Lesson 8:
FALLACIES
Methods of Philosophizing (Part 4)
Mr. Edward B. Noda Jr.
Jose Abad Santos SHS
LOGIC
Branch of philosophy that focuses on the analysis
of arguments
● Studies and elaborates on good argumentation.
● Study of correct thinking and reasoning
●
Fallacy
Group of statement that appear
to be arguments, but fail to
support the conclusion.
Eg: There is no hope in the
Philippine government, because the
Philippines is a tropical country.
1. Argumentum ad Hominem
“Attacking the Person”
Examples:
Hominem came from Latin word “homo”
which means man. This fallacy literally means
hitting the person below the belt instead of
focusing on the issue at hand.
he talks about social distancing,
he is a lawyer who is a liar.”
Attacking the person presenting
the argument instead of the
argument itself.
“Of course he believes that the
government is flawed, he is a
rebel and a Communist!”
“How can we believe him when
2. Argumentum ad Baculum
(Appeal to Force)
Baculum is a Latin word which means
scepter or stick. A scepter is a symbol
of authority. Normally it is the Pope
who carries it in his hands. This is
committed when a person uses threat
or force to advance an argument.
Using the threat of force or an
undesirable event to advance an
argument.
Examples:
“TV Patrol is the best news
program on TV. If you don’t
believe me, I won’t let you watch
the TV.”
“If this peace agreement will not
be signed by the government,
then we will have no recourse
but to go to war.”
Examples:
3. Argumentum ad Misercordiam
“Forgive me officer, there are lot of
(Appeal to Pity)
Misercordiam came from Latin word
Misericordia which means pity or
compassion. A person uses emotion
such as pity to convince someone
Using emotions such as pity or
sympathy.
boarders in this apartment including
myself. Only the owner was issued a
quarantine pass. We don’t have food,
we can’t give our ATM to the owner.
That’s why I went out. So I did not
violate the Bayanihan Act Heal as One.”
“All these charges are baseless; this is
just plain harassment- can’t you see
how this is affecting my family?”
4. Argumentum ad Populum
“Appeal to people”/
Bandwagon fallacy
Populum is the Latin word for people.
Most of TV commercials are guilty of
this argument which exploit people’s
vanity, desires, etc.
The idea is presented acceptable
because a lot of people accept it.
Examples:
“I’m sure you want to have an i phone.
Almost 80% of your schoolmates are
using it.”
“Every boy your age already has a
girlfriend, you should go find one!”
5. Argumentum ad Tradition/ AntiquitatemExamples:
“Appeal to Tradition”
Traditio means tradition. Advancing
an idea since it has been practice for a
long time.
The idea is acceptable because it has
been true for a long time.
“this is the way it has always been
done”
“All of us in the family, from our
ancestors up to now, are devout
Catholics, so it is only right that you will
be baptized as a Catholic.“
“Marriage should be between a man and
a woman. It has been so for a long time
in this country; it should remain so today
and in the future.”
6. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam
“Appeal to Ignorance”
Ignorantiam a Latin word for ignorance.
Whatever has been proven false must be
true and vice versa
Committed when a person could not give
a counter argument or if he/she could
not present any evidences or witnesses
to prove or disprove the statement of
another, his/ her assertions are correct
and the opponent is wrong.
Examples:
“According to Zecharia Sitchin, the author
of the book Cosmic Code, Adam was the
first test tube baby. Since nobody proves
otherwise, therefore it is true.”
“I am sure that the students have
understood the instructions perfectly
well because no one raised a hand to ask
anything on them.”
7. Petitio Principii
(Begging the Question)
A fallacy in which a conclusion is taken
for granted in the premises
Assuming the thing or idea to be
proven is true
Examples:
“I have the right to free speech, therefore
you cannot stop me from talking.”
“What is a declarative sentence? It is a
sentence that declares.”
“Cheating is wrong because it is immoral”
Also known as “circular argument”
8. Hasty Generalization
Example:
This fallacy is committed when one
reaches a generalization based on
insufficient evidence
“Our neighbor who is a police officer
was convicted of being a drug dealer,
therefore, all police officers are drug
dealers. “
9. Cause-and-effect
(Post Hoc, Ergo, Propter Hoc)
Assuming that the effect is related to a
cause because both events occur one
after the other.
Assuming a “cause-and-effect”
relationship between unrelated
events.
Examples:
“Ever since you bought that sweater, everything
has been going wrong in your life. You should get
rid of it.”
“Jen comes to class just as the bell rings every
day. Jen’s arrival at class causes the bell to ring.”
“She became an old maid because she used to
sing while cooking.”
10. Fallacy of Composition
Examples:
Infers that something is true of a part, is
true of a whole
“You are a doctor, therefore you came
from a family of doctors.”
Assuming that what is true of a part is
true for the whole.
“These cases of robbery in this district
have convinces me that the city has
become a den of thieves and criminals”
Individual to all
11. Fallacy of Division
Examples:
Infers that something is true of the
whole, must also be true on its parts
“Your family is smart, therefore you are
smart.”
Assuming that what is true for the
whole is true for its parts.
“You come from a family of doctors and
intellectuals! Surely you can do better in this
course!”
All to individual
12. Fallacy of Equivocation
Using the same term in a different
situation with different meaning.
Calling two different things by the same
name.
Resulting from the use of a particular
word/ expression in multiple senses
throughout an agreement leading to a
false conclusion.
Examples:
“Humans walk by their legs. The table has
legs. Therefore the table walks by its
legs.”
“A ruler measures 12 inches, Mayor Isko
Moreno is a ruler; therefore, Mayor Isko
is 12 inches.”
13. Fallacy of Accident
14. Argumentum ad
Verecundiam
(Argument from Authority)
Occurs when one attempts to apply
a general rule to an irrelevant
situation.
Example:
Cutting people with knives is a crime.
Surgeons cut people with knives.
Surgeons are criminals.
Committed when a person uses a
name of a popular celebrity or name
of an expert to put more weight in
the assertion being made.
Example:
“My assignment in Chemistry is not
wrong. Ms. Aguirre, my English
teacher who is known internationally
as a novelist, confirmed my answer.”