Philosophy
1st Quarter Reviewer
Module 1: Pursuing Wisdom and Facing
DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY
Challenges in the 21st Century

VALUES/CHARACTER INTEGRATION
Traditionally philosophy is defined as the
love of wisdom because. It came from two
Greek words
We should always take sides;
neutrality helps the oppressor, not the victim.

Philos (love)
It helps us solve our problems -mundane or

Sophia (wisdom)
abstract, and it helps us make better decisions

by developing our critical thinking (very
You might find it strange to connect love to
philosophy. You might think of philosophy
important in the age of disinformation).
as a purely intellectual discipline with
In life, it is important to understand who
nothing to do with love. You might believe
you are as a person, what you believe in, and
love is romance, poetry, and an intense
what you hold to be real. These values are
passion in which you are willing to lay
important because they dictate what you do in
down your life. But you will see that
your life and how you act and react to
philosophy can also be pursued
situations you may face.
passionately.
INTRODUCTION

Some people like Socrates died for truth. It
is this centrality of love to the philosophy
that we call people who engage in
Doing Philosophy is not something new
philosophy philosophers (lovers of wisdom).
to every individual. Philosophizing is innate to
everyone. It gives birth to knowledge and
ORIGIN OF PHILOSOPHY
wisdom using the things around us and the
things we experience.

Greece is the birthplace of philosophy in
the West. To be more precise, it is the
Who and what is a philosopher?
ancient Greek city of Miletus on the
Western coast of what is now Turkey that
A philosopher is a lover of wisdom.
gave birth to philosophy.
He/she puts meaning to what is out there and
is open to changes and discovery. He/she

does not stop knowing, wondering, and asking
It is in this city that the first philosopher in
the West, Thales, lived.
questions, hungers for truth, meaning, and
sense. He/she goes beyond and experiences
transcendence. A philosopher possesses a
beautiful mind.

Thales is the Father of Philosophy in
Western civilization. He lived between 624
and 546 BCE, a contemporary of the
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Lydian king Croesus and the statesman
Solon (Stumpf and Fieser,2008).

CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES
In order to understand further the meaning of
What made Thales a philosopher is his
Philosophy, the following salient characteristics
desire to know the ultimate stuff that
of it must be taken into consideration:
makes up the different things we perceive.
1.

Thales believed that despite the different
because it is systematic and follows certain
things we encounter, there is one
steps or procedures. In short, it is an
underlying stuff or substance in which
organized body of knowledge same as any
everything is composed. He believes that
there is One in the Many.


Philosophy is a science. It is called such
other science.
2.
It employs the Natural Light of Reason.
Thales was the first individual who tried to
This means that philosophical investigation
reduce multiplicity into unity (Jones,1969).
does not use any laboratory instrument,
investigative tools, or supernatural
But his explanation of natural phenomena
approach. Philosophers use their natural
is devoid of gods and goddesses of the old
thinking capacity or use the so-called
religion of Greece. It is completely rational.
unaided reason.
It represents a departure from the
mythological religion of Greece.
3.
Philosophy has an inclination to Study
All Things. Other sciences concern


Thales' approach highlights the difference
themselves with a particular object of
between religion and philosophy.
investigation, such as anthropology which
Religion rests on faith, while philosophy
deals with human beings in relation to
rests on reason.
society; sociology focuses on society, its
forms, structures, and functions; botany
PHILOSOPHY
concentrates its attention on plants;


The term Philosophy came from two Greek
Philosophy may deal with human beings,
words, Philo and Sophia, which means “to
society, and plants among others. It is this
love” and “wisdom,” respectively.
character that Philosophy is considered
Simply put, Philosophy means the love of
multidimensional or holistic.
reasoning, making wisdom its primary goal.

Technically, Philosophy is defined as the
science that, by the natural light of reason,
studies the highest principles of things.
4.
Philosophy employs First Cause or
Highest Principle. Note that principle means
a reason (or an explanation) from which
something proceeds in any manner
whatsoever.
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The fourth characteristic of Philosophy ( First
philosophy becomes easier and more
Cause or Highest Principle) mentioned above
intelligible.
is composed of the following:
1.
2.
Principle of Identity. In simple terms, this
Since philosophy’s concern is vast, we
principle means “everything is what it is.”
must divide it into different branches. Each
What is not and what is. For example, a
branch will focus on a specific area of
seed is a seed and will no longer be a seed
philosophy. To understand the branches of
when it appears like not a seed.
philosophy, let us return to the three central
Principle of Non-Contradiction. This
principle states that it is impossible for a
particular thing to be and not to be at the
same time in the same respect. For
example, a seedling is different from a seed.
If we say that a seedling is a seed, then that
seedling is a seed. They can never be both.
3.
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
Principle of Excluded Middle. This
philosophical questions we explored earlier.
The first two branches of philosophy,
metaphysics, and epistemology, are called
cognitive branches. These branches provide a
description of being (existence) and knowing.
Cognitive branches are concerned with what
“is. They are the foundations of understanding
any philosophical system.
principle explains that everything must be
4.
“either be or not be” or “either is or is not.”
First, the question, where am I? By the
There is no middle ground; thus, the term
time we reach adulthood, we believe we know
“excluded middle.” For example, anger is
the answer to this question. In fact, we believe
different from happiness. There is no such
that the answer is obvious, that we don’t bother
thing as a mixture of anger and happiness.
to look closely at the question itself. Where am
And lastly,
I? Well, let’s say I’m in Manila. You don’t need
The Principle of Sufficient Reason. This
philosophy to answer that one. But if you ask a
principle states that there is sufficient
series of where questions (Where is Manila?
reason for the being and existence of
Where is the Philippines? etc.) which at first
everything. Conversely, nothing exists
seems childish, you eventually end up with the
without any reason at all. For example,
universe. And here, we have to stop asking the
saying something is unexplainable already
where question (Where is the universe is an
gives a reason for it being unexplainable.
absurd question. The universe does not exist
in a place). What kind of place is the universe?
Using the aforementioned philosophical
Is it governed by laws? If so, what laws? The
concepts will enable one’s argumentation to be
study of the universe as a whole is the
more valid, reliable, and strong. Thus, doing
province of metaphysics. Metaphysics is
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further subdivided into ontology which studies
analogy to the philosopher Ayn Rand) because
existence as such and philosophical
it tells us how human beings ought to function
anthropology, which deals with the
as human beings. But in order to describe how
fundamental and essential characteristics of
human beings ought to act, we must first know
human nature (Gotthelf and Salmieri, 2015).
what a human being is. These last are
The second question is, how do I know
it? Concerns the nature of human knowledge
and the way to obtain it. How do we obtain
knowledge? Do we obtain knowledge by
revelation, intuition, instinct, or reason? Can
we achieve certainty, or are we doomed to
provided by metaphysics and epistemology.
(This is especially true of philosophical
anthropology, a sub-branch of metaphysics
that studies the metaphysical nature of man
(see discussion above). Metaphysics and
epistemology are the foundations of ethics.
suffer perpetual doubt? Is knowledge based on
What, then, is ethics or morality? According to
the things we perceive or from something else?
Ayn Rand, ethics or morality is a branch of
This is the concern of epistemology which can
philosophy that provides a human being with a
be defined as the “branch of philosophy that
“code of values to guide man’s choices and
studies the nature and means of human
actions - the choices and actions that
knowledge.” We need epistemology to guide
determine the course of his life (Rand, 1964).”
us in knowing since we make mistakes from
It concerns the values man ought to pursue,
time to time.
the interrelationships of those values, and the
The next three branches of
means to obtain them (virtue).
philosophy (ethics, politics, and aesthetics) can
The last two normative branches of philosophy,
be classified as the normative branches of
politics, and aesthetics, are derived from ethics.
philosophy because they are concerned with
Ethics is concerned with the good of human
the standard of the good. If the cognitive
beings as human beings. If we apply ethics in
branches are concerned with what “is,” the
a social context, then it becomes politics. The
normative branches are concerned with what
concern, therefore, of ethics is broader than
“ought” to be.
politics. It studies the “good” for human beings
The most basic normative branch of
philosophy is ethics or morality (I used these
two concepts interchangeably). It concerns the
last of the three questions central to philosophy:
in any setting (whether society is present or
not). An individual who is alone on an island
still has to follow ethical principles if he wishes
to survive (Peikoff, 1991).
What should I do? Ethics can be regarded as
So, what then is politics? Again, following
the technology of philosophy (I owe this
Rand’s definition, politics is a branch of
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philosophy “which defines the principles of a
The salient features of Philosophy are: it
proper social system.” According to Rand,
applies science in its investigation similar to
“proper” means proper for human beings,
other sciences, employs the Natural Light of
which presupposes that one knows what a
Reason or the natural capacity to think
human being is. Since knowledge about
compared to other sciences which use
human beings is provided by the cognitive
laboratory instruments or investigative tools, it
branches of philosophy, the foundation of
is a Study of All Things thus overarching other
politics ultimately rests on metaphysics and
sciences, it is also guided by First Cause or
epistemology.
Highest Principle in doing the process of
The last of the normative
philosophizing.
branch, aesthetics, studies the nature of art. It
The First Cause or Highest Principle comprises
is concerned with nature and the objective
the Principle of Identity, Principle of Non-
judgment of beauty.
Contradiction, Principle of Excluded Middle,
SUMMARY/CONCLUSION
and Principle of Sufficient Reason. Using any,
if not all, of these philosophical principles
As philosophy covers a great deal of
conceptual, complex, and value-laden
processes, this lesson introduced how human
persons learn philosophy as they go beyond
and rise to the daunting challenges of modern
experience. This lesson presented a view that
philosophical concerns include not only
thoughts but also one’s soul, nation, finances,
and environment. Our broad understanding of
philosophy concerns not only humans but
other living beings as well. Philosophy has
many special branches that go beyond partial
but stresses holism.
Philosophy means the love of reasoning,
making wisdom its primary goal. Philosophy is
defined as the science that, by the natural light
of reason, studies the highest principles of
things.
enables the process of reasoning to be clear,
valid, reliable, and strong.
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Module 2: Pursuing Wisdom and Facing
CHARACTERISTICS
Challenges in the 21st Century

things, like, experiences, situations, and
VALUES/CHARACTER INTEGRATION
problems, Philosophy can also be seen
Sometimes you really have to sacrifice your
and treated differently. Philosophy can be
happiness to make someone happy. Be the
seen as a framework, an examination of
reason someone smiles. Be the reason
knowledge, and a discipline. (Abella 2016)
someone feels loved and believes in the
goodness in people. Life has a funny way of
Just as there are many ways of looking at

Whenever a person encounters a problem,
situation, or question about life, he or she
helping us out.
often goes back to his or her framework in
Virtues are important because they are the
order to make sense of the problem. A
basic qualities necessary for our well-being
framework is defined as a way of thinking
and happiness. Recognizing the importance of
about the world and is composed of the
virtues in our lives, will lead to better
views and beliefs of a person. (Abella
communication, understanding, and
2016).
acceptance between our fellow man and us.

DEFINITION
Philosophy, then, as a framework,
could lead the person to come up with

The word Philosophy comes from the two
something that may pave the way for
Greek words Philos (love) and Sophia
solutions or answers. The framework of
(Wisdom), (Abella 2016). Thus, Philosophy
Philosophy aids the personal
is the love of wisdom. This is the most
framework of the person.
common and simplest definition of
Philosophy.

Philosophy can also be treated as an
examination of a particular area of

Philosophy may also be defined as a
science of thinking that deals with studying
processes governing thoughts and conduct
(Garcia 2016).
knowledge.

This means that the principles of
philosophy can be used as an
examination of other disciplines or

Philosophy is the study that uses human
areas of knowledge. In the long run,
reason to investigate the ultimate causes,
other areas of specialization may
reasons, and principles that govern
benefit from the very nature of
everything. (Abella 2016)
philosophy (Abella 2016).
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
Lastly, Philosophy in itself is a distinct area

of knowledge. It has its own goals,
it comes from the Greek word “ethos,”
which means character.
concerns, and ways of doing things (Abella

It is the science of correct doing.
2016). Definitely, philosophy is a discipline

It is the study of what is right and what
in itself.
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
is wrong in human behavior in the

Five frameworks of ethics:
Logic
A branch of philosophy that deals with the
1.
nature of thinking and reasoning using
Divine Command - Divine command
theory believes that things are right because
empirical support and information which are
God commands them to be. In other words,
reliable, valid, and objective.
it means that things which are considered
wrong or unethical are wrong because God
It is the science of correct thinking.
forbids them. It is an absolutist theory.
Two Types of Logic
2.
Deductive Reasoning – from a general

pursuit of beauty and goodness of life.
Consequentialism/Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that
truth to specific truth, from universal truth to
determines right from wrong by focusing on
particular.
outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism.
Inductive Reasoning – from a specific
Utilitarianism holds that the most ethical
truth to general truth, particular to universal.
choice is the one that will produce the

greatest good for the greatest number.
Epistemology
3.
Deontological Ethics - Deontology is an
A branch of Philosophy that concerns the
ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish
definition of knowledge and related concepts
right from wrong. Deontology is simple to
such as the sources and criteria of knowledge.
apply. It just requires that people follow the
rules and do their duty. This approach tends
Two Contending Schools of Thought
to fit well with our natural intuition about
what is or isn’t ethical.
Rational school – the main source of

knowledge is deductive reasoning based on
self-evident principles or actions.
Empirical school – the source of

knowledge is sense perception.
4.
Virtue Ethics - It defines good actions as
ones that display embody virtuous character
traits, like courage, loyalty, or wisdom.
Virtue itself is a disposition to act, think and
feel in certain ways
Ethics
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5.
Relativism - Ethical relativism is the
Philosophy is concerned with the deepest and
theory that holds that morality is relative to
widest questions in life.
the norms of one's culture. That is, whether
Epistemology –Theory of Knowledge
an action is right or wrong depends on the
moral norms of the society in which it is

What is knowledge?
practiced. The same action may be morally

Can we know?
right in one society but be morally wrong in

What is to know?
another.

How can we know?
Metaphysics


It comes from the Greek words “meta,”

What is freedom?
which means beyond, and “physikon” which

Do we have free will?
means nature.

What is the human act?

Are our actions already determined?
It is a branch of philosophy that is
concerned with the nature of ultimate reality.
Aesthetics

Ethics – Moral Philosophy
Philosophy of Art – Aesthetics

What is beauty?

What does it mean to be beautiful?
It is derived from the Greek word
“aesthetikos” which means one who
Philosophy of Religion
is perceptive of things through his
sensations, feelings, and intuitions.

It is concerned with the essence of the

Does God exist?

Can we prove the existence of God?

What reasons are there to believe in
perception of beauty and ugliness.
Political Philosophy
God?
Rational Psychology/Philosophy of Man/
Philosophical Anthropology


It refers to a body of knowledge that
looks upon society, politics, and the people

What is the essence and meaning of life?
that make it whole.

Does life make sense?

What is the good life?

What is happiness?

What is man? Who is man?

Is man only his body, or man is his soul
It is believed that society is inseparable
from politics.
General Questions in Philosophy
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Philosophy is reflective, and reflections arise
from our experiences. Man is rich with
experiences, both good and evil. These
experiences are the starting point of wonder
and awe. Reason leads to reflection, and that’s
what makes us human. We are capable of
becoming aware of our consciousness and
daily activities. Man, by essence, is reflective.
However, people nowadays have less time to
think and reflect on their experiences. Man is
simply now becoming a contradiction of his
own. (Garcia 2016)
SUMMARY/CONCLUSION

The word Philosophy comes from two
Greek words, Philos (love) and
Sophia (wisdom).

Philosophy is the study that uses human
reason to investigate the ultimate causes,
reasons, and principles that govern
everything.

Philosophy is a distinct area of knowledge
with its own goals, concerns, and ways of
doing things.

Philosophy is divided into several branches,
namely: Aesthetics, Logic, Epistemology,
Ethics, Metaphysics, and Political
Philosophy.

Philosophy can be seen as a framework,
an examination of knowledge, and a
discipline.

Philosophy is concerned with the deepest
and widest questions in life
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Module 3: Methods of Philosophizing
a better adjustment in all that we face.
Otherwise maybe it’s just theoretical and
VALUES/CHARACTER INTEGRATION
meaningless. That’s love of wisdom, not
We should live our life authentically.
just theoretical or a euphoria, but to put us
The privilege of a lifetime is to become who
closer to a better life relevantly for us
you truly are.
personally. Because philosophizing doesn’t
depend on just logical thinking and stop
Being authentic is more than being real; it is
right there. This understanding about how
finding what is real. And what is real for me will
do we do philosophizing” can be used as a
be quite different than what is real for you.
reminder that “love of wisdom” shouldn’t be
There is no value attached: it simply is what it
narrowed to a condition which put us to
is for each of us. If your sexual orientation,
use rational argument only.
spiritual beliefs or chosen path is different than
mine, we are both okay with it.

for our better life (not just emotional debate,
PHILOSOPHIZING

not giving clear decision for what should
Philosophizing is a way to reveal the truth
we do). Because if we love qualities, then
about the various stages of life and
we must have it appropriately, otherwise
everything associated with it to reveal the
it’s not the kind of loving. That’s the
fulfillment of the purpose for each stage of
consequences of love.
life and to express the way for the
realization of these things in a relevant way

appropriately, gradually, become better
all that we face.
Philosophizing should not merely be
deepening our understanding of something,
but that we are more aware of how
something can be beneficial to us or not in
a certain way peculiar to ourselves
personally. Whether we are using logical
thinking, spirituality or any other means to
Essentially, philosophizing should make us
know things as it is, and implement it
in order to obtain the best compromise of

It has to do with “to be open minded” and
and better constantly.

In other words: To Be Open Minded To
Know Something As It Is And Act Upon It
As It Should Be Relevantly Within Priorities
(Seremonia, 2013)
INTRODUCTION
In today’s society, we acquire a lot of
understand something, but eventually, it
information from our friend, family and member
must guide us to an essential (deeper)
in the community. Some information that you
understanding about ourselves and place
receive from maybe utterly true but some
where we live and we can use that to make
information may be utterly false. These kinds
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of information often positively or negatively
know what is an observable or evident in a real
impact our lives. Thus, as an individual, we
world- that is based on reality so this is
have to examine every situation or issue if it is
proposition and this statement is considered as
true or if it is opinion.
facts. Fact is a statement which are observable
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OPINION AND
TRUTH
to be real or truthful. We all know and see that
all the birds have wings. There are also
statements that need to have further
What is opinion?
examination to establish whether it is true or
- is a belief, impression or judgment about
false. For instance; “my man is the best and
something by not necessarily
the smartest”. This statement is not evidently
based on fact.
or immediately known to be true; it needs
further investigation or examination to see that
- it prevails personal view of a person.
this statement is true or false. This statement is
What is truth?
opinion. Opinion can be proven by verification
- it is something that has been proven by facts
or sincerity.
and experimentation in order to find that the
statement is true or false.
- in science, truth is based on facts-as
something that is observable
METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
- in philosophy, truth is considered as a kind of

Phenomenology– is a broad discipline and
methods of inquiry in philosophy which is
quality and value.
based on the premise that reality consists
of objects and events (“phenomena”) as
Why truth is important?
they are perceived or understood in the
Truth is important to clarify knowledge, since it
human consciousness and not of anything
is through knowing that we are able to
independent of human consciousness. It is
determine what is true; while talking about
the study of structures of consciousness as
Knowledge, it is the clear awareness and
experienced from the first point of view.
understanding of anything that surrounds you.
This philosophy was founded by Edmund
It is a product of questions that allow for clear
Husserl who worked copiously to establish
answers provided by facts. Our knowledge is
it as a rigorous science.
comprised of ideas and beliefs that we know to

Existentialism– it is a philosophy that
be true. Take for instance, “No bird has no
emphasizes the importance of free
wings”. This statement simply means that we
individual choice, regardless of the power
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of other people to influence and coerce our


Analytic Tradition– this philosophy was
desires, beliefs, and decisions. It is the
founded by Gottlob Frege in the late 19th
view that humans define their own
century. It is said that the Philosophy
meaning in life, and try to make rational
should apply logical techniques to attain
decisions despite existing in an irrational
conceptual clarity. Analytic Philosophy is
universe. It focuses on the question of
also called linguistic philosophy, a related
human existence, and the feeling that
set of approaches to philosophical
there is no purpose or explanation at the
problems. This philosophy means the
core of existence. An example of
using common experience and ordinary
existentialism would be when a person
language to analyze concepts and
makes a decision about their life, follows
language in philosophy. Example of
through or does not follow through on that
analytic philosophy is The Star Trek’s Mr.
decision and begins to create their
Spock. Gene Roddenberry, the creator of
essence. The idea of existentialism is a
the original show was famous for his
person will create their essence over their
intense interest in philosophy and religion
lifetime and will be finished or fully formed.
and he was probably aware of the
In existentialism, the existence comes first
developments in analytic philosophy during
and the essence comes second.
the 1960’s when Star Trek was first made.
Manyc of Spock’s attribute his precise
Postmodernism– it has come into vogue as
speech, suspicion of emotion and
the name for a rather diffused family of
incredible clarity of thought mimic the
ideas and trends that in significant respect
ideals of analytic philosophy.
rejects, challenges, or aims to supersede
“modernity”; the convictions, aspirations,

Logic- it is a truth which is based on
and pretensions of modern Western
reasoning and critical thinking. It is the
thought and culture since the
analysis and construction of arguments
Enlightenment. Postmodernism is not a
and serve as the path to freedom from
philosophy. It is at best a holding pattern,
half-truths and deception. Logic is also one
perhaps a cry of despair. Postmodernism
of the major branches of Philosophy which
is more of an attitude and a reaction to
increases one’s ability to reason correctly
modernism which is a worldview of order,
and distinguish irrational reasoning. There
logic, and authority based on knowledge. It
are rules in logic that can give a person
rightly talks about world philosophy either
some techniques to create sound
(Shields,2012)
arguments and avoid fallacious reasoning.
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
Logic has two types of reasoning: the
2.
Appeal to ignorance (Argumentum ad
inductive and deductive.
ignorantiam) – Whatever has not been
 Inductive reasoning is in particular
proven false must be true, and vice versa.
premises converted into general
3.
reasoning of a term or a word several times,
premises. Through inductive and
but giving the particular word a different
deductive reasoning, it can provide the
meaning each time.
rules on how people ought to think
logically.
Equivocation – This is logical chain of
4.
Composition – This infers that
something is true of the whole from the fact
 Deductive reasoning aims at testing an
that is true of some part of the whole. The
existing theory. Deductive reasoning is
a logical process in which a conclusion
reverse fallacy is called division.
5.
is based on the concordance of
something true of a thing must also be true
multiple premises that are generally
assumed to be true. Deductive
of all or some of its parts.
6.
reasoning relies on making logical
validity of a premise to a characteristic or
around those premises.
belief of the person advocating the premise.
However, in some instances, questions of
FALLACIES
personal conduct, character, and motives,
Fallacies – a fallacy is a detect in an
among others, are legitimate if relevant to
argument other than it having false premises.
the issue.
To detect fallacies, it is required to examine the
7.
Appeal to force (Argumentum ad
baculum) – An argument where force,
usually committed errors in reasoning and thus,
coercion, or the threat of force is given as a
result to false conclusion and worse, distort the
justification for a conclusion.
truth.
8.
1.
Against the Person (Argumentum ad
Hominem) – this fallacy attempts to link the
premises and basing a conclusion
argument’s content. Here are some of the
Division – One reasons logically that
Appeal to the People (Argumentum ad
populum) – An argument that appeals or
Appeal to pity (Argumentum ad
misericordiam) – A specific kind of appeal to
exploit people’s vanities, desire for esteem,
emotion in which someone tries to win
and anchors on popularity
support for an argument or idea by
9.
False cause (post hoc) – Since that
exploiting his or her opponent’s feelings of
event followed this one, that event must
pity or guilt.
have been cause by this one. This fallacy is
Philosophy
1st Quarter Reviewer
10.
also referred to as coincidental correlation
When looking at an opinion you must be aware
or correlation not causation.
of bias so that you can objectively and critically
Hasty generalization – One commits
errors if one reaches an inductive
examined points of view.

generalization based on insufficient
Conclusion is a statement based on a
certain fact.
evidence. The fallacy is commonly based on
a broad conclusion upon the statistics of a

convictions that are not easily and clearly
survey of a small group that fails to
explained by facts. For example, if your
sufficiently represent the whole population.
11.
Beliefs are statements that express
mother states that “God created everything
Begging the question (Petitio principii) –
that is present in this entire world”, proving
This is a type of fallacy in which the
that this statement is considered as truth,
proposition to be proven is assumed
you need other person’s views and
implicitly or explicitly in the premise.
experiences.
Arguments are series of statements that
provide explanations to convince the listener or
a reader that the opinion is truthful.
TYPES OF ARGUMENTS

Fallacy or Fake argument (maling
pangangatuwiran) – are group of
statements that appear to be arguments to
support the conclusion.
Example:
There is no hope in the Philippine government,
because it is tropical country.

Explanations are statements claiming to be
true and provides reasons to make the
statements true.
SUMMARY/CONCLUSION
We are human beings possessed with
reason. We use it when we make decisions or
when we try to influence the decisions of
others or when are engaged in an argument or
debate. Indeed, this lesson presented the
general principles involved in reasoning to
arrive at truth. Though emotions can be more
persuasive, in the long run, correct reasoning
What makes the statement fallacious? It is
fallacious because climate has nothing to do
with the hope of Philippine government.
will prove to be the most solid foundation. The
wise thing to do is to be skillful in dismantling
ideas and handling emotions that come along
with ideas and in the debate process. To solely
focus in reasoning or emotional persuasion is

Bias – refers tendencies or influences
which affect the views of the people.
wrong and incomplete.
Philosophy
1st Quarter Reviewer
Students should not take the methods of

The different issues in our lives could be
philosophizing for granted. For instance, the
examined through Philosophy. An objective
study of logic develops a habit of clear and
evaluation of opinions and an awareness of
critical thinking. It helps determine illogical
our own personal biases can help us make
reasoning or fallacious ones. It builds self-
wise choices regarding the most acceptable
confidence. Finally, through logic and other
views to adopt the right actions to undertake.
methods of reasoning, students are trained
various techniques in making assumptions and
implications.

The truth that we are looking for could
be determine because it is situated at the
heart of inquiry.

Fact is a statement which are
observable to be real or truthful, while claim
is the statement that is not evidently or
immediately known to be true, it
needs further investigation or examination
to see it that this statement is true or false.

All Philosophers only accept things as
facts if its observable fact or it is an
empirical facts or reality. In Philosophy,
opinion, conclusion, beliefs, explanations,
arguments are of utmost importance in
understanding philosophical argument.

Not all argument is genuine, some are
fake or fallacious and some are bias.

This means that they are products of
faulty reasoning. We must be aware of the
various kinds of fallacies as these affect the
validity of arguments. We must also be
aware of bias so that we can objectively and
critically examined points of view.