to sexual
harassment from education , film industry , news firms , judiciary to indoors came to the
fore.
Conclusion
On this basis, it can be said that the resistance has opened a new world of knowledge ,
which not only challenged the European outlook but also provided visibility to the world
, which has been aimed at making the world more egalitarian and inclusive. At the same
time, the global nature of the social movement has led to the exchange of knowledge
and strategy , which was confirmed so far in the field of unproductive knowledge of the
eastern countries. This has greatly helped in reconstructing history , which till now was
overlooked. Its In addition , movements such as " MeToo" and "Black Lives Matter"
exposed inherent mistakes that were historically considered natural and were confined
to personal stories.
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Additionally, global social movements have been shaped by the rise of the Internet as a
social media platform , which has been successful in taking freedom of expression to an
all-time high. Although on the one hand there has been a lot of praise for the global
nature of these social movements and the new forms of technology, on the other hand
they are also taking the world towards a much bigger crisis. However, due to the
interconnectedness, it has become difficult to oppose it because along with global
capitalism has come this mutual interconnection. Additionally new forms of harassment
that are more easily controlled through surveillance tools have become an everyday
reality. It is for this reason that technology has become a useful tool of surveillance ,
which has made the idea of privacy a global myth.
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Unit -2: Contemporary Global Issues
Lesson 1 : Ecological Issues: Historical Overview of International Environment
Agreements, Climate Change, Global Commons Debate
Question: Briefly discuss about major themes in climate change debate.
AnsweerMajor issues in the climate change debate:
In this section only some of the main issues related to environmental debate and
negotiation processes will be reviewed. These issues are important because they shape
the nature of themes of global environmentalism. Climate change has become a matter
of great concern among environmental problems in this century , as climate change
affects every aspect of life. climate change a There is a serious threat and many
efforts are being made to address this situation. Many international climate agreements
have come into existence to deal with climate change. In this regard we can see a whole
range of process of agreements , but these agreements have not come into existence
without conflict and stability. This is global climate politics.
Global Common Wealth: The negotiation process is generally coherent in nature as the
parties to the negotiation table attempt to identify gaps in climate change, knowing that
climate change policy is inadequate . And why is it unfair ? During this the changing
power relations are also examined. To provide possible outcomes on how we can better
fight for climate justice and equality.
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Development: Since the Stockholm Conference 1972 , the issue of development has
become the focus of the global environment. During this period, developing countries
and environmentalists from all over the world argued among themselves that
industrialized nations were largely responsible for the emission of most greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. On the other hand, developed countries demand the active
participation of economically fast emerging countries (like China , India , Brazil etc.) . For
this, developed countries claim that these developing countries have emitted a lot of
greenhouse gases due to their developed projects.
Climate justice and equity: Developing countries believe that developing countries
have been the least contributor to climate change, so developing countries should not
bear equal responsibility to stop climate change , this is climate justice. He believes that
everyone should have different responsibilities in relation to dealing with climate
change. The principles of climate justice and equity are central to the debate in the
Anssouth hemisphere regarding climate change. There are significant differences
between the northern and southern hemispheres of the world in terms of wealth ,
technology , historical contributions, and climate responsibility.
Power relations: The " politics of power " is another important element in the process
of negotiation at the international level . Powerful groups in the process , less powerful
groups than are able to diffuse revolutionary challenges. In the meantime, they align the
expectations of the masses with specific interests and thereby strengthen the existing
dominant structure. In the same climate negotiation process, the politics of power
have a reciprocal effect. In the meantime, the consensus of weaker states is worked
out by collaboration and alignment of interests. It shows how vulnerable states have to
compromise when it comes to compromise (Suppelt et al. 2015:99) . International
climate agreement processes are based entirely on power relations. However ,
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international environmental movements see different forms of power at work. For
example, " physical power ", which can also be seen as a national capability.
Gender: The challenging point in this regard is the question of gender. The same
process of dialogue requires better coordination and organization to raise gender
related issues. While on the one hand the idea of indigenous peoples is absent in the
rules of the United Nations Climate Change Framework Convention and other
international laws, on the other hand it also sees discrimination at the gender level. Yet
over time it shows debate for future climate agreements. For this reason, gradually
those issues are also being given importance , which were earlier ignored . However ,
due to this, research work in this regard and better gender analysis has been done. It
promises to increase the role of women and indigenous societies in climate politics.
Better efforts can be made.
Information: Understanding the procedural nature of the climate agreement and how it
plays an important role in the differentiated power relationship , so that we can
challenge climate injustice and inequality. The role of cyberspace is important in this
regard as it enables the fight against climate injustice. Information is an important tool
to uncover injustice and fight for justice. Environmental organizations understand the
power of information and therefore these organizations use online sites for climate
justice. Information has "actionable " power. Furthermore, the issue of modern
technology is no different from water - air talks.
Agents: There are many agents involved in the topic of global environmentalism. Some
of which are from state agents , media , non-state agents and civil society. Their works
have contributed significantly. State in protection of environment play an important role.
These state agents are the members of the International Convention on the
Environment. These member states organize debates and also decide environmental
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policies for the future. The protection of the environment requires a wide range of
policies and cooperation between the states. Civil society and non-state actors play
an important role in spreading awareness , raising relevant issues and implementing
environmental policies at the local level.
Major International Environment Agreements :
The first climate conference on climate was held in Geneva in 1979 . Which was
organized by the World Meteorological Organization in collaboration with other
international organizations. This conference was purely a scientific conference but it also
attracted the attention of the international political community in this conference. It was
because of this conference that the World Meteorological Organization and the United
Nations Environment Program formed an Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) in 1988 . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body responsible for producing
scientific reports on climate change . The IPCC submitted its first report in 1990.
The same second climate conference was held in 1990 . The nature of this conference
was more political than the previous one as it envisioned a global climate treaty. Despite
its limited success , political leaders gradually became aware of the need for an
extreme international institution , In which climate change could be controlled
through a multilateral system of governance. For this reason , scientific discussion on
climate change began to shift from a political debate to policy making to address
environmental problems and make it a mainstream part of the political agenda.
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1) Montreal Protocol The scientific discovery of ozone layer depletion in 1990 was
significant in the history of global environmental policy , as this discovery forced world
leaders to come together to work on protecting the ozone layer. discuss and enact a law
in this regard. As a result of which the Montreal Protocol was established in 1987 ,
this Montreal Protocol regulates the use of chlorofluorocarbons because
chlorofluorocarbons are the cause of the depletion of the ozone layer.
2) United Nations Convention on Prevention of Desertification It was established
in 1994. It focuses on sustainable management of land and prevention of
desertification. It seeks to " improve the condition of affected ecosystems , combat
desertification , prevent land degradation , encourage sustainable land management,
and contribute to land degradation neutrality " . While reducing the sensitivity of the
environment, its other objective is to increase its resilience. So that it can contribute to
the sustainable use of biodiversity and climate change.
3) Convention on Biodiversity The United Nations Convention on Environment and
Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 was one of the important conventions
in the history of the environment. This conference is also known as the Earth Summit.
Two results came out of this conference , in which On the one hand where biodiversity
Convention was adopted , on the other hand it adopted the ' United Nations Climate
Change Framework Convention ' .
Climate change agreement
We can see some of the contentious issues related to climate change during the review
of major international agreements on climate change. Some of these issues are as
follows-
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Commitment to Reduction Reduction: Commitments to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions can be seen in various climate change agreements. The terms related to the
United Nations Climate Change Framework Convention and the Paris Agreement were
applied to all members. which establishes the general conditions. The United Nations
Climate Change Framework Convention mentions that its member states should make
suitable provisions to deal with climate change.
According to the Bali Action Plan, the adaptation policy has been considered as the
basis of climate activity. Issues related to adaptation policy have been ignored by many
policy makers , as their main focus was on emissions reductions. In addition, the " Law
Coon Adaptation Framework " and the " Program on Loss and Damage " were
introduced at the Cancoon Convention to address the adverse effects of climate change
and to enhance the effects of adaptation plans in developing countries (UN. FCCC2011) Developing countries have contributed very little to climate change, yet they are
very vulnerable.
Technical and Financial Support: Technical and financial support is very important
for “ compatibility ” and “ cutting ” . The provision of the United Nations Climate
Change Framework Convention on Technical and Financial Assistance has been very
weak. Even after several meetings of the same ' Conference of Parties ' no effort has
been made for transfer of technologies. The Cancoon Agreement establishes a
technology system for developing countries to promote , facilitate or recommend the
use of green technology.
Emissions Trading: Emissions trading is an important topic of global climate change.
which was determined in the Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC 1988:15) . Emissions trading
provisions were finalized in the Marrakesh Agreement of 2001 . The “Flexible Mechanism
" of the Kyoto Protocol represents the first application of a market approach to
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environmental regulation. These mechanisms facilitate clean development projects and
joint implementation , so that developed countries listed in List " B " can achieve proven
emissions reductions by funding development projects in developing countries , so that
they can achieve their targets. be able to complete
Reporting and International Review : The UN Climate Change Framework Convention
on Reporting and International Review and the Kyuto Protocol provided for each state
to submit its annual greenhouse gas report each year. The Cancoon Agreement initiates
the process of nation communication to the United Nations Climate Change Framework
Convention. At the same time, transparency of reports is critical for effective climate
action.
Conclusion :
The environmental landscape is constantly changing due to human activities. In this era
of globalization, there has been rapid degradation of the environment due to the rapid
economic activity of humans. 1960 In the decade of 1970, environmental problems had
attracted international attention. Due to which it was no longer the subject of discussion
and debate among scientists only, but since the 1990s it has become an important
agenda of national plans. Many of the multilateral environmental agreements currently
available stem from the long history of the environment. In addition, of all the major
environmental problems, climate change has been the most controversial issue. Climate
change affects every aspect of life. Thus, in view of the seriousness of the importance
of climate change, an attempt has been made in this lesson to explain the main theme
and framework of the International Climate Agreement.
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Question: Write about the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change.
Answer
Introduction
The draft resolution seeks to create a formal space for the Security Council to discuss
climate change and its effects on international security. The resolution also called on the
UN Secretary-General to provide periodic reports on how the risks posed by climate
change can be addressed to prevent conflicts. It also asked the UN Secretary-General to
appoint a special envoy for ' climate security ' . In addition , it has asked UN field
missions to regularly report on climate change assessments in their areas of operation
and to seek the help of climate experts in carrying out their routine tasks.
➢ Requirement
_
•
It is often argued that climate change has a kind of international security dimension.
•
Climate change-induced food or water shortages , loss of habitat or livelihoods , or
migration can exacerbate existing conflicts or create new conflicts.
•
It could also have important implications for UN field missions , which are deployed
around the world in peacekeeping efforts.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
▪
It discusses all the issues related to climate change.
▪
190 countries that are members of the UNFCCC are to tackle climate change and
act on a global perspective Annual conferences are held in the last two weeks of the
year. This year the meeting is going to be held in Glasgow.
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▪
It is the process that Paris Agreement and its predecessor agreement, the Kyoto
Protocol , a type of international treaty designed to combat the threat of climate
change.
The COP was organized for the first time since the Kyoto Protocol to the Paris
Agreement of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . Moving
to the new framework means that all countries now have to set targets for reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions. Although the goal is to be voluntary. Under the Kyoto
Protocol, only rich countries had to cut emissions. Apart from this , people were also
curious about the coop due to the Kovid epidemic and its impact on the economy .
UNSC does not have expertise in:
It has been argued in this climate dialogue that the UNFCCC should be given an
appropriate forum to address all issues related to climate change. should persist
and claimed that the Security Council does not have the expertise to do so.
Hegemony on Climate Action:
•
Unlike the UNFCCC , where all decisions are taken by consensus of more than 190
countries, At the UNSC , decisions related to climate change will be taken by a
handful of developed countries.
•
UNSC member " major contributor to climate change due to historic
emissions" Huh
•
Also the decision to bring this issue to the Security Council without the participation
and consensus of most developing countries it was done.
Recent measures to limit climate change by India:
•
COP-26 envisions an ambitious climate action initiative with five elements.
•
Taking non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030
•
Renewable energy to meet 50% of energy requirements by 2030
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•
To reduce total carbon emissions by one billion tonnes by 2030
•
To reduce the carbon intensity of the economy by 45% by 2030
•
To achieve the target of "net zero" by the year 2070 .
•
India now ranks fourth in terms of installed renewable energy capacity and over the
past seven years non-fossil energy has grown by over 25% and has reached 40% of
the total energy mix.
•
India has also played a leading role in initiatives such as the International Solar
Alliance (ISA) and the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI).
UN Security Council
▪
The United Nations Charter established the six main organs of the United Nations,
including the UNSC . Article 23 of the United Nations Charter deals with the
composition of the United Nations Security Council .
▪
The other five organs of the United Nations include the United Nations General
Assembly , the Trusteeship Council , the Economic and Social Council , the
International Court of Justice and the Secretariat.
▪
The United Nations Security Council has been given the primary responsibility of
maintaining international peace and security and meetings of the Council are held
whenever there is a threat to global peace.
▪
Although other organs of the United Nations make recommendations to member
states, the Security Council has the power to make decisions and issue binding
resolutions for member states.
▪
Permanent and non-permanent members: The UNSC has 15 members, including 5
permanent and 10 non-permanent members.
a) Five permanent members: China , France , Russian Federation , United Kingdom
and United States of America.
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b) Ten non-permanent members: It is elected by the General Assembly for two years.
is done.
•
Every year five non-permanent members (out of ten) are elected by the United
Nations General Assembly for a two-year term. The ten provisional seats are
distributed on a regional basis.
•
As prescribed in Rule 144 of the Rules of Procedure , a retired member is not eligible
for immediate re-election.
•
As per Rule 92 of the Procedure , the election is by secret ballot and does not involve
any nomination process. Under Rule 83 of the Procedure , the non-permanent
members of the Security Council are elected by a two-thirds majority.

Five members for African and Asian countries.

One member for Eastern European countries.

Two members for Latin American and Caribbean countries.

Two members for Western European and other countries.
▪
India favors a permanent seat in the UNSC been doing
▪
India stands out in all the parameters of population , regional size , Gross Domestic
Product (GDP), economic potential , rich heritage and cultural diversity and
contribution to UN activities especially UN peace operations.
Criticism:
Moved from UNFCCC to UNSC
•
India said that climate talks United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change ( UNFCCC ) from security Council It is an attempt to "take a step back" to
move the U.S. and take collective action on the issue.
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•
Annual
Climate
Change
Conference India
also
pressed
for
last-minute
amendments to the final draft agreement to ensure that the provision for "phaseout" of coal is changed to "phase-down".
•
According to India this draft proposal undermine the progress made in the right
direction Will do
Question: Write an essay on Global Environmentalism.
Ans
Introduction:
The relationship of natural resources is directly related to the environment. So far ,
environmentalism, green politics , environmental feminism have been the main concepts
for environmental protection , which as a social movement is concerned with the
protection of natural resources , environmental protection , and to protect ecological
systems , in which environmental political processes are influenced through social
education , environmental activism, and environmental standards have been determined
in their concepts.
Green politics is an environmental revolution, whereas environmental politics is the
exploitation of resources in the name of allied development and ignoring the
environment by considering development as the priority. Environmental politics is as a
new concept , in which importance is given to politics and environment is deliberately
ignored. Environmental politics is such a political trick , in which politics is a method
through which environmental resources of different nations are obtained and a way to
exploit them.
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Environmental politics is a model of a capitalist evolutionary politics in which
resources are looted in the name of development .
 Environmental politics is the plundering of natural resources in the name of
development , in which only politics is given importance to the environment, which is
lost to development. Today, despite the warnings of scientists, environmental
protection is not happening, which is being paid for by development. And the
political benefits which are actually linked to the economic benefits which all
the nations are competing to get and the politics of this profit has been stifled by
taking any historical responsibility for environmental protection, fulfilling its time
bound responsibility. .
 Environmental politics is a model in the name of development in which
resources are treated as capital (bunchjudges) and natural resources are treated as "
commodities " . and converts water , forest , land and minerals into market value
because the character of the state determines the direction of political economy.
Environmental politics, which has become consumerist , marketist and facilitator in
the name of development. It seeks to link every commodity of resources to global
capitalism.
 Environmental politics is that model of development which is based on pure "
utilitarianism " and in fact it is such an irony that it is all in the name of country's
modernization , nation building , all-round development and increase in Gross
Domestic Product (GDP). being on. It feels as if a war has broken out between
development and the environment.
 fully utilitarian , consumerist culture by conquering nature , which is a way of
fulfilling greed and greed only for convenience , which confuses itself to developed
and other nations. that you are a backward nation.
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 Be a developing nation and teach the lesson of such a culture in these nations
that now you too become a developed nation. Environmental politics is the
politics of those nations, they are put in the illusion of development by describing
those nations as backward or underdeveloped , they are linked their natural
resources with global capital and water , forest , land are inseparable part of the
market economy. It is made and exploited a lot. In fact, I believe that these three
slogans or principles of developed , developing , underdeveloped are actually
completely wrong. I oppose it. These are the three slogans of development , those
nations who consider themselves to be developed , it is their trick that they are
sitting by mistake. If collecting capital , setting up infrastructure , setting up
industries , producing more , increasing facilities , exploiting resources , using them
in the form of resources is the measure of a developed nation , then one has to strike
an ax on one's own foot.
 How modern industrial society, however intellectually sophisticated it may be, is
hollowing out the very foundation on which it stands. Till December 2012, 165
treaties and agreements have been signed on issues like environmental protection ,
climate change , which have not yielded any concrete results. The reason for this is
that on important environmental issues like environmental protection , carbon
emissions , climate change, various nations also see profit and loss during the
agreement and here the creation is on the verge of destruction , these nations have
suffered losses. .
 Today, in the name of environmental protection or in the name of climate
change, biodiversity , carbon reduction , many treaties , agreements , protocols,
conferences have been or are happening , no concrete result is coming , only those
people eat in the meeting. . Environment is not an independent political theory , it is
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an ideological movement , which emerged in Western politics in the 1970s, which
gradually spread throughout the world.
Conclusion:Environmental problem that humans have to understand on their own. You are trying
not only to save nature but also to save yourself. Your existence is also with nature. If we
want to solve the current problem, then it is necessary that the market system from
which the problem has arisen should not try to find the solution , do not look for the
solution to those who have brought this world into a trough. .
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Unit -2: Contemporary Global Issues
Lesson - 2 : Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
Question: Discuss about Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968.
AnswerNuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty , Conventions and Measures
The world saw the destructive potential of nuclear weapons for the first time in August
1945. The effects of these weapons were so unprecedented and considerable that in
1948 the United Nations Commission introduced a new class of weapons called
'Weapons of Mass Destruction' (Weapons of Mass Destruction) with the aim of
completely separating these weapons from conventional weapons . ) where did it go. As
declared by the Commission , weapons of mass destruction include " nuclear explosive
weapons , " radioactive material weapons ,"
lethal chemical weapons , lethal
biological weapons , and any weapons developed in the future include nuclear bombs
or other weapons . Let the above mentioned weapons have the same potential for
destructive effects." After the Second World War, many scholars , human rights activists ,
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) were trying to spread awareness about the
destructive effects of these weapons in different states. On the other hand , some states
were making efforts to acquire nuclear weapons.
Global efforts to annihilate nuclear weapons began soon after the end of World
War II. 1946 , a resolution for the establishment of the United Nations Atomic Energy
Commission was approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations. The purpose
of this resolution was to establish a global commission that would work to promote the
abolition of nuclear weapons and the peaceful use of nuclear energy. This resolution did
not get the approval of the Security Council due to the conflict between the US and the
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Soviet Union. A few years later , in 1953, US President Eisenhower gave a speech entitled
" Atoms for Peace " , in which he highlighted the benefits of nuclear energy , and how
We can use it for peaceful or non-military purpose.
Eisenhower's speech was not a plan for disarmament or non-proliferation , but it started
a debate regarding the regulation of materials , technology , etc. related to nuclear
energy . Concern and efforts to implement atoms for peace led the world to the
establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency in 1957. In addition several
treaties were signed and implemented for the acquisition of nuclear weapons.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 1968
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ( NPT), which was signed in 1968 and came into force
in 1970. In 1995 , the term of this treaty was extended indefinitely. On the one hand , the
treaty recognized the US , Russia , Britain , France and China as the five Nuclear Weapon
States ( NWS) and authorized them to possess nuclear weapons ; On the other hand , it
institutionalized norms that enforce the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons with
respect to non-nuclear weapon states ( NNWS) . According to the provisions of this
treaty , “ a non-nuclear weapon state by signing the NPT shall provide information and
facilities for the peaceful use of nuclear energy by nuclear weapon states not to assist
any non-nuclear weapon states in the development of nuclear weapons.” In return for a
pledge to give, take a pledge never to receive nuclear weapons."
weapons , fissile materials and related technology by non-nuclear weapon states .
Own According to the Declaration , “ This treaty has three pillars or main objectives of
non-proliferation (preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and related technology) ,
disarmament (getting rid of existing nuclear arsenals) and right to use nuclear energy
for peaceful purposes (nuclear technology). Which is the right of all States Parties to this
Treaty)? Responsibilities towards this treaty are diverse in nature. Many Western
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countries , even those not equipped with nuclear military capability , have supported the
treaty. These countries did so because they believed the move was a major step towards
achieving the goals of sustainable-peace and could promote healthy and cooperative
relations between nations while reducing the fearful atmosphere of global politics. Is.
On the other hand , many non-nuclear weapon states, such as India , have criticized the
provisions of the treaty on the grounds of structural flaws and viewed it as a partial
mechanism for disarmament . It is to be noted that even three states (which are India ,
Pakistan and Israel) have not signed this treaty. Currently , the NPT is a widely
accepted arms control measure and it can be said that as of June 2003 , all members
of the UNO except India , Pakistan and Israel had accepted the treaty, and North Korea
He has distanced himself from it.
Main provisions of NPT
•
If the country that has signed this treaty has not yet made a nuclear weapon, then it
will not attempt to make such a weapon in the future .
•
A member country of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, which already has
nuclear weapons, will work for disarmament .
•
All countries can obtain nuclear technology for peaceful purposes with certain
safeguards.
•
In this treaty, the country with nuclear weapon states (NWS) has been called that
country which has made the first nuclear weapon before January 1 , 1967 .
•
According to the treaty, the remaining countries are considered non-nuclear weapon
states (NNWS) .
•
The five countries which are considered to be nuclear weapon countries are – China ,
France , Russia , United Kingdom and United States of America .
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•
The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty does not prohibit member states from building
, producing and using nuclear energy for peaceful purposes .
Role of countries according to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
•
According to the NPT , countries possessing nuclear weapons will not give nuclear
weapons to any other country, nor will any country without nuclear weapons help ,
encourage or induce to manufacture or obtain such weapons .
•
Countries without nuclear weapons will not obtain or make nuclear weapons from
any source .
•
Countries without nuclear weapons will apply safety rules set by the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to nuclear materials under their or their control .
In May 2010, an NPT Review Conference was held in New York (at the United Nations
Headquarters) to review the work , progress and achievements of the NPT in preventing
the proliferation of nuclear weapons . Apart from this , many issues were discussed in
this conference , including the universality of this treaty ; nuclear disarmament, including specific practical
measures ; non-proliferation , including the promotion and strengthening of security
measures ; Measures to advance the peaceful use of nuclear energy , safety and security
; regional disarmament and non-proliferation ; measures to address withdrawal from the
treaty ; measures to further strengthen the review process ; and ways to foster
engagement with civil society in strengthening NPT norms and promoting disarmament
education."
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Unit -2: Contemporary Global Issues
Lesson 3 : International Terrorism: Non-State Actors and State
Terrorism; Post 9/11 Developments
Question - What is international terrorism? Discuss its causes.
AnswerIntroduction:
‘Terrorism ' is derived from the Latin words ' terre ' and ' detera ' . The Latin word '
terre ' means ' to frighten ' while ' detera ' means ' to frighten ' . There is still no
universally accepted definition of the term ' terrorism ' . However , This is understood as
a strategy that systematically uses violent means to undermine the legal authority of the
state and government to achieve its objectives. In the earlier times, people resorted to
violence only because of the failure of the rulers to redress the grievances of their
subjects , encroachment on their rights and many atrocities committed by the ruler.
There is no global consensus regarding international terrorism. Ever since al - Qaeda
Afghanistan There was an organization of the Service Bureau itself . Terrorism has
been strongly condemned since the 9/11 attacks. International terrorism has undergone
considerable changes since the September 11, 2001 attacks. Now it is spreading in many
different forms. Terrorist attacks are currently condemned all over the world. Terrorism
can be seen as a historical turning point , because all the nations are giving their
response together against terrorism. Which is known as the global war against terrorism.
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❖ Reasons for terrorism :
There is not only one reason is responsible for terrorism, but many reasons like
economic , political , cultural and religious etc. are responsible for it. To understand
the problem of terrorism, it would be more expedient to analyze its causes.
Economical Reason:
In a way, the minor terrorist incidents that happen in the world, there is a common
saying – anything can be done to a person with a hungry stomach. Hunger ,
deprivation , exploitation and neglect are very big reasons behind them. In countries like
Libya , Sudan , Nigeria , Sri Lanka , Iran , Afghanistan, the spread of terrorism has
increased due to poverty. When they have no other work to fill their stomach and on the
other hand many terrorist organizations give them huge amount for taking up the gun,
they are unable to refuse it even if they want to. If the example of India is taken, then
the biggest reason for terrorist activities in provinces like Kashmir , Assam ,
Tripura , Nagaland and Andhra Pradesh is the poverty of the people there. On the
one hand, there are multi-storeyed attics , people traveling in big vehicles, while on the
other hand, if the poor do not get wages to fill their stomach even after shedding blood
instead of sweat, then the person compulsively adopts terrorism.
Social Backwardness:
There is a strong link between social backwardness and terrorism. Social backwardness
is the situation in which the majority of the population of a region clings to its old
traditions, customs and beliefs , does not accept the novelty, and quickly comes under
the shadow of terrorism under the guise of another or the fear of the Almighty . Socially
backward persons can neither listen to nor do scientific talk, as a result of which such
persons are easily misled in the name of religion. It is no coincidence that the leaders of
most terrorist organizations are well educated.
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They have a lot of knowledge of science , English language or changes taking place in
the world whereas most of the people recruited in their organization are socially
backward and very less educated. In conclusion, it can be said that those who are
clever educated people, in the name of religion, ensnare such backward persons in their
clutches and prepare them to cause violence against them in the name of Allah , God or
God.
Religious Reasons:
Religion is the biggest contributor to the terrorism being spread all over the world at
present . Efforts are made by almost all the religious leaders or missionaries of the
world to prove that there is no place for logic in religion, as a result of which the socalled religious leaders, by teaching religion on the basis of logic, call them Allah , God
or God for their selfish interests. They show the garden of getting direct contact with
God and fulfill their selfishness. In such a situation, that class which is socially and
economically backward, that class easily gets trapped in their clutches and turns towards
terrorism. religions whose followers are traditionally considered more religious If there
are, it becomes easy to create terrorists under the guise of things like jihad or religious
war.
Government interference:
Terrorism has also been encouraged by some countries as a result of interference in the
governance system of other countries. After World War II, the world was divided into
eastern and western countries and there was a strong rivalry between the US and the
Soviet Union, as a result of which, in the last few decades, there was continuous
interference by the US in the governance systems of major countries and in some
countries such as Panama , In Pakistan , Nigeria , El Salvador, etc. , there was violence
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and interference in other ways for the change of power. This policy was carried
forward by America mainly in relation to Muslim nations. After the Gulf War, there were
tactic and conspiracy by the US to remove Iraq's President Saddam Hussein. The Shah of
Iran was helped by America by breaking all the limits and traditions, which was enough
to provoke Ayatollah Khomeini to an extent.
Due to this policy of America, a government of radical forces was formed in Iran and
they supported international terrorism. Terrorism was also given birth and fueled to
bring the regime of its choice in Syria and Libya. Due to the policy of intervention, such
widespread opposition has arisen in most of the traditional Muslim nations and other
poor nations , which has manifested in the form of terrorist activities over time and if
this policy is not controlled in the present, then it will be in the future. Will continue to
appear.
Effect of social environment on mind:
Sometimes we have to face humiliation or unjust treatment in public. Gandhiji had to
face similar situations many times in South Africa. He did not lose his patience even
in such adverse circumstances. But not every man can present the same high ideals as
Gandhiji. many people opposite and Kneel down in abusive social situations. To resolve
such situations, they indulge in violence and terrorist activities. Some such incidents
happened in the life of Dasyubala Phalandevi that she became a dacoit. Naxalism in
India is also such an example.
Ambition:
Today every man wants to become a millionaire in a single moment. It is true that
success is not achieved without hard work, but this thing does not matter much in
modern times. When we see that such a person got an opportunity to act in a film and
he reached the palace overnight by road , then some of us cannot digest it. They think
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that they too could have got this opportunity. Unequal distribution of money and
resources , non-availability of opportunities for all, etc., are enough to make many
people indulge in unwanted activities. Such people initially resort to illegal business like
kidnapping , extortion to make quick money . Gradually such people try to increase their
power further by taking the help of any terrorist organization. This ambition
sometimes takes on a political colour. By showing lofty dreams to ambitious
individuals and organizations, people associated with politics try to get them to do
many unwanted works.
The princely form of ambition:
The ambition which is there in humans and leads them to the path of terrorism , the
same is sometimes seen in governments also. progress of your state And terrorism is
also used as a medium for the degradation of the neighboring state. The spread of
terrorism in India from Pakistan's neighboring country is an example of this. Pak army
uses terrorism as a strategy of war Is. Sometimes in the name of religion and sometimes
under similar pretext , terrorist incidents are carried out by inciting people against India.
Annoyance and anger:
Excess of anger is also at the root of terrorism. When a person does not get the
treatment according to his mind, then the person gets annoyed. Usually this happens to
everyone and with time this annoyance goes away. But there are some people who can
not get out of this situation. Anger and annoyance keep gathering in their mind.
Gradually they fall prey to a kind of mental illness. The fire of anger becomes so intense
that they want to solve everything with violence and use of force , many anti-social and
unwanted elements take advantage of this weakness and drag them into the quagmire
of terrorism.
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Terrorism in the name of Jihad:
One of the most important and most inhuman forms of international terrorism is
the inciting of people against other religions , cultures and beliefs and preparing them
for violence in the name of jihad. How emotional and furious people become in the
name of religion can be gauged from the fact that on December 25 , 2000 , the
suicide attack on the headquarters of the 15th Corps of the Indian Army in
Srinagar resulted in the death of nine people. The main leader of the suicide squad was
Mohammad Bilal , a 24-year-old youth who had come to Srinagar from a town called
Buckingham, England. Zarb-e-Momin, the newspaper of Jaish-e-Mohammed, a terrorist
organization founded by Azhar Masood, who was freed from hijacking last year, proudly
Announced that Shaheed Bilal created havoc by making a brave attack on the Sadar
base of the Indian Army.
A report published in the English daily The Times said that Pakistan-born
Mohammad Bilal became a jihadi at the age of 18. It is said that Muhammad himself
initiated Jihad in his dream. Al Muhajidan, a London-based Muslim group, proudly
announced that a Muslim student from Buckingham had sacrificed his religion by
detonating a suicide bomb.
Question - Reflect on why 9/11 happened and how terrorism affects our world
today.
AnswerDevelopment after 9/11 :
September 11 , 2001 in the history of the world The attack is considered a turning
point in world history as a sad event. This incident shows that we have entered a period
where challenges have emerged even for the world's superpowers. This incident
exposed the weaknesses of the superpowers before the world. 9/11 was a terrible event
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in American history, as a huge number of people died due to this incident. The impact
of this terrorist attack was seen globally. US President George Bush defined the 9/11
terror attacks as a " new war " . In this unpredictable world, ideas began to be shared
between nations regarding an unspecified enemy.
9/11 Attacks:
September 11 , 2001, there was a terrorist attack on New York and the Pentagon
Tower in America, which is also known as the 9/11 terrorist attack. The suicide attack
was carried out by the Islamic terrorist group Al Qaeda led by Osama bin Laden. Osama
bin Laden was a citizen of Saudi Arabia. The kidnappings and suicide attacks of this
Islamic extremist group Al Qaeda killed 2,750 people in New York, 184 in the Pentagon
and 40 in Pennsylvania . While a hijacked plane was brought back under its control by
the passengers, the plane crashed. Apart from this, all 19 terrorists were killed in these
suicide attacks.
The reason for the rise of these bombings and suicide attacks was extreme
radicalization . The horrors of terror created a universal wave all over the world and
created hatred for terrorism. After this attack, the Bush administration said that their
objective To eliminate terrorism from Afghanistan. Declaring Iraq , Iran and North Korea
as " the axis of the wicked", the US considered them the next enemies of the civilized
world. However, most European countries did not accept this view. The US improved
its relations with China and Russia during the war against the Taliban , Afghanistan,
and international terrorism. The Bush administration made its intentions clear in the
context of these threats. He said that he would completely eliminate the weapons of
mass destruction and the governments involved in terrorist activities. On May 24 , 2002 ,
the US and Russia signed an agreement on the " Strategic Science Reduction Treaty " in
Moscow.
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The ' global jihad ' has given rise to sectarian differences and radicalization. Terrorists
have expanded their contacts and activities after 9/11 . Even today, the fear of their
violence is seen in western countries. Influenced by the ideas of Al Qaeda, some people
carried out the bombings in Bali in 2002 and Lebanon in 2005 . Some of them had
links with these terrorist organizations. Apart from this, ' Jihadi terrorism ' was seen as a
terrorist organization all over the world , because on the one hand there was a delay in
passing the draft of ' Comprehensive Convention on Terrorism ' by the United Nations ,
on the other hand it was a problem among the international community. There was no
one universally accepted definition of terrorism. Now these organizations were joining it,
adopting the ideas of Al Qaeda.
Global response to terrorism after 9/11
9/11 attacks, the globally desired approach to terrorism was not given. Which led to the
perception that international terrorism cannot be defined by domestic activities like
freedom struggle , insurgency. For this reason , some activities of terrorism are
considered legitimate by the state and no action is taken on those activities. The
incident of 9/11 has brought about a major change in the field of international
terrorism. The attack was simultaneously condemned by the world community as they
considered such a method inappropriate to achieve political and ideological objectives.
All countries together condemned such acts of terrorism. The US emphasized that a
strong united front should be built with the cooperation of the world community. Due
to these attacks, there has been a lot of anger against terrorism at the international level
for such terrorist activities, as a result of which the idea has emerged at the international
level that brutal action should be taken against such organizations.
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What anti-terrorist measures were collectively implemented by the international
community after 9/11 ?
Operation Enduring Freedom:
9/11 attacks, the US launched a military operation in Afghanistan to oust the Taliban
government from Afghanistan as well as eliminate members of al-Qaeda. US covert
operations such as Operation Enduring Freedom and drone strikes in Pakistan caused
serious damage to Al Qaeda.
Anti-Terrorism Laws:
9/11 attacks inspired the world community to enact a law as a measure of their
right to self-defense. Which was passed by the Security Council of the United Nations
in the form of resolution 1373 . The United Nations has adopted resolution 1373 of the
Security Council by all the members present. Consent was implemented. In which
provision was made that the state can increase its legal and institutional capacity to
prevent terrorist activities. In the US, the Patriot Act (which was passed on October 28 ,
2001 to provide the necessary tools to prevent terrorism) and the Homeland Security
Act were passed. In this regard, the laws of England can also be considered as a strong
anti-terrorism law , which increases the capacity of countries against terrorism.
Global Anti-Terrorist Organizations: In addition to Interpol after 9/11, new global
institutions such as the United Nations Anti-Terrorism Committee , the CTC Executive
Director , 1540 committees , the Al Qaeda and Taliban Approval Committee , the
Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force were created to help with terror
financing. To prevent them , to close their bank accounts and to strengthen them by
sharing information between the government and their institutions regarding the
investigation of terrorists.
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Action to control nuclear proliferation: Nuclear non-proliferation is overseen by the
International Atomic Energy Agency. However, the International Atomic Energy Agency
needs to play a more active role in preventing the spread of nuclear between states and
non-state agencies. With increasing instability, the use of small nuclear devices by
terrorists and nuclear weapons of vulnerable states is undeniable.
Control of Cyber-Space: Terrorists are using cyber-space to communicate among
themselves. It is an international law that enables states to be legally competent. So that
it can identify and disrupt communication channels, including social media, used for
terrorist purposes. Today we are living in a dangerous period of history in which on the
one hand the world has to fight with epidemics. On the other hand, the world The
opposite can only intimidate his unspecified enemy by using popular public
opinion , can frighten them and defeat them. Anti-terrorism provisions are applied
against non-state agents. so that the states under control of their strategic advantages.
The nature of international treaties and institutions should be such that relations
between states can be strengthened during the war on global terrorism. The future of
America can be seen in how the newly appointed President Biden effectively deals with
the threat of terrorism and protects the vital interests of the people. The credibility of his
administration depends on how he responds to the global challenges of this time.
Conclusion :In this lesson we have discussed how international terrorism constitutes. Defining
terrorism is complex because of the complexity of its factors. Many meanings have been
derived with respect to terrorism, each of which has its own interest. It can also be seen
that international terrorism is difficult to define in the absence of an accepted definition.
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Some of the reasons that motivate terrorism through unlawful violence and fear
are also to be known. So that force is used on people to achieve their psychological ,
ideological and strategic objectives. Due to which anti-terrorist measures were given a
lot of boost.
Know about non-state agents and understand that state sponsored terrorism
contributes to the context of non-state agents. Also understood the incident of 9/11
and the forces responsible for it. After this attack, many anti-terror measures adopted by
America have also been reviewed. It has also reviewed how the methods and strategies
of international terrorism have changed in the context of technological advancement.
The global response to terrorism after 9/11 has also been reviewed.
Question - Suggest measures how terrorism can be tackled in the current world
order.
AnswerWays to counter global terrorism :
International terrorism or any type of terrorist activity can directly threaten the lives and
security of people all over the world, due to which it can create obstacles to
international peace , stability and prosperity. The threat of global terrorism is beyond
the boundaries of any nation or religion. This can be seen as a major challenge for the
international community. Several anti-terrorism provisions stressed solidarity among
states to counter violent terrorist activities. Some of the methods to counter terrorism
are mentioned belowFirst: In response to the 9/11 attacks on America, for the first time, NATO invoked its
collective defense clause (Article 5) .
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Second: The Security Council passed resolution 1373 in 2001 . Much of which affected
human rights.
Third: The General Assembly has passed the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism
Strategy by its resolution 60/288 . So that the international community can respect all
methods of protection of human rights for all. On the other hand the rule of law should
be the basic basis in the fight against terrorism.
Fourth: In September 2011 , a group of 29 states in the United Nations (which included
Spain) and the European Union together established the Global Counter-Terrorism
Forum. It was an informal unit , whose main objective was to debate , review , exchange
recommendations , identify primary resources and provide resources for technical
assistance to prevent terrorism.
Fifth: Monetary Memorandum was adopted in September 2013 . It guaranteed effective
assistance to victims of terrorism at the time of attack and during criminal proceedings
so that victims of terrorism could be better helped.
Sixth: The General Assembly passed the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism
Strategy in 2006 . In which an attempt was made to find out those important issues
which are responsible for the birth of terrorism. In which issues like unresolved disputes ,
dehumanization of victims , discrimination , human rights violations and lack of good
governance are included.
Seventh: There is a need for bilateral and multilateral institutions. Share their expertise
with countries that need technical support for the nation's law making , the training of
judges, and the linking of national information across borders.
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During this there is a great need for countries to enhance their capabilities against
any kind of terrorist threats. There is a need to enhance the security arrangements of
the places under high risk. There is a need to analyze possible targets in the future. For
this, special organizations related to it (such as sniper course teams , anti-terror
operations in urban conditions, Operation Pahari training to destroy terrorist camps,
etc.) should be trained. Cooperation and coordination with neighbors will help in
deliberating processes on good practices to deal with terrorist activities at the global
level. Guidance of the United Nations should be provided for attempting to adopt a
comprehensive national strategy in this regard. These policies balance strict security
measures with social , economic and community policies. which is the basis of the rule
of law.
The state sometimes allows these terrorist groups to use its territory to plan their
attacks. This is seen as an unjust and illegal hindrance in the case of states. The Taliban
in Afghanistan is one example of state-sponsored terrorism. The Taliban have been
supported for all kinds of terrorist activities within the state's borders. The noncooperative attitude of the states during the capture of Osama bin Laden only reflects
the state sponsored terrorism. When the hijackers of civilian aircraft were given
shelter by the state, it would also be seen as state sponsored terrorism. State
sponsored terrorism is a new form of war itself. In which the enemies of the state are
attacked in a relatively strategic manner. It carries less risk than conventional arms
conflict. After the 9/11 attacks, the US viewed Iran , Cuba , Sudan and Syria as statesponsored terrorism , which led to the US imposing economic and military sanctions on
these countries.
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The United Nations and Measures to Stop Terrorism 8 September 2006 The General
Assembly of the United Nations implemented the “ United National Global CounterTerrorism ” strategies. This counter-terrorism strategy was adopted for the first time on
a global scale by the United Nations. In 2005 , counter-terrorism measures were
adopted in coordination with all Keeping in mind the " anti-terrorism " Implementation
Task Force ” was set up.
16 universal laws ( 13 laws and 3 amendments) were passed by the United Nations for
multilateral action against terrorism . To provide a legal framework for multilateral
action against terrorism. The criminal acts of terrorism under this law include aircraft
hijacking , terrorist bombings, financing of terrorism. and acts such as nuclear terrorism.
These laws were adopted by General Assembly resolutions and Security Council
resolutions tried to complete.
At the end of the two-day conference at the United Nations Headquarters in New York
to commemorate Counter-Terrorism Week, Mr. Antonio Guterres said, “ We must work
together to tackle terrorism in ways that do not violate the rule of law and human rights.
He said that an initiative to create a global network of counter-terrorism coordinators
(Global Network of Counter-Terrorism Coordinators) is also under consideration so that
expertise and best practices can be shared with each other in a more effective manner.
The UN Secretary-General said that " we must work together with all who can help
us achieve the goal " These include empowering youth through education , jobs and
vocational training, and engaging women and the entire intelligentsia in the fight
against terrorism.
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He said that a new unit is being considered in the UN Counter-Terrorism Office so that
the views of enlightened social groups can be fully reflected in the policies and
programmes . More than 1000 delegates who took part in this historic two-day
conference included members of the enlightened society.
Mr. Guterres said that the prevention of terrorism is also important. He said, “
Terrorists are gearing up to find weaknesses in our defense line. To stay ahead of
terrorists , I call on the international community , the private sector, and academia to
share their knowledge , expertise and resources to help prevent new technologies from
becoming lethal weapons at the hands of terrorists. Other prominent UN officials also
reiterated their call to increase youth participation as well as prevent new technology
and internet abuse by terrorists.
Conclusion:Development, stability , good governance and rule of law are intertwined and any threat
to unrest becomes a hindrance to the country's objective of sustainable development.
Terrorism not only destroys the political and social environment but also threatens the
economic stability of the country , weakens democracy and even deprives ordinary
citizens of basic rights including their right to life. Terrorists do not belong to any
religion or sect or community. Terrorism is an attack on democracy and civilized society
by some extremists who resort to the targeted killing of innocent civilians in pursuit of
their heinous goals .
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Unit -2: Contemporary Global Issues
Lesson 4 : Migration
Question - Is migration a curse ? Discuss the problem of migration.
Answer- What is migration or immigration ?
Migration or migration generally means to move from one's original place to another
place for some reason . They are not yayavars , who do not have a purpose to stay
somewhere. These are not even tourists who only go for a walk. They come out under
some compulsion or in the desire of a good life and opportunity.
Migration from one part of the same country to another is called internal
migration. Internal migration can be from one district to another in the same state,
from rural to urban area or from one state to another. Both immigration (people coming
from other places) and emigration (moving natives to other places) are usually the result
of imbalanced development and opportunity.
How many types of migration are there?
i.
International Migration – Moving out of the country to live in another country.
ii.
Internal Migration – In this, migration is done from one place to another place in the
country. It can be from village to village , city to city , village to city or state to state.
The type of migration that is causing the problem in India is
i.
Escape/migration from villages to cities
ii.
Escape/migration from less developed states to other states
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Migration, Escape and Displacement
Although these three are fundamentally different. Migration means voluntarily leaving
one place to live in another place where employment , education , standard of living etc.
is better. Some such situations arise in Escape, that it is no longer convenient or safe for
the people living there to stay there. Eventually they are forced to leave. Escape can be
individual or collective. For example , if there is an outbreak of drought or flood in an
area continuously , the local people are forced to migrate to other places.
Migration is temporary. People may go in the hope that they will return to their
homes when conditions are favourable. But the displacement is permanent. All the
people from that area or community leave that area and go elsewhere. For example ,
when a big dam is built, the local residents are compelled to move elsewhere.
In migration where both the pushing factors and pulling factors are important. On the
other hand, in Escape and displacement, the pushing factors , that is, the reasons for
which they have to leave their original place are important.
In India, migration and Escape have almost the same meaning. We do not have any such
data available to know how many people migrated from their native places for what
reason. Whatever studies are there , they do not focus on emigration (people leaving)
but on immigration (people coming in). Therefore, here the word migrant generally
includes all those people who live and earn their livelihood at a place other than their
place of origin or birth.
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Migration problem
There are many factors that cause migration. These factors are mainly economic , such
as higher incomes , better employment opportunities , and jobs in the informal sector ,
as well as a better standard of living. Marriage, social insecurity, civil war and interethnic conflict are important social factors that influence migration decisions.
These factors leading to migration vary from region to region and perhaps from person
to person. As indicated above , pressure and tension factors work together to generate
migration flows.
pressure factors force people to move out , Whereas the stretch factor attracts
people to move towards the urban centres. It has been observed that migration also
occurs due to industrialization , technological advancement and various changes in the
social , economic and political life-fields of the common man. Then there are other
factors as well , such as regional disparities in economic development , perceived
employment potential in a given area and demand for desired services in the city.
Extraordinary events in history , such as war and terrorism , also lead to migration.
Studies have shown that the process of migration is not a simple but a complex
phenomenon. The factors that determine migration can be divided into three major
categories: economic , social and demographic.
Economic problem
It has been seen that economic problems play an important role in population transfer.
The degraded economic conditions of the people and their poverty conditions lead to
outmigration. Economic prosperity has a high employment potential and leads to
infiltration. In industrialized and agrarian countries, the industrial center is always more
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than the rural pressure. proved to be more effective. In developing countries , Like in
India, agricultural development is taking place at a rapid pace.
These problems drive people to migrate to agriculturally developed areas, where
extensive irrigation schemes, high-yielding varieties of seeds and mechanical equipment
have brought the Green Revolution. There is a high demand for workers in the Green
Revolution areas in Punjab and Haryana. This working class is available in the relatively
underdeveloped areas of northern India , such as eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Availability of better means of transport and communication also encourages people to
migrate.
Social problem
like economic problem , social problem also play an important role in motivating
migration. For example , women move from their father's house to their husband's
house after marriage. This is due to the prevailing Indian traditions and values in the
country. This type of migration has nothing to do with economic benefits. Chandana
says that religious freedom may also be an important factor influencing the migration
process. Other factors are also influential , Such as socio-economic status, information
network, cultural contacts, desire for social upliftment, etc. Socio-economic potential has
been taken as an important factor in determining the extent and direction of migration.
In India, people living at a lower socio-economic level are more dynamic, because
they do not have any real land that would bind them to their native places. There are
many effects of this fact, better educated , more skilled and economically well-off
people have more tendency to migrate. The labor market for high-prestige jobs is
universal. This does not mean that all highly placed groups will migrate. For example ,
doctors , engineers , lawyers , architects and teachers who are already established will
not go easily. Similarly , communities that have strong communal ties with their families
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follow ancient traditions and customs and do not move easily. In today's era,
information network (Internet) , e-mail and cultural contacts have widened the scope of
employment opportunities. Sometimes , government policies also help the candidates
to move in a particular direction.
Demographic problem
There are many demographic problems that drive individuals to migrate. For example,
the age of the migrant is an important demographic factor. Younger people have a
much stronger desire to outmigrate than minor. Similarly , regional disparities also play
an important role in economic development. In fact , the high rate of natural increase in
population provides the basis for outmigration. The growth rate of population is said to
, among other things, determine the extent of population pressure in a given physical
area.
The movement of European populations across the Atlantic is an example of a gap
in the potential for economic growth, acting as an important factor in migration. In
contemporary India, the redistribution of population is partly linked to inequalities in
regional development. As mentioned above, large-scale out-migration from the densely
populated parts of Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh is largely due to diminishing land
resources in the native villages. , It is, however, worth mentioning that the factors
influencing the migration process are many and it is not easy to establish a single causeand-effect relationship.
Overseas Selection
The concept of migrant selection suggests that at a given age and occupation, some
groups are more likely to be in favor of migration than others. In order to deal
effectively with the causes , types and consequences of migration, it must first be
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explained why the migration process is selective. Some segments of the population tend
to be more migrant than others. This is called migrant selection. In fact , younger adults
and older adults tend to migrate more frequently than earlier adults.
"Two-thirds to three-quarters of the millions of immigrants who entered America
in the nineteenth century are between the ages of 15-40 ." "In addition to age ,
gender is also an important factor in migratory selection. Although there is no such
universal rule , outmigration is predominantly male-dominated. The area of departure
becomes more strongly female-dominated , while the area of arrival becomes more
strongly female. Territories are predominantly characterized by a large proportion of
males (Trevarda 1969: 137; see also Box 4 ). Therefore, it can be said that some
occupational groups are more likely to migrate than others. This is a suitable example of
migratory selection. "Generally, selection appears to depend more on conditions at the
place of destination than on conditions at the place of departure."
Impact of migration
Migration is no ordinary phenomenon. It brings about a change in the population
structure in the home villages as well as in the destination areas. It is generally known
that population migration has backward as well as forward relationship. In fact , it is a
strong catalytic agent. It helps the migrants and their families to attain a specific level of
self-reliance and a better standard of living in the destination regions/countries.
Depending on the extent of migration, the population composition changes both
at home and abroad. More significantly , the demographic landscape undergoes
drastic changes, leading to an influx of culture, language, quality of life, and knowledge.
Immigrants adapt themselves to the conditions prevailing in the destination countries.
Migration brings about a cultural change which has multiple branches. Even place
names get carried over to destination-fields. For example, New London, New York (both
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in the US) , New South Wales (Australia) , New Plymouth (New Zealand) , New Castle
(Australia) , etc. are all examples of human desire to preserve the memories of the places
they left behind. Will keep fresh
After the partition of British India, the Muslims who migrated to Pakistan named
their settlements there after their home towns in India . Sindh province in particular
It is said that the destination areas usually profit , while the origin areas remain at a loss.
When the educationally qualified personnel go out, their migration is called ' brain drain
' i.e. migration of intellectuals abroad. This type of migration has the potential to play an
important role in the economic development of the destination countries. However , the
native regions also benefit from remittances made by migrants. For example, Turkish
workers in Germany and Philippine maids in Singapore have long played an important
role in the economics of these labor-deficient regions. Other dimensions of change are
also seen.
Qualified workers , such as scientists , engineers , especially software engineers ,
Migration plays an important role in reducing unemployment in the home country and
earning income through their services in the destination areas. India has always suffered
greatly due to the progressive outflow of its highly qualified personnel to other parts of
the world , such as West Asia , especially the Gulf region. People move out because the
Euro-dollar glare attracts them. They are apparently not happy with their economic
conditions in their home country. By reaching there, they bring change in their family.
Interracial marriages are frequent in destination countries. A new class of Non-Resident
Indians (NRIs) has emerged. They not only send money home but also bring with them
new cultural influences. Ideologies change and the process of globalization becomes a
common medium for the dissemination and synthesis of cultures and innovations.
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Sometimes the mass movement is quantitatively stronger. Change in this situation is
all-inclusive. For example , after partition, Muslims from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
migrated to Sindh province of West Pakistan. Migrants and their settlements in Karachi ,
Hyderabad and neighboring smaller towns became a threat to the former Sindhis. Soon
these immigrants became a source of tension leading to inter-ethnic conflicts and civil
war.
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Unit -2: Contemporary Global Issues
Lesson -5 : Human Security
Question - Explain the concept of human security according to UNDP report od
1994.
AnswerHuman Security: Defining the Concept
The important security debate about how to broaden and deepen security helped to
move the notion of human security from mere academic debate to broader political
discourse. Being a human-centred approach, the notion of human security redefines the
' referred object ' of security from the state to the individual. Thus human security is the
standard because it focuses on the moral responsibility of linking security to the
individual in order to meet internationally recognized standards for human rights and
governance.
Over time, the notion of human security has become part of the wider political
discourse, rather than a part of critical debate in academia. In fact , it has been
observed that most of the scholars and practitioners working on human security are
more interested in the policy orientation of this approach as they believe that the
concept of human security can be realized in practical life only if its Policy changes may
take place as a result , which is necessary for the welfare of human beings.
The concept of human security was defined in the 1994 UNDP Report as ' Freedom
from Fear and Freedom from Deprivation '. as was prepared. Freedom from fear
represents the aspiration that people should be safe from the threat of violence and
freedom from deprivation symbolizes the aspiration that people should be free from
poverty and deprivation and have the right to basic means of survival. This is the
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traditional focus of security It clearly explains that ' human security is not related to
weapons- it concerns with human life and dignity'.
The 1994 UNDP report actually identified four key features of human security:
a. Human security is a universal concern , that is, it applies equally to all come into force
b. The components of human security are interdependent , i.e. overlapping military and
non-military sources of insecurity
c. Human security emphasizes prevention rather than intervention
d. Human security is ' people centric ' .
These characteristics make the idea of human security a broad concept that
characterizes important security studies. It also helps in establishing a link between
development and security, thereby bringing the concerns of developing and
underdeveloped countries to the centre .
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Unit -3 :
Global Shift: Power and Resource Governance
Question: Write about global shifts in relative power.
Or
Discuss about shifts in global governance.
AnswerIntroduction - Talks about the changing nature of global power, the rise of China and
India, and the relevance of the nation-state in the world have become commonplace in
academic discussions. Have you ever thought about how true or false it is? What facts
are based on these assumptions, assessments and arguments? This chapter discusses
these topics by asking two main questions. The first question in this regard is whether
there has been any change in global authority. If so, what kind of change has taken
place and what has been the nature of that change.
The second question is what has changed in the nature of global power since the
dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the end of the Cold War. The main purpose
of this chapter is to encourage the reader to ask as many questions as possible about
the nature of globalization and the world order, keeping in mind the main controversies
related to global power and power change.
Global change in relative forces
Many definitions of politics revolve around the question of " power " . It is therefore no
surprise that "power" has been an important aspect of international politics. Before
understanding “ How Power Changes” we must ask ourselves what do we understand by
power. Is it only military power , which is counted as power ? Also do we have power ? Is
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there any other means to calculate this , so that we can know " how much power a
country could have in a particular period of history".
Robert Gilpin ( 1981) believes that “ The concept of power has been one of the major
crises in the field of international relations, and its number and various definitions
remain a mystery to political scientists today ” . In this context, Joseph Nye ( 1990) states
that it is easier to experience power as ' love ' than to define and measure power. These
are some of the things that will be discussed in this section , before we go into "Analysis
of Power Changes" .
Traditionally, power was seen as the possession or property of the state. However,
towards the end of the twentieth century the “ relational approach” or “relative power ”
increasingly attacked traditional ideas. Harold Laswell and Abraham Kaplan's " Power
and Society ( 1952)" was one of the first books to challenge the traditional concept of
power (viewed as a resource). For him, power was not a receiving ability , but he saw
power as a relation that stressed ' A ' over ' B ' or vice versa . So when we discuss power
change later, we have to keep this relative concept of power in mind. So when we say
that the power has changed now , it means that the relations between the two states are
no longer as they used to be.
Global governance change
The topic of global governance is very broad , and the local constraints associated with
it compel us to delineate it in detail. The Westphalian Treaty established the sovereignty
of the nation-states in the world order. After this treaty, not only did the state get
sovereignty in internal affairs, but after this treaty there was no sovereign authority
controlling the state in external affairs as well , resulting in the ' international order '
representing one form of government. was not doing In this context it is important to
remember that ' governance ' is not synonymous with government.
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James N. Rosenau ( 1992) distinguishes between government and governance,
saying that ' governance is a more inclusive phenomenon than government ' .
Governance involves governmental institutions , although it can also include informal ,
non-governmental mechanisms designed by states to meet the needs and wants of
individuals and organizations living in their territory. Therefore governance without
government can be imagined. So in a nutshell , it can be said that governance is a
system at will. This arrangement does not only include international institutions such as
the United Nations , but also includes non-state actors such as state groups ,
transnational organizations.
Rosenau believes that The distinction between ' government ' and ' governance ' is
quite blurred and there is ideological disagreement on the issue among scholars
belonging to the field. However, the concept of governance without government is of
great importance to the students of world politics. In this context we can see that there
is no central government over the nation-state , although we can still see some
arrangement here no matter how chaotic it may be and in addition regular agreements
at the international level They continue to happen, no matter how unjust their nature
may be. Hence , since there is no government at the international level , the concept of
governance without government provides us with a conceptual tool to understand the
functions of international institutions.
The rise of transformative forces has had an impact on international governance since
the end of the Cold War. However, this change has not been uniform across all
international institutions. For this reason various kinds of changes took place in different
organizations to accommodate the new realities. To regulate various aspects of global
governance there are various subsidiary organizations and at the helm there are
institutions such as the United Nations.
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Oren Y. According to Young ( 1989) , international governance consists of special
arrangements , which are related to well-defined activities , resources or geographical
areas and often involve certain groups of members of the international society. For
example, the World Trade Organization is an international organization that deals with
matters related to trade. So the same "United Nations Human Rights Commission " is an
organization that specifically deals with human rights issues around the world. As stated
above, the pace of change in international governance is not uniform. In addition, the
United Nations Nation Increasing the number of permanent members in the Union's
Security Council has been a matter of major controversy. Structural changes have been
suggested by the members of the United Nations (which include India , Japan , Germany
and South Korea).
In this context, these countries maintain that the Security Council does not
represent the realities of the new power and therefore argue for more democratic
representation by their members in relation to these organizations. At the same time,
the practice of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank reflects an unequal
balance of power between developed and developing countries. For this reason, there
has been a demand for its restructuring on a large scale. On the other hand, developing
countries have made major progress in the field of climate change , while developed
countries have acted differently through mechanisms such as shared but differentiated
responsibility.
Apart from this, developed countries have taken various measures to reduce the level of
pollution as compared to developing countries. Power change cannot be fully
understood by simply analyzing different organizations in global governance.
Furthermore, it has become clear that the need to rebuild global governance at the
institutional , political and economic levels is We still have a long way to go in order to
accurately reflect global realities that will be more democratic than today's world order.
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Conclusion
While on the one hand it has become common to say that there is definitely a transfer
of power from west to east or north to south, on the other hand we should also keep in
mind how the southern part of the world There is also a serious disparity in the level of
development in the U.S. , as China , India , Nigeria and Brazil are developing at an
extraordinary pace in these areas. Therefore it seems unfair to portray the emergence of
other countries in global politics. On the other hand, the rise of transformative power
cannot be fully described in terms of relative power , but can be described in terms of
shared characteristics , values and effective diplomatic coordination.
In this context, it is very difficult to tell who is ahead and who is behind in the era of
power in global politics. However, it is true that the issue of America's decline has been
a recurring issue in global politics since World War I. Where in the era of globalization
any information can be shared with millions and crores of people in a moment, then
during this time the talk of the rise of transformative forces plays a strong role in the
mindset of the people. So in this context it is important for us to understand what is the
position of the revisionist forces and how it saves and reforms the people.
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